UNIT 4 – BRM

 The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research design/ plan chalked
out.
 While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study, the researcher should keep in
mind two types of data viz., primary and secondary.
 The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in
character.
 The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by someone else and
which have already been passed through the statistical process.
 The researcher would have to decide which sort of data he would be using (thus collecting) for his study and
accordingly he will have to select one or the other method of data collection.
 The methods of collecting primary and secondary data differ since primary data are to be originally collected,
while in case of secondary data the nature of data collection work is merely that of compilation.

Primary Data Definition

 Primary data is the data that is collected for the first time through personal experiences or evidence,
particularly for research.
 It is also described as raw data or first-hand information.
 The mode of assembling the information is costly, as the analysis is done by an agency or an external
organisation, and needs human resources and investment.
 The investigator supervises and controls the data collection process directly.
 The data is mostly collected through observations, physical testing, mailed questionnaires, surveys, personal
interviews, telephonic interviews, case studies, and focus groups, etc.

Secondary Data Definition

 Secondary data is a second-hand data that is already collected and recorded by some researchers for their
purpose, and not for the current research problem.
 It is accessible in the form of data collected from different sources such as government publications, censuses,
internal records of the organisation, books, journal articles, websites and reports, etc.
 This method of gathering data is affordable, readily available, and saves cost and time.
 However, the one disadvantage is that the information assembled is for some other purpose and may not meet
the present research purpose or may not be accurate.
 

Primary Data Secondary Data

Definition

Primary data are those that are collected for the first Secondary data refer to those data that have already
time. been collected by some other person.

Originality

These are original because these are collected by the These are not original because someone else has
investigator for the first time. collected these for his own purpose.

Nature of Data

These are in the form of raw materials. These are in the finished form.

Reliability and Suitability

These are more reliable and suitable for the enquiry These are less reliable and less suitable as someone else
because these are collected for a particular purpose. has collected the data which may not perfectly match
 our purpose.

Time and Money

Collecting primary data is quite expensive both in the Secondary data requires less time and money; hence it
terms of time and money. is economical.

Precaution and Editing

No particular precaution or editing is required while Both precaution and editing are essential as secondary
using the primary data as these were collected with a data were collected by someone else for his own
definite purpose. purpose.

Comparison Chart
BASIS FOR
PRIMARY DATA SECONDARY DATA
COMPARISON

Meaning Primary data refers to the first hand data Secondary data means data collected by
gathered by the researcher himself. someone else earlier.

Data Real time data Past data

Process Very involved Quick and easy

Source Surveys, observations, experiments, Government publications, websites, books,

questionnaire, personal interview, etc. journal articles, internal records etc.

Cost Expensive Economical

effectiveness

Collection time Long Short

Specific Always specific to the researcher's needs. May or may not be specific to the researcher's
need.

Available in Crude form Refined form

Accuracy and More Relatively less

Reliability

Definition of Primary Data

Primary data is data originated for the first time by the researcher through direct efforts and experience, specifically
for the purpose of addressing his research problem. Also known as the first hand or raw data. Primary data collection
is quite expensive, as the research is conducted by the organisation or agency itself, which requires resources like
investment and manpower. The data collection is under direct control and supervision of the investigator.
The data can be collected through various methods like surveys, observations, physical testing, mailed questionnaires,
questionnaire filled and sent by enumerators, personal interviews, telephonic interviews, focus groups, case studies,
etc.

Definition of Secondary Data

Secondary data implies second-hand information which is already collected and recorded by any person other than
the user for a purpose, not relating to the current research problem. It is the readily available form of data collected
from various sources like censuses, government publications, internal records of the organisation, reports, books,
journal articles, websites and so on.

Secondary data offer several advantages as it is easily available, saves time and cost of the researcher. But there are
some disadvantages associated with this, as the data is gathered for the purposes other than the problem in mind, so
the usefulness of the data may be limited in a number of ways like relevance and accuracy.

Moreover, the objective and the method adopted for acquiring data may not be suitable to the current situation.
Therefore, before using secondary data, these factors should be kept in mind.

Key Differences Between Primary and Secondary Data

The fundamental differences between primary and secondary data are discussed in the following points:

1. The term primary data refers to the data originated by the researcher for the first time. Secondary data is the
already existing data, collected by the investigator agencies and organisations earlier.
2. Primary data is a real-time data whereas secondary data is one which relates to the past.
3. Primary data is collected for addressing the problem at hand while secondary data is collected for purposes
other than the problem at hand.
4. Primary data collection is a very involved process. On the other hand, secondary data collection process is
rapid and easy.
5. Primary data collection sources include surveys, observations, experiments, questionnaire, personal interview,
etc. On the contrary, secondary data collection sources are government publications, websites, books, journal
articles, internal records etc.
6. Primary data collection requires a large amount of resources like time, cost and manpower. Conversely,
secondary data is relatively inexpensive and quickly available.
7. Primary data is always specific to the researcher’s needs, and he controls the quality of research. In contrast,
secondary data is neither specific to the researcher’s need, nor he has control over the data quality.
8. Primary data is available in the raw form whereas secondary data is the refined form of primary data. It can
also be said that secondary data is obtained when statistical methods are applied to the primary data.
9. Data collected through primary sources are more reliable and accurate as compared to the secondary sources.

Advantages of Primary Data

1. More Accurate: Primary data is researched and developed by individuals giving personal attention to
each of the questions they wanted to survey. People more often rely on themselves than relying on others’
data. Also, assessments could be made by individuals working on it. Therefore making data more valid
and accurate. Also, it is more reliable than secondary data.
2. Updated information: The data which is produced is first-hand data. No other person’s data has been
used to develop information that makes the data updated and people rely on information that is more
updated and recently been produced. Primary data generally is prepared through a questionnaire or
personal contact thus information that is received is valid and updated.
3. More Control over data: Since the person who is surveying through questionnaires or any other design
can manage the data, thus he has control over the whole survey. He can manipulate or make certain
updates in the questionnaire to make it more meaningful. The expert sometimes also faces difficulty as a
targeted group may not easily know or understand the motive of the survey, thus little manipulation can
help them to obtain correct fedback.
4. Privacy is maintained: The expert who is maintaining all the survey work also maintains the secrecy of
the data. It is pretty obvious that when few individuals maintain the whole survey work then mostly
 secrecy is maintained among them without leaking the ideas. Also, the feedback that they get is always
private to surveyors.
5. The targeted problem is dealt with: People who are engaged in the collection of data prepare the
questionnaire and sometimes take the interview from the targeted group to obtain data. Also, the problem
is addressed so that after proper feedback it could be put in the limelight and can be resolved. In this way,
the program can be made productive and problems also can be easily handled.
6. Understanding of data is better: The data surveyed through different designs and methods are made
simple and easy to understand so that the person who is interested in data can easily understand it with a
glance. Also, it becomes more effective if the feedback obtained is accurate and valid.

Disadvantages of Primary Data

1. Time-consuming process:  The organizer of the survey and method which is used may take a lot of time
to collect the data from raw sources. In secondary data, we gather information from other sources.
Therefore, it takes less time. Since it is time taking sometimes it delays addressing the problem going on
in the surrounding.
2. Costly: The survey done is time-consuming as well as costly.  For the collection of data, experts have to
visit and use equipment that may cost very high. Also after obtaining feedback proper documentation is
required which is again needed to take care of and involve high cost.
3. Require more labour: The manpower requirement is more in the case of primary data as only one person
cannot make a survey on his own or collect data single-handedly. Also, the number of men required is
more and have to be paid after their work has been done.
4. The questionnaire must be easy and understandable: The questionnaire prepared must be easy to
understand then only the researchers may get correct and valid feedback. The researchers have to make the
set of sample questionnaires in such a way or use the method or technique that may help the people to
interpret it easily if not the feedback which is produced will be wrong or inaccurate.
5. Feedback may be faulty: We have already learned that if the technique used by researchers will not be
proper or accurate then the feedback also which is produced will be faulty or incorrect. Thus proper action
and maintenance must be done so that the feedback data which is produced should be authentic.
6. An experienced person is needed for the analysis: The method for collecting data, technique, and
analysis must be done by an expert as only an expert can make the whole research meaningful by
providing genuine facts and information. The analysis is mostly done by the researcher or an expert
according to the problem found.

Advantages of Secondary Data

1. Ease of access : The secondary data sources are very easy to access. The Internet has changed the way
secondary research works. Nowadays, you have so much information available just by clicking with the
mouse.
2. Low cost or free : The majority of secondary sources are absolutely free for use or at very low costs. It
saves not only your money but your efforts. In comparison with primary research where you have to
design and conduct a whole primary study process from the beginning, secondary research allows you to
gather data without having to put any money on the table. (see more on our post: primary vs secondary
data)
3. Time-saving  : As the above advantage suggests, you can perform secondary research in no time.
Sometimes it is a matter of a few Google searches to find a source of data.
4. Allow you to generate new insights from previous analysis : Reanalysing old data can bring unexpected
new understandings and points of view or even new relevant conclusions.
5. Longitudinal analysis : Secondary data allows you to perform a longitudinal analysis which means the
studies are performed spanning over a large period of time. This can help you to determine different
trends. In addition, you can find secondary data from many years back up to a couple of hours ago. It
allows you to compare data over time.
6. Anyone can collect the data : Secondary data research can be performed by people that aren’t familiar
with the different data collection methods. Practically, anyone can collect it.
7. A huge amount of secondary data with a wide variety of sources : It is the richest type of
data available to you in a wide variety of sources and topics.

Disadvantages of Secondary Data

 1. Might be not specific to your needs : Secondary data is not specific to the researcher’s needs due to the
fact that it was collected in the past for another reason. That is why the secondary data might be unreliable
for your current needs. Secondary data sources can give you a huge amount of information, but quantity
does not always mean appropriateness.
2. You have no control over data quality : The secondary data might lack quality. The source of the
information may be questionable, especially when you gather the data via the Internet. As you relying on
secondary data for your data-driven decision-making, you must evaluate the reliability of the information
by finding out how the information was collected and analysed.
3. Biasness : As the secondary data is collected by someone else than you, typically the data is biased in
favor of the person who gathered it. This might not cover your requirements as a researcher or marketer.
4. Not timely : Secondary data is collected in the past which means it might be out-of-date. This issue can be
crucial in many different situations.
5. You are not the owner of the information : Generally, secondary data is not collected specifically for
your company. Instead, it is available to many companies and people either for free or for a little fee. So,
this is not exactly a “competitive advantage” for you. Your current and potential competitors also have
access to the data.

PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION

OBSERVATION TECHNIQUES

Observation techniques involve watching and recording the behaviour of test subjects or test objects in a systematic
manner without interacting with them. So, observations in research are systematic. The observation method is
described as a method to observe and describe the behavior of a subject. As the name suggests, it is a way of
collecting relevant information and data by observing. It is also referred to as a participatory study because the
researcher has to establish a link with the respondent and for this has to immerse himself in the same setting as theirs.
Only then can he use the observation method to record and take notes.

7.5.1 Direct versus Indirect Observation

In direct observation, the researchers directly observe the behaviour of a subject and record it. For example, for
observing purchase behaviour of shopper for a tea packet, a researcher can stand in a big grocery store just aside the
shelf that contains tea packets. He can systematically record the behaviour of the shoppers such as their first pick
(choice) from the shelf; their preference for the hard pack, jar pack, or poly pack; their inclination for a particular
brand; impact of price (as the shopper picks a pack and places it back on the shelf after seeing the price); and so on.
In indirect observation, the researcher observes outcome of a behaviour rather than observing the behaviour. For
example, a researcher can count the number of cups in which tea is consumed in a product demonstration to note the
consumer preference for a particular brand or taste.

7.5.2 Structured versus Unstructured Observation

In a structured observation, a clear guideline is provided to the observer as what is to be observed and what is not to
be observed. In this type of observational technique, observation is being made on a pre-specified format or checklist.
This format itself does not consist the observation points that are not important for the researcher. Structured
observation is a suitable technique when the research problem is clearly defined and the information needed from the
observation is clearly laid down. As the name suggests, in an unstructured observation, the observer is free to
observe what he feels is important for a research. No pre-specified format or checklist is provided to the observer, and
he or she almost makes a discretionary decision on what is to be observed and what must be dropped from the
observation. In theory, all the behaviour of the subjects can be recorded, but in practice, the observer applies his
discretion.

7.5.3 Disguised versus Undisguised Observation

In disguised observation, the subject happens to be unaware that his or her behaviour or action is being monitored
by the observer. This type of observational technique is especially used because the subjects will exhibit natural
behaviour when they are unaware of the fact that they are being observed by an observer. For example, for making a
disguised observation in a big shopping mall, an observer may be disguised as a shopper. In undisguised
observation, the subject happens to be aware that he or she is being observed by an observer. There is a debate
among the researchers that the undisguised observation can bias the observation process or not. Few researchers are
of the view that the undisguised observation can bias the observation process, others say that the observer effect on
the observation process is not long lasting.

7.5.4 Human versus Mechanical Observation

Human observational techniques involve observation of the test subjects or test object by a human being, generally
an observer appointed by a researcher. Advancement in technology and its appropriateness has reduced the burden of
human observers. Mechanical observation techniques involve observation by a non-human device. These devices
are many, for example, video camera, voice recorder, eye-movement recorder, scanners, and so on. In the field of
business research, use of mechanical device has been becoming increasingly popular as these devices are free from
the bias caused by human observer.

7.6 CLASSIFICATION OF OBSERVATION METHODS

Observation methods can be broadly classified into five categories. These are personal observation, mechanical
observation, audits, content analysis, and physical trace analysis (Shao, 2002). Following section focuses on the
discussion of these five different types of observation methods classified by mode of administration. Figure 7.3
exhibits these different observation methods.

7.6.1 Personal Observation

As the name indicates, in personal observation, an observer actually watches the subject behaviour and makes a
record of it. The researcher never tries to alter the behaviour of the subject but just records it as it happens in front of
him. The subject may or may not be aware that his behaviour is being observed by the observer. This type of
observation is extremely useful when the subjects are small kids. Perception of the observer is conditioned by his
knowledge, and therefore he perceives the event to happen in a certain way (Juma’h, 2006). Anyway, personal
observation is a practical and useful technique to collect data, specifically in cases where other means of data
collection are seemingly not advantageous.

7.6.2 Mechanical Observation

Mechanical observation involves the observation of behaviour of the respondents through a mechanical device. This
device may be a video camera, a voice recorder, eye-movement recorder, and other such devices. In modern times,
many mechanical devices are available to record the behaviour of the subjects. This is especially important when a
researcher has to make continuous observation or when a researcher feels that the human observation will not solve
the research purpose. For example, a camera can record the actions of a respondent better than any human being. In
addition, the camera has the capacity of observing behaviour of the subjects for a long time as compared with the
human observer. In some cases, human observation is not possible. For example, when a researcher, in particular will
like to mea- sure the emotional reaction of an individual to a stimuli through his eye pupil movement, the human
observation is neither feasible nor practical. In this case, an instrument commonly known as eye-movement recorder
is used. This instrument has the capacity of measuring eye movement at a rate of 30 readings per second with respect
to any stimuli such as advertise- ment, shelf display, and so on. Obviously, no human being will be able to match the
capacity of this instrument.

7.6.3 Audits

Audit involves examination of particular records or inventory analysis of the items under investigation. In audit
analysis, the researchers personally collect the data and usually make the count of the items under investigation.
Audit is a highly structured technique and usu- ally is performed personally by an auditor without using a mechanical
device. Nowadays some mechanical devices are also used to make an audit. For example, modern libraries use bar-
coded books and a laser gun to count the number of books in the library. In the field of consumer behaviour, pantry
audit is very popular. In pantry audit, the researcher inventories the items in the kitchen of the subjects while making
a personal interview. Pantry audits are capable of handling the problem of biased responses of the subjects as their
used items can be counted from their pantry. Though, few researchers argue that the presence of items in the pantry
does not guarantee that the subjects are using it. In addition, getting in the pantry of the subjects is a difficult exercise
because many subjects may not be willing to allow the researcher into their kitchens.
7.6.4 Content Analysis

Content analysis is a research technique used to objectively and systematically make inferences about the intentions,
attitudes, and values of individuals by identifying specified characteristics in textual messages (Morris, 1994).
Content analysis systematically examines the content of communication as an indirect observation and analysis.
Malhotra (2004) stated that the unit of analysis may be words (different words or type of words in the message),
characters (individuals or objects), themes (propositions), space and time measures (length or duration of the
message), or topics (subjects of the message). Business researchers generally examine the content of message in print
advertisement and electronic advertisement, content analysis for the print articles, and so on. For example, Zhou
(2005) has used content analysis to find the usability challenges and cross-cultural difference issues in city tourism
website design. By applying content analysis, he examined the content and functions of 55 city tour- ism websites
covering North America, Europe, Asia, Australia, and Africa. Through content analysis, he revealed the apparent
differences among countries of different economic level as well as culture and suggested to make websites more
effective, efficient, and easy-to-use.

7.6.5 Physical Trace Analysis

Physical trace analysis involves collection of data through physical trace of the subjects in terms of understanding
their past behaviour. For example, a researcher can count the number of soft drinks consumed in an annual function
of a college to understand the inclination of youth for a particular brand. Physical trace analysis is an indirect method
of observation as the behaviour is not directly observed, but the outcome of a behaviour is observed. In some cases,
physical trace analysis is very useful. For example, the popularity of a website can be analysed by counting the
number of times the users have visited the site.

Advantages of the Observation Method

1. Directness : The main advantage of observation is its directness. We can collect data at the time they
occur. The observer does not have to ask people about their behavior and reports from others.He or she
can simply watch as individuals act and speak. While the survey respondents may have a hazy or lapse
memory about events that occurred in the distant past, the observer is studying events as they occur.

2. Natural environment : Whereas other data collection techniques introduce artificiality into the research
environment, data collected in an observation study describe the observed phenomena as they occur in
their natural settings.Observation is neither as restrictive nor as artificial as either the survey or the
experiment.

3. Longitudinal analysis : Since the observation is possible to be conducted in a natural setting, the observer
can conduct his or her study over a much longer period than with either the survey or experiment.

4. Non-verbal behaviour : Observation is decidedly superior to survey research, experimentation, or

document study for collecting data on nonverbal behavior. Some studies focus on individuals who are
unable to give verbal reports or to articulate themselves meaningfully. For these subjects, the
observational method is indispensable. These include children, crippled, and mentally and physically
handicraft people.

Disadvantages of the Observation Method

1. Lack of control : Despite the advantage as achieved from the natural environment, the observation study,
however, has little control over extraneous variables that may affect the data.The presence of a stranger (the
observer) and the error involved in human observation and the recording of data, which may remain out of
control of the observer, are likely to bias the observations to a great extent.
2. Difficulties in quantification : Measurement in observational studies generally takes the form of observer’s
un-quantified perceptions rather than the quantitative measures often used in the survey and experimental
studies.
3. Smallness in sample size : Because observational studies are generally conducted in-depth, with data that are
often subjective and difficult to quantify, the sample size is usually kept at a minimum. Also, the in-depth
nature of the observation studies generally requires that they are conducted over an extended period, then the
survey method or experiments. This feature tends to limit the size of the sample.
 4. No opportunity to learn past : In an observational study, there is no way to know the past. It is also difficult
to gather information on such topics as intentions, opinions, attitudes, or preferences.This technique can
generate either quantitative or qualitative data but tends to be used more for small-scale exploratory studies
than for large-scale quantitative studies. This is because it usually requires

 Relatively highly skilled observers and analysts

 Prolonged periods of observation
 High cost per unit of observation.

INTERVIEW METHOD
Interview is one of the popular methods of research data collection. The term interview can be dissected into two
terms as, ‘inter’ and ‘view’. The essence of interview is that one mind tries to read the other. The interviewer tries to
assess the interviewed in terms of the aspects studied or issues analyzed.

Purpose and Importance of Interview

The main purpose of interview as a tool of data collection, is to gather data extensively and intensively. As Pauline.V
Young pointed out that the objectives of the interview may be exchange of ideas and experiences, eliciting of
information pertaining to a very wide range of data in which the interviewee may wish to rehearse his past, define his
present and canvass his future possibilities. Thus, in brief, the objectives of interviewee are  two fold:

1. To exchange ideas and experience and

2. To elicit information.

The importance of interview may be known through these points,

 It is the method best suited for the assessment of personal qualities.

 It has definite values for diagnosis of emotional problems and for therapeutic treatments.
 It is one of the major bases upon which counseling procedures are carried out.
 It provides information to supplement other methods of collecting data.
 It may be used, in addition to observation, to verify information obtained through correspondence methods.

Types of Interviews used in Research

There are different types of interviews used in the research data collection. An interview is either structured or
unstructured, depending upon whether a formal questionnaire has bean formulated and the questions asked in a
prearranged order or not. An interview is also either direct or indirect as a result of whether the purposes of the
questions asked are plainly stated or intentionally disguised. Cross-classifying these two characteristics provides four
different types of interviews. That is, an interview may be: (1) structured and direct, (2) unstructured and direct, (3)
structured and indirect, or (4) unstructured and indirect. Types (1) and (2) are basically objective types; (3) and (4)
are subjective types.

1. Structured-Direct Interview: The usual type of interview conducted during a consumer survey to obtain
descriptive information is one using a formal questionnaire consisting of non-disguised questions, a
questionnaire designed to “get the facts”. If the marketing search manager of a television set manufacturer
wants to find out how many and what kinds of people prefer various styles of television cabinets, for example,
he may have a set of questions drawn up that asks for these facts directly. Assuming that personal
interviewing is being used, each interviewer will be instructed to ask the questions in the order given on the
questionnaire and to ask only those questions. The resulting interviews will be structured-direct in nature.
2. Unstructured-Direct Interview: In the unstructured-direct method of interviewing, the interviewer is given
only general instructions on the type of information desired. He is left to ask the necessary direct questions to
obtain this information, using the warding and the order that seems most appropriate in the context of each
interview. Unstructured-direct interviews are often used in exploratory studies. Many research projects that
 use a formal questionnaire for the final interviews go through an exploratory phase in which respondents are
contacted and unstructured interviews are held. These interviews are useful in obtaining a clearer
understanding of the problem and determining what areas should be investigated.
3. Structured-indirect interview: In the case of structured indirect interview the questions are pre-decided and
arranged in a structured way. However the purpose of the study is not revealed.
4. Unstructured-indirect interview: In the case of unstructured indirect interview the questions aren’t pre-
decided and neither the purpose of the study made known explicitly.

There are other types of interviews, like focus-group interview, depth interview, etc. All these are dealt here.

1. Focus-Group Interviews: Perhaps the best-known and most widely used type of indirect interview is the one
conducted with a focus group. A focus-group interview is one in which a group of people jointly participate in
an unstructured-indirect interview. The group, usually consisting of 8 to 12 people, is generally selected
purposively to include persons who have a common background or similar buying or use experience that
relates to the problem to be researched. The interviewer, moderator, as he or she is more often called, attempts
to focus the discussion on the problem areas in a relaxed, nondirected manner. The objective is to foster
involvement and interaction among the group members during the interview will lead to spontaneous
discussion and the disclosure of attitudes, opinions, information on present or prospective buying and use
behavior.
2. Focused Interviews: This is a semi-structured interview where the investigator attempts to focus the
discussion on the actual effects of a given experience to which the respondents have been exposed. It takes
place with the respondents known to have involved in a particular experience, e.g, seeing a particular film,
viewing a particular program on TV., involved in a train/bus accident, etc. The situation is analyzed prior to
the interview. An interview guide specifying topics relating to the research hypothesis used. The interview is
focused on the subjective experiences of the respondent, i.e., his attitudes and emotional responses regarding
the situation under study. The focused interview permits the interviewer to obtain details of personal
reactions, specific emotions and the like. The merits of using this type of interview is that, it’s free from the
inflexibility of formal methods, yet gives the interview a set form and insured adequate coverage of all the
relevant topics. The respondent is asked for certain information, yet he has plenty of opportunity to present his
views. The interviewer is also free to choose the sequence of questions and determine the extent of probing.
3. The Third-Person Technique: The simplest way of obtaining information through indirect questioning of a
respondent is to ask for the view of a neighbor, an (unnamed) associate, or some other person whose views on
the subject at hand might reasonably be known. This permits the respondent to project his own views with no
feeling of social pressure to give an “acceptable” answer.
4. The Depth Interview: There is substantial use of the unstructured, informal interview in marketing research
to explore the underlying predispositions, needs, desires, feelings, and emotions of the consumer toward
products and services. This method of interviewing is referred to as a “depth interview”. The depth interview
in marketing research may consist of either direct or indirect questions, or some combination of the two. The
skilled interviewer will generally employ both types of questions, A direct, free answer question such as
“What are the major reasons why you bought your iPhone? Might well be followed up, for example, with an
indirect question such as “Why do you think people who own smart phones bought them?” By following leads
and cues provided by respondents, phrasing questions to continue the flow and pattern of the conversation and
to maintain the rapport established, the competent interviewer can explore and probe the underlying
motivations of the respondent.
5. The Personal Interview: As the name implies, the personal interview consists of an interviewer asking
questions of one or more respondents in a face-to-face situation. The interviewer’s role is to get in touch with
the respondent(s), ask the desired questions, and to record the answers obtained. The recording of the
information obtained may be done either during or after the interview. In either case, it is a part of the
interviewer’s responsibility to ensure that the content of the answers is clear and unambiguous and that it has
been recorded correctly.
6. The Telephone Interview: Telephone interviews are sometimes used in lieu of personal interviews,
especially when the information must be collected quickly and inexpensively and the amount of information
required is limited. The telephone interview is well suited to such research problems as determining
“coincidental” viewing of television or listening to radio programmes. In this type of study, calls are placed to
a sample of telephone subscribers during the time the programme is on the air. The person received the call is
simply asked “Are you now watching television?” and, if so, “What programme you are watching?” Other
questions such as “How often do you watch this programme?” “Who sponsors this programme?” and the like
may also be asked. The result is a rapid and inexpensive measurement of audience level. Either a structured or
 an unstructured interview may be held. Since the amount of information sought is usually well defined, non-
confidential in nature, and limited in amount, virtually all telephone interviews are structured in nature. This
medium does not lend itself well to indirect interviews and has not been used for this purpose.

Advantages of Interview Method:

1. The information is collected by the researcher in person and is thus more reliable than data
collected through other indirect methods.
2. If the respondents are confused about a question, the interviewer can provide clarifications so that
the correct response is provided.
3. There is a much higher response rate compared to filling out a survey form.
4. An illiterate person cannot be asked to fill out a questionnaire on their own. The interview method
is more suitable in this case.
5. The interview method is highly suitable for dealing with issues where there might be shades of
different opinion. It is not the case that every question has a mechanical YES/NO response

Disadvantages of Interview Method:

1. This method is very time consuming since the researcher has to personally interview each and
every subject.
2. If the researcher tries to save time by hiring interviewers then the cost involved increases
dramatically.
3. If the interviewer is not properly trained then the data may not be reliable. The personal bias of the
interviewer might affect the accuracy of the data.
4. The respondent might be shy and introverted, and hence might be reluctant to answer when put on
the spot by the interviewer.
5. The respondent has to feel comfortable in the presence of the interviewer in order to respond
frankly and truthfully. Thus the success of the interview depends on the social skill and
tactfullness of the interviewer.

Examples of Interview Method:

1. The interview method is widely used in political science research in order to understand the
nuanced views of the population on range of sensitive and controversial issues.
2. The interview method is also used when conducting research in psychology. For instance, suppose
a psychologist wants to study the impact of lifestyle and eating habits on the reported happiness of
subjects. the interview method is most suitable to collect data in such cases.
3. The population census conducted in many countries is done using the inteview method. For
example, population data of every household in India is collected via interview method once every
ten years.
4. A bad example to use interview data collection is when you want to obtain simple YES/NO
responses. For example, if you want to collect data on the sex distribution of students in your
school it is a much better idea to simply email a google form/questionnaire to all students and ask
them to respond.
What is a Questionnaire?
A questionnaire is a research instrument that consists of a set of questions or other types of prompts that aims to
collect information from a respondent. A research questionnaire is typically a mix of close-ended questions and open-
ended questions.

Open-ended, long-form questions offer the respondent the ability to elaborate on their thoughts. Research
questionnaires were developed in 1838 by the Statistical Society of London.

The data collected from a data collection questionnaire can be both qualitative as well as quantitative in nature. A
questionnaire may or may not be delivered in the form of a survey, but a survey always consists of a questionnaire.

Advantages of a good questionnaire design

 With a survey questionnaire, you can gather a lot of data in less time.
 There is less chance of any bias creeping if you have a standard set of questions to be used for your target
audience. You can apply logic to questions based on the respondents’ answers, but the questionnaire will
remain standard for a group of respondents that fall in the same segment.
 Surveying online survey software is quick and cost-effective. It offers you a rich set of features to design,
distribute, and analyze the response data.
 It can be customized to reflect your brand voice. Thus, it can be used to reinforce your brand image.
 The responses can be compared with the historical data and understand the shift in respondents’ choices and
experiences.
 Respondents can answer the questionnaire without revealing their identity. Also, many survey software
complies with significant data security and privacy regulations.

Characteristics of a good questionnaire

Your survey design depends on the type of information you need to collect from respondents. Qualitative
questionnaires are used when there is a need to collect exploratory information to help prove or disprove a
hypothesis. Quantitative questionnaires are used to validate or test a previously generated hypothesis. However, most
questionnaires follow some essential characteristics:

 Uniformity: Questionnaires are very useful to collect demographic information, personal opinions, facts, or

attitudes from respondents. One of the most significant attributes of a research form is uniform design and
standardization. Every respondent sees the same questions. This helps in data collection and statistical
analysis of this data. For example, the retail store evaluation questionnaire template contains questions for
evaluating retail store experiences. Questions relate to purchase value, range of options for product
selections, and quality of merchandise. These questions are uniform for all customers.
 Exploratory: It should be exploratory to collect qualitative data. There is no restriction on questions that can
be in your questionnaire. For example, you use a data collection questionnaire and send it to the female of
 the household to understand her spending and saving habits relative to the household income. Open-ended
questions give you more insight and allow the respondents to explain their practices. A very structured
question list could limit the data collection.
 Question Sequence: It typically follows a structured flow of questions to increase the number of responses.
This sequence of questions is screening questions, warm-up questions, transition questions, skip questions,
challenging questions, and classification questions. For example, our motivation and buying experience
questionnaire template covers initial demographic questions and then asks for time spent in sections of the
store and the rationale behind purchases.
Types & Definitions
As we explored before, questionnaires can be either structured or free-flowing. Let’s take a closer look at what that
entails for your surveys.

 Structured Questionnaires: Structured questionnaires collect quantitative data. The questionnaire is planned

and designed to gather precise information. It also initiates a formal inquiry, supplements data, checks
previously accumulated data, and helps validate any prior hypothesis.
 Unstructured Questionnaires: Unstructured questionnaires collect qualitative data. They use a basic
structure and some branching questions but nothing that limits the responses of a respondent. The questions
are more open-ended to collect specific data from participants.
Types of questions in a questionnaire
You can use multiple question types in a questionnaire. Using various question types can help increase responses to
your research questionnaire as they tend to keep participants more engaged. The best customer satisfaction survey
templates are the most commonly used for better insights and decision-making.

Some of the widely used types of questions are:

 Open-Ended Questions: Open-ended questions help collect qualitative data in a questionnaire where the

respondent can answer in a free form with little to no restrictions.
 Dichotomous Questions: The dichotomous question is generally a “yes/no” close-ended question. This
question is usually used in case of the need for necessary validation. It is the most natural form of a
questionnaire.
 Multiple-Choice Questions: Multiple-choice questions are a close-ended question type in which a
respondent has to select one (single-select multiple-choice question) or many (multi-select multiple choice
question) responses from a given list of options. The multiple-choice question consists of an incomplete
stem (question), right answer or answers, incorrect answers, close alternatives, and distractors. Of course,
not all multiple-choice questions have all of the answer types. For example, you probably won’t have the
wrong or right answers if you’re looking for customer opinion.
 Scaling Questions: These questions are based on the principles of the four measurement scales – nominal,
ordinal, interval, and ratio. A few of the question types that utilize these scales’ fundamental properties
are rank order questions, Likert scale questions, semantic differential scale questions, and Stapel scale
questions.
 Pictorial Questions: This question type is easy to use and encourages respondents to answer. It works
similarly to a multiple-choice question. Respondents are asked a question, and the answer choices are
images. This helps respondents choose an answer quickly without over-thinking their answers, giving you
more accurate data.

Types of Questionnaires
Questionnaires can be administered or distributed in the following forms:

 Online Questionnaire: In this type, respondents are sent the questionnaire via email or other online mediums.
This method is generally cost-effective and time-efficient. Respondents can also answer at leisure. Without
the pressure to respond immediately, responses may be more accurate. The disadvantage, however, is that
respondents can easily ignore these questionnaires. Read more about online surveys.
 Telephone Questionnaire: A researcher makes a phone call to a respondent to collect responses directly.
Responses are quick once you have a respondent on the phone. However, a lot of times, the respondents
hesitate to give out much information over the phone. It is also an expensive way of conducting research.
You’re usually not able to collect as many responses as other types of questionnaires, so your sample may
not represent the broader population.
 In-House Questionnaire: This type is used by a researcher who visits the respondent’s home or workplace.
The advantage of this method is that the respondent is in a comfortable and natural environment, and in-
depth data can be collected. The disadvantage, though, is that it is expensive and slow to conduct.
 Mail Questionnaire: These are starting to be obsolete but are still being used in some market
research studies. This method involves a researcher sending a physical data collection questionnaire request
to a respondent that can be filled in and sent back. The advantage of this method is that respondents can
complete this on their own time to answer truthfully and entirely. The disadvantage is that this method is
expensive and time-consuming. There is also a high risk of not collecting enough responses to make
actionable insights from the data.

How to design a Questionnaire

Questionnaire design is a multistep process that requires attention to detail at every step.

Researchers are always hoping that the responses received for a survey questionnaire yield useable data. If the
questionnaire is too complicated, there is a fair chance that the respondent might get confused and will drop out or
answer inaccurately.

As a survey creator, you may want to pre-test the survey by administering it to a focus group during development.
You can try out a few different questionnaire designs to determine which resonates best with your target audience.
Pre-testing is a good practice as the survey creator can comprehend the initial stages if there are any changes required
in the survey.

Steps Involved in Questionnaire Design

1. Identify the scope of your research:
Think about what your questionnaire is going to include before you start designing the look of it. The clarity of the
topic is of utmost importance as this is the primary step in creating the questionnaire. Once you are clear on the
purpose of the questionnaire, you can begin the design process.
2. Keep it simple:
The words or phrases you use while writing the questionnaire must be easy to understand. If the questions are
unclear, the respondents may simply choose any answer and skew the data you collect.

3. Ask only one question at a time:

At times, a researcher may be tempted to add two similar questions. This might seem like an excellent way to
consolidate answers to related issues, but it can confuse your respondents or lead to inaccurate data. If any of your
questions contain the word “and,” take another look. This question likely has two parts, which can affect the quality
of your data.

4. Be flexible with your options:

While designing, the survey creator needs to be flexible in terms of “option choice” for the respondents. Sometimes
the respondents may not necessarily want to choose from the answer options provided by the survey creator. An
“other” option often helps keep respondents engaged in the survey.

5. The open-ended or closed-ended question is a tough choice:

The survey creator might end up in a situation where they need to make distinct choices between open or close-ended
questions. The question type should be carefully chosen as it defines the tone and importance of asking the question
in the first place.

If the questionnaire requires the respondents to elaborate on their thoughts, an open-ended question is the best choice.
If the surveyor wants a specific response, then close-ended questions should be their primary choice. The key to
asking closed-ended questions is to generate data that is easy to analyze and spot trends.

6. It is essential to know your audience:

A researcher should know their target audience. For example, if the target audience speaks mostly Spanish, sending
the questionnaire in any other language would lower the response rate and accuracy of data. Something that may
seem clear to you may be confusing to your respondents. Use simple language and terminology that your respondents
will understand, and avoid technical jargon and industry-specific language that might confuse your respondents.

For efficient market research, researchers need a representative sample collected using one of the many sampling
techniques, such as a sample questionnaire. It is imperative to plan and define these target respondents based on
the demographics required.

7. Choosing the right tool is essential: 

QuestionPro is a simple yet advanced survey software platform that the surveyors can use to create a questionnaire or
choose from the already existing 300+ questionnaire templates.

Always save personal questions for last. Sensitive questions may cause respondents to drop off before completing. If
these questions are at the end, the respondent has had time to become more comfortable with the interview and are
more likely to answer personal or demographic questions.

Differences between a Questionnaire and a Survey

Questionnaire Survey
A survey is a research method used for collecting
A questionnaire can is a research instrument
data from a pre-defined group of respondents to
Meaning that consists of a set of questions to collect
gain information and insights on various topics of
information from a respondent.
interest.
What is it? The instrument of data collection Process of collecting and analyzing that data
Consists of questionnaire and survey design, logic
Characteristic Subset of survey
and data collection
Time and Cost Fast and cost-effective Much slower and expensive
Use Conducted on the target audience Distributed or conducted on respondents
 Questions Close-ended and very rarely open-ended Close-ended and open-ended
Answers Objective Subjective or objective
Advantages of Questionnaire
 One of the greatest benefits of questionnaires lies in their uniformity — all respondents see exactly the same
questions. 
 It is an inexpensive method, regardless of the size of the universe.
 Free from the bias of the interviewer, as the respondents answer the questions in his own words.
 Respondents have enough time to think and answer.
 Due to its large coverage, respondents living in distant areas can also be reached conveniently.
Limitations of Questionnaire
 The risk of collection of inaccurate and incomplete information is high in the questionnaire, as it might
happen that people may not be able to understand the question correctly.
 The rate of non-response is high.

WHAT IS A GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE?

A good questionnaire should be valid, reliable, clear, interesting and succinct.

Valid : A valid questionnaire should ask what it intends to ask, i.e. the questions should be phrased in such a way that
the respondent understands the objective of the question. To achieve this, the questionnaire should be reviewed by the
“content expert” during the pilot test (e.g. if the target respondent is a diabetic patient, then a diabetic patient should
comment whether he understands the questionnaire). Any uncertainties and queries should be clarified till the
question is clearly understood.

Reliable : A reliable questionnaire should yield the same answer if the same question is posed to the respondent
repeatedly in a short span of time. This can be achieved by performing a “test-retest”, i.e. administer the same
questionnaire to the respondent a second time and check for consistency of the answer. Any discrepancy in the
answers could be due to lack of clarity of the questions and this should be reviewed and rephrased.

Interesting : An interesting questionnaire is more likely to be completed by the respondent and hence yields a better
response rate. This requires the researcher to put some thoughts into asking questions that are relevant to the
respondent and in a logical sequence.

Succinct : A succinct questionnaire asks questions that aim to answer only the research objectives. Any questions
beyond the scope of the research should be excluded. It is common for researchers to “cast the net wider” so that they
will collect more data, regardless of whether these data are important or not. This usually happens when the
researcher has not properly thought through the research objectives. It runs the risk of asking too many questions and
the questionnaire runs into many pages.

Sources of Secondary Data

Sources of secondary data include books, personal sources, journals, newspapers, websitess, government records etc.
Secondary data are known to be readily available compared to that of primary data. It requires very little research and
needs for manpower to use these sources.

With the advent of electronic media and the internet, secondary data sources have become more easily accessible.
Some of these sources are highlighted below.

 Books : Books are one of the most traditional ways of collecting data. Today, there are books available for all
topics you can think of.  When carrying out research, all you have to do is look for a book on the topic being
researched, then select from the available repository of books in that area. Books, when carefully chosen are
an authentic source of authentic data and can be useful in preparing a literature review.

 Published Sources : There are a variety of published sources available for different research topics. The
authenticity of the data generated from these sources depends majorly on the writer and publishing
company. Published sources may be printed or electronic as the case may be. They may be paid or free
depending on the writer and publishing company's decision.

 Unpublished Personal Sources  : This may not be readily available and easily accessible compared to the
published sources. They only become accessible if the researcher shares with another researcher who is not
allowed to share it with a third party. For example, the product management team of an organization may
need data on customer feedback to assess what customers think about their product and improvement
suggestions. They will need to collect the data from the customer service department, which primarily
collected the data to improve customer service.

 Journal : Journals are gradually becoming more important than books these days when data collection is
concerned. This is because journals are updated regularly with new publications on a periodic basis, therefore
giving to date information. Also, journals are usually more specific when it comes to research. For example,
we can have a journal on, "Secondary data collection for quantitative data" while a book will simply be titled,
"Secondary data collection".

 Newspapers : In most cases, the information passed through a newspaper is usually very reliable. Hence,
making it one of the most authentic sources of collecting secondary data. The kind of data commonly shared
in newspapers is usually more political, economic, and educational than scientific. Therefore, newspapers may
not be the best source for scientific data collection.

 Websites : The information shared on websites is mostly not regulated and as such may not be trusted
compared to other sources. However, there are some regulated websites that only share authentic data and can
be trusted by researchers. Most of these websites are usually government websites or private organizations
that are paid, data collectors.

 Blogs : Blogs are one of the most common online sources for data and may even be less authentic than
websites. These days, practically everyone owns a blog, and a lot of people use these blogs to drive traffic to
their website or make money through paid ads. Therefore, they cannot always be trusted. For example, a
blogger may write good things about a product because he or she was paid to do so by the manufacturer even
though these things are not true.

 Diaries : They are personal records and as such rarely used for data collection by researchers. Also, diaries
are usually personal, except for these days when people now share public diaries containing specific events in
their life. A common example of this is Anne Frank's diary which contained an accurate record of the Nazi
wars.

 Government Records : Government records are a very important and authentic source of secondary data.
They contain information useful in marketing, management, humanities, and social science research. Some of
these records include; census data, health records, education institute records, etc. They are usually collected
to aid proper planning, allocation of funds, and prioritizing of projects.
  Podcasts : Podcasts are gradually becoming very common these days, and a lot of people listen to them as an
alternative to radio. They are more or less like online radio stations and are generating increasing popularity.
Information is usually shared during podcasts, and listeners can use it as a source of data collection. 

Some other sources of data collection include:

 Letters
 Radio stations
 Public sector records.

Criteria for Good Measurement

 There are three criteria for evaluating measurements: reliability, validity and sensitivity. It may be noted that
there is a relationship between reliability and sensitivity. If we want to make an item more sensitive, it may be
achieved at the cost of reliability. This means to get more sensitivity, the researcher might have to
compromise with reliability.

1. Reliability

 Reliability is concerned with consistency, accuracy and predictability of the scale. It refers to the extent to
which a measurement process is free from random errors. The reliability of a scale can be measured using the
following methods:
 Test–retest reliability: In this method, repeated measurements of the same person or group using the same
scale under similar conditions are taken. A very high correlation between the two scores indicates that the
scale is reliable. The researcher has to be careful in deciding the time difference between two observations. If
the time difference between two observations is very small it is very likely that the respondent would give
same answer which could result in higher correlation. Further if the difference is too large, the attitude might
have undergone a change during that period, resulting in a weak correlation and hence poor reliability.
Therefore researcher have to be very careful in deciding the time difference between observation. Generally, a
time difference of about 5-6 months is considered as an ideal period.
 Split-half reliability method: This method is used in the case of multiple item scales. Here the number of items
is randomly divided into two parts and a correlation coefficient between the two is obtained. A high
correlation indicates that the internal consistency of the construct leads to greater reliability.
 2. Validity
 The validity of a scale refers to the question whether we are measuring what we want to measure. Validity of
the scale refers to the extent to which the measurement process is free from both systematic and random
errors. The validity of a scale is a more serious issue than reliability. There are different ways to measure
validity.
 Content validity: This is also called face validity. It involves subjective judgement by an expert for assessing
the appropriateness of the construct. For example, to measure the perception of a customer towards Kingfisher
Airlines, a multiple item scale is developed. A set of 15 items is proposed. These items when combined in an
index measure the perception of KingfisherAirlines. In order to judge the content validity of these 15 items, a
set of experts may be requested to examine the representativeness of the 15 items. The items covered may be
lacking in the content validity if we have omitted behaviour of the crew, food quality, and food quantity, etc.,
from the list. In fact, conducting the exploratory research to exhaust the list of items measuring perception of
the airline would be of immense help in such a case.
 Predictive validity: This involves the ability of a measured phenomena at one point of time to predict another
phenomenon at a future point of time. If the correlation coefficient between the two is high, the initial
measure is said to have a highpredictiveability.Asanexample,considertheuseofthecommonadmission test
(CAT) to shortlist candidates for admission to the MBA programme in a business school. The CAT scores are
supposed to predict the candidate’s aptitude for studies towards business education.
 3. Sensitivity
 Sensitivity refers to an instrument’s ability to accurately measure the variability in a concept. A dichotomous
response category such as agree or disagree does not allow the recording of any attitude changes. A more
sensitive measure with numerous categories on the scale may be required. For example, adding ‘strongly
agree’, ‘agree’, ‘neither agree nor disagree’, ‘disagree and ‘strongly disagree’ categories will increase the
sensitivity of the scale.
 The sensitivity of scale based on a single question or a single item can be increased by adding questions or
items. In other words, because composite measures allow for a greater range of possible scores, they are more
sensitive than a single-item scale.