DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

AE8012 WIND TUNNEL

TECHNIQUES
(R-2017)

QUESTION BANK
(IV YEAR/ VIII SEMESTER)
AE8012 WIND TUNNEL TECHNIQUES QUESTION BANK
Vision of Department
The Department focuses to impart the art of scientific knowledge, intend to innovation,
leadership qualities, moral values and entrepreneurial skills to make every student capable of
challenging the complex task in the field of modern Aerospace and Aeronautical Engineering.

Mission of Department
M 1: To prepare the students to have a very good fundamental knowledge to meet the present and
future needs of industries.
M 2: To improve the technical knowledge of the students in tune with the current requirements
through collaboration with industries and research organization.
M 3: Make the students to gain enough knowledge in various aspects of system integration and take
up jobs in aerospace industries worldwide towards satisfying the requirements of the society.
M 4: To Take up inter and multidisciplinary research, sponsored and consultancy projects with
industries and research establishments.

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

PEO 01: Constructing an effective professional in the stream of Aeronautical Engineering and cater the
need of society.
PEO 02: Encourage an attitude of independent learning and communication skills to be able cope up
with latest technologies.
PEO 03: Prepare students to achieve high degree of professional ethics and standards to approach
diverse environment.
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

PSO 1: Professional Skills: An Aeronautical Engineers capable to exploit the knowledge of Aeronautical
Engineering in innovative fashion and challenging environment of design and development of new
products.

PSO 2: Problem-solving skills: Theoretical knowledge imparted through simulation language skills and
utilization of CAE packages to design and analyses the practical problems of components to compete the
challenge of airworthiness for flight vehicles.

MAHENDIRAN S,
Assistant Professor, Dept.of Aeronautical Engineering, Jeppiaar Engineering College, Chennai-600119
OUTCOMES
 Knowledge in basics of hypersonic and supersonic aerodynamics
 Acquiring knowledge in theory of hypersonic flow.
 Understanding of boundary layers of hypersonic flow and viscous interaction
 Role of chemical and temperature effects in hypersonic flow.

TEXT BOOK:
1. John D. Anderson. Jr., “Hypersonic and High Temperature Gas Dynamics”, Mc.Graw hill
Series, New York, 1996.

REFERENCES:
1. John D. Anderson. Jr., “Modern Compressible flow with historical Perspective”, Mc.Graw Hill
Publishing Company, New York, 1996.
2. John T. Bertin, “Hypersonic Aerothermodynamics”, published by AIAA Inc., Washington.D.C.,
1994.

AE8012 WIND TUNNEL TECHNIQUES L T PC

3 0 0 3
OBJECTIVE
• The students are exposed to various types and techniques of Aerodynamic data generation
on aerospace vehicle configurations in the aerospace industry.

UNIT I LOW SPEED WIND TUNNELS 10

Classification –non-dimensional numbers-types of similarities - Layout of open circuit and closed
circuit subsonic wind tunnels – design parameters-energy ratio - HP calculations - Calibration
methods.

UNIT II HIGH SPEED WIND TUNNELS 9

Blow down, in draft and induction tunnel layouts and their design features -Transonic, and
supersonic tunnels- peculiar features of these tunnels and operational difficulties - sample design
calculations and calibration methods.

UNIT III SPECIAL WIND TUNNEL TECHNIQUES 8

Types of Special Wind Tunnels – Hypersonic, Gun and Shock Tunnels – Design features and
calibration methods- Intake tests – store carriage and separation tests - wind tunnel model design
for these tests

UNIT IV WIND TUNNEL INSTRUMENTATION 10

Instrumentation and sensors required for both steady and unsteady measurements – Force
measurements using three component and six component balances – calibration of measuring
instruments – error estimation and uncertainty analysis.

UNIT V FLOW VISUALIZATION and NON-INTRUSIVE FLOW DIAGNOSTICS 8

Smoke and Tuft grid techniques – Dye injection special techniques – Oil flow visualization and
PSP techniques - Optical methods of flow visualization – PIV and Laser Doppler techniques –
Image processing and data deduction
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES
Ability to use various techniques of Aerodynamic data generation.
 Understand the working principle of Blow down, In draft tunnels and their specifications
 Knowledge about horizontal buoyancy, flow angularities while carrying out calibration
 Understand the working principle of component axis balance and internal balances
 Ability to carry out the smoke and tuft flow visualisation procedures in WT testing
91
TEXT BOOKS:
1. NAL-UNI Lecture Series 12:" Experimental Aerodynamics", NAL SP 98 01 April 1998
2. Rae, W.H. and Pope, A., "Low Speed Wind Tunnel Testing", John Wiley Publication, 1984.

REFERENCES:
1. Bradsaw "Experimental Fluid Mechanics".
2. Lecture course on Advanced Flow diagnostic techniques 17-19 September 2008 NAL,
Bangalore
3. Pope, A., and Goin, L., "High Speed Wind Tunnel Testing", John Wiley, 1985.
4. Rathakrishnan, E., “Instrumentation, Measurements, and Experiments in Fluids,” CRC Press –
Taylor & Francis, 2007.
5. Short term course on Flow visualization techniques, NAL , 2009

AE8013 ROCKETS AND MISSILES L T P C

3 0 0 3
OBJECTIVE
• To give revelation on basic concepts of rocket motion, rocket aerodynamics, staging &
control of rockets, materials and propulsion systems of rockets and missiles to students to
augment their knowledge in the region of rockets and missile flight.

UNIT I CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKETS AND MISSILES 6

History of rockets and missiles, Various methods of classification of missiles and rockets – Basic
aerodynamic characteristics of surface to surface, surface to air, air to surface and air to air
missiles – Examples of various Indian space launch vehicles and missiles – Current status of
Indian rocket and missile programme.

UNIT II ROCKET MOTION IN FREE SPACE AND GRAVITATIONAL FIELD 10

One Dimensional and Two Dimensional rocket Motions in Free Space and Homogeneous
Gravitational Fields – description of Vertical, Inclined and Gravity Turn Trajectories –
Determination of range and Altitude, Simple Approximations to Burnout Velocity and altitude-
estimation of culmination time and altitude.

UNIT III AERODYNAMICS OF ROCKETS AND MISSILES 10

Airframe Components of Rockets and Missiles – Forces Acting on a Missile While Passing
Through Atmosphere – Classification of Missiles – methods of Describing Aerodynamic Forces
and Moments – Lateral Aerodynamic Moment – Lateral Damping Moment and Longitudinal
Moment of a Rocket – lift and Drag Forces – Drag Estimation.

UNIT IV STAGING AND CONTROL OF ROCKETS AND MISSILES 10

Multistaging of rockets and ballistic missiles – Multistage Vehicle Optimization – Stage Separation
Dynamics – Stage Separation Techniques in atmosphere and in space, Introduction to
aerodynamic and jet control methods – various types of aerodynamic control methods for tactical
and short range missiles- aerodynamic characteristics - various types of rocket thrust vector
control methods.

UNIT V ROCKET PROPULSION SYSTEMS AND MATERIALS FOR ROCKETS AND

MISSILES 9
Ignition System in rockets – types of Igniters– Design Consideration of liquid Rocket Combustion
Chamber, Injector Propellant Feed Lines, Valves, Propellant Tanks Outlet and propellant feed
Systems – Propellant Slash and Propellant Hammer – Elimination of Geysering Effect in Missiles –
Selection of Materials – Special Requirements of Materials to Perform under Adverse Conditions.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS

92
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE8012-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

UNIT I - PRINCIPLES OF MODEL TESTING

PART A – 2 MARKS
1. What is called aero-elastic similarity? N/D-17
In an airplane, two significant static aero elastic effects may occur. Divergence is a phenomenon
in which the elastic twist of the wing suddenly becomes theoretically infinite, typically causing
the wing to fail spectacularly. Control reversal is a phenomenon occurring only in wings
with ailerons or other control surfaces, in which these control surfaces reverse their usual
functionality (e.g., the rolling direction associated with a given aileron moment is reversed).

2. Define the Froude’s number. N/D-17, A/M-17

The Froude Number is a dimensionless parameter measuring the ratio of "the inertia force on a
element of fluid to the weight of the fluid element" - the inertial force divided by gravitational force.
The Froude Number can be expressed as
Fr = v / (g hm)1/2
Where,
Fr = Froude number
v = velocity (m/s)
g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2)
hm = hydraulic mean depth or characteristic length (m)

3. Define kinematic similarity. A/M-17

This similarity requires that the length and time scales be similar between the model and the
prototype implying that velocities at corresponding points be similar. Under this similarity
streamline patterns for the flow over the model and the prototype will be similar. Obviously,
kinematic similarity includes geometrical similarity.

4. What do you mean by dimensional analysis?

The process of obtaining a relation between a number of quantities by the use of dimension
is known as dimensional analysis

Consider the equation, S = ut + ½ at2

Performing a dimensional analysis:

[L] = [LT-1][T] + [LT-2][T2] = [L] + [L]

The above equation is a dimensionally homogeneous equation i.e. the dimensions of every
term on each side of the equation are identical.

5. Dimensional analysis is particularly useful for what purpose?

It is particularly useful for:
• Presenting and interpreting experimental data;
• Attacking problems not amenable to a direct theoretical solution;
• Checking equations;
• Establishing the relative importance of particular physical phenomena;
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE8012-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

• Physical modelling.

6. State Buckingham pi theorem.

Buckingham pi theorem states, “If there are n variables (independent and dependent variables)
in a physical phenomenon and if these variables contain m fundamental dimensions (M, L, T),
then the variables are arranged into (n-m) dimensionless terms. Each term is called π-term”

7. Why Buckingham’s π theorem is considered superior over the rayleigh’s method for dimensional
analysis?
The Rayleigh/s method of dimensional analysis become more laborious if the variable are more
than the number of fundamentals dimensions (M,L,T).This difficulty is overcome by using
Buckingham’s π-theorem in which dimensional analysis can be done for n variables. If there are
n variables (independent and dependent) in a physical phenomenon and if these variables contain
m fundamental dimensions (M,L,T),then the variables are arranged into (n-m) dimension less
terms(called as π – terms)

8. What do you mean by dimensionless numbers? Name some of it.

Dimensionless numbers are those numbers which are obtained by dividing the inertia force
by viscous force or gravity force or pressure force or surface tension force or elastic force. As
this is a ratio of two forces, it will be dimensionless number. These dimensionless numbers
are also called non-dimensional parameters.

9. Define complete similitude.

The model must represent prototype completely in all respect. This similarity between prototype
and scale model is known as complete similitude. In order to successfully apply the results of
model test to the prototype, there should be mechanical similarity, i.e. it implies geometric,
kinematic, dynamic and structural similarity.
i. Geometric similitude the model should be an exact scale copy of the prototype. It
should include the surface roughness and the object dimensions.
ii. Kinematic similitude the velocity at any point in the model flow must be proportional to
the velocity at the corresponding point in the prototype flow (includes directions and
magnitudes).
iii. Dynamic similitude this is achieved when all forces in the model are proportional to
all forces in the prototype. Kinematic similitude is necessary but not sufficient for
dynamic similitude.

10. What are the different laws on which models are designed for dynamic similarity?
Model laws or laws of similarity are the laws on which the models are designed for dynamic
similarity .Models are designed on the basis of ratio of the force, which is dominating in
the phenomenon.
The following the models laws:
i. Reynolds model law
ii. Froude model law
iii. Euler model law
iv. Weber model law
v. Mach model law
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE8012-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

11. Explain the terms: Distorted models and undistorted models. What is the use of distorted models?
Undistorted Models:
Undistorted models are those models which are geometrically similar to its prototypes or in other
words the scale ratio for the linear dimensions of the model and its prototype is same. The
behavior of the prototype can be easily predicted from the results of undistorted model.
Distorted Model:
A model is said to be distorted if it is not geometrically similar to its prototyped model. Different
scale for the linear dimensions is adopted. For example, incase to rivers, harbors, reservoirs
etc. Two different scale ratios, one for horizontal dimensions and other for vertical
dimensions are taken. Thus the models of rivers, harbors and reservoirs will become
distorted models.

12. What are the advantage of distorted models?

The followings are the advantages of distorted models.
i. The vertical dimensions of the model can be measured accurately. ii) The cost of the
model can be reduced.
ii. Turbulent flow in the model can be maintained.

13. What do you mean by model analysis?

Models analysis is the mean of asserting and eliminating certain undesirable conditions through
model experiments and researches those results in improvements in the existing works. Safe and
economic design and construction of new works and knowledge on many aspects of hydraulic
engineering can be achieved.
Models analyses are made for two purposes:
i. To obtain information about the likely performance of the prototype and
ii. To help in the design and to avoid costly mistakes.

14. Write the drawback of analytical methods?

The following are the disadvantages of analytical methods used for study and analysis of many
problems in fluid mechanics.
i. It involves a number of approximations and assumptions and hence applications
of the analytical methods are restricted.
ii. It involves highly complicated equations which cannot be solved.
iii. The solutions to various complex flow patterns cannot be obtained by analytical
methods alone.
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE8012-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

15. What are the demerits of distorted models?

The following are the demerits of distorted models:
i. Due to unequal horizontal and vertical scales the pressure and velocity distribution
are not truly reproduced in the model.
ii. The wave pattern in the model will be different from that in the prototype due to
depth distortion.
iii. Slopes, bends and earth cuts are not truly reproduced.

16. What are the different types of forces acting in moving fluid?
Types of forces acting in moving fluid:
For the fluid problems, the forces acting on fluid mass may be anyone, or a combinational
of several of the following forces:
i. Inertia Force Fi:
It is equal to the product of mass and acceleration of the flowing fluid and acts in the
direction opposite to the direction of acceleration. it always existing in the fluid
flow problems.
ii. Viscous force Fv:
It is equal to the product of shear stress due to viscosity and surface area of the
flow. It is present in fluid flow problems where viscosity is having an important role
to play.
iii. Gravity Force Fg:
It is equal to the product of mass and acceleration due to gravity of the flowing fluid. It is
present in case of open surface flow.
iv. Pressure Force fp:
It is equal to the product of pressure intensity and cross sectional area of the
flowing fluid. It is present in case pipe flow.
v. Surface tension Force:
It is equal to the product of surface tension and length of surface of the flowing
fluid.
vi. Fs Elastic Force fe:
It is equal to the product of elastic stress and area of the flowing fluid.
For a flowing fluid, the above-mentioned forces may not always be presented. And
also the forces, which are present in a fluid flow problem, are not of equal magnitude.
There are always one or two forces which dominate the other forces. These
dominating forces govern the flow of fluid.
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE8012-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

17. What is scale effect?

Scale effects in wind tunnel modeling are studied by comparing the results from models with
various scales with the atmospheric boundary layer. It is found that the scale ratio of roughness
height should be the same as the scale ratio of boundary layer thickness. The individual roughness
element exhibits local effect only in the lower zone of two times the roughness height.

18. Define Reynolds number.

Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless quantity that is used to help predict similar flow patterns in
different fluid flow situations.
The Reynolds number is defined as the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces and consequently
quantifies the relative importance of these two types of forces for given flow conditions. Reynolds
numbers frequently arise when performing scaling of fluid dynamics problems, and as such can be used
to determine dynamic similitude between two different cases of fluid flow. They are also used to
characterize different flow regimes within a similar fluid, such as laminar or turbulent flow

where:
U is the maximum velocity of the object relative to the fluid (SI units: m/s)
L is a characteristic linear dimension, (travelled length of the fluid; hydraulic diameter when
dealing with river systems) (m)
μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa·s or N·s/m2 or kg/(m·s))
ρ is the density of the fluid (kg/m3).

19. Define Froude number.

The Froude Number is a dimensionless parameter measuring the ratio of the inertia force on a lement of
fluid - to the weight of the fluid element, the inertial force divided by gravitational force.
The Froude Number can be expressed as

where
Fr = Froude number
U = velocity
g = gravity
L = characteristic length
The Froude Number is relevant in fluid dynamic problems where the weight of the fluid is an important
force.
The Froude Number is also important in analyzing flow in spillways, weirs, channel flows, rivers and in
ship design.
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE8012-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

20. State the uses of Froude number.

The Froude number is used to compare the wave making resistance between bodies of various
sizes and shapes.
In free-surface flow, the nature of the flow (supercritical or subcritical) depends upon whether the
Froude number is greater than or less than unity.

21. Define weber number.

The Weber Number is a dimensionless value useful for analyzing fluid flows where there is an
interface between two different fluids.
The Weber Number is the ratio between the inertial force and the surface tension force and the
Weber number indicates whether the kinetic or the surface tension energy is dominant. It can be
expressed as
We = ρ v2 l / σ
where
We = Weber number (dimensionless)
ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3, lb/ft3)
v = velocity of fluid (m/s, ft/s)
l = characteristic length (m, ft)
σ = surface tension (N/m)
Since the Weber Number represents an index of the inertial force to the surface tension force acting
on a fluid element, it can be useful analyzing thin films flows and the formation of droplets and
bubbles.

22. State the application of weber number.

One application of the Weber number is the study of heat pipes. When the momentum flux in the
vapor core of the heat pipe is high, there is a possibility that the shear stress exerted on the liquid in
the wick can be large enough to entrain droplets into the vapor flow. The Weber number is the
dimensionless parameter that determines the onset of this phenomenon called the entrainment limit
(Weber number greater than or equal to 1).

23. Define Mach number.

The Mach number is a dimensionless value useful for analyzing fluid flow dynamics problems
where compressibility is a significant factor.
The Mach number can be expressed as
M=v/c
Where
M = Mach number
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE8012-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

v = fluid flow speed (m/s, ft/s)

c = speed of sound (m/s, ft/s)

24. What is geometric similarity?

Geometric similarity is a concept related to proportionality and can be used to simplify the
mathematical modeling process. Definition. Two objects are said to be geometrically similar if there
is a one-to-one correspondence between points of the objects such that the ratio of distances
between corresponding points is constant for all possible pairs of points.
Geometrical similarity is established when: A model and prototype prototype are geometrically
similar if and only if all body dimensions in all 3 coordinates have the same linear scale ratio.

25. What is kinematic similarity?

It requires that the model and prototype have the same length scale ratio and the same time scale
ratio; thus the velocity scale ratio will be the same for both. Length scale equivalence simply implies
geometric similarity, but time scale equivalence may require additional dynamic considerations
such as equivalence of the Reynolds and Mach numbers.
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE8012-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

26. What is dynamic similarity?

Dynamic similarity exists when the model and the prototype have the same length scale ratio, time
scale ratio, and the force scale (mass scale) ratio. Dynamic similarity exists, simultaneously with
kinematic similarity, if the model and prototype force and pressure coefficients are identical.
This is established if:
1) For compressible flow, the model and prototype Reynolds number and Mach number and specific
heat ratio are correspondingly equal.
2) For incompressible flow:
a) With no free surface: model and prototype Reynolds numbers are equal.
b) With a free surface surface: model and prototype prototype Reynolds Reynolds
number, Froude number, and (if necessary) Weber number and cavitation number are
correspondingly equal.

27. What do you mean by similitude?

Similitude is a concept applicable to the testing of engineering models. A model is said to have
similitude with the real application if the two share geometric similarity, kinematic similarity and
dynamic similarity.

28. What are types of similarity?

The types of similarity are:
• Geometrical similarity
• Kinematic similarity
• Dynamic similarity

29. What are Method of selecting repeating variables/

• The dependent variable should not be selected as repeating variable.
• The dependent variables should be chosen in such a way that one variable contains geometric
property, other variable contains flow property and third variable contains fluid property. Example:
Geometric properties: length, diameter, height
Flow properties: velocity, acceleration
Fluid properties: viscosity, density
• The repeating variable should not form a dimensionless group
• The repeating variables should have the same number of fundamental dimensions.
• No two repeating variables should have the same fundamental dimensions.
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE8012-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

30. Define model.

Model: is the small scale replica of the actual structure or machine. It is not necessary that models
should be smaller than the prototypes (although in most of the cases it is), they may be larger than
the prototypes.

31. What are the advantages of model analysis?

• The performance of the machine can be easily predicted, in advance.
• With the help of dimensional analysis, a relationship between the variables influencing a flow
problem in terms of dimensional parameters is obtained. This relationship helps in conducting tests
on the model.
• The merits of alternative designs can be predicted with the help of model testing. The most
economical and safe design may be, finally, adopted.

32. What are dynamic similarity laws?

Following are the dynamic similarity laws:
1. Reynolds model law
2. Froude model law
3. Euler model law
4. Weber model law
5. Mach model law

33. What are the major purpose of dimensional analysis?

The three primary purposes of dimensional analysis are
• To generate non-dimensional parameters that help in the design of experiments (physical and/or
numerical) and in the reporting of experimental results
• To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance can be predicted from model performance
• To (sometimes) predict trends in the relationship between parameters

34. Define Reynolds’s model law.

It states that the Reynolds number for the model and prototype must be equal where the viscous
force is predominant in addition to the inertia force.

35. Define Model Law.

For the dynamic similarities between the model and prototype, the ratios of corresponding force
acting on the corresponding points should be equal. The ratio of the forces of non-dimensional
numbers it means that for the dynamic similarity between model and prototype, the dimensionless
number should be same for model and prototype. The law on which the model are designed for
dynamic similarity are called model laws or similarity laws.

36. Define prototype.

The system whose behaviour is to be predicted by the model is called the prototype.
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE8012-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

37. What is undistorted model?

An undistorted model is one which is geometrically similar with its prototype. The condition of
similarities are completely satisfied for such models hence the results obtained from the model test
and easily used to prevent the perform of prototype.

38. What are Geometrical Distortion types?

i. Distortion of dimension- adoption of different scale for vertical and horizontal
ii. Distortion of Configuration – Model does not be an resemblance of its Prototype.

39. Define strouhal number and state its importance.

The Strouhal Number is a dimensionless value useful for analyzing oscillating unsteady
fluid flow dynamics problems.
The Strouhal Number can be expressed as
St = ω l / v
Where
St = Strouhal Number,
ω = oscillation frequency,
l = characteristic length,
v = flow velocity

40. Write the use of mach number.

The mach number is primarily used to determine the approximation with which a flow can be
treated as an incompressible flow. It is also can be used to determine the speed of the aircraft.
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE8012-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

UNIT I - PRINCIPLES OF MODEL TESTING

PART B – 16 MARKS
1. The drag force on a submarine which is moving well below the free surface, is to be determined
by a test on a model, which is scaled down to one-twentieth of the prototype. The test is to be
carried in a water tunnel. The density and kinematic viscosity of the sea water are 1010 kg/m3 and
1.3X10-6 m2/s. The water in the tunnel has a density of 988 kg/m3 and a kinematic viscosity of 0.65
X 10-6 m2/s. If the speed of the prototype is 2.6 m/s, then determine the speed of the model and the
ratio of the drag force in the prototype to the model. A/M-17
Refer class notes/Mail attachment

2. An aircraft is to fly at an altitude of 9 km(where the temperature and pressure are -45°C and 30.2
kPa respectively) at 400 m/s. A 1:20 scale model is tested in a pressurized wind tunnel in which
the air is at 15°C. For complete dynamic similarity what pressure and velocity should be used in
the wind tunnel? A/M-17
Refer class notes/Mail attachment

3. Derive Mach number and Reynolds number as relevant non-dimensional parameters in the flow
over an airfoil from non-dimensional analysis. N/D-17
Refer class notes/Mail attachment

4. The power required by an impeller in a wind tunnel is a function of the following variables: N/D-
17
a) Diameter of the agitator
b) Number of rotations of the impeller per unit time
c) Viscosity of fluid
d) Density of fluid
i) From the dimensional analysis using bucingham’s method, obtain a relation
between power and the four variables.
ii) The power consumption is found experimentally to be proportional to the
square of the speed of rotation, By what factor would the power be expected
to increase if the impeller diameter was doubled?
Refer class notes/Mail attachment

5. (i) State Buckingham pi theorem. How is the theorem useful in the experiments using wind
tunnels?
Refer Page no:265 (Fluid Mechanics and Machinery by C.P.Kothandaraman, R.Rudramoorthy,
New Age Int. Ltd. Publishers)

6. Define the following non-dimensional numbers: force coefficient, Euler number, Reynolds
number and moment coefficient. How do the model scale effects influence the wind tunnel test
results?
Refer Page no:561 (Fluid Mechanics and Machinery by Mohd. Kaleem Khan, Oxford University
Press)
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE8012-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

7. Explain the various type of similarities in detail.

Refer Page no:297 (Fluid Mechanics and Machinery by C.P.Kothandaraman, R.Rudramoorthy,
New Age Int. Ltd. Publishers)

8. Derive an expression for the drag force FD on a sphere of diameter D moving with a uniform
velocity u in a fluid density ρ and dynamic viscosity μ.
Refer Page no:550 (Fluid Mechanics and Machinery by Mohd. Kaleem Khan, Oxford University
Press)

9. Derive the lift force in terms of Reynolds number, mach number & Froude number from
dimensional analysis & discuss their importance in model testing.
Refer class notes/Mail attachment

10. The efficiency ƞ of a fan depends on density ρ dynamic viscosity ̀μ of the fluid , angular velocity
ω, Diameter D of the rotor and the discharge Q. Express ƞ in terms of dimensionless parameters.
Refer class notes/Mail attachment

11. The variable controlling the motion of a floating vessel through water are the drag force F, the
speed V, the length L, the density ρ and dynamic viscosity μ of water and acceleration due to
gravity g. Derive an expression for F by dimensional analysis.
Refer class notes/Mail attachment

12. The lift force F on an airfoil is a function of its chord C, span S, velocity V, angle of attack α,
density ρ and viscosity μ of air and the speed of sound “a” in air. Rewrite the functionality in non-
dimensional term as

𝐹 𝜌𝑉𝐶 𝑉 𝑆
, , , 𝛼]
𝜌𝑉2 𝐶 2 = ∅[
𝜇 𝛼𝐶
Refer class notes/Mail attachment

13. The thrust force, F generated by a propeller is found to de pend on the following parameters:
diameter D, forward velocity u, density ρ, viscosity μ and rotational speed N. Determine the
dimensionless parameters to correlate the phenomenon.
Refer Page no:297 (Fluid Mechanics and Machinery by C.P.Kothandaraman, R.Rudramoorthy,
New Age Int. Ltd. Publishers)

14. To predict the drag on an aircraft at a flight speed of 150 m/s, where the condition of air in such
that the local speed of sound is 310 m/s, a pressurized low temperature tunnel is used. Density,
viscosity and local sonic velocity at tunnel conditions are 7.5Kg/m3, 1.22x10-5Ns/m2 and 290 m/s.
Determine the flow velocity and the scale of the model. Assume full dynamic similarity should be
maintained . Density and viscosity at the operating conditions are 1.2 Kg/m3 and 1.8x10-5 Ns/m2.
Refer Page no:306 (Fluid Mechanics and Machinery by C.P.Kothandaraman, R.Rudramoorthy,
New Age Int. Ltd. Publishers)
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE8012-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

UNIT II - TYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF WIND TUNNELS

PART A – 2 MARKS
1. Write down the equation for coefficient of pressure losses for the meshes used in wind tunnels.
N/D-17
The loss of energy is expressed in terms of static pressure drop Δp, in the dimensionless form,
called pressure drop coefficient K, as follows

Where q is the dynamic pressure of the flow

2. What are called Hotshot wind tunnels? N/D-17

Hotshot tunnels are devices meant for the generation of high-speed flows with high temperatures
and pressures for a short duration. The high temperatures and pressures required at the test-section
are obtained by rapidly discharging a large amount of electrical energy into an enclosed small
volume of air, which then expands through a nozzle and a test-section.

3. List some special purpose wind tunnels. A/M-17

Special-purpose tunnels are those with layout totally different from that of low-speed and high-
speed tunnels. Some of the popular special-purpose tunnels are: spinning tunnels, free-flight
tunnels, stability tunnels, and lowdensity tunnels.

4. Differentiate open jet and open circuit wind tunnel. A/M-17

open jet wind tunnel open circuit wind tunnel
-An open-jet is that test-section without side -open-circuit tunnels, having no guided
walls. return of air
-If it is bounded by air at different velocities -open-circuit can operate with either
(usually at rest), the tunnel is called an open-jet openjet or closed-jet test-sections
tunnel.
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE8012-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

5. What are the different section loss coefficients? N/D-17

The total power loss in a wind tunnel may be split into the following components.
• Losses in cylindrical parts
• Losses in guide vanes at the corner (in closed circuit tunnels)
• Losses in diffuser
• Losses in contraction cone
• Losses in honeycomb, screens, and so on
• Losses in test-section (jet losses in case of open jet)
• Losses in exit in case of open circuit tunnel

6. What are wind tunnels?

Just as its name suggests, a wind tunnel is a tube or tunnel that has man-made windblown through
it at a certain speed. Scientists and engineers put a model of an airplane in the tunnel and then study
the way air moves around the model. By looking at the way this smaller model acts in the wind
tunnel, they get a pretty good idea of how a real life-sized airplane of the same design will
probably fly. It is a lot easier, cheaper, and safer to build and test a model than to build and fly
a real airplane.

7. How do wind tunnels work?

Wind tunnels work on the idea that a stationary model with air moving around it behaves the same
way a real, full-scale airplane moving through stationary air does. Sometimes only a part of an
airplane, like a wing or an engine, is tested in a wind tunnel. The models, usually made out of steel
or aluminum that are tested are loaded with many instruments and sensors that report back to the
computers in the control room. It's there that scientists, engineers, and technicians can begin to
understand how the airplane is performing.

8. Classify Wind tunnels.

There are many different kinds of wind tunnels, an overview is given in the list below:
i. Low-speed wind tunnel
ii. High-speed wind tunnel
iii. Supersonic wind tunnel
iv. Hypersonic wind tunnel
v. Subsonic and transonic wind tunnel

9. What are the key parts of wind tunnel?

The key parts of wind tunnel are:
i. Drive motors: These are giant electric motors that spin the fan.
ii. Compressor: The fan (or fans) that produce the high-speed wind.
iii. Supersonic, high-speed test section: The model airplane is placed in here.
iv. Vanes: These are airfoils positioned in the corners to turn the air through 90 degrees
without losing energy.
v. Acoustic muffler: Wind tunnels are noisy places! Mufflers help reduce the noise and
more accurately simulate a realistic air flow.
vi. Vanes
vii. Subsonic, low-speed test section: There's a smaller test chamber round the other side
where the air moves a bit slower.
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE8012-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

viii. Access doors: The scientists have to get in somehow!

ix. Air dryer: This section removes moisture from the air flow.

10. Classify wind tunnel based on shape.

Based on Shape the wind tunnel can be classified as,
1. Open circuit wind tunnel:
a) Suckdown tunnel:
b) Blower tunnel:
2. Closed circuit wind tunnel:

11. Draw the layout of an open circuit wind tunnel and mark all the important parts.

12. Distinguish between open circuit and closed circuit wind tunnel.
open circuit wind tunnel closed circuit wind tunnel
This type of wind tunnel is open at both ends. Outlet of such wind tunnel is connected to inlet
The chances of dirt particles entering with air so the same air circulates in the system in a
are more so more honeycombs (mesh to clean regulated way. The chances of dirt entering the
incoming air) are required to clean the air. Open system are also very low. closed wind tunnels
type wind tunnels can further be divided into have more uniform flow than open type. This is
two categories: usually a choice for large wind tunnels as these
are more costlier than open type wind tunnels.

13. What do you mean by a transonic wind tunnel?

High subsonic wind tunnels (0.4<m<0.75) or transonic wind tunnels (0.75<M<1.2) are designed
on the same principles as the subsonic wind tunnels. Transonic wind tunnels are able to achieve
speeds close to the speeds of sound. The highest speed is reached in the test section. The mach
number is approximately one with combined subsonic and supersonic flow regions.
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

14. What are the difficulties associated with testing of models at transonic speeds?
The difficulties associated with testing of models at transonic speeds are,
i. In induction type of tunnels where large mass flow can be generated or smaller
injected mass are required from power consumption point of view.
ii. The ventilated walls for test section with plenum chamber are required to avoid
choking of flow at model location in the test section.
iii. In absence of perforated or slotted walls for test section, significant size of models
cannot be tested.

15. Bring out the demerits of transonic wind tunnel.

The demerits of transonic wind tunnel are :
i. Only one surface of the test piece would be visible
ii. A full test of the test piece would involve running the wind tunnel twice since
the upper and lower surface would need to be tested separately
iii. Slight flow interference on the surface between the uprights

16. What is the special feature of the transonic test section?

The highest speed is reached in the test section. The Mach number is approximately 1 with
combined subsonic and supersonic flow regions. Testing at transonic speeds presents
additional problems, mainly due to the reflection of the shock waves from the walls of the test
section (see figure below or enlarge the thumb picture at the right).Therefore, perforated
or slotted walls are required to reduce shock reflection from the walls. Since important viscous
or in viscid interactions occur (such as shock waves or boundary layer interaction) both Mach and
Reynolds number are important and must be properly simulated. Large-scale facilities and/or
pressurized or cryogenic wind tunnels are used.

17. What is the Supersonic wind tunnel?

A supersonic wind tunnel is a wind tunnel that produces supersonic speeds (1.2<M<5). The
Mach number and flow are determined by the nozzle geometry. The Reynolds number is
varied changing the density level (pressure in the settling chamber). Therefore a high pressure
ratio is required (for a supersonic regime at M=4, this ratio is the order of 10).

18. What is hypersonic wind tunnel?

A hypersonic wind tunnel is designed to generate a hypersonic flow field in the working section.
The speeds of these tunnels vary from mach5 to 15.as with supersonic wind tunnels, these types
of tunnels must run intermittently with very high pressure ratios when initializing. Since the
temperature drops with the expanding flow. The air inside has the chance of becoming
liquefied.

19. What is meant by peculiarities of hypersonic tunnel?

The peculiarities of hypersonic tunnel are,
i. Constraints are air (Nitrogen, oxygen) they will condense in test section if air is
sent into the tunnel at ambient temperature. Pre-heating of air is required using
pebble heater or electric arc heater.

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 16
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

ii. The throat of nozzle will have sonic velocity at elevated temperatures. The throat
will melt if protection is not provided. Graphite, molybdenum, ceramic linings are
required.
iii. In order to achieve acceleration of working substance, nozzle of large area ratio
and pressure vacuum arrangement is needed.
iv. In gun tunnel, shock tunnel, shock tube the phenomena have to be recorded
in milli or microseconds, high speed camera and quick response instruments are
required.

20. What is a blown down wind tunnel?

Blow down tunnels are normally used from high subsonic to high supersonic flow conditions.
The Mach number in the test section is determined by pressure and temperature in the
plenum and the area ratio between the test sections on the nozzle throat. As the flow expands
in the nozzle, the pressure decreases and any moisture in the tunnel may condense and liquefy in
the test section.

21. What are in draft wind tunnels?

Some blown down tunnels, called in draft tunnels, do not use a high pressure chamber, but
open the plenum chamber to the atmosphere. The in draft tunnel uses the low pressure (vacuum)
chamber downstream of the test section to produce flow. The advantage of this configuration is
that the conditions in the plenum remain constant and there is no need for a pressure regulator.
The disadvantage is that the pressure ratio across the test section is usually lower than a closed
configuration and therefore the maximum Mach number is lower.

22. . What is the advantage of Blow down type wind tunnels?

The advantages of Blow down type wind tunnel are:
i. High Mach capability. Easy tunnel “starting”.
ii. Lower construction and operating costs.
iii. Superior design for propulsion and smoke visualization. There is no accumulation
of exhaust products in an open tunnel.
iv. Smaller loads on model during startup because of faster starts.

23. What do you mean by calibration of a subsonic wind tunnel?

The calibration of a wind tunnel consists in determining the mean values and uniformity of
various flow parameters in the region to be used for model testing. The parameters basic to
any wind-tunnel calibration are stagnation pressure and temperature, velocity or mach
number and flow angularity. Other flow conditions of interest include static pressure and
temperature, turbulence and the extent of condensation or liquefaction.

24. Define energy ratio of a wind tunnel.

The ratio of the energy of the airstream at the test-section to the input energy to the
driving unit is a measure of the efficiency of a wind tunnel. It is nearly always greater than
unity, indicating that the amount of stored energy in the wind stream is capable of doing work at
a higher rate than what it is doing in wind tunnel, before being brought to rest. The energy ratio
ER is the range 3 to 7, for most closed-throat wind tunnels. The energy ratio is defined as

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 17
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

The definition of the energy ratio given by the above equation excludes the fan and motor
efficiency.

25. Name the losses in supersonic tunnels.

The total power loss in a continuous supersonic wind tunnel may be split into the
following components.
i. Frictional losses (in the return circuit)
ii. Expansion losses (in diffuser)
iii. Losses in contraction cone and test-section
iv. Losses in guide vanes
v. Losses in cooling system
vi. Losses due to shock wave (in diffuser supersonic part)
vii. Losses due to model and support system drag .
The first five components of losses represent the usual low-speed tunnel losses. All five
components together constitute only about 10% of the total loss. Component 6 and 7 are
additional losses in supersonic wind tunnel and usually amount to approximately 90% total
losses

26. How is turbulence measured in wind tunnels?

The turbulence can be measured by following methods:
i. Turbulence sphere
ii. Pressure sphere
iii. Hot wire anemometer

27. How does an industrial wind tunnel differ from conventional aeronautical tunnel?
Industrial wind tunnel
In this Wind tunnel, tests are used to measure the velocity around, and forces or pressures upon
structures. Very tall buildings, buildings with unusual or complicated shapes (such as a tall
building with a parabolic or a hyperbolic shape), cable suspension bridges or cable stayed
bridges are analyzed in specialized atmospheric boundary layer wind tunnels. These feature a
long upwind section to accurately represent the wind speed and turbulence profile acting on
the structure. Wind tunnel tests provide the necessary design pressure measurements in use of the
dynamic analysis and control of tall buildings
Conventional aeronautical tunnel
In this wind tunnel, device for producing a controlled stream of air in order to study the
effects of movement through air or resistance to moving air on models of aircraft and other
machines and objects. Provided that the airstream is properly controlled, it is immaterial whether
the stationary model under testing is designed to move through the air, as an aircraft,

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 18
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

28. What is a shock tube?

The shock tube is a device to produce high speed with high temperatures by traversing normal
shock waves that are generated by the rupture of a diaphragm which separates high pressure
gas from a low pressure gas.

29. What is a shock tunnel?

Shock tunnels are wind tunnels that operate at mach numbers of the order 25 or higher for
time intervals up to a few milliseconds by using air heated and compressed in shock tube.

30. . What are the major disadvantages of Blow down type wind tunnels?
The major disadvantages of blow down wind tunnels are the following.
i. Charging time to running time ratio will be very high for large-size tunnels.
ii. Stagnation temperature in the reservoir drops during the tunnel run, thus changing
the Reynolds number of the flow in the test-section.
iii. An-adjustable (automatic) throttling valve between the reservoir and settling
chamber is necessary for constant stagnation pressure operation.
iv. Starting load is high
v. Reynolds number of flow is low due to low static pressure in the test section.

31. What are gun tunnels?

One form of HWT is known as a Gun Tunnel or hot shot tunnel (up to M=27), which can be
used for analysis of flows past ballistic missiles, space vehicles in atmospheric entry, and plasma
physics or heat transfer at high temperatures. It runs intermittently, like other high speed tunnels,
but has a very low running time (less than a second). The method of operation is based on a high
temperature and pressurized gas (air or nitrogen) produced in an arc-chamber, and a near-vacuum
in the remaining part of the tunnel. The arc-chamber can reach several MPa, while pressures in
the vacuum chamber can be as low as 0.1Pa. This means that the pressure ratios of these tunnels
are in the order of 10 million.

32. Name few power losses in a wind tunnel.

i. Losses in cylindrical parts
ii. Losses in guide vanes at the corner
iii. Losses in diffuser
iv. Losses in contraction cone.
v. Losses in honeycomb, screens and so on.

33. How can diffuser problems can be avoided?

The diffuser problems can be avoided by following steps.
i. using a variable geometry diffuser.
ii. Driving the shock through the diffuser throat by means of a large amplitude
pressure pulse.

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 19
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

34. What are the effects can be happened by changing the reservoir pressure?
i. The tunnel stagnation and settling chamber pressure fall correspondingly.
ii. The tunnel is subjected to dynamic condition.
iii. Reynolds number of the flow changes during the tunnel run.

35. What are the methods of operation can be adopted for blow down tunnel operation?
i. Constant Reynolds number operation.
ii. Constant Pressure operation.
iii. Constant Throttle Operation.

36. What are the required assumptions for calculating the running time of a tunnel?
The assumptions are:
i. Expansion of the gas in the storage tank is polytropic.
ii. Gas temperature in the storage tank is kept constant with a heater.
iii. Gas temperature in the settling chamber is kept constant with a regulating valve.
iv. No heat is lost in the pipelines from the storage tank to the test section.
v. Expansion of the gas from the settling chamber to the test section is isentropic.
vi. Test section speed is supersonic.

37. What type of irregularities of flow can be seen in low speed tunnels.
The irregularities of flow are,
i. Spatial non-uniformity,
ii. Swirl,
iii. Low frequency Pulsation,
iv. Turbulence.

38. What is the purpose of wind tunnels contractions?

The wind tunnel contractions serves a few purpose,
i. Enables velocity to be low at the location of placement of the screens.
ii. Reduces both mean and fluctuating velocity variations to a smaller fraction of the
average velocity.
iii. Reduces Spatial variations of velocity in the wind tunnel cross section.

39. What is the use of thermal ballast in a supersonic tunnel?

Thermal ballast that quenches the flame temperature to a level below which the flame cannot exist.
Thermal ballast is mainly employed to protect the testing models and other sensitive reading
equipment.

40. Write the advantages and disadvantages of Open Circuit Wind Tunnels.
Advantages:
i. Construction cost is less
ii. If one intends to do much flow visualization via. Smoke, there is no purging
problem. If both inlet and exhaust are open to atmosphere.
iii. Because of low initial cost, an open circuit is often ideal for schools and universities
where a tunnel is required for class room work, for research and high utilization is
not required.

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 20
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

Disadvantages:
i. If located in room, depending on the size of tunnel to the room size, it may require
extensive streaming at the inlet to get high quality flow.
ii. The same may be true if the inlet or exhaust is open to the atmosphere, when wind
and cold weather affect operation.
iii. For a given size and speed the tunnel will require more energy to run.
iv. In general a tunnel is noisy for large tunnel noise may cause environmental
problems.

41. Write the advantages and disadvantages of Closed Circuit Wind Tunnels.
Advantages:
i. Through the use of corner turning vanes and possibly screens the quality of the flow
can be easily controlled.
ii. Less Energy is required for a given test section size and velocity.
iii. This can be important for a tunnel used for developmental testing with high
utilisation.
iv. Less noise when operating.
Disadvantages:
i. Higher initial cost due to return ducts and corner vanes.
ii. Used extensively for smoke test or running of inertial combustion engine there must be
a way to purge tunnels.
iii. If tunnel has high utilisation it may have to have an air exchange or some other method
of cooling during hot summer months.

42. What are the methods of operation are adopted for blow down tunnel operation?
The methods are,
i. Constant Reynolds number operation.
ii. Constant pressure operation
iii. Constant throttle operation.

43. Differentiate blowing and running pressure.

Blowing Pressure Running Pressure
i) Large size test section can be employed i) Large size test section cannot be employed
ii) High Mach number testing can be reached ii) Mach number 2 only can be reached
(M=4) iii) Air drier and vacuum tank is mandatory
iii) Air drier and vacuum tank is not mandatory
in large size.
iv) Possible of oil contamination in the process
iv) No oil contamination in the process
v) Starting load will be high
v) Starting load will be less.

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 21
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

44. Compare between in draft and pressure driven tunnels.

Indraft Tunnel Pressure Driven Tunnel
Stagnation temperature at supply condition is Reynolds number can be varied at a
constant during a run. So also is total pressure. particular mach number Cost is much less
No fluctuation as those generated by a pressure than an indraft tunnel.
regulator. No possible contamination such as
that due to oil.

45. Compare between Intermittent and continuous wind tunnels.

Intermittent Tunnel Continuous tunnel
Simple to design and less costly More in control of conditions and return toa
given test section with more accuracy.
Check points are easily obtained. No panic
A single drive may run several tunnels
of rapid testing
Test conditions can be held constant for a
Models testing is more convenient longer time

46. What are the advantages of blow down wind tunnels?

i. They are simplest among the high speed tunnel types
ii. Most Economical to build
iii. Running time of considerable duration can be achieved.

47. What are the disadvantages of the blow down wind tunnels?
i. Charging time to running time ratio will be very high
ii. Starting load is high.

48. What are the advantages of Induction type tunnels?

i. Stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature are constants.
ii. Starting and shut down operations are simple.

49. What are the disadvantages of Induction type wind tunnels?

i. Vacuum tank size required is very large
ii. Reynolds number is very low.

50. What are the advantages of continuous supersonic wind tunnels?

i. Only a small capacity drier is required.
ii. Better control over the Reynolds number is possible.

51. What are the disadvantages of continuous supersonic wind tunnels?

i. Power required is very high
ii. Requires large size cooler.

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 22
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

52. Write note on Hypersonic Wind Tunnels

i. It operate with Mach number above 5.
ii. They operate with stagnation pressure in the range from 10-100 atmosphere
iii. The Stagnation range from 223K to 2273K
iv. Models that can be tested in hypersonic tunnel are usually larger than those meant
for testing supersonic tunnels.
v. The model frontal area can go up to 10% of the test section cross sectional area.

53. Write about Transonic Wind Tunnel

i. It is usually impossible to achieve flow at a Mach Number above 0.9 with ordinary
parallel sided liners.
ii. It is also difficult to achieve supersonic flow at a Mach Number below 1.1
iii. A Convergent divergent nozzle with solid walls because of chocking difficulties
special liners are required to cover the transonic range of Mach Number .85 to 1.15.
iv. The design of such liners is loosed on a working section whose walls are not sold
but perforated.
v. The area of the perforations increasing with distance along the length of the
sections.

54. Write about blow through tunnels.

i. Wind Tunnels for intermittent operation may be of the blow through or suction
type.
ii. In the flow through tunnel the arrangement is such as the one similar to the
supersonic wind tunnels.
iii. Air is compressed to a very high pressure in a reservoir
iv. It is subsequently released through a valve into the nozzle and is eventually
discharged into the atmosphere
v. Since the reservoir can be charged up relatively slowly by means of a compressor
which does not have to be especially highly powered.
vi. The running time is generally short, because of the limited amount of air in the
reservoir.

55. Write note on Suction type Tunnel.

In this type of tunnel, instead of air flowing out of a compressed air reservoir, it is sucked into a
previously evacuated chamber. Throughout the run the stagnation condition remain constant at
atmospheric value. The flow through tunnel originates in the atmosphere outside the tunnel High
pressure ratios are easily achieved and this implies that high Mach Numbers can be obtained
without the use of a chamber which can withstand high pressurisation. The advantage is that the
running time likely to be even shorter than that of a flow through tunnel especially at high Mach
Numbers.

56. What is the pressure and temperature range in the hypersonic wind tunnels?
The pressure range of hypersonic wind tunnels are 10 to 100 atmosphere and Stagnation
temperatures are 223K to 2273K.

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 23
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

57. Explain why heated and dry air is used in hypersonic wind tunnels.
Use of dry and heated air is necessary for hypersonic operation to avoid condensation effects and
liquefaction during expansion to the high Mach numbers and corresponding low temperatures.

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 24
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

UNIT II - TYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF WIND TUNNELS

PART B – 16 MARKS
1. (i) With a neat sketch explain the operation of closed circuit continuous supersonic tunnel. Discuss
its advantages and disadvantages. A/M-17
(ii) Explain the purpose of second throat in supersonic wind tunnels. A/M-17
Refer Page No: 74, 98 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in
Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

2. (i) Draw a typical hypersonic tunnel circuit and explain the operation. Discuss the special problems
associated with it. A/M-17
(ii) Discuss briefly about the losses in subsonic wind tunnels. A/M-17
Refer Page No: 77, 116 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in
Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

3. Explain the operation of the intermittent type supersonic wind tunnel with neat sketches and
explain the importance of the second throat. N/D-17
Refer Page No: 90, 98 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in
Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

4. i) Explain the special problems in testing of models transonic wind tunnel. N/D-17
ii) Explain the transonic wind tunnel with neat sketches. N/D-17
Refer “High speed wind tunnel testing” by Alan Pope- Chapter-Transonic wind tunnel.

5. Explain the construction and working of the following wind tunnels:

i. Blow down tunnels.
ii. In draft and induction tunnels.
Refer Page No:91,92 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in
Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

6. Draw a layout of typical continuous, closed-return supersonic wind tunnel and explain its working
principle.
Refer Page No:74,93 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in
Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

7. Explain the function of straight through wind tunnel with neat sketch. Explain the function of
closed jet and open jet tunnels with neat sketch.
Refer Page No:73, (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in Fluids”,
CRC Press, London, 2007)

8. Explain the function of closed jet tunnels and open jet tunnels with sketch.
Page No:73, (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in Fluids”, CRC
Press, London, 2007)

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 25
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

9. (i) list the different types of wind tunnels.

(ii) Explain the helium based hypersonic wind tunnel with neat sketch
(iii) What are the peculiar problems in the operation of hypersonic wind tunnel?
Page No:73, 116, (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in Fluids”,
CRC Press, London, 2007)

10. (i) Draw a neat layout diagram & describe a smoke tunnel
(ii) Why do you need a ventilated test section for a transonic wind tunnel? Explain in detail some
of the possible ventilation arrangements.
Refer Page No: 35, (Jewel Barlow, William Rae, Alan Pope “Low Speed Wind Tunnel Testing”,
3rd Edition, Wiley Inter-Science Publication)

11. (i) Why do you need a larger second throat than that of the first throat to start a supersonic wind
tunnel?
(ii) Explain the need for heating the air medium to run a hypersonic wind tunnel.
(iii) What is the starting load experienced by a test model in a supersonic wind tunnel?
Explain how this problem can be overcome.
Refer Page no : 98, 116, 148 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments
in Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 26
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

UNIT III - CALIBRATION OF WIND TUNNELS

PART A – 2 MARKS
1. What do you mean by horizontal buoyancy? A/M-17
The variation of static pressure along the test-section produces a drag force known as horizontal
buoyancy. It is usually small in a closed test-section, and is negligible in open jets.

2. State the limitations of turbulence sphere. A/M-17

From experimental studies it is established that the accuracy of turbulence sphere measurements
is not adequate when
• The turbulence level is less than the degree of turbulence that corresponds to a turbulence factor
of about 1.05.
• The Mach number is greater than 0.35.
Under these circumstances, we have to resort to devices that are capable of handling these
situations.

3. List the parameters of interest for the transonic wind tunnel calibrations. N/D-17
The parameters of interest for the transonic wind tunnel calibrations are following:
• Settling Chamber Pressure
• Total Temperature
• Pitot Pressures
• Test Section Static Pressures
• Measurement of Flow Angularity
• Measurement of Unsteady Flow Disturbances
• Transonic Tunnel Boundary Conditions

4. Define Turbulence factor. What is the importance of it in wind tunnel testing?

The tunnel with a certain level of turbulence exhibits a flow pattern at a test section Reynolds
number Re, Which will be identical to a free fields flow at a Reynolds number which is much
higher than the test section Reynolds number. This increase is called the turbulence factor, TF
Ree=TF*Rec
Ree – Effective Reynolds number
Rec – Critical Reynolds number
The major importance of determining the TF in wind tunnel testing is to value out the turbulence
happened in the test section.

5. How will you calculate drag coefficient?

Drag coefficient is a dimensionless quantity that is used to quantify the drag. The drag coefficient
Cd is defined as:
Cd=2D/ρv2A
D-Drag Force; v-Flow Speed; ρ-Mass density; A-Reference area.

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 27
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

6. What is flow angularity?

Flow angularity is a check ensures the flow in the test section has to be uniform throughout its
cross section with all stream lines parallel to the tunnel axis, when the tunnel is run without any
model in the test section. A yaw head probe can be used to measure the angularity of the flow.

7. What do you understand by drag estimation by wake survey?

Drag estimation by wake survey is a experimental technique specially useful for measuring the
drag of airfoils at low angles ao attack, since the low drag present in such situations may be difficult
to measure with balances designed for measuring higher loads associated with the stalled airfoils

8. What is surging?
One of the most troublesome problems associated with wind tunnels is tunnel surging.
It is a low frequency vibration in velocity that may run a high as five percent of the
dynamic pressure q.

9. What are the difficulties caused by surging?

i. It disturb the reference pressure in pressure measurements.
ii. it usually makes the dynamic testing impossible.
iii. It makes the wind tunnel balance run widely trying to keep up.

10. What are the importance observations made from pressure distributions?
i. The reaction of the minimum pressure point and its strength.
ii. The load that the skin is to withstand and its distribution.

11. What are the disadvantages of the surging?

i. Surging makes the validity of assigning a Reynolds number to the test doubtful.
ii. It usually makes the dynamic testing impossible.

12. What is Chocking in High Speed Wind Tunnels

i. The Phenomenon of chocking occurs when the local Mach No. in a high speed
tunnel reaches unity.
ii. This may happen at points where the effective area of cross section of the tunnel is
reduced as a result of boundary layer thickening.
iii. Induced separation or simply the presence of a model which is too thick or at too
high incidence.
iv. Chocking leads supersonic flow in the working section and finally breaks down.
v. This condition sets a limit to the range of operation of the tunnel.
vi. A limit which may vary according to the model under test and its altitude

13. How will you estimate mach number?

The mach number can be estimated by following methods,
i. if M<1.6- using Isentropic relations
ii. if M>1.6-using Normal shock relations
iii. using Rayleigh pitot formula
iv. using θ-β-M relation.

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 28
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

14. What are the starting problems in high speed tunnels?

The pressure suddenly drops to a value close to the static pressure for the design mach number,
the tunnel is started. If the model is blocking the tunnel, the pressure will not drop. This makes
starting problem in High speed tunnel.

15. What are the methods are used for alleviating the starting load problem?
The methods are:
i. Starting at reduced total pressure in continuous tunnels.
ii. Shielding the model with retractable protective shoes at start.
iii. Injecting the model into the air stream after the tunnel is started.

16. Explain about the 2 major problems in the operation of supersonic wind tunnel.
The 2 major problems are condensation and liquefaction.
i. Condensation : The amount of moisture that can be held by a unit volume of air
increases with increasing temperature. When the air isentropically expands to high
Mach number in the test section, the temperature falls, it may become super cooled.
Moisture will then condense
ii. Liquefaction: The components of air liquefy when proper temperature and pressure
conditions are met. Liquefaction troubles might start around M=4, if high pressure air
is expanded from room temperature.

17. What are the factors affecting condensation?

The factors are:
i. Amount of moisture in the stream.
ii. Static temperature of the stream.
iii. Static pressure of the stream.
iv. Time during which the stream is at low temperature.

18. Write the importance of mass flow in high speed wind tunnel testing.
The mass flow in high speed wind tunnel testing is expressed as a function of stagnation conditions
and the area ratio.

19. What are the basic components of measurement system?

The main components are the following:
i. Mechanics,
ii. Sensors or transducers,
iii. Weight balanced sensors,
iv. Pneumatic and hydraulic sensors
v. Electromagnetic sensors,
vi. Spring sensors,
vii. Strain-gauge sensors,
viii. Electronic amplifiers,
ix. Wires,
x. Analog to digital converter (ADC),
xi. Software.

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 29
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

20. What are the pressure measuring devices?

The instruments used for measuring pressure in aerodynamic research can be divided into the
following groups:
i. Liquid column Manometers,
ii. Pressure gages with elastic sensing elements,
iii. Pressure transducers,
iv. Manometers for measuring loaw absolute pressures. are the main pressure
measuring devices.

21. What is the purpose of Pitot-static tube?

Pitot-Static tubes, which are also called Prandtl tubes, are used on aircraft as
speedometers. The actual tube on the aircraft is around 10 inches (25 centimeters) long with a
½ inch (1 centimeter) diameter. Several small holes are drilled around the outside of the tube
and a center hole is drilled down the axis of the tube.

22. What do you mean by LVDT?

The linear variable differential transformer(LVDT) is a type of electrical transformer used
for measuring linear displacement. The transformer has three solenoidal coils placed end-to-end
around a tube. The center coil is the primary, and the two outer coils are the secondaries. A
cylindrical ferromagnetic core, attached to the object whose position is to measured, slides along
the axis of the tube.

23. What is a pressure transducer?

A pressure transducer is a transducer that converts pressure into an analog electrical signal.
Although there are various types of pressure transducers, one of the most common is the strain-
gage base transducer. The conversion of pressure into an electrical signal is achieved by the
pressure deformation of strain gages which are bonded into the diaphragm of the pressure
transducer and wired into a Wheatstone bridge configuration.

24. Explain about hot wire anemometer?

A hot-wire probe is nothing more than a very thin wire that is inserted into the flow at the end of
a probe. The diameter of the wire is approximately 10-4 cm. Electricity is applied to the wire
which generates heat due to the resistance in the wire according to OHM’s law. The heat is
carried away from the probe by the flow of air and the heat transfer is proportional to the velocity
of the flow.

25. What is force balance?

The most basic type of instrument used in this type of testing is the force balance. We must
measure six components, three forces (lift, drag and side) and three moments (pitch, roll and yaw)
to completely describe the conditions on the model. For some tests, only three components
(lift, drag and pitch) are measured.

26. What are the factors that must be at a minimum while designing a balance?
The factors that must be at a minimum while designing a balance are,
i. The interaction between the different load components should be kept small.
ii. The deflection of the parts under the influence of maximum load to be minimum.

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 30
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

iii. The Tare drag and interference drag to be kept minimum.

iv. By choosing proper linkage, cross-spring pivot instead of knife edge, ball bearings,
and the like in beam, the zero error can be minimized.

27. Name and define the similarity parameter that is needed for simulation of the
aerodynamic heating.
Kinematic similarity the velocity at any point in the model flow must be proportional to the
velocity at the corresponding point in the prototype flow is needed for simulation of the
aerodynamic heating.

28. What do you mean by internal force balance?

In some wind tunnels, the measuring devices are located external to the model. The location
of the device affects the choice of mounting system for the model amnd the data reduction
necessary to determine the aerodynamic forces.

29. What is a Thermocouple?

Thermocouples are devices that operate on the principle that a flow of current in a metal
accompanies a flow of heat.

30. What is the principle of thermocouples?

A thermocouple is a device made by two different wires joined at one end, called junction and
or measuring end. The two wires are called thermo elements or legs of the
thermocouple: the two thermo elements are distinguished as positive and negative ones. The
other end of the thermocouple is called tail end or reference end . The junction end is immersed
in the environment whose temperature T2 has to be measured, which can be for instance the
temperature of a furnace at about 500°C, while the tail end is held at a different temperature T1,
e.g. at ambient temperature. Because of the temperature difference between junction end and
tail end a voltage difference can be measured between the two thermo elements at the tail
end: so the thermocouple is a temperature- voltage transducer.

Schematic drawing of a thermocouple

31. Mention the various types of wind tunnel balances

Based on construction details, the wind tunnel balances are broadly classified into
i. Wire type balance
ii. Strut type balance
iii. Platform type balance
iv. Yoke type balance
v. Strain gauge type balance

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 31
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

32. State the principle of hot wire Anemometer?

The principle of operation of hot-wire anemometer is the heat transfer from the filament varies as
the flow rate varies. This in turn causes variation in the heat balance of the filament.

33. Classify hot wire anemometer?

The How wire anemometer is classified into 3 types they are:
i. The constant wire anemometer.
ii. The constant current anemometer. iii) The pulsed-wire anemometer.

34. What are the limitations of Hot-wire anemometer?

The limitations are,
i. A nonlinear character of heat transfer with respect to velocity and temperature
ii. An onset of practical limitations due to the complex nature of the heat transfer
between the wire and fluid in compressible flows.
iii. A limitation set by the resolution power in space. That is in the direction of the
wire, due to its finite length.
iv. A limitation set by resolution power in time, in the flow direction, due to the
finite time constant of the hot wire

35. What is the importance of strouhal number?

The Strouhal Number can be important when analyzing unsteady, oscillating flow problems. The
Strouhal Number represents a measure of the ratio of inertial forces due to the unsteadiness of the
flow or local acceleration to the inertial forces due to changes in velocity from one point to another
in the flow field.
The vortices observed behind a stone in a river, or measured behind the obstruction in a vortex
flow meter, illustrates these principles.

36. What is the basic principle of strain gauge balance?

The change in resistance of the types of strain gauge balance is directly proportional to the
stress in the outer fibers of the structure to which it is attached.

37. What is horizontal buoyancy?

This refers to a variation of static pressure along the test section when no model is present.
It is nonzero in many wind tunnels. It produces a drag force analogous to the hydrostatic force on
objects in a stationary fluid in a uniform gravitational field.

38. What is the purpose of a five-hole probe?

Five hole probe is used for diagnostic wind tunnel testing and in flight testing to determine
the flow direction or angularity. At the upper left of the figure, we show a picture if the probe
itself. The probe is a bundle of five tubes; a center tube surrounded by four tubes in the shape of
a cross. The leading edges of the four outside tubes are cut at a 45 degree angle to the center
tube.

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 32
Assistant Professor
Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

UNIT III - CALIBRATION OF WIND TUNNELS

PART B – 16 MARKS

1. (i) Define turbulence factor. Explain any two methods used to determine the level of
turbulence in subsonic tunnels. A/M-17
(ii) How do you estimate flow angularity in a wind tunnel test section? Explain any one
method with neat sketch. A/M-17
Refer Page No: 121, 124 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and
Experiments in Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

2. A supersonic wind tunnel with test section Mach number of 3 is to be designed. Determine
the amount of total pressure to be provided by the reservoir for the following cases. A/M-
17
(i) The nozzle exhausts directly to the atmosphere
(ii) Add a constant area duct to the nozzle exit and then exhaust the duct to
the atmosphere.
(iii) Add a divergent duct behind the constant area duct and then exhaust it
to the atmosphere.
(iv) Explain the physical reasons behind the above three cases
Refer class notes/ Mail attachment.

3. Explain in detail, the blockage corrections in closed circuit wind tunnels for the wind tunnel
calibrations. N/D-17
Refer Page no: 367, “Low speed wind tunnel testing by Alan Pope”

4. Draw a sketch of three dimensional flow direction probes and explain its use in the
calibration of flow direction in the wind tunnels. N/D-17
Refer Page No: 146 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments
in Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

5. Define Turbulence Factor? Explain the method of determining the turbulent factor
experimentally.
Refer Page No: 124 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments
in Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

6. How will you estimate the flow angularity and turbulent factor?
Refer Page no : 124,121 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and
Experiments in Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

7. Write short notes on Cd calculation from wake survey. (A/M-2015)

Refer Page no : 125,129 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and
Experiments in Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 33
Assistant Professor
Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

8. Explain the estimation of test section average velocity detail.

Refer Page no : 120 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments
in Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

9. Explain the procedure involved in the determination of Cl & Cd on aerofoils frompressure

distributions.
Refer Page no : 123 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments
in Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

10. Explain the 4 types of mountings for structural tests.

Refer Page no : 130 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments
in Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

11. Explain the procedure of mach number estimation by pressure measurements.

Refer Page No: 144 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments
in Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

12. Explain about the problem in starting the high speed tunnels.
Refer Page No: 148 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments
in Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

13. Discuss the starting problems and starting loads in high speed tunnels.
Refer Page No:148 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in
Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 34
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

UNIT IV - CONVENTIONAL MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

PART A – 2 MARKS

1. State the principle behind Lase Doppler Anemometer. A/M-17

The principle underlying the laser Doppler anemometer is that a moving particle illuminated by a
light beam scatters light at a frequency different from that of the original incident beam. This
difference in frequency is known as Doppler shift, and it is proportional to the velocity of the
particle.

2. What are the limitations of smoke flow visualization methods? A/M-17

Extended use fills the tunnel with smoke.
The tunnel must be vented to remove the smoke before further flow visualization can be used.
An oily residue is left on whatever the smoke touches.
Furthermore, pressure taps must be protected to prevent clogging.

3. List the merits and demerits of pressure sensitive paints. N/D-17

Merits
• Eliminate wind off images and image registration problems
• Measure temperature to compensate for temperature sensitivity of PSP
• Easiest to do with a point measurement, but can use time resolved cameras to measure
lifetime decays of the probe molecules.
• Point measurements require a pulsed light source and detector
Demerits:
• Camera noise is much higher, especially gated intensified cameras
• Paints have tended to be more spatially noisy from lifetime differences between
molecules (homogeneity problem).

4. What are the main sources of errors in wall static pressure measurements? N/D-17
The main sources of errors are:
- Eddies developing in the cavity
- Fluid turbulence
- Mach number effects
- Stagnation of the fluid in the holes depending on orifice geometry and burrs

5. What is spark photography? N/D-17

Spark photography is a flow capturing facility which in addition is used with interferometer. This
is been used in aerodynamic investigations, such as temperature distribution in the boundary
layer.

6. What is the use of pressure transducers?

i. They provide a signal proportional to the applied pressure which can be
automatically recorded by any data acquisition system.
ii. They are relatively low volume devices and consequently respond more rapidly to
pressure changes.
iii. They are small enough to be mounted inside the wind tunnel models.

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 35
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

7. List the main categories of instrumentation and control for wind tunnels.
i. Pressure measuring device
- Liquid column manometer
- Inclined manometer
- Mercury manometer
- Micro manometer
ii. Temperature measuring device
- Pyrometry
- Thermistors
- Thermal paints
iii. Velocity measuring device
- LDA
- Hot-wire anemometer
- Vortex-shedding technique

8. Explain about Hot wire anemometry?

A hot wire is nothing more than a very thin wire that is inserted into the flow at the end of a probe.
The diameter of the wire is approximately 4-10cm. Electricity is applied to the wire which
generates heat due to the resistance in the wire according to Ohm’s law. The heat is carried away
from the probe by the flow of air and the heat transfer is proportional to the velocity of the flow.

9. State the principle of Hot wire anemometry.

The principle of operation of Hot wire anemometry is that heat transfer from the filament varies
as the flow rate varies. This in turn causes variation in the heat balance of the filament.

10. Classify Hot wire anemometry.

The Hot wire anemometry is classified into 3 types, they are:
i. The constant wire anemometer
ii. The constant current anemometer.
iii. The pulsed-wire anemometer.

11. What are the limitations of Hot wire anemometry?

The limitations are:
i. A non-linear character of heat transfer with respect to velocity and temperature.
ii. an onset of practical limitations due to the complex nature of the heat transfer
between the wire and fluid in compressible flows.
iii. A limitation set by the resolution power in space. That is in the direction of the
wire, due to its finite length.
iv. A limitation set by resolution power in time, in the flow direction, due to the finite
time constant of the hot wire.

12. List out the methods of subsonic flow visualization.

There are three methods of subsonic flow visualization:
i. Smoke flow visualization
ii. Tuft Method
iii. Chemical coating

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 36
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

13. What are the optical methods of flow visualization?

The optical method of flow visualization are:
i. Schlieren system
ii. Shadowgraph technique
iii. Interferometer

14. What is an Interferometer?

The interferometer is an optical method most suited for qualitative determination of the density
field of high speed flows.

15. What is schlieren system?

Schlieren photography is similar to the shadowgraph technique and relies on the fact that light
rays are bent whenever they encounter changes in density of a fluid. Schlieren systems are used
to visualize the flow away from the surface of an object. The schlieren system shown in this figure
uses two concave mirrors on either side of the test section of the wind tunnel. A mercury vapor
lamp or a spark gap system is used as a bright source of light.

16. How smoke visualization can be done?

Smoke is used to visualize the flow that is away from the surface of the model. Smoke can be
used to detect vortices and regions of separated flow.

17. How Oils are used in flow visualization?

Colored oil flows are used on the silver internal surfaces to visualize the flow down the duct.
Surface oil is applied as small dabs of oil at some upstream location. The oil is standard 40W
treated with a fluorescent dye or pigment. The thickness of the oil can be modulated using naptha
or 60-70W oil. As the air flows over the model, the oil is carried downstream in the long streaks.
A variety of pigments aid in flow visualization.

18. What do you mean by DPIV?

In a modern development, one can use laser sheets to not only visualize the flow but also to
determine the local velocity in the flow. Digital Particle Image Velocimetry (DPIV)uses
multiple laser sheet images and high speed computers to track the motion of the seed particles
and, from the particle motion, derive the local velocity. DPIV is an attractive technique because it
is non-Invasive(the technique does not alter or disturb the flow)and it quickly produces large
amounts of data which would be tedious to acquire using older flow mapping technique like
traversing probes.

19. Explain Shadowgraph technique?

An optical method of rendering fluid flow patterns visible by using index-of-refraction differences
in the flow. The method relies on the fact that rays of light bend toward regions of higher
refractive index while passing through a transparent material. The fluid is usually illuminated by
a parallel beam of light.

20. What are tufts?

Tufts are another old visualization technique that is used in both flight test and wind tunnel
testing. Tufts are small lengths of string that are frayed on the ends. Popular materials for
Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 37
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

tufts include monofilament nylon, and polyester or cotton No. 60 sewing threads. Tufts may be
coated with flourescant dyes to increase visibility for photography. The tufts are attached to the
surface of the model using some adhesive such as tape or glue, and as the air flows over the
model. The tufts are blown and point downstream.

21. What is the primary objective of tuft flow visualization? And what is the disadvantage of this
method?
Tufts are made of cotton or silk threads of 0.05 to 0.1 mm diameter and 20 mm long. It can be
best suited for subsonic flow. Allows flow visualization at any model position and provides a view
of flow pattern over large area.
Its disadvantage is that it does not provide detailed flow pattern since they are constantly moving
with airflow and regular tufts have some effect on force data.

22. Compare schlieren and shadowgraph methods of flow visualization. Answer:

Schlieren method Shadowgraph method
Like the shadowgraph the Schlieren method The density of a fluid varies with
visualizes the distribution of fluid density temperature, salinity, and pressure. And,
within a fluid, as fluid density controls the indes the index of refraction changes with fluid
of refraction. Regions of density gradient density. Variations in the refractive index
deflect light beams, shifting their position on deflect or phase shift light passing
the image plane. The relative change in light through the fluid. If a screen is placed
intensity can be used to infer the original opposite the light source, these effects
density and flow field create shadows one the screen creating an
image called a Shadowgraph

23. What are the limitations of intrusive flow diagnostic technique?

The limitation of intrusive flow diagnostic technique are applications with reversing flow,
chemically reacting or high-temperature media and rotating machinery, where physical
sensors are difficult or impossible to use.

24. What is the diaphragm type pressure transducer?

The most commonly used pressure transducers are of the diaphragm type. Generally they are of
the differential pressure type and a preselected reference pressure is applied to the reference side.

25. Give the examples for manometers.

i. U tube manometers
ii. Multitube manometers
iii. Betz type manometers.

26. What is the basic principle of manometers?

The pressure applied is balanced by weight of a liquid column. The sensitivity of the instrument
depends on the density of the monomeric fluid used.

27. What is LDA?

LDA is laser Doppler anemometry; it is used to measuring velocities in fluid flows.
Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 38
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

28. What are the advantages of LDA?

i. The measurement with LDA is absolute
ii. It has high frequency response.

29. What is pressure transducer?

A pressure transducer is a transducer that converts pressure into an analog electrical signal.
Although there are various types of pressure transducers, one of the most common is the strain
gauge base transducer. The conversion of pressure into an electrical signal is achieved by the
pressure deformation of strain gauges which are bonded into the diaphragm of the pressure
transducer and wired into a wheatstone bridge configuration.

30. Give the examples for pressure transducers.

i. Electrical type transducers
ii. Mechanical type transducers
iii. Optical type transducers.

31. What do you mean by LDA?

Laser Doppler velocimetry, or LDV, system uses a laser that sits outside the tunnel. Optics
are used to split a laser beam into two parallel beams that are sent into the tunnel and focused
on a small test volume near the model.Because of wave interference, a fringe pattern is generated
in the test volume. Seed particles are introduced upstream in the flow and as the seeds pass through
the fringes they are illuminated.

32. What are the two methods to detect seed particles?

The forward scatter technique and the backward scatter technique. In the forward scatter mode,
the detector is placed on opposite side of the tunnel from the laser source. In the backward scatter
mode, the detector and laser are mounted on the same side of the tunnel.

33. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Scatter technique?

There are advantages and disadvantages to both modes. The forward scatter can use a lower
powered laser, but requires a higher powered laser, but only one window. The forward scatter
can encounter problems from the model blocking the transmitted beam, the blockage does
not occur in the backward scatter mode.

34. Briefly explain PIV?

Particle image velocimetry (PIV) is an optical method of fluid visualization used in education
and research. It is used to obtain instantaneous velocity measurements and related properties
in fluids. The fluid is seeded with tracer particles which, for the purposes of PIV, are
generally assumed to faithfully follow the flow dynamics. It is the motion of these seeding
particles thjat is used to calculate velocity information of thee flow being studied.

35. Explain LIF?

Laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) is a spectroscopic method used for studying structure of
molecules, detection of selective species and flow visualization and measurements. The species
to be examined is excited with a laser. The wavelength is often selected to be the one at which
the species has its largest cross section. The excited species will after some time, usually in the

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 39
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

order of few nanoseconds to microseconds, de-excite and emit light at a wavelength larger than
the excitation wavelength. This light, fluorescence is measured.

36. Name the commonly used scattering substances.

The following are the commonly used scattering substances.
i. Micro polythene spheres
ii. Diluted milk droplets
iii. Diluted smoke particles
iv. Aerosol
v. Fine alumina powder
vi. Water-Glycerin mixture droplets
Very often naturally occurring particles in city tap water and dust in the atmosphere are sufficient
to act as scattering centers.

37. How will use electrical techniques in flow visualization?

A stainless steel wire of approximately 0.1 mm in diameter coated with a very thin layer of
kerosene, is oriented vertically or horizontally and normal to the main flow. It can be mounted
on a probe or span the whole cross section of a wind tunnel. The kerosene coating is done
manually by wiping the wire with a fine small brush. With a uniform fine coating and with the
application of an equally spaced, pulsed electric heating it is possible to generate time lines. The
applications of the smoke wire for generating time lines are very rare due to the rapid diffusion
of the smoke into an air stream

Schematic Diagram of Smoke Wire System

38. What is the advantage of LASER induced fluorescence over absorption spectroscopy?
An advantage over absorption spectroscopy is that it is possible to get two- and three-
dimensional images since fluorescence takes place in all directions (i.e. the fluorescence signal
is usually isotropic). The signal-to-noise ratio of the fluorescence signal is very high, providing
a good sensitivity to the process. It is also possible to distinguish between more species, since
Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 40
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

the lasing wavelength can be tuned to a particular excitation of a given species which is not
shared by other species.
LIF is useful in the study of the electronic structure of molecules and their interactions. It has also
been successfully applied for quantitative measurement of concentrations in fields like
combustion, plasma, spray and flow phenomena,

39. Write down the principle of Laser Doppler Anemometry.

The Laser Doppler Anemometry – Optical Principle

When a particle passes through the intersection volume formed by the two coherent laser beams,
the scattered light, received by a detector, has components from both beams.
The components interfere on the surface of the detector.
Due to changes in the difference between the optical path lengths of the two components,
this interference produces pulsating light intensity, as the particle moves through the
measurement volume.

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 41
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

UNIT IV - CONVENTIONAL MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

PART B – 16 MARKS

1. Explain in detail about Schlieren and interferometer methods for high speed flow visualization
with neat sketches. Discuss their relative advantages and disadvantages. A/M-17
Refer Page No: 185,189 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in
Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

2. Explain in detail the working of any one type of pressure transducer with neat circuit. What are
the advantages of pressure transducers over other pressure measuring devices? A/M-17
Refer Page No: 276 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in
Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

3. Explain modern three component balance for force and moment measurements in wind tunnel with
neat sketches. N/D-17
Refer Page no: 234, “Low speed wind tunnel testing by Alan Pope”

4. Explain with neat sketches of the multichannel pressure measurements with scanners for pressure
measurements over an airfoil with 20 No. of ports distributed equally on the surface. N/D-17
Refer class notes/ Mail attachment

5. What is meant by pressure transducers? Explain the working of pressure transducer with suitable
sketches.
Refer Page No: 276 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in
Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

6. Distinguish between internal and external wind tunnel balances. Briefly explain how force
measurements are carried out using an external strain gauge balance.
Refer Page No: 248, 288 (Jewel Barlow, William Rae, Alan Pope “Low Speed Wind Tunnel
Testing”, 3rd Edition, Wiley Inter-Science Publication)

7. Write short note on the following topics:

i. Strut Balance
ii. Pyramid type balance
Refer Page No: 132,135 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in
Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

8. With neat illustration explain the basic principles of schlieren method of flow visualization . What
are the advantage and limitations of the method?
Refer Page No: 189, 193 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in
Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 42
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

9. Explain the interferometer method of flow visualization with neat diagram.

Refer Page No: 185 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in
Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

10. Explain the shadowgraph system of flow visualization with neat diagram.
Refer Page No: 199 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in
Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

11. Describe in detail with necessary diagrams the operation and specific advantages of LDA.
Refer Page No: 325 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in
Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

12. Explain with neat sketch of 2D PIV Techniques for the velocity measurements.
Refer Class notes/ mail attachment

13. Desribe in detail with necessary diagrams the operations and specific advantages of both constant
current and constant temperature hot wire anemometer.
Refer Page No: 209, 216 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in
Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

14. How do you measure static and total temperature? How is measurement error estimated?
Refer Page No: 375,378 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in
Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

15. Explain the merits and De-merits of hot wire anemometer and laser Doppler anemometer with
sketch.
Refer Page No:203, 325 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in
Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

16. Discuss in detail the working principle of Hot wire anemometry for velocity measurement. Write
merits and De-merits of it.
Refer Page No:325 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in Fluids”,
CRC Press, London, 2007)

17. What is LDA? Explain in detail the working principle of LDA with a suitable diagram. What are
the drawbacks of LDA & HWA?
Refer Page No:325 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in Fluids”,
CRC Press, London, 2007)
Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 43
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

UNIT V - SPECIAL WIND TUNNEL TECHNIQUES

PART A – 2 MARKS

1. List any two methods used for unsteady force measurements. A/M-17
The methods used for unsteady force measurements
• Flush-mounted pressure transducers
• Pressure transducer connected to a pressure tap
• Multiple pressures measurement using scanning valve
• Multiple pressures measurement using electronic pressure scanner

2. What are light scaling and heavy scaling? A/M-17

In light scaling two parameters are considered to be important, Mach number (M) and the ratio
of store density to air density (m/ρl). This implies that full-scale performance of the store may be
simulated in the wind tunnel by satisfying the following relations:
Lm = (1/N)Lf (Length)
Mm = Mf (Mach number)
(W/ρ)m = (1/N )(W/ρ)f (Density)
3

(I/ ρ)m = (1/N5)(I/ρ)f (Moment of inertia)

Heavy scaling- In heavy scaling free-stream mach number and the ratio of static aerodynamic
forces to gravity forces are the scaling parameters. It is assumed here that the scaled trajectory
will be obtained in the normal gravitational field if the pitch oscillations at release are small.
This method of scaling gives the following relations:
Mm = Mf (Mach number)
(W/ρ)m = (1/N2)(W/ρ)f (Density)
(I/ ρ)m = (1/N4)(I/ρ)f (Moment of inertia)

3. What are the problems in unsteady pressure measurements in wind tunnels? N/D-17
The measured unsteady pressure can be described by one of three forms of distortion; resonance,
pressure wave shift or amplitude change. Any of these three alterations to the waves will
obviously distort the pressure being measured

4. What is the purpose of pitot-staic tube?

Pitot-staic tubes which are also called prandtl tubes, are used on aircraft as speedometers, the actual
tube on the aircraft is around 10 inches (25cm) long with ½ inch (1cm) diameter. Several small
holes are drilled around the outside of the tube and a center hole is drilled down the axis of the
tube.

5. Define boundary layer thickness.

The thickness of the velocity boundary layer is normally defined as the distance from the solid
body at which the viscous flow velocity is 99% of the free stream velocity.

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 44
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

6. What are the various methods in determining the wall shear stress?
The methods are:
i. Floating element method
ii. Momentum integral method.
iii. Preston tube technique
iv. Fence technique
v. Heat transfer gauge.

7. What is pitot tube correction?

A pitot- tube is meant for measuring dynamic pressures, which is the difference between the total
and static pressure. But in practice, because of the nature of static pressure, it is seldom possible
to find a location for a static orifice. That will measure the correct static pressure.
In most cases the pressure difference,
ΔP=F1/2ρV2
F-Correction factor, to be determined by experimental calibration.
A proper pitot static tube will have F≈1.

8. Write the use of pitot static tube.

A pitot-static tube is used for measuring the total and static pressure simultaneously. It is usually
a blunt nosed tube with an opening at its nose to sense the total pressure and a set of holes on the
surface of the tube to sense the static pressure. It is used
extensively in experimental measurements.

9. What is intake test?

An intake test involves the design and manufacture of a model of an appropriate section of the
vehicle to be tested (for an aircraft this might be the forward fuselage only, whilst for a missile it
may consist of most of the fuselage and the wings in the appropriate deployed position). Integrated
into this model is an ejector – powered by a supply of high pressure air – which induces the required
air flow through the intake. An array of measurement probes, usually in the form of an engine face
rake, is used to record the pressures of the airflow as it approaches the position of the engine.
Temperatures are also commonly recorded.

10. What are the parameters can be result from intake test?
Tests are usually undertaken over a range of Mach numbers, mass flows, model attitudes and
configurations to provide sufficient information for the determination of total pressure recovery
and distortion at the engine face and evaluate an intake or engine compatibility envelope over an
appropriate full flight spectrum. The effects of mass flow restrictors positioned within the inlet can
also be investigated.

11. What are general design considerations?

i. Model weight should be kept low to minimize dynamic effects.
ii. Aluminum models should be anodized to obtain a hard surface for abrasion
resistance.
iii. All models should incorporate some means for alignment in roll and pitch.
Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 45
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

iv. Complex model designs should be avoided to minimize lost time during model
changes.
v. Pressure and electrical leads should be routed to provide convenient accessibility
when the model is mounted in the tunnel.

12. Explain briefly about model sizing.

In general, model cross-sectional area at any station should be limited to approximately 23 square
inches (1% of test section area). This limit is imposed by transonic testing considerations and may
be relaxed for supersonic testing. In addition to frontal area limits during transonic tests, model
span and length limits of 30 and 50 inches, respectively, are needed to minimize wall interference
effects.

13. How model pressure are measured. Explain in detail.

Model pressures are normally measured using individual pressure transducers or a modular
pressure scanning system (Scanivalve ZOC) located in the model or mounted downstream on the
model support sting. Details of the Scanivalve system were presented in a previous section. All
pressure orifices should be flush with the surface, without burrs, and not less than 0.040 inch in
diameter. Pressure tubing should be 1/16 or 1/24 inch o.d. quarter hard stainless steel, and long
enough to reach the transducer or Scanivalve. Connections are usually made with short lengths of
plastic tubing.

14. What are the typical cases of unsteady pressure measurements?

Typical cases are those of
i. the measurement of time-varying pressure (with periodic oscillations or step
changes)
ii. the pneumatic scanning of several different steady state pressures (using a single
pressure transducer)

15. Explain in brief about Dynamic stability.

A free-oscillation dynamic-stability rig has been developed using a ball-bearing support and a
torsion flexure. Hydraulically operated deflect and pinlock mechanisms permit release from
deflect angles of 0° to 10°. Interchangeable torsion spring elements vary the mechanical restoring
moment from almost 0 to over 60 ft-lb/rad.

16. Explain any one example for unsteady pressure measurements.

An airfoil (or any other body) immersed in an unsteady mainstream, or a steady mainstream but
subjected t of change of incidence, periodic or not (oscillating airfoil, or subjected to a pitch-up
maneuver)

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 46
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

17. How Dynamic and static stability derivatives can be obtained?

Dynamic and static stability derivatives about the center of rotation can be obtained as a function
of oscillation amplitude. Nonlinear tare damping effects can also be obtained using a free
oscillation data reduction program.

18. Explain in brief about instrument store testing.

The relatively small scale of models tested in the High Speed Wind Tunnel results in minimal
space available for store force-measuring systems. Specialized instruments have been developed
to measure the aerodynamic forces on aircraft individual stores or groups of stores. Miniature five-
component balances with quick-disconnect features are available for individual store loads testing.
The balances are interchangeable, and the store/balance assemblies can be readily added to or
removed from multiple stores carriage systems.
Pylon balances to measure total loads on groups of stores have been designed and tested on
particular aircraft models. Multiple fouling indicator circuits are available to monitor each store or
pylon balance for model-to-model or model-to-balance grounding.

19. Explain in brief about pressure & internal flow models.

Model pressures are normally measured using individual pressure transducers or a modular
pressure scanning system (Scanivalve) located in the model or mounted downstream on the model
support sting. All pressure orifices should be flush with the surface, without burrs, and not less
than 0.040 inch in diameter. Pressure tubing should be 1/16 or 1/24 inch o.d. quarter hard stainless
steel, and long enough to reach the transducer or Scanivalve. Connections are usually made with
short lengths of plastic tubing

20. What is normal shock method?

The normal-shock method of determining maximum starting load coefficients at various Mach
numbers. This method assumes that supersonic flow could be established on one side of a model
and subsonic flow behind a normal shock could exist on the other side, resulting in a large normal
load. The normal-shock method, which assumes an infinite-aspect-ratio, thin-flat-plate model, is
inconsistent with the flow field about a body of revolution during a tunnel start. Cross flow would
reduce the pressure difference, resulting in reduced starting loads. The modified normal-shock
method predicts more reasonable loads at lower Mach numbers and takes into account the ratio of
the lifting surface area to the total planform area.

21. What is the model design of safety factor for nominal starting?
A model design safety factor of 5, based on nominal starting or maximum running loads, is
recommended wherever possible. Under no circumstance should the safety factor be less than 1.5
based on yield strength.

22. Under a special requirement, what are the model parameters to be changed?
For special requirements, certain tunnel or model parameters can be controlled with an analog or
digital computer program. Examples of operational capabilities involving computer-controlled
variables during a run include:
i. Mach number variation from 0.6 to 1.15, with stagnation pressure, lift coefficient,
or Reynolds number constant
ii. Reynolds number variation, with Mach number constant

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 47
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

iii. Stagnation pressure variation (to compensate for temperature drop), with Reynolds
number constant
iv. Pitch angle variation during Mach number or Reynolds number ramp to maintain
a constant lift coefficient
Additional capabilities can sometimes be added for a specific requirement if a sufficient lead-time
is available to develop a computer routine before the test.

23. Explain about steady state pressure instruments.

The wind tunnel is equipped with two different systems for taking pressure measurements on a
model. They include:
i. Individual pressure transducers
ii. Electronically scanned pressure modules
Pressure calibration instrumentation is also available to verify pressure system data accuracy. The
electronic system is manufactured under the trade name, Scanivalve.

24. What is flight dynamic simulator?

The flight dynamics simulator, has been developed to provide solutions to problems involving
aerodynamic interactions between a parent vehicle and separating stores.

25. What is pressure transducer?

A pressure transducer is a transducer that converts pressure into an analog electrical signal.
Although there are various types of pressure transducers, one of the most common is the strain
gauge base transducer. The conversion of pressure into an electrical signal is achieved by the
pressure deformation of strain gauges which are bonded into the diaphragm of the pressure
transducer and wired into a wheatstone bridge configuration.

26. Give the examples for pressure transducers.

i. Electrical type transducers
ii. Mechanical type transducers
iii. Optical type transducers.

27. What is the use of pressure transducers?

i. They provide a signal proportional to the applied pressure which can be
automatically recorded by any data acquisition system.
ii. They are relatively low volume devices and consequently respond more rapidly to
pressure changes.
iii. They are small enough to be mounted inside the wind tunnel models.

28. What is a pressure transducer?

A pressure transducer is a transducer that converts pressure into an analog electrical signal.
Although there are various types of pressure transducers, one of the most common is the strain-
gage base transducer. The conversion of pressure into an electrical signal is achieved by the
pressure deformation of strain gages which are bonded into the diaphragm of the pressure
transducer and wired into a Wheatstone bridge configuration.

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 48
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

29. What is force balance?

The most basic type of instrument used in this type of testing is the force balance. We must
measure six components, three forces (lift, drag and side) and three moments (pitch, roll and yaw)
to completely describe the conditions on the model. For some tests, only three components
(lift, drag and pitch) are measured.

30. What are the factors that must be at a minimum while designing a balance?
The factors that must be at a minimum while designing a balance are,
i. The interaction between the different load components should be kept small.
ii. The deflection of the parts under the influence of maximum load to be
minimum.
iii. The Tare drag and interference drag to be kept minimum.
iv. By choosing proper linkage, cross-spring pivot instead of knife edge, ball
bearings, and the like in beam, the zero error can be minimized.

31. What are the starting problems in high speed tunnels?

The pressure suddenly drops to a value close to the static pressure for the design mach number,
the tunnel is started. If the model is blocking the tunnel, the pressure will not drop. This makes
starting problem in High speed tunnel.

32. What are the methods are used for alleviating the starting load problem?
The methods are:
i. Starting at reduced total pressure in continuous tunnels.
ii. Shielding the model with retractable protective shoes at start.
iii. Injecting the model into the air stream after the tunnel is started.

33. What are the difficulties associated with testing of models at transonic speeds?
The difficulties associated with testing of models at transonic speeds are,
i. In induction type of tunnels where large mass flow can be generated or smaller injected
mass are required from power consumption point of view.
ii. The ventilated walls for test section with plenum chamber are required to avoid choking
of flow at model location in the test section.
iii. In absence of perforated or slotted walls for test section, significant size of models
cannot be tested.

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 49
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

UNIT V - SPECIAL WIND TUNNEL TECHNIQUES

PART B - 16 MARKS

1. Explain with neat sketches any two methods used for unsteady pressure measurements.
A/M-17
Refer class notes/ mail attachment

2. Explain in detail the scaled dynamic separation and point prediction methods used for studying
store separation characteristics. A/M-17
Refer page no: 3, 4 - “Store separation simulation studies in high-speed wind tunnels” by
M.Shivakumara Swamy, NAL-Banglore.

3. Explain the procedure involved in the unsteady pressure measurements over an airfoil. Draw the
Cpmean, Cprms profiles over NACA 4412 airfoil at angle of attack of 15 degrees. N/D-17
Refer class notes/ mail attachment

4. Explain the low speed wind tunnel design procedures with empherical equations and draw the
wind tunnel model. N/D-17
Refer Page no:54, High Speed Wind Tunnel and Test Systems Design Handbook

5. i. Discuss the working principle of pitot tube with a suitable diagram.

Refer Page No:295 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in Fluids”,
CRC Press, London, 2007)
ii. What are the problems associated with pitot tube? How the problems are rectified. discus.
Refer Page No:287 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in Fluids”,
CRC Press, London, 2007)

6. What are the types of models used for wind tunnel testing ? Explain the factors governing the
solution of suitable models.
Refer Page no:54, High Speed Wind Tunnel and Test Systems Design Handbook

7. Explain the methods of simulating ground roughness inside the wind tunnel with neat sketches.
Refer Class notes/ mail attachment

8. Explain the estimation of boundary layer velocity profile on a flat plate by momentum integral
method.
Refer Page No:391 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in Fluids”,
CRC Press, London, 2007)

9. Explain in detail the heating requirements in hypersonic wind tunnel? (DEC-2013)

Refer Page No:116 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and Experiments in Fluids”,
CRC Press, London, 2007)

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 50
Assistant Professor
 Jeppiaar Engg. College AE6801-WTT
Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.

10. Explain the following

i. Heating Requirements in Hypersonic Wind tunnel (M/J-2013, APR-2014, A/M-2015)
Refer Page No:116 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and
Experiments in Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

ii. Wind Reentry problems. (M/J-2013, APR-2014)

Refer Page No:116 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and
Experiments in Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

iii. Explain the method of calculating Cd from wall shear stress. (M/J-2013, A/M-2015)
Refer Page No: 390,391 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and
Experiments in Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

iv. Explain the pitot-staic tube correction procedure for subsonic and supersonic mach
numbers.
Refer Page No: 287 (Rathakrishnan. E “Instrumentation, Measurement and
Experiments in Fluids”, CRC Press, London, 2007)

11. Explain in brief about Store release method with necessary plot & diagram.
Refer Page No: 690 (Jewel Barlow, William Rae, Alan Pope “Low Speed Wind Tunnel Testing”,
3rd Edition, Wiley Inter-Science Publication)

Mr.D.Thanikaivel Murugan 51
Assistant Professor