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STUDY MATERIAL-2021-22 /CLASS – 10

Subject– SCIENCE
CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES
Compiled by
PANKAJ SIR ( Founder & Faculty : Namann Educations ) &
Team
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CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES PAGE-1
1. How do we tell the difference between what is alive and what is not alive? The most important criterion to decide
whether something is living or not is the movement. We tend to think of some sort of movement, either growth-
related or not, as common evidence for being alive. But a plant that is not visibly growing is still alive, and some
animals can breathe without visible movement. So using visible movement as the defining characteristic of life is not
enough.

2. Movements over very small scales will be invisible to the naked eye –movements of molecules, for example. Is
this invisible molecular movement necessary for life? The answer is ‘yes’. Molecular movements or bio-chemical
reactions are necessary in living creatures as they must keep repairing and maintaining their structures.Viruses do not
show any molecular movement in them (until they infect some cell), and that is partly why there is a controversy
about whether they are truly alive or not.

3.Life processes - The basic processes that are performed by living organisms to maintain and repair their body
structure and to continue life on the earth are called life processes. Eg. respiration, nutrition, excretion, growth,
transportation of materials etc.

4. All living organisms need energy to maintain the life processes. The raw material for getting energy are food and
oxygen. Food and oxygen are to be obtained by the living organisms from outside. The oxidation of food liberates
energy in the form of ATP ( Adenosine tri phosphate ) which is utilized for maintaining the life processes.The process
of acquiring oxygen from outside the body, and to use it in the process of break-down of food sources for cellular
needs, is called respiration.

5. In the case of a single-celled organism, no specific organs for taking in food, exchange of gases or removal of
wastes may be needed because the entire surface of the organism is in contact with the environment.

6. In multicellular organisms like human beings only the cells of skin (surface layer) are exposed to surrounding
environment. The rest of body cells of internal organs are not in direct contact with the surrounding environment.
Hence, exchange of gases by diffusion may not be possible in these cells. Thus, multicellular organisms require
specialized organs for breathing, exchange of gases and transport of gases to meet the oxygen requirement. To
transport food and oxygen from the site of absorption to the site of respiration there is need of transportation system
besides that during bio-chemical reactions many waste products are produced and these waste products are to be
released out of the body by the process of transportation. The process of removal of excess and unwanted meta-
bolic waste products out of the body is called excretion.

7.Nutrition - The process of intake of food and utilisation of food is called nutrition. The process of nutrition involves
taking of food inside the body and converting them into smaller molecules that can be absorbed by the body and
utilizing the components to perform various functions.

8. Nutrients - The chemical substances present in the food are called nutrient. The main nutrients of food are carbo-
hydrates, proteins, vitamins, minerals, lipids ( fats and oils ) and water. The source of energy and materials that we
need to maintain life is the food we eat.

9. Importance of nutrition/food: The significance of nutrition is that the living organisms get their nourishment from
it. By nutrition,

(i) Energy - Living organisms obtain energy needed for various biochemical activities going on in the body.

(ii) Growth - Living organisms maintain tissue formation that leads to the growth of the body.

(iii) Regulators - Hormones and enzymes are formed from the ingredients of food. They regulate metabolism and body
functions.

(iv) Repair - Food provides materials to for replacement and repairs of worn out or damaged structures.

# Study Material compiled by Pankaj sir ( Founder & Faculty of Namann Educations) & Team ( Ph- 6900044808/6900144808/97071444808 )
CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES PAGE-2
10. Modes of nutrition :- There are two basic modes of nutrition: (A) Autotrophic Nutrition and (B) Heterotrophic
Nutrition.

(A) Autotrophic nutrition - It is a type of nutrition in which organisms can manufacture their own food from simple
inorganic raw materials like carbon-di-oxide and water in their body by chemical reactions inside the body. The organ-
isms which show the autotrophic mode of nutrition are called autotrophs.
Organisms like green plants, blue green algae show this type of nutrition as they can manufacture their own
food in the form of simple sugar from inorganic compounds like CO2 and H2O by solar energy trapped by chlorophyll
during photosynthesis. Such organisms are called photoautotrophs.

6CO2 + 12H2O > C6H12O6 + 6H 2O + 6O2

(B) Heterotrophic nutrition: It is a type of nutrition in which organisms obtain food from others and the organisms
cannot manufacture their own food.They take readymade food from other dead or living organisms. Organisms which
show this mode of nutrition are called heterotrophs. E.g. animals , human beings, insects etc.

11. Heterotrophic nutrition may be - (a) saprophytic, (b) parasitic or (c) holozoic ( d ) symbiotic nutrition:

(a) Saprophytic nutrition: It is a type of heterotrophic nutrition in which organisms release some enzymes to digest
the food obtain from dead and decaying bodies of plants and animals. E.g. bacteria, fungi, mushroom, yeast, mould,
etc show saprophytic nutrition. Such organisms are called saprophytes.

(b) Parasitic nutrition: It is a type of heterotrophic nutrition in which organisms obtain food from other living
organisms and harm the other living organism. The living organism which obtains food and shelter from another
organism is called parasite (Gk. para - other, site or sitos - food). The organisms which provide food and shelter to
a parasite is known as host. Tapeworm and Plasmodium are endoparasites and Leeches, Mites etc. exoparasite.

(c) Holozoic nutrition: It is a type of heterotrophic nutrition in which organisms ingest food which is subsequently
digested, absorbed and assimilated ; and the undigested food is egested out of the body. E.g. Human beings,
amoeba, cow etc show holozoic nutrition. Holozoic animals may be herbivorous, carnivorous and omnivorous.

( d ) Symbiotic nutrition: The mode of nutrition in which two different organisms live together, share shelter and
nutrients is called symbiotic nutrition. In organisms called lichens, alga and a fungus live together ; here algae pro-
vides food to fungus and fungus provides minerals and shelter to algae.
Autotrophic nutrition Heterotrophic nutrition
(i) Food is synthesised from simple inorganic raw (i) Food is obtained directly or indirectly from autotrophs.
materials such as CO2 and water. This food is broken down with the help of enzymes.

(ii) Presence of green pigment (chlorophyll) and sun (ii) No pigment and light is required in this type of
light is necessary with a few exception. nutrition.
12. NUTRITION IN PLANTS -
A. Plants show autotrophic nutrition.
B. Photosynthesis - The synthesis of organic compounds ( carbohydrates ) from carbon-di-oxide and water by
green plants using solar energy by chlorophyll is called photosynthesis.
C. The overall equation of photosynthesis -
sunlight
6CO2 + 12H2O chlorophyll > C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
D. The raw materials required for photosynthesis -
( i ) carbon-di-oxide ( ii ) water ( iii ) sunlight ( iv ) chlorophyll.
E. The steps involved in photosynthesis -
( i ) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
( ii ) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
( iii ) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.
F. Conditions for photosynthesis -
( i ) Presence of chlorophyll.( ii ) Presence of sun light. ( iii ) Presence of carbon-di-oxide. ( iv ) Presence of water.
# Study Material compiled by Pankaj sir ( Founder & Faculty of Namann Educations) & Team ( Ph- 6900044808/6900144808/97071444808 )
CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES PAGE-3
13. CHLOROPLAST - Chloroplast is green coloured plastid which contains chlorophyll. The centre of choroplast
is filled with matrix or stroma. Inside the stroma are present green bodies called grana (singular - granum). Each
granum consists of several disc like structures called thylakoids. Chlorophyll is present inside thylakoids.
14. If a longitudinal section of leaf is observed under microscope, we see two types of cells - palisade cells and
spongy cells. Chloroplasts are tiny green dot like structures in the cells of leaves.

Cross-section of a leaf
15. To show that chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis -
Experiment -
* We have to take a potted plant with varigated leaves.
* The plant is placed in dark place for about three days
to destarch the leaves.
* Now the plant is kept in sunlight for 3-4 hours.
* We have to pluck one of the varigated leaves from the
plant, and we have to boil it in alocohol using a water bath
for few minutes so as to remove chlorophyll from the leaf.
* The decolourised leaf is washed with water and the leaf
is placed in a petridish.
* Few drops of iodine solution is poured on the leaf and
observed after few minutes.
Observation - We will observe that only those parts of the leaf have
turned blue-black which were green.
The parts which were not green do not turn blue-black. This shows that starch is formed only in those parts
of the leaf which contain chlorophyll. It proves that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.

16. STOMATA - Stomata are the minute pores present on

the epidermis of the leaf of the plants. Each stoma is bounded
by a pair of specialized epidermal cells called guard cells.
The concave sides of these guard cells face
each other and have a space forming stomatal opening.
Guard cells contain chloroplasts.
The stoma allows gaseous exchange to occur
during photosynthesis and respiration.
During transpiration too, water vapour also escapes
through stomata. The guard cells swell when water
flows into them, causing the stomatal pore to open. Similarly the pore closes if the guard cells shrink.
# Study Material compiled by Pankaj sir ( Founder & Faculty of Namann Educations) & Team ( Ph- 6900044808/6900144808/97071444808 )
CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES PAGE-4
17. Experiment to show that CO2 is essential for the process of photosynthesis.
To show that carbon-di-oxide is essential for photosynthesis-
We have to take two healthy potted plants which are
nearly of same size. These plants are kept in dark for three
days to destarch the leaves. Now the plants are placed on
separate glass plates. A watch-glass containing potassium
hydroxide ( KOH ) by the side of one of the plants. Potassium
hydroxide can absorb carbon-di-oxide. Both the plants are
covered by separate bell jars. The botton of the jars to the
glass plate are sealed using petroleum jelly so that the set-up
becomes air-tight. The plants are kept in sun-light for two
hours. A leaf is plucked from each plant and is tasted for
starch. It is seen that the leaf of the plant with KOH soln. does
not show blue black colouration but the plant without
KOHsolution shows blue black colouration.

Result - This experiment proves that if carbon-di-oxide is absent photosynthesis does not take place. The plant
with KOH solution is not able to perform photosynthesis as CO2 is absorbed by KOH solution.

18. Plants also need materials like nitrogen, phosphorous, iron, and magnesium for performing various metabolic
activities. Nitrogen is essential for synthesis of proteins. Nitrogen is taken up by plants in the form of inorganic
nitrates or nitrites. Nitrogen is also taken up by plants as organic compounds which have been prepared by bacteria
from atmospheric nitrogen.

19. How do Organisms obtain their Nutrition?

Since the food and the way it is obtained differ,
the digestive system is different in various organisms.
In single-celled organisms, the food may be taken in
by the entire surface. But as the complexity of the
organism increases, different parts become specialised
to perform different functions.

For example, Amoeba takes in food using temporary

finger-like extensions of the cell surface which fuse over the
food particle forming a food-vacuole. Inside the foodvacuole,
complex substances are broken down into simpler ones
which then diffuse into the cytoplasm. The remaining
undigested material is moved to the surface of the cell and
thrown out.

Paramaecium, which is a unicellular organism, the cell

has a definite shape and food is taken in a specific spot.
Food is moved to this spot by the movement of cilia which
cover the entire surface of the cell.

# Study Material compiled by Pankaj sir ( Founder & Faculty of Namann Educations) & Team ( Ph- 6900044808/6900144808/97071444808 )
CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES PAGE-5
20. NUTRITION IN HUMAN BEINGS -
a. The nutrition in human beings is holozoic nutrition.
b. The five steps of nutrition in human beings are -
ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.
c. Ingestion - Human beings ingest food through mouth
and the food is put into mouth with the help of hands.
d. Digestion - The digestive system in human beings is
responsible for the digestion of food. It consists of
alimentary canal and its associated glands.
e. The various organs of human digestive system are
- Mouth, oesophagus ( food pipe ), stomach,
small intestine, large intestine and anus.
f. The various digestive glands associated with the
digestive system in human beings are -
salivary galnds, gastric gland, liver, pancreas and
intestinal gland.

21. Digestive glands:

Salivary gland:- Three pairs of salivary glands

open into buccal cavity. Salivary glands secrete
saliva, which perform the following functions:
(i) It lubricates food and helps in swallowing.
(ii) It contains enzyme salivary amylase which
converts starch into maltose.

Liver:- It is the largest digestive gland of human body.

It secretes bile juice which contains bile salt
( sodium glycocholate and sodium taurocholate )
and bile pigments ( bilirubin and biliverdin ) .
Bile juice is stored in gall bladder and is carried
to the duodenum by common bile duct.

Bile juice performes following functions -

(i) Helps in emulsification of fats.

(ii) Provides alkaline medium for the functioning of enzymes.

(iii) Activates pancreatic and intestinal enzymes.

Pancreas:- It is the second largest gland of human

body. It secretes pancreatic juice.
This juice contain trypsin for digesting proteins,
pancreatic amylase for breakdown of starch into maltose
and pancreatic lipase for digestion of fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

NOTE - Pancreas is a mixed gland which has both exocrine

and endocrine parts. Endocrine part releases hormones
(insulin and glucagon ) and exocrine part releases digestive enzymes.
Deficient release of insulin causes diabetes.

NAMANN EDUCATIONS : PH- 97071-44808 (Athgaon) / 69001-44808 ( Bhangagarh ) Compiled by Pankaj sir & Team
CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES PAGE-6
22. Digestion of food in buccal cavity :- Food has to pass through both
physical and mechanical process after ingestion in the buccal cavity. The
teeth and tongue help in the mastication of food. During mastication food
is mixed with the secrection of the salivary glands i.e. saliva. Saliva
contains digestive enzyme salivary amylase and
mucin. Salivary amylase acts on starch converts it into sugar ( maltose ).
Mucin makes the food slippery
which helps in easy swallowing of food. In this way only carbohydrate
part of the food is digested in mouth cavity and that too partially.

23. Digestion of food in stomach:- The stomach churns

the food into thick puply mass called chyme. As soon as
food enters the stomach it gets mixed with Gastric juice
secreted by the cells present on the wall of the stomach.
Gastric juice contains mucus, enzyme pepsin and
hydrochloric acid (HCl).
(i) Gastric HCl provides acidic
medium which is essential for the action of gastric
enzymes. It also kills the bacteria present in the food
and converts inactive propepsin ( pepsinogen )
into active pepsin.
(ii) Pepsin converts proteins into peptones and proteose.
(iii) Mucus protects the lining of stomach from the action
of HCl. In this way only protein component of food is partilally digested in stomach.

24. ACTIVITY -6.3

We take 1 ml starch solution (1%) in two test tubes (A and B).
Then we have to add 1 ml saliva to test tube A and then both test tubes are left undisturbed for 20-30 minutes.
Now add a few drops of dilute iodine solution ( light-orange brown colour ) to the test tubes.
*In which test tube do you observe a colour change?
Ans- In the test-tube - B, the colour will change to dark-blue/blue black.
*What does this indicate about the presence or absence of starch in the two test tubes?
Ans- In the test-tube- B, the presence of starch is indicated as starch reacts with iodine to produce blue-black
colour.
*What does this tell us about the action of saliva on starch?
Ans- Saliva contains an enzyme salivary amylase which acts on starch and converts starch into simple carbohy-
drates ( maltose ). So, the colour of iodine is not changed in test-tube-A.

25. Digestion of food in small intestine:- Small intestine receives digestive juices from liver ( bile juice) and
pancreas (pancreatic juice).
( a ) Bile - Bile juice consists of water, sodium bicarbonate, bile pigment and bile salts. Bicarbonate makes the
medium alkaline. Bile juice has no digestive enzmes but it performs important function like.(i) It emulsifies fats. (ii)
It makes the medium alkaline which is essential for the action of pancreatic enzymes.(iii) It stops the action of
gastric enzymes.
b ) Pancreatic juice has the following enzymes:
(a) Trypsin: Converts peptones into amino acids.
(b) Pancreatic amylase: Breaks the remaining starch into maltose.
(c) Pancreatic lipase: Converts fat to fatty acid and glycerol.
The walls of small intestine contain glands which secrete intestinal
juice. The intestinal juice consists of enzymes which complete the
digestion by finally converting(a) Proteins into amino-acid.
(b) Complex carbohydrates into glucose, fructose, galactose .
(c) Fats into fatty acids and glycerols.In this way all the components
of food are completely digested in the intestine.
# Study Material compiled by Pankaj sir ( Founder & Faculty of Namann Educations) & Team ( Ph- 6900044808/6900144808/97071444808 )
 CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES PAGE-7
26. Absorption of food:- The digested food absorbed mainly in small intestine.
The intestine is provided with lymph vessels as well as blood capillaries.
Water, minerals, vitamins ,amino acids and glucose (monosaccharides) are
absorbed by blood capillaries; and fatty acids and glycerols are absorbed
by lymph capillaries. For effcient absorption of food, the intestine has the
following peculiarities:
(a) It is long. (b) Its epithelial lining is very thin leading to rapid diffusion
of substances.
(c) The surface area of intestine is greatly increased due to the presence
of finger-like projection called villi. (singular - villus ).
(d) Villi are profusely supplied with blood capillaries and lymph vesssels.

27. Egestion of food:- The elimination of undigested remain of the food from alimentary canal is called egestion
or defecation.Excess of water is absorbed in large intestine and the contents become semi-solid faeces which
passes out into rectum and is expelled out through anus.

28.Large intestine - Major function of the large intestine.

The major function of the large intestine is to absorb
water any remaining absorbable nutrients from the
remaining undigested food matter before sending
the indigestible matter to the rectum.There are a
number of beneficial bacteria that normally live in
the large intestine and play an important role in
breaking down undigested
sugars and fibers into fatty acids.

29. NOTE- Sphincter muscle, any of the ringlike muscles which can close or contract bodily passage or
opening. One of the most important human sphincter muscles is the sphincter pylori, around the opening into the
small intestine that holds food in the stomach until it is thoroughly mixed with gastric juices.

Peristalsis - Peristalsis are a series of muscle contractions that occur in our digestive tract which helps in easy
passage of food through alimentary canal.
30.Dental caries:-
Dental caries or tooth decay is gradual softening of enamel and dentine.
Tooth Enamel is the hardest and most highly mineralized substance
in the human body
(a) It is caused when food particles stuck to the teeth, bacteria find
suitable medium for growth. (b) Bacterial cells and food particales s
tuck to the teeth and form dental plaque. (c) Acids produced by
bacteria remove minerals from the tooth enamel to make them
soft. Proper brushing of teeth removes the plaques and stops
bacterial from producing acids.(d) If plaques are not removed
severe inflammation and infection can occur.
### Shorter or Longer intestine !!!
*The length of the small intestine differs in various animals depending on the food they eat. Herbivores eating
grass need a longer small intestine to allow the cellulose to be digested. Meat is easier to digest, hence carnivores
like tigers have a shorter small intestine.
*Herbivorous animals have longer intestines than that of carnivorous animals. This is because their diet is grass
and plants, made up of fibre and cellulose which are hard to digest. As a result the herbivorous animals need a
longer digestive track to digest their foods completely.
*Carnivores ( e.g.tiger ) eat a smaller amount of food compared to herbivores, and it is in the form of high energy
molecules which are relatively easy to digest, compared to the plant material that herbivores eat, which contains
cellulose. Therefore, carnivores have a smaller intestine
# Study Material compiled by Pankaj sir ( Founder & Faculty of Namann Educations) & Team ( Ph- 6900044808/6900144808/97071444808 )
CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES- RESPIRATION PAGE-8
31.Respiration is a biochemical process that generally involves (i) intake of molecular oxygen from the
environment (ii) stepwise oxidation of food with incoming oxygen (iii) elimination of carbon dioxide pro-
duced during oxidation (iv) release of energy ( ATP ) due to oxidation of food.
Reaction involved in respiration is:
C6 H12O6 + 6O2 > 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (stored as ATP)
glucose
32. Respiration and breathing
Respiration involved external respiration and internal respiration. External respiration refers to inhala-
tion of O2 and exhalation of CO2 produced during oxidation of food. Internal or cellular respiration involves release
of energy by oxidation of food and conversion of energy released into energy currency, i.e., ATP (Adenosine triph-
osphate).
Breathing is a physical process of inhalation of O2 and exhalation of CO2 . It is simply a process of gaseous
exchange. It does not include oxidation of food and release of energy.
Differences between breathing and respiration
Breathing Respiration
a.It is a physical process. It involves a.It is biochemical process which involves exchange
inhalation of O2 air and exhalation of CO2. of respiratory gases and also oxidation of food.
b.It is extracellular process. b. It is intracellular process.
c. It does not release energy, rather it consumes energy. c. It releases energy.
d. It is confined to certain organs only. d. It occurs in all the cells of the body.

33. Types of respiration

Respiration may be Aerobic and Anaerobic
a).Aerobic respiration
When oxygen is used for respiration it is called aerobic respiration. During aerobic respiration, gulucose is
completely broken down into CO2 and H2O by the process of oxidation and a large amount of energy (38 ATP) is
produced.
Aerobic respiration includes glycolysis which is common to both aerobic and anaerobic respiration. The
pyruvic acid (pyruvate) molecules formed during glycolysis are carried into the mitochondria where they completely
break down to CO2 and H2O with the evolution of a large amount of energy.
glycolysis oxygen
Glucose > pyruvate > 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (38 ATP)
(1 molecules) (in cytoplasm) (2 molecules) (in mitochondria)

b). Anaerobic respiration

When food is oxidised without using molecular oxygen, the respiration is called anaerobic respiration. In this
type of respiration incomplete oxidation of food takes place, and in comparsion to aerobic respiration,much less
amount of energy is produced. It also includes glycolysis which takes place in the cytoplasm. During this process
one molecule of glucose is degraded into two molecules of pyruvic acid (pyruvate) and little energy (2ATP).
The pyruvic acid is further oxidised into ethyl alcohol (ethanol) or lactic acid.
In microorganisms , fermentation is more commonly used in place of anaerobic respiration. Fermentation is
defined as the anaerobic breakdown of carohydrates and other organic compounds into alcohol, organic acids,
gases, etc.For example, yeast and certain bacteria utilize substance present outside the cells and oxidise it to ethanol
and carbon dioxide without utilizing O2.
C 3H 4O 3 C 2 H 5 OH
glycolysis > pyruvate O2 is not required
Glucose (in cytoplasm) > Ethanol + CO2 + Energy (2ATP)
(2 molecules) (yeast)
In certain bacteria and parasitic worms (Ascaris, tapeworm, etc) glucose is metabolized to lactic without the use of O2. and
without the formation of CO2.
In human beings, anaerobic respiration occurs in certain tissues such as skeletal muscles. These muscles do not get
sufficient oxygen and anaerobically metabolise glucose to lactic acid during vigorous exercise..
C 6 H 12 O 6 glycolysis C 3H 4O 3 No O2 required
C 3H 6O 3
Glucose > Pyruvate > Lactic acid + Energy
(1 molecules) (in cytoplasm) (2 molecules) (in cytoplasm)

# Study Material compiled by Pankaj sir ( Founder & Faculty of Namann Educations) & Team ( Ph- 6900044808/6900144808/97071444808 )
CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES PAGE-9
34. Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
A.It take place in the presence of oxygen. A. It takes place in the absence of oxygen.

B. Complete oxidation of glucose take place. B.Incomplete oxidation of glucose takes place.

C. 38 ATP molecules are produced by C. Only 2 ATP molecules are produced by oxidation
oxidation of one gram mole of glucose. of one gram mole of glucose.

D. End products are CO2. and H2O. D. End products are ethyl aclohol and CO2
or lactic acid.

35. ADP & ATP

ATP is the energy currency for most cellular processes.
The energy released during the process of respiration is
used to make an ATP molecule from ADP and inorganic
phosphate.
Endothermic processes in the cell then use this ATP to
drive the reactions. When the terminal phosphate linkage
in ATP is broken using water, the energy equivalent to
30.5 kJ/mol is released. Think of how a battery can
provide energy for many different kinds of uses. It can
be used to obtain mechanical energy, light energy, electrical energy and so on. Similarly, ATP can be used in the cells
for the contraction of muscles, protein synthesis,conduction of nervous impulses and many other activities.

*Glycolysis is the first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy for cellular metabolism. Glycolysis is a
series of reactions that extract energy from glucose by splitting it into two three-carbon molecules called pyruvates.

*Kreb’s Cycle- the sequence of cyclic reactions by which most living cells generate energy during the process of
aerobic respiration. It takes place in the mitochondria, using up oxygen and producing carbon dioxide and water as
waste products, and ADP is converted to energy-rich ATP.

36. Activity 6.5

We have to take some fruit juice or sugar solution and to add some yeast to this. This mixture is taken in a test tube
fitted with a one-holed cork. The cork is fitted with a bent glass tube.The free end of the glasstube is dipped into a
test tube containing freshly prepared lime water.
*What change is observed in the lime water and how long does it take for this change to occur?
Observation- The lime water present in the glass tube will turn milky. It takes 24 hours to 72 hours.
*What does this tell us about the products of fermentation?
Ans- Carbon-di-oxide is produced during respiration which is a byproduct. The enzymes released by yeast converts
sugar into ethanol and carbon-di-oxide. Carbon-di-oxide turns lime-water milky because it reacts with lime water to
form white precipitate of calcium carbonate.
# Study Material compiled by Pankaj sir ( Founder & Faculty of Namann Educations) & Team ( Ph- 6900044808/6900144808/97071444808 )
CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES- Respiratory System PAGE-10
37. Activity - 6.4.
We have to take 1 mL starch solution (1%) in two test tubes
(A and B).Then we have to add 1 mL saliva to test tube A and
leave both test tubes undisturbed for 20-30 minutes.
Now a few drops of dilute iodine solution are added to both
the test tubes.In which test tube do you observe a colour change?
What does this indicate about the presence or absence of starch
in the two test tubes?We will observe that iodine solution turns
blue black in test tube B. This means starch is present in test
tube B. But no change in colour of iodine solution test tube B.
What does this tell us about the action of saliva on starch?
This indicates that starch is converted into some other chemical
in test tube -A. This can be explained as - Saliva contains
enzyme salivary amylase or ptyalin which acts on starch and
converted starch into sugar ( maltose ). Maltose does not change
the colour of the iodine solution.

38. RESPIRATION IN PLANTS- Exchange of gases in plants

A). All the parts, like roots, stem, branches, leaves, etc respire separately. Oxygen is obtained from the
atmosphere which diffuses in through:
# Stomata in leaves
# Lenticels in stems
# General surface of the roots.

Respiration takes place both in presence and in absence

of sunlight. In presence of the sunlight or during day time the
stomata are open in leaves and other green tissues ( tissues
containing chlorophyll) the process of photosynthesis is also
in progress. The CO2 thereby evolved in respiration is reutilized
in photosynthesis, and the oxygen produced during
photosynthesis is used for respiration.
During bright light, rate of photosynthesis is much
faster than the rate of respiration, there is a net movement of CO2
from environment to the plant tissue through stomata and O2 is
diffused out from cells to outer environment through stomata.
In the absence of light or during night, the conditions
are just reversed. During night time photosynthesis stops and
only the process of respiration takes place and a result O2 is
diffuses into plants and CO2 diffuses out.

C). Stomata are minute pores on the surface of the leaves. Each stomata has an opening guarded by two kidney-
shaped guard cells in order to understand the mechanism of opening
and closing of stomata, we have to first understand its structure.
Stomata opening is guarded by a pair of bean- shaped guard cells. The inner wall of each guard cell is thick
and less elastic. While the outer wall is thin and more elastic.
If water flows from surrounding cells to guard cells, the turgor pressure in them increases and they
expand, resulting in the opening of stomatal aperture. If guard cells lose water, i.e., water moves from
guard cells, to surrounding cells their turgor pressure decreases, resulting in the closing of stomatal
aperture.
The gases O2 and CO2 after entering through stomata, enter into the sub-stomata space from where they
diffuse through the intercellular space between the mesophyll cells in the leaf. According to the requirement of
plant, gases O2 and CO2 enter the cells and diffuse out through the sub-stomatal space and guard cells into the
atmosphere.
# Study Material compiled by Pankaj sir ( Founder & Faculty of Namann Educations) & Team ( Ph- 6900044808/6900144808/97071444808 )
CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES- Respiratory System PAGE-11
39.Terrestrial organisms use the oxygen in the atmosphere for respiration. This oxygen is absorbed by different
organs in different animals. All these organs have a structure that increases the surface area which is in contact with
the oxygen-rich atmosphere. Since the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide has to take place across this surface
this surface is very fine and delicate. In order to protect this surface, it is usually placed within the body there have to
be passages that will take air to this area. In addition, there is a mechanism for moving the air in and out of this area
where the oxygen is absorbed.

40. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN HUMAN BEINGS -

Respiratory system in human beings consists of nostril
and nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, lungs bronchi, bronchioles
and alveoli,
Nostrils are the nasal openings through which air is drawn
into nasal cavity. The nasal passages are lined by ciliated
epithelium and mucus secreting cells. Both mucus and cilia
check the entry of dust particles and microbes.
Nasal cavity ends in internal nostrils through which
air enters into pharynx. Pharynx passage for air and food.
It leads into trachea (wind pipe) and oesophagus (food pipe)
(food pipe). While swallowing the food, glottis gets covered
by a small cartilagenous flap of skin called epiglottis. This
epiglottis prevents food or water from entering into the
respiratory tract.

The trachea, commonly known as the windpipe, is a tube

that begins just under the larynx (voice box) and runs down to lungs.
The wall trachea is provided with incomplete (C- shaped)
cartilagenous rings, which prevent the trachea from
collapsing even if there is not much air in it.
Trachea is lined internally by ciliated epithelium and
mucus secreting cells. The mucus and cilia both prevent
the entry of dust particles and microbes.
Trachea runs down the neck and extends into thoracic cavity.
On entering the thoracic cavity, trachea divides
into bronchi (singular: bronchus).
Within the lung, each bronchus divides and redivides to
form finer branches called bronchioles. After repeated
divisions each bronchiole ends into a cluster of tiny air
chanbers called air sacs or alveoli (singular: alveolus)
Alveoli are called functional units of lungs as these
are actual site of respiratory exchange.
There are about 750 million of alveoli present in
lungs which have a total surface area of about 80 m2.
Alveoli are covered with a network of capillaries.

41. Lungs- The lungs are a pair of spongy, highly elastic

and bag-like organs. They are roughly cone-shaped
and situated in the thoracic cavity. The lower surface
of the lungs rests on a diaphragm which forms the
floor of thoracic cavity. If the alveolar surface of lungs were spread
out, it would cover about 80 m2. How much do you think
the surface area of your body is ( About - 1.8 square metre ) ?
Consider how efficient exchange of gases becomes because of the large surface available for the exchange to take
place.
# Study Material compiled by Pankaj sir ( Founder & Faculty of Namann Educations) & Team ( Ph- 6900044808/6900144808/97071444808 )
CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES- Respiratory System PAGE-12
Animals have evolved different organs for the uptake of oxygen from the environment and for getting rid of
the carbon dioxide produced. Terrestrial animals can breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere, but animals that live in
water need to use the oxygen dissolved in water.

Since the amount of dissolved oxygen is fairly low compared to the amount of oxygen in the air, the rate of breathing
in aquatic organisms is much faster than that seen in terrestrial organisms. Fishes take in water through their mouths
and force it past the gills where the dissolved oxygen is taken up by blood.

42. Activity 6.6

We have to observe fish in an aquarium. They open and close their mouths and the gill-slits (or the operculum which
covers the gill-slits) behind their eyes also open and close.
Are the timings of the opening and closing of the mouth and gill-slits coordinated in some manner?
Ans- Yes, the timings of the opening and closing of the mouth and gii-slits are co-ordinated. They open and close
alternately. Fish exchange gases by pulling oxygen-rich water through their mouths and pumping it over their gills and
expels water through gill slits after exchange of gases.

Count the number of times the fish opens and

closes its mouth in a minute.
Ans- 90 to 100 times per minute.
( Note - This varies from fish to fish )

Compare this to the number of times you breathe in and out

in a minute.
Ans- 12 to 20 breaths per minute.

43. Tobacco & Its harmful effects

Using tobacco directly or any product of tobacco
in the form of cigar, cigarettes, bidis, hookah,
gutkha, etc., is harmful. Use of tobacco most
commonly affects the tongue, lungs, heart and liver.
Smokeless tobacco is also a major risk factor for
heart attacks, strokes, pulmonary diseases and
several forms of cancers. There is a high incidence
of oral cancer in India due to the chewing of
tobacco in the form of gutkha. Stay healthy; just
say NO to tobacco and its products!

44. Smoking is injurious to health.

Lung cancer is one of common causes of
deaths in the world. The upper part of
respiratory tract is provided with
small hair-like structures called cilia. These
cilia help to remove germs, dust and other
harmful particles from inhaled air. Smoking
destroys these hair due to which germs, dust,
smoke and other harmful chemicals enter
lungs and cause
infection, cough and even lung cancer.

# Study Material compiled by Pankaj sir ( Founder & Faculty of Namann Educations) & Team ( Ph- 6900044808/6900144808/97071444808 )
CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES PAGE-13
45. MECHANISM OF BREATHING
Breathing is a mechanical process. It involves two steps:
# Inhalation, and
# Exhalation
Inhalation
During inhalation, the diaphragm and the musecles
attached to the ribs contract, and the thoracic cavity expands.
This makes the thorax move upwards and outwards there by
increasing the volume inside the thoracic cavity. This causes a
decrease in the air pressure inside. As a result, the air from
outside rushes into the lungs through the nostrils, trachea and
bronchi. Throug the thin walls of the alveoli oxygen diffuses
into the blood. Blood then supplies this oxygen to the tissues.
This oxygen is then used in the cells for cellular respiration.

Exhalation
As a result of cellular respiration of nutrients in cells,
carbon dioxide is produced. This carbon dioxide is absorbed
by the blood from the tissues and carried to the alveoli of lungs.
At this stage, the thoracic cavity returns to its normal size due
to the relaxing of the diaphragm and the rib-muscles, and
carbon dioxide is pushed out of the body through trachea
and nostrils.
*During the breathing cycle. When air is taken in
and let out, the lungs always contain a residual volume of air
so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and for
the carbon dioxide to be released.

46. EXCHANGE OF RESPIRATORY GASES-

The first step in respiration is breathing.
In the next step, exchange of respiratory gases
occurs between the blood and tissue.In the tissue,
oxygen gets used up and carbon dioxide is released.
The blood which bring oxygen from lungs and takes
it to tissues, has a higher concentration of oxygen and
lower concentration of carbon dioxide. Due to the
difference in concentration, the gases get exchanged
between tissue and blood capillaries.
The last step in respiration is the oxidation
of food molecules like glucose for release of energy.
This takes place in the mitochondria of cell.

47. TRANSPORT OF RESPIRATORY GASES-

When the body size of animal is large, the diffusion pressure
alone cannot take care of oxygen delivery to all parts of the body.
If diffusion were to move oxygen in our body, it is estimated that it
would take 3 years for a molecule of oxygen to get to our toes
from our lungs. Instead, respiratory pigments take up oxygen from
the air in the lungs and carry it to tissue which are deficient in oxygen
before releasing it. In human beings, the respiratory pigment
is haemoglobin which has a very high affinity for oxygen.
This pigment is present in the red blood corpuscles.
Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than oxygen is
and hence it mostly transported in the dissolved form in plasma in our blood.

# Study Material compiled by Pankaj sir ( Founder & Faculty of Namann Educations) & Team ( Ph- 6900044808/6900144808/97071444808 )
CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES PAGE-14
48.Transportation in Plants-
Photosynthesis takes place in the leaves. While carbon dioxide is directly absorbed from the atmosphere,
mineral and water have to be obtained from the soil. The absorption of water and minerals occurs through the part in
contact with the soil, i.e. roots. So, a proper transportation system is needed to deliver the raw materials from the site
of absorption to the site of utilization (i.e., leaves).
Two main types of plant tissues are used in transport - xylem and phloem. Xylem transports water and miner-
als. Phloem transports organic molecules ( food ) such as the products of photosynthesis.

A.Xylem:- Xylem is a tube, that transports water and dissolved substances (minerals from soil) to different
plant parts. Xylem is composed of a number of different types of cell, and may include long, thin, usually dead cells
known as tracheids; fibres; thin-walled parenchyma cells; and conducting vessels. The xylem tubes are connected
end-to-end with each other and the xylem tissues run from the bottom of the plant stem up to the branches of a plant.
It is a unidirectional system, allowing transport to occur only in one direction. The water is forced to move upward
from the roots through a pressure driven mechanism that starts at the plant leaves. When the water evaporates
through plant leaf structures, a kind of suction-tension system sets in. This draws water upward through the xylem
tissues. In addition to transportation of material, xylem also helps provide turgidity to support the stem and the leafy
tops of plants.

B.Phloem:- Phloem is another transport system in plants that carries food or sucrose, a type of sugar,from the
leaves to other plant parts. Phloem consists of sieve tubes, companion cells phloem parenchyma and phloem
fibres. Sieve tubes are living cells which contain cytoplasm but do not have nucleus. Companion cells have
cytoplasm as well as nucleus and they supply sieve tubes with some of their requirement. Sucrose is an end-
product of photosynthesis. It is a complex permanent tissue present almost parallel to xylem. In contrast to xylem,
phloem consists of living cells called sieve tube elements. The end wall and side walls of sieve tubes have sieve areas
which allow soluble substances to pass through. Once the food molecules enter the phloem,they are transported
upwards, downwards or in lateral directions. Phloem transport is bi-directional. This means that transport occurs in
two directions.

49. Transportation of water in plants-

The mechanism of water movement is based on purely physical forces because the xylem vessels and
tracheids are lifeless. Many theories have been put forward toexplainthe upward movement of water. Two important
theories amongst them are:
• Root-pressure theory
• Transpiration pull and cohesion tension theory
a.Root pressure theory: According to this theory, when roots absorb water from the soil,they impose a pressure
which is called ‘root pressure’. Root pressure provides a force, which pushes water up the stem, but it is not enough
to push the water to leaves at the top of tall trees. The root pressure theory is applicable in small herbs and plants.
Moreover, the effect of root pressure in transport of water is more important at night. During the day time, stomata
are open. So, the transpiration pull becomes the major driving force in the movement of water in the xylem.
b. Tranpiration pull and cohesion tension theory: According to this theory, the major driving force for long-
distance water transport is transpiration, i.e.the evaporation of water from the leaf surfaces. As water evaporates
through the stomata in the leaves, it creates a sort of vacuum that pulls fluids up through the xylem. Evaporation of
water molecules from the cells of leaf creates a suction which pulls water from the xylem cells of roots. Hence, we
can say that transpiration helps in the absorption and upward movement of water and minerals dissolved in it from
roots to the leaves. Transpiration also has a major role to play in temperature regulation.
# Study Material compiled by Pankaj sir ( Founder & Faculty of Namann Educations) & Team ( Ph- 6900044808/6900144808/97071444808 )
CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES PAGE-15
50. Transportation of Food and other substances in plants through phloem.
Carbohydrates and other metabolic products are present in leaves. The plant hormones are mostly present in
shoot and root tips. Hence, the carbohydrates need to be transported to various parts of the plants where it could be
utilized. On the other hand, the hormones need to be taken to other regions so that there is active growth.The transport
of soluble products of photosynthesis through phloem vessel is called translocation. Phloem is responsible for
transporting these from one part of the plant to the other. The translocation of food and other substances takes place in
the sieve tubes with help of adjacent companion cells both in upward and downward directions.

Besides food molecules, phloem also transports amino acids, hormones synthesised in the shoot tips and other
metabolites.
The translocation in phloem is achieved by utilizing energy. The product of photosynthesis (food molecules) enters
the phloem elements from mesophyll cells. These are in soluble from. Glucose is transferred to phloem tissue using energy
from ATP. This increases the osmotic pressure of the tissue causing the water to move into it from surrounding cells.
Soluble material is then transferred from phloem tissue to other tissues which have less pressure than in the phloem. Thus,
according to plant’s requirement, the material is translocated from higher osmotic pressure areas to lower osmotic pres-
sure areas.The phloem cells transport this soluble food materials to all parts of plant like roots, stem, growing region etc.
This movement of food from leaves to other parts of the plant through phloem vessel is called translocation.

51. Differences between Xylem and Phloem-

Xylem Phloem
Function Transportation of water and mineral from roots to other Transportation of food and nutrients from leaves
parts of the plant. Forms vascular bundles with phloem to storage organs and growing parts of plant.
and gives mechanical strength to plant due to presence Forms vascular bundles with xylem.
of lignified cells.
Takes place in Roots, stems and leaves Roots, stems and leaves

Nature Non living tissue at maturity Living tissue

Made up of Tracheids, vessel elements, xylem parenchyma, xylem Sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem paren-
sclerenchyma. chyma, bast fibers, intermediary cells.

Movement Unidirectional – Moves up the plant's stem Bi-directional – Moves up or down the plant's
stem

# Study Material compiled by Pankaj sir ( Founder & Faculty of Namann Educations) & Team ( Ph- 6900044808/6900144808/97071444808 )
CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES- Transportation in human beings - PAGE-16
52. Transport System in Human Beings: In humans the function of transportation of materials from the parts of body
where they are formed or taken up to other parts where they are consumed/needed or excreted. This function is performed
by extracellular fluids which flow throughout the body. This flow is called circulation and the structure concerned with the
this circulation constitute circulatory system or transport system.

53. Transport system or circulatory system in human beings consists of:

(a) A pumping organ- heart. (b) System of blood vessel- arteries and veins. (c) A circulatory medium- blood and lymph.

(a) Pumping organ- Heart: (i) The heart is a hollow

muscular pumping organ about the size of one’s fist.

(ii) Heart is made up of four chambers : upper two

chambers are auricles ( atria ) ( singular - atrium )
and the lower two chambers are ventricles. Auricles
are the receiving chambers and ventricles are the
pumping chambers. Walls of ventricles are thicker
as they have to pump the blood.

(iii) Partition between right and left chambers of the

heart is called septum”.

(iv) Four pulmonary veins enter into left auricle,

two from each lung bring oxygenated blood to the left auricle.

(v) Right auricle receives the deoxygenated blood

from upper and lower parts of the body by superior
venacava and inferior venacava respectively. Head

Lung
(vi) There is auriculoventricular aperture with a
bicuspid or mitral valve in left auricles which opens Pulmonary vein
Pulmonary artery
into left ventricle. Similarly, blood enters into right Right atrium Left atrium
Vena cava
ventricle through tricuspid valve. Left ventrcle
Right ventricle
Heart
(vii) Pulmonary artery carries
Liver Stomach and
deoxygenated blood to lungs from right ventrical.
intestine

Kidney
(vii) The series of events which occur during one heart beat
is called as cardiac cycle. Rest of the body
parts
Oxygenated blood
(viii) In human beings deoxygenated blood is passed to heart,
Circulation of blood in human body
then it is oxygenated in lungs and carried back again to heart.
From heart oxygenated blood is passed to all parts of body.
Thus, blood flows twice in heart during each cycle. This is known as double circulation.

(b) System of vessels- arteries and veins:

Blood vessels are a system of channels through which blood flows. Blood vessels are of three kinds, namely
Arteries, Veins and Capillaries.
(i) Arteries are blood vessels which carry oxygenated blood from heart to various parts of the body. All arteries (except
Pulmonary arteries) carry oxygenated blood from left ventricle of heart to different parts of body. Arteries have thick,
elastic and muscular walls. In arteries blood flows under pressure and with jerks.
(ii) Veins carry the deoxygenated blood from body parts towards the heart. All veins (except Pulmonary veins) carry
deoxygenated blood. Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from lungs to left auricle ( heart ).Veins have thin, less
elastic, and muscular walls in comparison to arteries.
(iii) Blood Capillaries are fine microscopic vessels that join the arterial system with the venous system. Blood coming
out of the capillaries passes into vessels of increasing diameter as it flows back toward the heart. Capillaries join to
form venules, which then merge to form small veins. Wall of capillaries is one cell thick. Through this thin walls oxygen
and carbon dioxide dissolved food and excretory products are exchanged with tissues.
# Study Material compiled by Pankaj sir ( Founder & Faculty of Namann Educations) & Team ( Ph- 6900044808/6900144808/97071444808 )
CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES PAGE-17
# Oxygen enters the blood in the lungs The separation of the right side and the left side of the heart is useful
to keep oxygenated and deoxygenated blood from mixing. Such separation allows a highly efficient supply of oxygen
to the body. This is useful in animals that have high energy needs, such as birds and mammals, which constantly use
energy to maintain their body temperature.

# In animals that do not use energy for this purpose, the body temperature depends on the temperature in
the environment. Such animals, like amphibians or many reptiles have three-chambered hearts, and tolerate some
mixing of the oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood streams.

# Fishes, on the other hand, have only two chambers to their hearts, and the blood is pumped to the gills, is
oxygenated there, and passes directly to the rest of the body. Thus, blood goes only once through the heart in the
fish during one cycle of passage through the body.
On the other hand, it goes through the heart twice during each cycle in other vertebrates like mammals and
birds. This is known as double circulation.

(c)- ( i ) Blood- A circulatory medium: Blood is a liquid connective tissue. Blood has a fluid matrix called plasma
and three kinds of blood corpuscles suspended in it.
# Blood corpuscles: They form 45% of blood and remain suspended in blood plasma. These are of three types:
Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCs) or erythrocytes, White Blood Corpuscles (WBCs) or leucocytes and Blood plate-
lets or thrombocytes.
* Red blood corpuscles: They contain red-pigment haemoglobin, which impart red colour to the blood.
RBCs are manufactured in bone marrow. The haemoglobin present in red blood corpuscles helps in the transport of
oxygen ( in the form of oxy-haemoglobin )
* Whilte blood corpuscles: WBCs protect the body from disease causing micro-organisms. They are
manufactured in bone marrow.
Blood platelets :- Blood platelets help in blood-clotting.

#Maintenance by platelets: When we get injury and blood vessel is ruptured, the blood flows through it. If
bleeding does not stop, the excessive loss of blood may lead to death. To avoid this situation, the blood has platelet
cells which circulate around the body and plug these leaks by helping to clot the blood at these points of injury.

(c ) - ( ii )- Lymph: (i) When blood flows into thin capillaries some amount of
plasma filters out of thin capillaries. This fluid is called intestitial fluid or tissue fluid or lymph.
(ii) As it baths the cells and lies outside the cells, lymph is also called extracellular fluid.
(iii) It is colourless and contains lymphocyte cells.
(iv) Unlike blood, lymph does not contain red blood corpuscles, platelets and plasma protein.
(v) Lymph flows only in one direction, i,e., from tissues to heart.
Function of lymph:
(i) It transports faty acids and glycerols from small intestine to blood.
(ii) Lymphocytes present in it destroy harmful pathogens.
(iii) It drains excess tissue fluid from intracellular spaces back into the blood.
Lymph vessel along with lymph nodes and lymph glands constitute lymphatic system.

54. Blood pressure

The force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel is called blood pressure.
Thispressure is much greater in arteries than in veins. The pressure of blood inside the
artery during ventricular systole (contraction) is called systolic pressure and pressure
in artery during ventricular diastole (relaxation) is called diastolic pressure. The normal
systolic pressure is about 120 mm of Hg and diastolic pressure is 80 mm of Hg.
Blood pressure is measured with an instrument called sphygmomanometer.
High blood pressure is also called hypertension and is caused by the constriction of
arterioles, which results in increased resistance to blood flow. It can lead to the rupture
of an artery and internal bleeding.
# Study Material compiled by Pankaj sir ( Founder & Faculty of Namann Educations) & Team ( Ph- 6900044808/6900144808/97071444808 )
CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES PAGE-18
55. Activity- 6.7
We have to visit a health centre in our locality and find out what is the normal range of haemoglobin content in human
beings.
*Is it the same for children and adults?
Ans- No, it is different for children and adults. Children of age 6 to 12 yrs – 11.5 to 15.5 g/dl
Adult females – 12.1 to 15.1 g/dl & Adult males – 13.6 to 17.7 g/dl

* Is there any difference in the haemoglobin levels for men and women?
Ans- Yes, there is difference. Adult females – Adult males – 13.6 to 17.7 g/dl & 12.1 to 15.1 g/dl.

*We have to visit a veterinary clinic in our locality. Find out what is the normal range of haemoglobin content in an
animal like the buffalo or cow.
Ans- Calves: average 10.5g/dl , Cow: male 8-12g/dl & female 10 to 15g/dl
Buffalo: Male 12.5 to 14.5 g/dl Female 11.5 to 13.5 g/dl

*Is this content different in calves, male and female animals?

Ans- Yes, it is different as explained above.

* Compare the difference seen in male and female human beings and animals.
Ans- The haemoglobin level in male is higher than in female.

* How would the difference, if any, be explained?

Differences in male and female are due to hormonal influences. It does not cause any side-effect in them.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF HAEMOGLOBIN VALUE:

Haemoglobin content acts as a marker of good health. The lower range indicates Anaemia.

CAUSE OF REGIONAL VARIATION:

Haemoglobin varies from place to place and depends on the environmental condition. If there is low oxygen
concentration in the air, then there is higher haemoglobin content. For example, people going to high altitude gets
more haemoglobin value in 2 to 3 month.
Note- 1 dl ( deci-litre ) = 100 ml.

56. Differences between arteries and veins

ARTERIES VEINS
( a ) . Direction of Flow. It carries blood from heart to ( a ). It brings blood from an organ towards the heart.
an organ/tisssues.
( b ). Type of Blood. Artery carries oxygenated blood ( b ). Vein carries deoxygenated blood except pulmonary veins.
except pulmonary arteries.
( c ). Wall. It is thick and elastic. ( c ). It is comparatively thinner and little elastic.
( d ). Jerks. Blood flows with jerks. ( d ). Blood flows smoothly.
( e ). Occurrence. it is deep seated. ( e ). It is superfical.
( f ). Arteries do not have valves. ( f ). Veins have valves.

57. Differences between blood and lymph

BLOOD LYMPH.
( a ).It 's a RED FLUID. ( a ).It 's a Colourless FLUID.
( b ).It consists of PLASMA,RBC,WBC and PLATELETS. ( b ). It consits of PLASMA and LYMPHOCYTE{WBC}.
( c ).It has HAEMOGLOBIN. ( c ).It lacks HAEMOGLOBIN
( d ).It transports material from one organ to another. ( d ).It transports materials from tissue fluid to blood.
( e ). It flows is fast. ( e ). It flows is slow
# Study Material compiled by Pankaj sir ( Founder & Faculty of Namann Educations) & Team ( Ph- 6900044808/6900144808/97071444808 )
CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES- Excretion PAGE-19
58. ( a ). The biological process involved in the removal of toxic and unwanted waste products from the body of an
organism is called excretion.
( b ). Excretory organs - The organs that perform the function of excretion are called excretory organs. Examples of
excretory organs in human beings- liver, kidneys, lungs, skin etc.
( c ). The system that performs the function of removal of nitrogenous waste products in human beings is called
excretory system. This system in human beings consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, urinary bladder and
urethra.
Adrenal gland
( d ) KIDNEY - Kidneys are bean shaped,
reddish brown organs in human beings Renal artery
which help in the removal of
nitrogenous waste products in human beings Renal vein
in the form of urine. Kidneys also help in
maintaining water balance and ionic balance
Inferior vena cava
in the body.
URETERS - Ureters are tube like struc- Aorta
tures carry urine from kidneys to the
urinary baldder.
URINARY BLADDER - It is a pear
shaped muscular reservoir for urine.
URETHRA - Urethra is a tube like struc-
ture connected to urinarry bladder and
which opens outside through
urethral aperture.

59. Functional unit of kidney - Nephron: (i) Each Kidney consists of more than one million nephrons. Nephrons is a
functional unit of kidney. (ii) Each nephron consists of a cup-shaped structure called “Bowman’s capsule” containing a
bunch of capillaries called Glomerulus.These capillaries arise from an artery which brings blood along with waste and
excess water from the body to the kidney. Bowman’s capsule leads into tubular structure ( renal tubule ) which ultimately
joins the collecting tubule.

(iii) The blood along with waste and excess water is brought to kidney by renal arteries. Blood is filtered from the
blood capillaries into Bowman’s capsule.

(iv) As the nephric filtrate passes through the tubular part of nephron, useful substances like glucose, amino acid,
mineral ions, water etc. are reabsorbed by blood capillaries surrounding the nephron.

(v) From nephron nitrogenous waste is drained into ureters. Ureters carry this nitrogenous waste which is mainly urea
into the urinary bladder. When Bladder gets filled with urine, it is passed out through urethra. A healthy person ex-
cretes 1-2 litres of urine per day.
Thus, kidneys perform two vital functions:
(i) filtering out nitrogenous waste from the blood.
(ii) osmoregulation, i.e., maintaining right amount of water and ionic balance in the body.
# Study Material compiled by Pankaj sir ( Founder & Faculty of Namann Educations) & Team ( Ph- 6900044808/6900144808/97071444808 )
CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES PAGE-20
60. Artificial kidney and haemodialysis-
(i) Partial or total inability of kidneys to carry on Blood carrying wastes passes Selectively permeable
membrane separating
excretory and salt-water regulatory function is from a vein to the apparatus
blood from dialysis
called renal or kidney failure. sol uti on

(ii) It occurs due to infection, injury or restricted

blood flow to kidneys.

(iii) In such cases blood urea rises abnormally

(which can even lead to death) and an artificial
kidney is used to filter the blood of a patient.
Pure blood
(iv) The patient is said to be put on dialysis and passes from the
the process of purifying blood by an artificial apparatus to a
vi en
kidney is called haemodialysis.
Fresh dialysing Used dialysing
sol uti on
61. Process of haemodialysis: sol uti on

The blood of the person suffering from kidney problems is taken out of main artery , cooled , mixed with anticoagu-
lant and then pumped into dialysis machine ( artificial kidney ).

Artificial kidneys contain a number of tubes with a semi-permeable lining ( of cellophane ) , suspended in a tank
filled with dialysing fluid.

This fluid has the same osmotic pressure as blood i.e. water is not exchanged with blood , except that it is devoid of
nitrogenous wastes. The patient’s blood is passed through these tubes.

During this passage, the waste products from the blood pass into dialysing fluid by diffusion. The purified blood is
pumped back into the patient. This is similar to the function of the kidney, but it is different since there is no reab-
sorption involved. The rate of filtration by kidneys is approximately 125 ml/min & about 180 liters each day. Con-
sidering that you have 7 to 8 liters of blood in your body, this means that your entire blood volume gets filtered
approximately 20 to 25 times each day!

62. EXCRETION IN PLANTS:

In plants also certain metabolic waste products are formed which have to be expelled out. The system of
expelling these wastes is different from animals. Many plant waste products are stored in cellular vacuoles.

(i) Photosynthetic and respiratory wastes like O2 and CO2 are expelled out through stomata. CO2 is either utilized by
plants for photosynthesis or expelled out.

(ii) Excess of water is eliminated by the process of transpiration.

(iii) Waste products may be stored in leaves, bark or any other part of plant which fall off or get rid off by the plants.

( iv ) Some waste products are stored as resins and gums especially in old xylem.

( v ) Plant also excrete some waste substance into soil around them.

# Study Material compiled by Pankaj sir ( Founder & Faculty of Namann Educations) & Team ( Ph- 6900044808/6900144808/97071444808 )
 PAGE - 1

CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES ( Text- Solution ) PAGE-21

Question 1: Why is diffusion insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of multi-cellular organisms like
humans?
Answer: In multicellular organisms like human beings only the cells of skin (surface layer) are exposed to
surrounding environment. The rest of body cells of internal organs are not in direct contact with the
surrounding environment. Hence, exchange of gases by diffusion may not be possible in these cells. Besides,
diffusion is a slow process to meet the demands of oxygen by the cells. Thus, multicellular organisms require
specialized organs for breathing, exchange of gases and transport of gases to meet the oxygen requirement.

Question 2: What criteria do we use to decide whether something is alive?

Answer: Any visible movement such as walking, breathing, or growing is generally used to decide whether
something is alive or not. However, a living organism can also have movements, which are not
visible to the naked eye like molecular movements i.e. biochemical reactions. Therefore, the presence of life
processes is a fundamental criterion that can be used to decide whether something is alive or not.

Question 3: What are outside raw materials used for by an organism?

Answer: The important raw materials used by an organism are (i) oxygen for respiration, and release of
chemical energy i.e., ATP, (ii) materials for nutrition ( food ) for obtaining energy.

Question 4: What processes would you consider essential for maintaining life?
Answer: Life processes such as nutrition, respiration, transportation, excretion, etc. are essential
requirement for maintaining life.

Question 5: What are the differences between autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic nutrition?
Answer:

Autotrophic nutrition Heterotrophic nutrition

(i) Food is synthesised from simple (i) Food is obtained directly or indirectly from
inorganic raw materials such as CO2 autotrophs. This food is broken down with the
and water. help of enzymes.

(ii) Presence of green pigment (ii) No pigment is required in this type of nutrition.
(chlorophyll) is necessary.

(iii) Food is generally prepared during (iii) Food can be obtained at all times.
day time.
(iv) All animals and fungi have this type of
(iv) All green plants and some bacteria nutrition.
have this type of nutrition.

Question 6: Where do plants get each of the raw materials required for photosynthesis?
Answer: The following raw materials are required for photosynthesis:
(i) The raw material CO2 enters from the atmosphere through stomata.
(ii) Water is absorbed from the soil by the plant roots.
(iii) Sunlight, an important component to manufacture food, is absorbed by the chlorophyll and other
green parts of the plants.
Question 7:What is the role of the acid in our stomach?
Answer: Gastric HCl perform the following functions:- (i) Provides acidic medium which is essential for the
action of gastric enzyme pepsin. (ii) It kills bacteria present in the food. (iii) Covnert inactive pepsin
(pepsinogen) into active pepsin.

Question 8: What is the function of digestive enzymes?

Answer: Digestive enzymes are secreted by digestive glands. They help in breaking down the complex food
into simple absorbable form. Digestive enzymes finally convert proteins into amino-acids, Complex
carbohydrates into monosaccharides and Fats into fatty acids and glycerol. villus
Question 9: How is the small intestine designed to absorb digested food?
Answer: The small intestine has millions of tiny finger-like projections called villi.
These villi increase the surface area for more efficient food absorption. Within
these villi, many blood vessels are present that absorb the digested food and
carry it to the blood stream. From the blood stream, the absorbed food is
delivered to each and every cell of the body.

Question 10: What advantage over an aquatic organism does a terrestrial organism with regard to obtaining oxygen
for respiration?
Answer: Terrestrial organisms take up oxygen from the atmosphere whereas aquatic animals need to utilize oxygen
present in the water. Air contains more O2 as compared to oxygen dissolved in water. Since the content of O2 in air is
high, the terrestrial animals do not have to breathe faster to get more oxygen. On the other hand, aquatic organisms will
have to breathe faster to get required oxygen. Terrestrial organisms do not have to show various adaptations for better
gaseous exchange.
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CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES ( Text- Solution ) PAGE-22
Question 11:
What are the different ways in which glucose is oxidized to provide energy in various organisms?
Answer: Glucose is oxidised to provide energy mainly by two ways - ( i ) Aerobic respiration - a process in
which glucose molecule is oxidised in presence of free oxygen. ( ii ) A process in which glucose molecule is
oxidised in absence of free oxygen. In higher organisms ( plants and animals ), glucose molecule is oxidised
to provide enrgy in presence of free oxygen.In yeast and human muscle cells, the breakdown of pyruvate
occurs in the absence of oxygen whereas in mitochondria, the breakdown of pyruvate occurs in the pres-
ence of oxygen.

Question 12: How is oxygen and carbon dioxide transported in human beings?
Answer: Oxygen: Oxygen combines with the respiratory pigment haemo-
globin and carried to tissues in the form of oxyhaemoglobin. This pigment is
present in RBCs. Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water
than oxygen and hence, is mostly transported in the dissolved form in the
plasma our blood. Some amount carbon-di-oxide also combines with
haemoglobin and is carried through the blood.
exchange of O2 and CO2 in blood
Question 13: How are the lungs designed in human beings to maximize the area for exchange of
gases?
Answer: Within the lungs, the air passage divides into smaller and smaller tubes which finally terminate in
balloon like structures called alveoli. The alveoli provide a surface where the exchange of gases can take
place. The 2 lungs together have millions of alveoli. The walls of the alveoli are supplied with an extensive
network of blood capillaries. So lungs maximise the area for gaseous exchange through the presence of large
number of alveoli which are richly supplied with blood.

Question 14: What are the components of the transport system in human beings? What are the
functions of these components?
Answer: The main components of the transport system in human beings are the heart, blood, and blood
vessels.
 Heart pumps oxygenated blood throughout the body. It receives deoxygenated blood from the
various body parts and sends this impure blood to the lungs for oxygenation.
 Being a fluid connective tissue, blood helps in the transport of oxygen, nutrients, CO2, and
nitrogenous wastes.
 The blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries) carry blood either away from the heart to
various organs or from various organs back to the heart.

Question 15: Why is it necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in mammals and
birds?
Answer: Warm-blooded animals such as birds and mammals maintain a constant body temperature by
cooling themselves when they are in a hotter environment and by warming their bodies when they are in a
cooler environment. Hence, these animals require more oxygen (O2) for more cellular respiration so that they
can produce more energy to maintain their body temperature. Thus, it is necessary for them to separate
oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood, so that their circulatory system is more efficient and can maintain
their constant body temperature.
Question 16: What are the components of the transport system
in highly organised plants?
Answer: In highly organised plants, there are two different types of
Pit
conducting tissues “ xylem and phloem. Xylem conducts water and Vessel element
minerals obtained from the soil (via roots) to the rest of the plant.
Phloem transports food materials from the leaves to different parts of Tracheid
the plant body.
Xylem
Question 17: How are water and minerals transported in plants? parenchymya
Answer: The components of xylem tissue (tracheids and vessels) cell
of roots,stems, and leaves are interconnected to form a continuous
system of water-conducting channels that reaches all parts of the
plant. Transpiration creates a suction pressure, as a result of which Components of xylem
water is forced into the xylem cells of the roots. Then there is a tissue
steady movement of water from the root xylem to all the plant parts
through the interconnected water-conducting channels.
Sieve plate
Question 18: How is food transported in plants? Sieve tube member
Answer: Phloem transports food materials from the leaves to Companion cell
different parts of the plant body. The transportation of food in phloem
is achieved by utilizing energy from ATP. As a result of this, the osmotic Phloem
pressure in the tissue increasescausing water to move into it. parenchyma
This pressure moves the material in the phloem to the tissues which
have less pressure. This is helpful in moving materials according to
the needs of the plant. For example, the food material, such as Components of phloem tissue
sucrose, is transported into the phloem tissue using ATP energy.
# Study Material compiled by Pankaj sir ( Founder & Faculty of Namann Educations) & Team ( Ph- 6900044808/6900144808/97071444808 )
CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES ( Text- Solution ) PAGE-23
Question 19: Describe the structure and functioning of nephrons.
Answer: Each nephron consists of a cup-shaped structure called “Bowman’s capsule” containing a bunch of capillar-
ies called Glomerulus.These capillaries arise from an artery which brings blood along with waste and excess water
from the body to the kidney. Bowman’s capsule leads into tubular structure which ultimately joins the transverse
collecting tubule.
Malpihian corpuscle
Glo meru lus Water, some salts and
Bowman’s
Efferent arteriole nitrogenous wastes like
capsule
urea and creatinie
Afferent arteriole
Branch of Collecting tubule
renal artery
Peritubular
Branch of renal capillary
ve i n

Tubular part
of nephron
Urine
Glucose, amino-acids, mineral ions,
water, etc.reabsorbed in blood here

Functioning of a nephron:
The blood enters the kidney through the renal artery, which branches into many capillaries associated with
glomerulus.
The water and solute are transferred to the nephron at Bowman’s capsule.
In the proximal tubule, some substances such as amino acids, glucose, and salts are selectively reabsorbed and
unwanted molecules are added in the urine.
 The filtrate then moves down into the loop of Henle, where more water is absorbed.
 From here, the filtrate moves upwards into the distal tubule and finally to the collecting duct. Collecting
duct collects urine from many nephrons.
 The urine formed in each kidney enters a long tube called ureter. From ureter, it gets transported to the
urinary bladder and then into the urethra.

Question 20: What are the methods used by plants to get rid of excretory products?
Answer: Plants can get rid of excess of water by transpiration. Waste materials may be stored in the cell
vacuoles or as gum and resin, especially in old xylem. It is also stored in the leaves that later fall off.

Question 21: How is the amount of urine produced regulated? **** about reabsorption.
Answer: The amount of urine produced depends on the amount of excess water and dissolved wastes
present in the body. Some other factors such as habitat of an organism and hormone such as Antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) also regulates the amount of urine produced.

Exercise Questions and answers

Question 1: The kidneys in human beings are a part of the system for
(a) nutrition. (b) respiration. (c) excretion. (d) transportation.
Answer:(c) In human beings, the kidneys are a part of the system for excretion.
Question 2: The xylem in plants are responsible for
(a) transport of water. (b) transport of food. (c) transport of amino acids. (d) transport of oxygen.
Answer: (a) In a plant, the xylem is responsible for transport of water.
Question 3: The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires
(a) carbon dioxide and water. (b) chlorophyll. (c) sunlight. (d) all of the above.
Answer: (d) The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires carbon dioxide, water, chlorophyll and sunlight.
Question 4: The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and energy takes place in
(a) cytoplasm. (b) mitochondria. (c) chloroplast. (d) nucleus.
Answer (b) The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and energy takes place in
mitochondria.
Question 5: How are fats digested in our bodies? Where does this process take place?
Answer : Fats are present in the form of large globules in the small intestine. The small intestine gets
the secretions in the form of bile juice and pancreatic juice respectively from the liver and the
pancreas. The bile salts (from the liver) break down the large fat globules into smaller globules so that
the pancreatic enzymes can easily act on them. This is referred to as emulsification of fats. It takes
place in the small intestine.

Question 6: What is the role of saliva in the digestion of food?

Answer: Saliva is secreted by the salivary glands, located under the tongue. It moistens the food for
easyswallowing. It contains a digestive enzyme called salivary amylase, which breaks down starch into
sugar.
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CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES ( Text- Solution ) PAGE-24

Question 7: What are the necessary conditions for autotrophic nutrition and what are its by-products?
Answer: Autotrophic nutrition takes place through the process of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide, water,
chlorophyll pigment, and sunlight are the necessary conditions required for autotrophic nutrition.
Carbohydrates (food) and O2 are the by-products of photosynthesis.
Sunlight
6CO2+ 6H2O > C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll

Question 8: What are the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration? Name some
organisms that use the anaerobic mode of respiration. * NOTE- ALSO REFER EXPLANATION PART.
Answer
Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
a. It occurs in the presence of O2. a. It occurs in the absence of O2.
b. It involves the exchange of gases b. Exchange of gases is absent.
between the organism and the outside
environment.
c. It occurs in cytoplasm and mitochondria. c. It occurs only in cytoplasm.
d. It always releases CO2 and H2O. d. End products vary.
e. It yields 38 ATPs per mole of glucose. e. It yields only 2 ATPs per mole of glucose.

Anaerobic respiration occurs in the roots of some waterlogged plants, some parasitic worms,
animal muscles, and some micro-organisms such as yeasts.

Question 9: How are the alveoli designed to maximise the exchange of gases?
Answer: The alveoli are the small balloon-like structures present in the lungs.
The walls of the alveoli consist of extensive network of blood vessels. Each
lung millions of alveoli. The alveolar surface when spread out covers about
80 m area. This large surface area makes the gaseous exchange more
2

efficient.

Question 10: What would be the consequences of a deficiency of

haemoglobin in our bodies? Alveoli and capillaries
Answer: Haemoglobin is the respiratory pigment that transports oxygen to
the body cells for cellular respiration. Therefore, deficiency of haemoglobin in
blood can affect the oxygen supplying capacity of blood. This can lead to
deficiency of oxygen in the body cells. It can also lead to a disease called anaemia.

Question 11: Describe double circulation in human beings. Why is it necessary?

Answer: The human heart is divided into four chambers “ the right atrium, the right ventricle, the left atrium,
and the left ventricle.
Flow of blood in the heart:
 The heart has superior and inferior vena cava, which carries de-oxygenated blood from the
upper and lower regions of the body respectively and supplies this de-oxygenated blood to
the right atrium of the heart.
 The right atrium then contracts and passes the de-oxygenated
blood to the right ventricle, through an auriculo-ventricular aperture.
 Then the right ventricle contracts and passes the de-oxygenated
blood into the two pulmonary arteries, which pumps it to the lungs
where the
blood becomes oxygenated. From the lungs, the pulmonary
veins transport the oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart.
 Then the left atrium contracts and through the auriculo-ventricular
aperture, the oxygenated blood enters the left ventricle.
 The blood passes to aorta from the left ventricle. The aorta gives
rise to many arteries that distribute the oxygenated blood to all the
regions of the body.

Therefore, the blood goes twice through the heart. This is known as
double circulation.
Importance of double circulation: F lo w o f b l oo d in th e h e ar t
The separation of oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood allows a more efficient supply of oxygen to the
body cells. This efficient system of oxygen supply is very useful in warm-blooded animals such as human
beings.
As we know, warm-blooded animals have to maintain a constant body temperature by cooling themselves
when they are in a hotter environment and by warming their bodies when they are in a cooler environment.
Hence, they require more O2 for more respiration so that they can produce more energy to maintain their
body temperature. Thus, the circulatory system of humans is more efficient because of the double circulatory
system.
# Study Material compiled by Pankaj sir ( Founder & Faculty of Namann Educations) & Team ( Ph- 6900044808/6900144808/97071444808 )
CLASS - X CH-6: LIFE PROCESSES ( Text- Solution ) PAGE-25
Question 12:What are the differences between the transport of materials in xylem and phloem?
Answer:
Transport of materials in xylem Transport of materials in phloem
(i) Xylem tissue helps in the transport of water and (i) Phloem tissue helps in the transport of food.
minerals.
(ii) Water is transported upwards from roots to all (ii) Food is transported in both upward
other plant parts. and downward directions.
(iii) Transport in xylem occurs with the help of (iii) Transport of food in phloem
simple physical forces such as transpiration pull. requires energy in the form of ATP.

Question 13: Compare the functioning of alveoli in the lungs and nephrons in the kidneys with respect to
their structure and functioning.
Answer:
Alveoli Nephron
Structure Structure
(i) Alveoli are tiny balloon-like (i) Nephrons are tubular structures present inside the
structures present inside the lungs. kidneys.
(ii) The walls of the alveoli are one (ii) Nephrons are made of glomerulus, bowman’s
cell thick and it contains an extensive capsule,
network of blood capillaries. and a long renal tube. It also contains a cluster of
thinwalled
Function capillaries.
(i) The exchange of O2 and CO2 Function
takes place between the blood of the (i) The blood enters the kidneys through the renal artery
capillaries that surround the alveoli which branches into many capillaries in the glomerulus. The
and the gases present in the alveoli. water and solute are transferred to the nephron at Bowman’s
capsule. Then the filtrate moves through the proximal tubule
and then down into the loop of henle. From henle’s loop,
filtrate passes into the distal tubule and then to the collecting
duct. The collecting duct collects the urine from any nephrons
and passes it to the ureter. During the flow of filtrate, some
substances such as glucose, amino acids, and water are
selectively reabsorbed.
(ii) Alveoli are the site of gaseous (ii) Nephrons are the basic filtration unit.
exchange.

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