ADDIS

ABABA CITY
AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT PLAN
(2021 to 2025)

Acknowledgements

This document was developed under a partnership between the Addis Ababa Environmental
Protection and Green Development Commission, with support from the United States
Environmental Protection Agency, the United States Embassy in Addis Ababa and UN
Environment.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................................................... 3
Forward Message ...................................................................................................................................................... 4
Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................................. 6
1. Introduction and Background of Air Quality in Addis Ababa .................................................... 8
2. AQMP Development Process ................................................................................................................ 12
3. Summary of Baseline Air Quality Characterization .................................................................... 15
3.1 Emission sources .......................................................................................................................... 15
3.2 Expected emissions trends .......................................................................................................... 21
3.3 Ambient air quality ...................................................................................................................... 22
3.4 Health implications of the baseline air quality scenario ..................................................................... 30
3.5 Capacity assessment .................................................................................................................... 38

4. Gaps and Issues .......................................................................................................................................... 41

4.1 Enhancing AQ monitoring capabilities ......................................................................................... 41
4.2 Improve emissions inventories .................................................................................................... 42
4.3 Improve access to laboratory facilities ........................................................................................ 43
4.4 Improve national-city cooperation .............................................................................................. 43
4.5 Enhance education and outreach on air pollution issues ............................................................ 43

5. Overall Objective and Goals of the AQMP ....................................................................................... 44

6. Implementation Plan ............................................................................................................................... 45
7. Monitoring and Evaluation .................................................................................................................... 56

FORWARD MESSAGE













MAYOR ADANECH ABIBEBIE




Air pollution is the most significant environmental contributor to premature death across Africa, outpacing deaths
from malaria and HIV. We know that levels of harmful air pollutants are too high and present an unacceptable health
burden on the people who make Addis Ababa their home. We also know that this health burden has real economic
implications for the city and the nation as a whole. Health effects associated with air pollution limit healthy time
that could be available for work or school and present a direct social and economic cost for healthcare to treat
asthma, serious respiratory symptoms, and many other health effects, including premature death.
Through recent cooperation with the U.S. under their Megacity Partnership, local experts have calculated that
our city experienced 2,700 premature deaths in 2017 from this level of pollution in our city. With no action, this will
grow to 6,000 premature deaths by 2025. And we know that it’s not just premature death, air pollution impacts
everyone’s quality of life and has many other health consequences that will only get worse if we do not take action.
I want to assure you that we can tackle this challenge together while also sustaining rapid economic growth.
The idea that environmental needs counter our economic or development needs is a false choice. Advances in
environmental standards can improve economic performance. In fact, without action we can anticipate harm to
both health and economic development.
So, what can we do? To address this serious challenge, today I am launching an Air Quality Management Plan
for the city of Addis Ababa. This plan offers a vision for our city’s future that includes blue skies and cleaner air than
we have today. Action is supported by the data from the U.S. monitors and satellite data to make a compelling case
that the time to act is now. The plan also includes strategies for a rapidly expanding network of air quality sensors
and other local data, as well as specific actions to reduce emissions.
When implemented by partners across local and federal government, the private sector and academia, this plan
will help us realize the following types of air pollution reduction strategies: reduce open burning, create vehicle
emissions standards, improve vehicle emissions testing and enforcement, create stronger standards for fuel quality
with an emphasis on decreasing the concentration of sulfur in our diesel fuel, and expand of our air quality
monitoring abilities to evaluate change over time. We cannot solve this problem overnight, but by launching this
plan, I am committing to take the steps needed to clean our air and improve the health for all our residents.
The good news is that we also have support from the international community to begin to take immediate action
to implement the objectives and activities outlined in the AQMP. The U.S. government support includes the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, the State Department, NASA, and USAID. They will work in close collaboration
with UNEP, C40, WRI, the World Bank, Vital Strategies, and Addis Ababa University’s GeoHealth Hub along with
committed representatives from the EFCCC, MoT, MoH, under the leadership of the EPGDC. I will ask the EPGDC

Commissioner to chair a steering committee to coordinate the growing efforts to improve air quality in our city.
Together, we can and must make progress.
We have seen rapid growth in the number of air quality sensors in the city and will have much better data for
future monitoring and action. However, there is no need to wait for perfect data to know that the air we breathe is
unhealthy and people are dying from it. This AQMP includes plans for concrete steps to reduce emissions, not just
measure them. We can look at large developing cities around the world to know that the air will get much worse
without concrete action today to slow down the rate of emissions growth. In doing so, we can save lives, improve
worker productivity with fewer sick days, improve our tourist revenues, and make Addis Ababa a city the “New
Flower” that its name embodies.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Indoor and outdoor pollution are currently the most significant environmental contributors to premature
death in Africa, outpacing that of malaria and HIV. Yet for many African governments, addressing air
pollution has only recently become a key public health concern. According to present knowledge, one in
nine of today’s global deaths is a result of exposure to air pollution - either (outdoor) ambient air pollution
(AAP) or (indoor) household air pollution (WHO (2018a, 2018b), jointly causing an estimated 8 million
deaths per year. The State of Global Air 2020 indicates that air pollution was the fourth leading risk factor
for premature death in 2019 (Health Effects Institute, 2020). Without multi-pronged action, the growing
rural-urban migration and increase in population being experienced in Ethiopia, and in Addis Ababa in
particular, is likely to outpace and challenge the already inadequate infrastructure that exists to manage
air pollution.

Ethiopia’s first Air Quality Management Plan (AQMP) focuses on the Addis Ababa region for three reasons:
• Current conditions, as characterized by available ambient particulate matter data from air quality monitor
readings and satellite data, present an unacceptable health burden for the population of Addis Ababa.
Ambient concentration levels are estimated to be at least 2-3 times both the Ethiopian standard and WHO
guidelines for air quality.
• The health burden associated with high PM2.5 concentrations has clear economic implications for Addis
Ababa and the nation as a whole. Health effects associated with PM2.5 limit healthy time that could be
available for work or school and present a direct social and economic cost for healthcare to treat asthma,
serious respiratory symptoms, and many other health effects.
• Without action, economic and population growth is very likely to lead to higher air pollutant emissions in
the vehicular, household and commercial open burning, and industrial sectors, which will worsen air
quality over time. When implemented, this AQMP can reverse harmful emissions trends.

Common sources of ambient air pollution in Addis Ababa include vehicle emissions from fuel-inefficient,
aging vehicles, incomplete combustion from diesel vehicles, unpaved roads, industrial sources, and
construction. Other sources include household cooking and heating, open burning of solid waste, and
transport of pollution from industrial areas outside of Addis Ababa. The health burden of these emissions
is considerable. In the Addis Ababa Region, a multi-agency air quality management workgroup estimates
that in 2017, 2,700 lives were prematurely lost due to the effects of air pollution, or about 21% of all non-
1
accidental deaths in the 25- to 99-year-old age group . Without action to control air pollution, by 2025
this figure is estimated to rise to 6,200 and account for 32% of deaths in this age group. Meeting existing
Ethiopian ambient air quality standards can reduce those deaths by more than 75%. Additional negative
health outcomes associated with air pollution, such as premature mortality among youth and children,
asthma cases and missed school and work days, can also be reduced.

1
This is the age range for which data is available. Impacts are also expected in younger ages, but estimates are not
available.

The Addis Ababa Environmental Protection and Green Development Commission (AAEPGDC) and other
partners developed this comprehensive AQMP for the Addis Ababa Region as the next step in addressing
these problems. Key features of this plan include:

• Baseline air quality characterization and projected emission trends

• Health burden estimates
• Institutional commitment to updating and enforcing source-specific and ambient air quality
standards
• Efforts to augment and standardize the air quality monitoring network
• A detailed AQMP implementation plan

The AAEPGDC expects to update this plan again in five years to take advantage of new knowledge, new technologies,
and continually work to improve the public health of those who live, work and play in Addis Ababa.

1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF AIR QUALITY IN ADDIS ABABA

As Addis Ababa grows both economically and spatially, air pollution from vehicle emissions, residential combustion,
open burning of waste, and other sources is an increasing health concern in the metropolitan area. The legal basis
for air quality management and general environmental policy is included in the Ethiopian Constitution, which
ensures that every citizen has the right to a clean environment and that the government will prevent environmental
pollution and the associated negative health effects (Tefera et al., 2014). Proclamation 295/2002 furthers the
constitutional right of environmental protection by establishing a federal, independent, environmental protection
authority (now the Environmental Forestry and Climate Change Commission, EFCCC), the Environmental Council,
who provide high-level oversight of regulation, policy, and environmental standards (Tefera et al., 2014), and
regional environmental protection authorities located in Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa (Addis Ababa Institute of
Technology, 2012). This Air Quality Management Plan (AQMP) is an important step toward providing the clean and
healthy environment necessary for Addis Ababa city and its residents to develop, grow, and prosper.

Under the Environmental Pollution Control Law, the EFCCC is responsible for setting environmental standards and
enforcing compliance with the standards (Tefera et al., 2014). Other relevant agencies with jurisdiction over air
quality management include:
• federal Ministry of Transport and Addis Ababa Transport Authority, which are responsible for monitoring
and enforcement of emissions from mobile sources and collection and maintenance of statistics on the
vehicle fleet,
• National Meteorological Agency, which is responsible for collecting, managing, and disseminating
meteorological and air quality monitoring data,
• Ministry of Health, which has a Hygiene and Environmental Health Directorate that includes case teams
focused on water quality, food sanitation, and air/climate. They rely predominantly on Health Extension
Workers at the grassroots level for outreach, preventative health tips, and education of the population
(Tefera et al., 2014). The Ministry of Health adopted a national framework for climate resilience (FMOH
2014).
• Addis Ababa City Administration Health Bureau, which has created the structure of the Environmental
Health Department, including structure at the sub-city and woreda level where Environmental Health
Professionals engage on environment-related activities. In addition, the Urban Health Extension is designed
to raise awareness of the health risks including air pollution and empowerment of women and children,
who experience the highest levels of exposure in their communities. Because the Environmental Health
Program is yet adequately supported and lacks concrete evidence to confirm air pollution (Indoor and
outdoor) associated health effects, policy decisions must rely on incomplete information.
• At the city level, the authority and responsibility to maintain a healthy and clean environment within the
region of Addis Ababa city is formally held by the Addis Ababa Environmental Protection and Green
Development Commission (AAEPGDC).
• In addition, the Solid Waste Management Agency, the Addis Ababa Planning and Development Commission,
and the City and Federal Transportation Ministry can play particularly constructive roles in addressing air
pollution.

Ethiopia has established national ambient air quality standards for various pollutants, including fine particulate
matter (PM2.5). PM2.5 is an inhalable mixture of solid and liquid particles present in the air that measure less than 2.5
microns in diameter. There is significant evidence of the relationship between exposure to PM2.5 and harmful human
health impacts, as PM2.5 is associated with the greatest proportion of adverse health impacts related to air pollution
worldwide. Ethiopia’s national standards were created with reference to World Health Organization (WHO) guideline
3
target. WHO suggests annual average PM2.5 concentrations not exceed 10 µg/m , though maintains interim targets
to allow stepwise achievements in air quality management. These interim targets are meant to help countries to
develop their own air quality management standards progressively and demonstrate improvement over time.

At the time of developing Ethiopian standards in 2003, there were no national baseline air quality data available.
3
Ethiopian standards were set between WHO interim targets 1 (annual average PM2.5 concentration 35 µg/m ) and 2
3
(annual average PM2.5 concentration 25 µg/m ). According to Environmental Pollution Control Proclamation No.
300/2002 section 6 (4) Ethiopian law establishes the right for regional environmental protection authorities, such as
the AAEPGDC, to set more stringent ambient and emissions standards than the national standards if they so choose,
but the national standards establish a minimum stringency level for all parts of Ethiopia.

In Addis Ababa, both mobile (vehicle) and point (mostly industrial) emission sources contribute to carbon monoxide
(CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), ozone (O3), sulfur dioxide (SO2), coarse particulate matter (PM10), and PM2.5 pollution in
2
the metropolitan area. The main sources of ambient air pollution in the city are
• Vehicle emissions from fuel-inefficient aging vehicles,
• incomplete combustion from diesel vehicles,
• Dust from unpaved roads,
• Open burning of trash,
• Home heating and cooking using biomass, and
• Industrial sources.
Plans outlined in Ethiopia’s Growth Transformation Plan Part One (GTPI) and Part Two (GTPII) illustrate Ethiopia’s
commitment to developing national, renewable energy sources for electricity generation (mainly hydropower, but
also geothermal) and replacing vehicles with light rail transit and bus rapid transit systems within the city. Overall,
the infrastructure projects undertaken show a significant push towards improving the efficiency and low- to no-
emission components of the transport and energy sectors, which will help reduce the burden of air pollution in Addis
Ababa.

In addition, despite an aging vehicle fleet, there are several policies in place and currently being drafted under the
Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) and Global Fuel Economy Initiative (GFEI) regarding vehicles standards. The
CRGE is drafting vehicular emission standards for emissions and promoting fuel blends of ethanol, gasoline, and
biodiesel through the EFCCC. Using blended fuel will reduce the country’s reliance on imported fuel with high sulfur
content from Sudan (other fuels are imported from Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.) Currently, every car in Ethiopia must
undergo an annual inspection to ensure the vehicle meets safety standards. There are standards for vehicle exhaust
emissions limits for smoke and CO, established by the Ethiopian government under the EFCCC and codified within
the Transport Authority to measure compliance (Addis Ababa Institute of Technology, 2012). However, vehicle
emissions enforcement is not yet happening. Recently, EFCCC altered the federal tax on vehicle imports to reduce
the incentives to import older vehicles and reduce the disincentive to import newer, more fuel-efficient and cleaner
vehicles. Addis Ababa city banned commercial vehicles during daylight hours and banned motorcycles from city
streets in an effort to reduce congestion and improve fuel-efficiency. Other measures to control vehicle emissions
and update the vehicle fleet are also being considered as part of this AQMP.

Ethiopia’s standards for industrial pollution control were developed by the federal EPA in 2003 based on
international best practice. At that time there were no national baseline data to guide the development of national
targets. The standards require refreshing based on current national and city level air quality status as well as air
quality goals. A source apportionment study conducted in 2004 concluded that between 35 and65% of PM10 in Addis
Ababa was geologic in origin, with unpaved roads as the main source (Etyemezian et al., 2005). With an increasing
number of vehicles on the road and a large unpaved road network, the concentration of suspended dust particles
from unpaved roads could increase, though efforts over the past decade to pave roads within Addis Ababa city show
promise in this area. Another potential area of concern is emissions from construction activity.

2
Given its important relationship with harmful human health impacts, this AQMP focuses specifically on analysis of
and efforts to control PM2.5 in the city of Addis Ababa.

Open burning of waste is a common problem in Addis Ababa. Some studies have suggested that that nearly 55
percent of the population in Addis Ababa use open burning as their primary means of waste disposal, a figure slightly
higher than the overall national average of the population using open burning as their primary waste disposal means
(Cheever 2011).

Efforts to monitor and manage air pollution emissions, both prior to this AQMP and ongoing, have had an impact on
air quality, but significant gaps remain and further progress is expected. To bridge these gaps, the AAEPGDC has
developed this draft AQMP, in conjunction with other federal and city authorities, to address air quality within Addis
Ababa.

FIGURE 1-1: ADDIS ABABA MAP

The goal of the plan is to reduce the concentration of hazardous fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in the Addis Ababa
region to a level that is in compliance with the national air quality standard. This first AQMP has been developed by
AAEPGDC in collaboration with the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) to take advantage of
USEPA’s significant and broad experience in air quality management.

Ethiopia’s first AQMP focuses on the Addis Ababa region for three reasons:
• Current conditions, as characterized by available ambient fine particulate matter data from air quality
monitor readings and satellite data, present an unacceptable health burden for the population of Addis
Ababa. Current PM2.5 concentrations are not in line with international standards for air quality.
• The health burden associated with high PM2.5 concentrations has clear economic implications for Addis
Ababa and the nation. Health effects associated with PM2.5 limit healthy time that could be available for
work or school and present a direct social and economic cost for healthcare.
• Without action, economic growth is very likely to lead to higher emissions in the vehicular, household and
commercial open burning, and industrial sectors, which will worsen air quality over time.

10


The focus of the AQMP is ambient particulate matter (PM) pollution in Addis Ababa. PM pollution is classified by the
size of the particles—PM10 stands for particulate matter comprised of particles less than 10 microns in diameter and
PM2.5 refers to fine particulate matter comprised of particles less than 2.5 microns in diameter. The length of
exposure and particle size a person is exposed to can cause differential health impacts; for example, PM2.5 penetrates
more deeply into the lungs and has been found to have greater toxicity at lower exposure levels than PM10. Similarly,
the impacts of long-term, chronic exposure to particles can differ from the impacts of exposures occurring within
the course of a single day. Therefore, ambient air quality standards include different standards for PM10 versus PM2.5
and daily versus annual exposure times. As noted in Section 1, this AQMP focuses on PM2.5 specifically

11


2. AQMP DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

Section 2 of this AQMP provides an overview of the various processes that contributed to its development. More
details are provided within each subsection.

2.1 STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT IN THE AQMP DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

The USEPA and United Nations Environment Programme (UN Environment) worked together to support AAEPGDC
in the development of actionable air quality management policies beginning in early 2018. Stakeholder buy-in is a
3
critical part of any air quality management planning process. The Megacities Partnership was launched by the U.S.
4
Ambassador, the Ethiopian EFCCC and UN Environment. Stakeholders engaged in these events included:

• Addis Ababa Transport Authority

• Addis Ababa University
• National Meteorological Agency
• Kotebe Metropolitan University
• Addis Ababa City Administration Health Bureau
• National Ministry of Health
• National Ministry of Transport
• World Bank
• Addis Ababa Driver & Vehicle Licensing & Control Authority
• Population, Health and Environment Consortium

These same stakeholders reconvened in November 2018 and again in June 2019 to continue training and to build
expertise in the application of the BenMAP-CE tool, air quality management planning, and communication and public
involvement strategies.

3
The first event was organized by UN Environment on May 3, 2018. This inception workshop was designed to assess
the recent, on-going and planned air quality related work in Addis Ababa. At that time, UN Environment also
presented an outline of their planned situational analysis.

4
This first workshop was followed by a joint USEPA-UN Environment training workshop in September 2018 that
included a formal launch of the Megacities Partnership. The launch event included participation by a number of
senior officials, press and interested members of the public. The workshop was a more detailed training event
designed to build capacity within Addis Ababa to apply tools and analysis and motivate action to address air
pollution. Participants learned about the current state of air quality and relevant policies, the basics of air quality
management and how to design and analyze AQM strategies and policies that can improve public health. In addition,
a small group of technical staff gained familiarity with both source apportionment techniques using USEPA’s Positive
Matrix Factorization (PMF) software; and AQMP benefits analyses using USEPA’s Environmental Benefits and
Mapping Analysis Program – Community Edition (BenMAP-CE) tool.

12


While these stakeholders received detailed training in components of AQM planning, the AAEPGDC aimed to receive
additional input from external experts in the form of a Clean Air Advisory Committee. The institutions represented
by members of the Advisory Committee were:

1) Said Abdella, Addis Ababa Environmental Protection and Green Development Commission
2) Gutema Moroda, Addis Ababa Environmental Protection and Green Development Commission
3) Hirut Jifara Abdi , Ministry of Health
4) Berhanu Assefa, Addis Ababa University
5) Gezahegn Bekele, National Meteorology Agency
6) Tadesse Weyuma, Kotebe University
7) Abera Kumie, Addis Ababa University/GeoHealth Hub
8) Ahmed Mohammed, PHEEC (NGO)
9) Girma Samuel, AA Transport Authority
10) Yehalem Tesera, Driver and Vehicle Licensing Control Authority

The Advisory Committee meetings were conducted as part of each USEPA mission and were chaired by AAEPGDC.
They received report-outs from the individual trainings and also provided feedback on the interim products
developed under the Partnership, including the inception report and workplan.

2.2 STATUS OF THE MONITORING NETWORK OR OTHER DATA SOURCES

To measure air quality, there are currently three PM2.5 air quality monitors in Addis Ababa—one maintained by Addis
5
Ababa University through their work with the East Africa GeoHealth Hub (though), and two maintained by the
6
United States Embassy (which are publicly available through the AirNow-International program). The Addis Ababa
University PM2.5 monitor is located at the College of Health Sciences at the Black Lion Hospital and the US Embassy
monitors are at the US Embassy and the Addis Ababa International Community School, respectively. When combined
with recently published estimates based on remote sensing data from satellite sources, these monitors provide a
broad picture of the most and least polluted areas of Addis Ababa. This initial snapshot of the air quality surface
provides sufficient rationale for actions set forth in this AQMP; however, it is worth emphasizing that ground-level
measurements are not routinely collected for much of the city. Expansion of monitoring will enable city officials to
refine air quality estimates and better identify highly exposed populations. Future improvements to this AQMP will
include important pollutants other than PM2.5, including ozone, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide,
and others.

The Megacities Partnership currently underway in Addis Ababa includes expansion of monitoring at more sites
throughout Addis using low-cost sensor technology. As of April 2021, UN Environment has deployed 5 low cost
sensors across the city to measure PM2.5. AAEPGDC is analyzing some of the data generated through these sensors.
For sustainable delivery of information, the staff needs to be strengthened around calibration, data analysis and
maintenance of the sensors. Part of that deployment includes a calibration period where low-cost sensors are co-
located with a reference grade monitor such as those at the U.S. Embassy or Black Lion Hospital to help identify and

5
These data are not publicly available and have not been shared with EPGDC or Megacities Partnership project
partners.
6
Data are publicly available through the US AirNow-International program at
https://www.airnow.gov/international/us-embassies-and-consulates/#Ethiopia$Addis_Ababa_School

13


correct for any persistent bias in the low-cost sensor measurements. Furthermore, a citizen science civil society
group Menged Lesew and Addis Air have established a network of 9 low-cost optical sensors visible at addisair.org.
While the deployment of these devices is a valuable first step towards improving the mapping of air quality in Addis
Ababa, planning for the future air quality monitoring network in Addis Ababa will likely require a mix of technologies
to produce comprehensive and reliable real-time air quality measurements.

2.3 AQMP Development: Analytic Steps

This AQMP has been developed through a process of collaboration and consultation with stakeholders in industry
and government, and support from USEPA. The process has included the following steps:

1. Review of the existing emissions and ambient standards.

2. Analysis of emissions source contributions.
3. Evaluation of AQ monitoring data.
4. Estimation of current and projected future health burden of air quality.
5. Establishment of goals and objectives for the plan.
6. Development of a detailed implementation plan. Achieving the goals and objectives of the plan requires
a detailed implementation plan – this is proposed in Section 6 of this plan and will be continuously updated
through stakeholder engagements and as part of the ongoing monitoring and evaluation of the plan’s
effectiveness, which is outlined in Section 7.

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3. SUMMARY OF BASELINE AIR QUALITY CHARACTERIZATION

The air quality baseline reflects all air pollution regulations and policies currently in effect. The baseline is
thenadjusted to reflect a future economic growth scenario where emissions grow at the rate of projected population
and GDP growth. The baseline reflects current emission sources, their expected trends for the foreseeable future,
and current air quality. Current air quality is characterized here using three years of regulatory-grade monitor data
from the U.S. Embassy monitors combined with calibrated remote-sensed satellite data for the most current
available year, as described below. Projections of an air quality baseline are based on available information for
current trend and available source apportionment studies, which provide a means to estimate the relative
contribution of sources to ambient air quality. In general, there is limited publicly available historical data beyond
the regulatory-grade monitors in Addis Ababa which monitor relatively clean areas of the city; further data are
needed concerning emissions quanitities and trends particularly in the central region of the city; and further research
is needed on air pollution source apportionment. For this reason, this plan also includes specific goals and measures
designed to improve gradually over time the information and evidence that can be used to support air quality
management. Current air quality also has implications for health status, also reviewed in this section. The baseline
further includes the state of governmental air quality management capacity at the national and local level.

3.1 EMISSION SOURCES

In Addis Ababa, both mobile and point emission sources contribute to CO, NOx, O3, SO2, PM10, and PM2.5 pollution in
the metropolitan area. Common sources of ambient air pollution in Addis Ababa are vehicle emissions from fuel-
inefficient, aging vehicles, incomplete combustion from diesel vehicles, unpaved roads, industrial sources, and
construction. Other sources include household cooking and heating, open burning of solid waste, and transport of
pollution from surrounding areas. Detailed future studies on speciation of the particulate will help determine the
impact of these emitters. However, trends like the diurnal spikes in particulate around rush hour point toward
vehicles as an important driver. Plans outlined in the Growth and Transformation Plans (GTPs I and II) illustrate
Ethiopia’s commitment to developing national, renewable energy sources for electricity generation (mainly
hydropower, but also geothermal) and replacing vehicles with light rail transit and bus rapid transit systems within
the city. Overall, the infrastructure projects undertaken show a significant push towards improving the efficiency
and low- to no-emission components of the transport and energy sectors, which will help reduce the burden of air
pollution in Addis Ababa.

VEHICLE FLEET AND EMISSIONS

Ethiopia had approximately 935,888 vehicles in use in 2018, with the number of vehicles registered growing at a rate
of 16% per year (Ministry of Transport, 2019). Vehicles emit various pollutants including NOx, CO, hydrocarbons
(HCs), and PM into the atmosphere. Diesel vehicles release black carbon, and more SO2 and PM than comparable
petrol vehicles (Roychowdhury et al., 2016; Addis Ababa Institute of Technology, 2012). Older vehicles also
contribute significantly to ambient air pollution from their low fuel efficiency.

Both Addis Ababa Institute of Technology (2012) and Roychowdhury et al. (2016) have done extensive research on
the vehicle fleet composition and emissions in Addis Ababa. Data on the number of vehicles and types of vehicles
registered were collected from the Addis Ababa Transport Authority and data on imported vehicles can be gathered
from the Ethiopian Revenues Custom Authority. The Transport Authority is not responsible for private cars, but

15


manages all public buses, public minivans, freight vehicles and private taxis in the city. Their findings show that the
vehicle fleet is increasingly aged, and the proportion of diesel vehicles is rising (Roychowdhury et al., 2016). Figure
3-1, from Roychowdhury et al. (2016), shows the breakdown of cars by age class in 2014-2015.

Although the number of vehicles is increasing, around 91% of Addis Ababa’s population utilizes public transportation
(Roychowdhury et al., 2016). The public transportation system is based around a bus and light-rail transit system
(LRT). The buses and minibuses can hold 12-24 people and travel along designated bus routes throughout the city.
Most light-duty vehicles (LDVs) are imported, but Ethiopia began local assembly of vehicles between 2005 and 2008.
Many of the LDVs emit substantial pollution; AACTA estimates that 31 % of the overall fleet lack catalytic converters.
Because of the public’s significant usage of the bus system, buses of all sizes accounted for nearly 39% of PM emission
load from vehicles in 2014-2015 (Roychowdhury et al., 2016).

Figure 3-1. Breakdown of vehicles and cars by age class, 2014

To reduce the dependence on buses and lower emissions from public transportation, the CRGE and GTPI established
measures to expand and upgrade the LRT in Addis Ababa Metropolitan Area and between Addis Ababa and Djibouti.
Constructing and renovating the LRT in Addis Ababa was a substantial infrastructure project implemented under the
GTPI. The LRT in Addis Ababa has since been completed and 41 additional km are planned to be constructed in GTPII.
The LRT was not finished when the CSE report and Figure 3-2 below were published. The usage mix of public
transportation is likely to change with the completion of the LRT. Moreover, the emissions trend line in Figure 3-2
may be outdated as people begin using the LRT over the buses as their mode of transport; however, traffic
congestion created by LRT may contribute to air pollution within the city. Additional data on LRT capacity and
ridership would be needed to assess potential impacts of this change.

Figure 3-2 also shows the significant contribution of PM from freight vehicles (i.e. vehicles with machinery, liquid
cargo, tractor, trailer, dry cargo). Because Ethiopia is landlocked, most exported goods must be transported from
Addis Ababa to Djibouti’s port. Freight vehicles account for 75% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the transport
sector and account for 23% of PM emissions (Roychowdhury et al., 2016; Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia,

16


2013). Construction of the LRT between Addis Ababa and Djibouti is complete and operating with some interruptions
at present. Truck traffic on the road still dominates shipping volume.

Figure 3-2. Trend of Increased Particulate Matter Emission Load from Different Vehicle Types

Once the train line is complete and fully operational (it began service in 2018), goods traditionally carried by diesel
freight trucks will be transported via electric rail, reducing GHG and PM emissions in the future. Similarly, the
proportion of PM emissions from freight in Figure 3-2 will also likely become outdated after the LRT completion.

The population’s reliance on public transportation, rather than personal vehicles, can partly be credited towards the
city’s tax incentives to use public transportation and discourage personal vehicles. New cars specifically are taxed at
100%, where old cars are taxed at a lower rate but now the government of Ethiopia drafting policy that discourage
old vehicles by increasing taxes up to 500% Excise Tax Proposed on Secondhand Cars (Ethiopian Monitor, 2019).
Recently, Ethiopia banned importing vehicles older than a specific manufacturing date, which will lessen the number
of aged vehicles on the road in the future (Tefera et al., 2014), but there is currently no retirement age for vehicles
already registered in the country. Consequently, the high importation duties prevent people from buying new cars
and leads to a large proportion of aged, inefficient, and polluting vehicles.

Despite an aging vehicle fleet, there are several policies in place and currently being drafted under the CRGE and
GFEI regarding vehicles standards. The CRGE is drafting vehicular emission standards for emissions and promoting
fuel blends of ethanol, gasoline, and biodiesel through the EFCCC. Using blended fuel will reduce the country’s
reliance on imported fuel with high sulfur content from Sudan (other fuels are imported from Saudi Arabia and
Kuwait.) Currently, every car in Ethiopia must undergo an annual inspection to ensure the vehicle meets safety
standards, and at that time emissions are checked in some fashion; however, we are not aware of standards
established by the Transport Authority to measure compliance (Addis Ababa Institute of Technology, 2012).

17


INDUSTRIAL SOURCES
At the end of the GTPI, agriculture, industry, and services shared 38.5%, 15.1%, and 46.3% respectively of the
Ethiopian economy (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2015). Of the industrial sector, the manufacturing
subsector made up 5% of the GDP and grew at an average rate of 14.6% per year. The manufacturing subsector
contains garment and textile processing, leather processing, agro-processing, paint and dye manufacturing,
pharmaceuticals, metal manufacturing, glass manufacturing and concrete manufacturing. There is little quality data
on industrial emissions in Ethiopia making enforcement difficult. The EPGDC did succeed in banning the use of high-
polluting fossil fuel in a glass manufacturing plant in Addis Ababa after neighborhood complaints of the smoke.

The construction sector is possibly the most notable growth industry. The construction subsector grew at a rate of
28% over the GTPI period and its share of GDP increased from 4% to 8.5% (National Planning Commission, 2016).
The construction industry was largely driven by the infrastructure projects undertaken during the GTPI
implementation. Cement creation accounted for the largest source of industrial GHG emissions. The EFCCC has set
national air pollutant emissions standards for each of these industries.

Table 3-1. Emissions standards for cement manufacturing

Limit Values for Emissions to Air

Parameter Limit value
Total particulates 150 mg/Nm3
Sulphur dioxide (as SO2) 1000 mg/Nm3
Nitrous oxide (as NO2) 2000 mg/Nm3
Source: Provisional Standards for Industrial Pollution Control in Ethiopia

ROAD NETWORK
As part of the urban development and housing section of the GTPI, almost 3,800 km of cobblestone roads were
constructed in urban areas over the five-year period (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2015). Nationally, the
paved road network expanded from 48,800 km to 63,604 km over the GTPI period, with an additional 46,810 km of
unpaved roads. This spike in demand for concrete and asphalt led to a dependence on imported materials at the
beginning of the GTPI period. By 2012, however, the local cement industry supplied all of the cement necessary for
infrastructure projects (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2015).

Despite growth in local industry supporting paved roads, only 13% of the roads in Ethiopia are paved. Part of the
GTPII plan is to increase the ratio of paved to unpaved roads to 16% (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2015).
The high proportion of unpaved roads significantly impacts ambient air pollution. A source apportionment study
conducted in 2004 concluded that between 35-65% of PM10 in Addis Ababa was geologic in origin, with unpaved
roads as the main source (Etyemezian et al., 2005). With an increasing number of vehicles on the road and a large
unpaved road network, the concentration of suspended dust particles from unpaved roads could increase.

POWER GENERATION
Strategic directions of the GTPI and GTPII include increases in renewable power generation. The current electric
generation capacity is 4,180 MW and will expand dramatically with renewable energy generation including the
completion of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD), geothermal IPPs, solar IPPs, and wind farms. Electric
capacity and expansion have important implications for electric rail transportation as discussed above. However,
since most power generation is renewable, it will not contribute to air pollution. However, power distribution

18


through transmission lines and transformers is not keeping up with the rapid population expansion of the city leaving
intermittent power supply issues leading to regular use of diesel generators which impact air quality.

OPENING BURNING OF TRASH

Open burning of trash is believed to be a major issue in Addis Ababa, though minimal supporting information is
currently available to characterize these emissions in a comprehensive fashion (see for example, Tefera et al. 2016).
A global literature review of source attribution studies found that in Africa as a whole, the contribution of household
combustion sources to ambient PM air pollution is about 34%, based on the results of four studies in Ghana, Nigeria,
South Africa, and Tanzania, while traffic accounts for about 17% (Efobi etal, 2018). These results may not necessarily
accurately reflect the source contribution of household burning for urban locations, and there is no information on
the contribution of trash burning to this broader household combustion category. Further, there is no evidence yet
available to confirm that household combustion would account for this percentage of ambient PM in Addis Ababa.
The AAEPGDC nonetheless is aware of ongoing work within the GeoHealth Hub of Addis Ababa University to develop
new source attribution estimates specific to Addis Ababa city, which remain under development at the time of the
drafting of this AQMP.

HOUSEHOLD COOKING AND HEATING

Household cooking and heating are believed to be a major contributor to health impacts from indoor air pollution
exposure (CCA 2019; UN-Habitat 2017), but little information exists to clarify the role of household cooking and
heating as a contributor to ambient air pollution. Etyemezian et al. (2005) concluded that the timing of particulate
matter spikes over 24 hour periods suggest a major role for traffic, household cooking, and household heating in
Addis Ababa, but more information is needed to confirm the specific role of household cooking and heating on
ambient air quality in Addis Ababa.

Some data do exist to suggest that indoor air exposures from household cooking and heating are very high and could
be significantly reduced by policies and campaigns to improve the efficiency of household cooking and heating
devices, and/or to improve the fuel quality. For example, Sanbeta et al. (2014) concluded that changes in cookstove
type and fuels could reduce the health burden of indoor air exposures to particulate matter by as much as 70% for
households that switch from solid fuels to clean fuels. During January and February 2012, they measured the
concentration of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in 59 households using the University of California at Berkeley
Particle Monitor (UCB PM). The measurements yielded a geometric mean of 24-h indoor PM2.5 concentration of
3 3
approximately 818 μg/m overall, with 24-hr estimates as high as 1134 μg/m for households using solid fuel;
3 3
637 μg/m for households using kerosene; and 335 μg/m for households using clean fuel. Additional evidence of
the exposure reducing effects of changes in fuel types and cookstoves was provided by Pennise et al. (2009), who
examined cookstove use and indoor exposures in low-income areas of Addis Ababa. Household surveys in Ethiopia
conducted by the Ministry of Health find that in urban locations about one quarter of households utilize a location
in the house for cooking (FMOH 2016). Further, households in urban locations use a range of fuels for cooking;
42.5% burn wood, 27.8% burn charcoal, and 24.2% use electricity – the remaining 5.5% employ either gas, liquid, or
other biomass sources (FMOH 2016, Table 2.4, page 21).

19


EMISSION SOURCE ATTRIBUTION
Emission source apportionment or source attribution is a quantitative analysis that identifies the share of ambient
air pollution that can be attributed to a specific class of emissions sources within a city or region. The results are
expressed as percentage contributions for categories such as traffic, industry, or domestic fuel burning. An example
of this type of results is provided below in Figure 3-3 from Karagulian et al. (2015), a comprehensive review of source
apportionment studies conducted world-wide, in urban and rural areas, to provide a basis for comparing the relative
role of emissions sources in different areas of the world. As the figure shows, for Sub-Saharan Africa as a whole it is
estimated that the domestic fuel burning source accounts for the largest share of fine particulate matter in the
ambient air (34%), followed by natural sources (22%), traffic and unspecified sources of human origin (each 17%),
and industry (10%). The role of domestic fuel burning in Africa is much larger than in most other locations, while the
role of traffic and industry is somewhat less. These results, however, do not necessarily represent urban areas of
Africa, where we could reasonably expect traffic and industry to be more concentrated and to play a larger role, and
domestic fuel burning to play a lesser role as a result of urban electrification and the presence of at least some
centralized waste management.

Figure 3-3. Emission Source Attribution Results Based on a Global Literature Search

Source: Karagulian et al. (2015)

For Addis Ababa, some specific information exists, but it is less specific than a rigorous source attribution study could
provide. Etyemezian et al. (2005) conducted a pilot study during the dry season of 2004, which measured PM10, CO,
and O3 concentrations at 12 sites throughout the city and collected 21 samples total. In addition to measuring

20


concentration levels, the study examined the composition of the particles (using broad categories) to estimate the
relative contribution of different emissions source. The 12 sites were situated in both urban and suburban locations
in order to compare different concentrations and sources between the two settings. Figure 3-4 displays the PM10
concentrations from the 21 samples and the average concentration at each of the 12 locations. The green line
represents the WHO guideline for daily PM10 concentrations. The study also found that the PM10 concentrations
were made up of 30-60% geologic material, indicating that unpaved roads contributed significantly to PM10
concentrations – vehicle emissions and household burning are also identified as key sources of PM air pollution,
based on the diurnal pattern of concentrations. The results, however, are slightly outdated—especially when
considering the dramatic increase in PM concentrations from vehicles between 2004-2015 (Figure 3-2 above,
showing estimated PM emissions from the transport sector).

Figure 3-4. PM10 concentrations from each sampling site

Source: Etyemezian et al. (2005)

3.2 EXPECTED EMISSIONS TRENDS

In many urban locations, there are six main sources of air pollution emissions: energy production, particularly electric
energy from fossil fuel-fired generating units; mobile sources – vehicles including trucks, buses, and transit; industrial
sources; household and open burning of biomass, waste, and heating fuel; all other man-made sources, such as
construction, off-road engines, and resuspended dust from unpaved and paved roads; and natural sources. These
categories are often used, for example, in source apportionment studies, such as Karagulian et al. (2015). The
following analysis will examine these six sources as they relate to Addis Ababa.

In the energy sector, Ethiopia in general, and Addis Ababa in particular, has the potential to generate electric energy
almost entirely from renewable sources, through use of hydropower. As a result, we would expect that the
emissions trend from this source would be downward or, at worst, relatively flat. Until the electric grid reliability
improves however, there remains a concern about potential growth in the use of diesel generators for backup
electric power. Any efforts to mitigate air quality in this sector should target upgrading electricity transmission and

21


distribution networks that have not kept up with the rapidly growth urban population and demand for electricity.
Improving the steady supply of power will impact diesel emissions from generators.

Natural sources of air pollution in Addis Ababa are believed to be a relatively small contributor to current air quality
concerns much like electricity generation.

As noted in the previous section, the transport sector has a high potential for growth, in both the number of vehicles
and their potential to emit air pollution, owing largely to an aging vehicle fleet. Vehicle registrations have grown
approximately 12 percent per year from 2011-2015 (CSE, based on Addis Ababa Transport Authority Data) – and
more recent data suggesting a more rapid growth rate of 16 percent per year through 2018 (Ministry of Transport,
2019). With no changes to vehicle emissions rates, we could expect that transport emissions could grow at a similar
rate, absent immediate action to reduce emissions. Data presented in the previous section suggest this expectation
of growth in emissions from this sector is warranted, though the rate of growth is certainly subject to uncertainty,
particularly in light of recent actions taken to provide stronger incentives to import newer vehicles, and reduced
incentives to import older vehicles.

The trends in industrial source emissions are largely unknown – the same could be said for other man-made sources
of emissions. Absent data, it is reasonable to expect that industrial and “other” sector emissions could grow at the
rate of increase of economic activity. The World Bank recently estimated GDP growth from 2011 to 2016 of 10
percent per year and future projections are just below this value. Without significant improvements in monitoring
and enforcement, it is unlikely that this economic growth would not increase air pollution.

The trends in emissions from open burning of waste, and household fuel use, are not well-documented, but few if
any controls on these sources have been implemented. As a result, it is reasonable to expect that these sources will
grow by a rate consistent with population growth. Based on the Central Statistical Agency’s population projections
for 2022 and 2027, it is possible that these source emissions could grow by 12 percent annually to 2022, and by 11
annually from 2023 to 2027.

There are many examples of cities and countries where trends in emissions are substantially different from trends
in drivers of emissions such as population and GDP – the rate of growth can be slower, or can be negative, while
population and GDP grow rapidly. Given the known factors of current emissions, it is possible to model future
emissions under alternative scenarios (Figure 3-10 below, for example). The key to achieving improvements in air
quality while maintaining GDP and population growth, however, is a well-established and functioning system of air
pollutant emissions control and enforcement. This AQMP is an important first step toward achieving that goal.

3.3 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY

With two years of regulatory-grade air quality data it is clear that annual averages are at least two to three times
3
higher than the WHO guideline of 10 μg/m . There are three PM2.5 air quality monitors in Addis Ababa—one
maintained by Addis Ababa University through their work with the East Africa GeoHealth Hub, and two maintained
by the United States Embassy (Figure 3-5). The Addis Ababa University PM2.5 air quality monitor is located at the
College of Health Sciences at the Black Lion Hospital.

Data from the Black Lion monitor and ten other temporary monitors associated with a Black Lion/GeoHealth
longitudinal study of children’s health are not yet publicly available, though summary data for one year have been
provided and are reflected in the estimates of air quality presented below. The temporary monitors are no longer
in operation, but there remains a permanent monitor at Black Lion Hospital.

22


Of the two US Embassy monitors, one is located on Embassy grounds in the northern area of the city and the other
is located at the Addis Ababa International Community School in the south (see Figure 3-6). The two monitors are
called Central and School, respectively, on the USEPA AirNow-International website. The monitors began collecting
data in mid-2016 at the School site, and in late 2016 at the Central (Embassy) site. Annual average PM2.5
concentrations recorded at each monitoring station from the previous five years are presented in Table 3-2.

Table 3-2. 24-hour average and maximum measured PM2.5 concentration

PM2.5 Concentration, µg/m3

Site (n = number of hourly measurements)*
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021

25.6
25.1 25.6 20.2 24.4 20.3
Central
(n = 2776) (n = 8466) (n = 8017) (n = 6874) (n = 8337) (n = 1836)
36.5 33.2 37.4 30.8
School Unavailable** Unavailable**
(n = 2935) (n = 5908) (n = 3156) (n = 316)
*Note: Monitoring at Central site and School site began in late-2016 and mid-2016, respectively. Annual
concentration for 2021 references January – March only.
**School site concentrations are unavailable from December, 2018 through December, 2020.
7
Historical PM2.5 concentrations measured at these two stations are available online from the AirNow-DOS system .
Since the start of monitoring in mid-2016, the mean 24-hour average PM2.5 concentration recorded at the Central
3 3
site is 24 µg/m and the mean 24-hour average PM2.5 concentration recorded at the School site is 34 µg/m , both of
which exceed both the daily and annual PM2.5 WHO guideline. Figures 3-7 and 3-8 below show diurnal and monthly
PM2.5 concentrations measured at each site, respectively.

Figure 3-5 Map of Monitor Locations in Addis Ababa

Sources: Addis Ababa Boundary – Urban Planning Commission, received 2018.

7
See https://airnow.gov/index.cfm?action=airnow.global_summary

23


Figure 3-6 Monitor Locations – Google Maps and USEPA AirNow

Source: AirVisual online tool shows three of the UNEP monitors that are currently online plus the U.S. Embassy
monitor at the top.

Diurnal patterns at both the Central and School sites show increased concentrations during the morning and
afternoon rush hours as well as possibly a temperature inversion in the morning, with concentrations at the School
site higher than at the Central site. The School site shows higher concentrations overnight than during the day – this
is likely related to the ventilation of pollutants during the day and trapping of pollutants overnight, and potentially
due to local emissions sources near the school that are unrelated to commuting (e.g. emissions from waste burning
at the local landfill). To provide additional context, the WHO PM2.5 health guideline indicates that daily PM2.5
3
concentrations should not exceed 25 μg/m ; daily mean values depicted in Figure 3-7 at both the School and Central
sites exceed this guideline. Average monthly PM2.5 concentrations are shown in Figure 3-8.

24


Monthly concentrations follow the same trend at both the Central and School sites, with the highest concentrations
in June through September and lower concentrations the rest of the year. These findings at first appear surprising
given that June through September is the rainy season in Addis Ababa and precipitation may remove PM2.5 from the
air, reducing concentrations. These higher concentrations during the rainy season may be related to increased
particles in the air associated with residential combustion for home heating, since the coldest temperatures tend to
occur during this rainy season, or due to atmospheric inversions that keep particles trapped in the local atmosphere.

Figure 3-7. Average hourly PM2.5 concentrations, 2016 - 2021 – US Embassy Administered Monitors

Source: USEPA AirNow DOS, https://www.airnow.gov/international/us-embassies-and-consulates/, accessed

4/7/2021

In addition to the US embassy’s two PM2.5 monitors, NMA has one real time gaseous air quality monitoring station
located on the NMA campus in the southeastern area of the city. This monitor collects data on NOx, O3, and CO levels
in the ambient environment; however, there remain concerns about the accuracy of the data collected at this site,
as NMA acknowledges difficulties obtaining reference gases for calibration of the instruments. The data from this
monitor is not readily available online and must be requested through the NMA. In the GTPII, NMA plans to establish
a second air quality monitor, the location of which has yet to be determined.

In addition to the permanent, real-time, reference-grade air quality monitors, several studies conducted in Addis
Ababa provide snapshots of ambient air pollutant concentrations. The first study (Kumie et al., 2010) was a
longitudinal study that sampled CO concentrations at 40 locations on major roadways in Addis Ababa. The dataset
includes the rainy season of 2007 (July 2007-January 2008) and the dry season of 2008 (March-April 2008) A second
study (Etyemezian V. et al., 2005) conducted in the dry season of 2004 (January –February 2004) measured PM10,
CO, and O3. Another study (Gebre, G. at al., 2010) measured levels of total suspended particles and PM10 from

25


February-April 2008 and from June-July 2008. As part of the GFEI report, a researcher at Addis Ababa University
(Addis Ababa Institute of Technology, 2012) focused specifically on vehicle emissions and measured PM2.5, CO, NO2,
and SO2 at 12 roadside locations between 8:30 am and 5:30 pm during both rainy and dry seasons. Lastly, a study
conducted as input to the Global Burden of Disease report (van Donkelaar et al., 2019) used satellite imagery
technique to estimate PM2.5 concentrations globally at relatively fine resolution (1 km x 1 km), and data from this
study are available in Addis Ababa. It is difficult to draw conclusions about long term trends from these data sources
because the studies collected data for a specific purpose, over short time frames, and because of the lack of
consistency in the metric for measuring particles. Despite this, the data summarized by these reports may help fill
some gaps, due to the lack of historical PM monitor data in Addis.

Figure 3-8. Average monthly PM2.5 concentrations, 2016 - 2021 - US Embassy Administered Monitors

Source: USEPA AirNow DOS, https://www.airnow.gov/international/us-embassies-and-consulates/, accessed

4/7/2021

As noted above, in addition to monitored air quality data, satellite-based air quality data is available for the Addis
Ababa region. Van Donkelaar et al. (2019) developed a methodology to estimate PM2.5 concentrations using remote
sensing data from satellite imagery. This technique allows for longitudinal data collection and included limited
calibration of results using ground-based PM2.5 monitors, where available.

In Addis Ababa, the Embassy-operated air quality monitors began collecting data in 2016; however, the Van
Donkelaar et al. (2019) study provides a time series analysis of PM2.5 pollution in Addis Ababa from 2011 through
2016. The satellite imagery methodology shows spatial variations in PM2.5 within the metropolitan area. These
results should be used with caution, however – while satellite-based PM2.5 measurements have the advantage of
comprehensive, consistent coverage, they may be subject to significant error, particularly at finer geographic scales.

26


Typically, satellite-based results are best applied in situations where they can be independently verified and
calibrated with ground-based monitor measurements.

Figure 3-9. Annual Mean Concentrations of PM2.5 based on Satellite Data

Source: van Donkelaar et al. (2019)

Additional monitoring information, derived from a sensor network, can be derived the work of a local non-profit,
Addis Air, as shown in Figure 3-10 below. It is unknown, however, the extent to which these sensors have been
calibrated to reliable stationary monitor readings (such as those at the US Embassy), and so the results should be
interpreted with caution.

Figure 3-10 Locations of Addis Air Network Sensors

27


Source: www.addisair.org is a civil society organization that works with Menged Lesew who promote car-free
Sundays around the city. The low-cost sensors were designed in Addis and purchased by individuals and
organizations who want to track relative changes in pollution levels.

As noted above, the Global Fuel Economy Initiative study conducted by Addis Ababa Institute of Technology reported
monitor results focused on understanding the impact of emissions from mobile sources. In this 2012 study, Data
were collected for PM2.5, CO, NO2, and SO2 at 12 roadside locations between 8:30 am and 5:30 pm. Only data for
these chemical compounds were collected because they are the primary components of vehicular emissions. PM2.5
and CO were monitored continuously throughout the study period. The 12 roadside locations were selected based
on traffic characteristics; population density; meteorological conditions; and building attributes. The 24-hour
average and maximum concentration of PM2.5 measured at each of the 12 locations are shown in Table 3-3. Figure
3-11 displays the 24-hour average concentration with the WHO guidelines for reference.

28


Table 3-3. 24-hour average and maximum measured PM2.5 concentration

3
Site PM2.5 Concentration, µg/m

Code Name 24-hour Average Maximum

S1 Aduwa Square (Megenagna) 54.8 4471.9

S2 Arada (Arada Building) 30.7 624.0

S3 Betel 135.6 6576.4

S4 Bob Marley Square (Imperial Hotel) 43.6 511.1

S5 Bole Bridge 97.3 1982.6

S6 Bus Station (Addis Ketema) 70.4 1827.5

S7 Entoto (St. Mary Church) 27.2 808.5

S8 Kaliti Road Intersection (Traffic light) 271.4 9082.6

S9 La gare traffic light 83.5 3268.8

S10 Mexico Square 228.6 17169.3

S11 Taklehaimanot Square 342.1 2933.7

S12 Urael Traffic Light 165 1837.5

Source: Addis Ababa Institute of Technology (2012)

Figure 3-11. 24-hour average PM2.5 concentration from with WHO guidelines for referenc

Source: Abate (2015)

29


3.4 HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF THE BASELINE AIR QUALITY SCENARIO

Exposure to high concentrations of PM2.5 for any length of time can cause short-term and long-term negative health
outcomes, including hospital admissions due to asthma, and premature death from chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease, cardiovascular disease, lung cancer, and lower respiratory infection, and work loss days, among others. Both
indoor and outdoor air pollution can contribute to furthering these health impacts. Pilot studies conducted tend to
focus on either indoor or outdoor pollution, while the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study conducted by IHME
provides a comprehensive picture of disease in Ethiopia.

Ethiopia has made significant progress in developing the health sector; they achieved the health-related Millennium
Development Goals ahead of schedule and 98% of Ethiopia’s population has access to healthcare (Federal Republic
of Ethiopia, 2015). Furthermore, one of GTPII’s main strategic directions is continue reducing infant mortality rates
and mortality rates among children less than 5 years of age. Due to the vulnerability of these populations to negative
health impacts of air pollution, improving air quality is a critical component for achieving these targets. A study found
that pneumonia is the second highest cause of morbidity for children less than 5 years old (FMOH, 2011). From
Tefera et al. (2014), the authors conclude that air pollution’s health effects are not receiving adequate attention by
stakeholders.

GLOBAL BURDEN OF DISEASE

The Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study shows a full representation of air pollution impacts in Ethiopia, rather
than cross sectional results provided by pilot studies. Where the pilot studies provide snapshots of health status and
valuable insight on local health context, the GBD takes a more longitudinal approach, allowing for the tracking of
national trends over time.

The GBD results are taken from 2016 and measured against a 2005 baseline. We are most concerned with health
endpoints that are exacerbated by air pollution, like cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. Four of the top 10
causes of death in Ethiopia (i.e. Lower Respiratory Infection (2), Ischemic Heart Disease (3), Cerebrovascular Disease
(5) and Other Cardiovascular diseases (10)) have been linked to air pollution as a risk factor. Lower Respiratory
Infections and Ischemic Heart Disease are also leading causes of premature death in Ethiopia. Ischemic Heart Disease
is the only top 10 cause of death and disability that has a positive percent change from the baseline year. Asthma
th
ranks as the 8 highest cause of disability in Ethiopia. From these results, the GBD estimates that air pollution is the
number two risk factor for death and disability in Ethiopia.

30


Figure 3-12. Top 10 risks factors driving the most death and disability combined in Ethiopia

Source: IHME (2019)

ETHIOPIAN HEALTH INSTITUTION INFORMATION ON BURDEN OF DISEASE ATTRIBUTED TO AIR POLLUTION

The practice of environmental health among local Ethiopian health sector institutions is to protect and prevent
health problems associated with chemical, biological or physical threats present in the different environmental
media (water, air, soil, etc). Air pollution health problems are becoming the leading cause of morbidity in urban areas
of Ethiopia Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa. According to the Regional Health Bureau’s report, air pollution related health
problems are becoming leading causes of morbidity in Ethiopia. (FMOH [HEH communication guide],2016).

The Ethiopian demographic health survey of 2016 reported that in Ethiopia, 88 in 1,000 children under age 5 die
before their fifth birthday (CSA 2016). Acute respiratory infection (ARI), and particularly pneumonia, is one of leading
causes of morbidity and mortality that accounts for 15% of deaths of children under 5., based on information from
WHO and UNICEF (WHO 2019).

At the national level, health and health related indicators reported that pneumonia is the leading of the top ten
causes of hospital admission for children < 5 years of age, and accounts for 21.9% of all cases. In addition, the trend
in pneumonia cases contributing to morbidity of children < 5 years of age from 2013-2017 is also increasing, as shown
in Figure 3-13 below (FMOH 2017).

31


Figure 3-13

Trends of pneumonia cases for morbidity

of children < 5 years of age from 2013-2017
25

19.24 19 18.6
20 18.3

14.4
15

10

0
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

At the city level, as shown in the annual reports of the Addis Ababa Health Bureau from 2013/14 -2017, the top 10
disease list indicates that upper respiratory disease is the leading cause of morbidity and the trend is also increasing
over time (Figure 3-14)

Figure 3-14

900000
Trend of Acute Upper Respiratory Infections
800000 811427
783322
700000
600000
561275
500000
400000
300000
200000
100000 20278
74741
0
2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 2015/16 2016/17

Source: Addis Ababa Health Bureau from 2013/14 -2017

32


Asthma is another climate sensitive non-communicable disease and allergenic effect on the upper respiratory
system. Asthma aggravates with allergenic pollen that has bloomed and persisted for longer periods during warm
temperature spells and as a result of increased CO2 level in the atmosphere. Similarly, diesel exhaust can act
synergistically with other allergens to aggravate asthma. Thus, asthma is more common in urban areas such as Addis
Ababa. Even though the magnitude of asthma in Ethiopia is not well known, the incidence and prevalence of asthma
is increasing alarmingly. (FMOH 2014). Further, the annual growth of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
in Addis Ababa is about 53.44% (Tarekegn and Gulilat 2018).

BASELINE AIR QUALITY AND HEALTH BURDEN DERIVED FROM AMBIENT AIR QUALITY MONITOR AND
SATELLITE DATA
Collaboration between the AAEPGDC and USEPA has resulted in an updated characterization of ambient air quality,
human exposure, and the baseline health burden of particulate matter throughout Addis Ababa. The team used
available monitor data from the three monitors identified above, and available satellite data from Van Donkelaar et
al. (2019), along with a spatial calibration procedure to adjust satellite data to on-the-ground monitor readings. The
result is the map on the left of Figure 3-10 below, to characterize 2017 concentrations. The team then used
emissions trends forecasts for major source categories, as described in Section 3.2 above, and a source
apportionment estimate for African cities from Karagulian et al. (2015), and consideration of information on source
contributions in Nairobi from Gaita et al. (2014), to generate the forecast air quality map on the left of Figure 3-15,
for the year 2025. A comparison of the two maps shows that, absent action to reduce emissions of air pollutants,
particulate matter concentrations could grow substantially in Addis Ababa.

33


Figure 3-15: Air quality maps for 2017 and 2025 without AQMP action

Using the USEPA’s BenMAP-CE tool to assess health effects, the AAEPGDC/USEPA team then combined the air quality
estimates in Figure 3-15 with population data from Ethiopia’s Central Statistical Agency (CSA 2013) and the Addis
Ababa City Health Bureau (undated) to estimate premature mortality associated with PM2.5 exposure in 2017 and
2025. The result is shown in Figure 3-16. Total premature adult mortality from PM2.5 exposure in 2017 across Addis
Ababa is estimated to be 2,700, or about 21% of all non-accidental deaths in the 25 to 99-year-old age group.
Without action to control air pollution, by 2025 this figure is estimated to rise to 6,200, and account for 32% of
deaths in this age group.

The health burden of indoor air pollution in Addis Ababa has not been assessed to date, but some estimates exist
for the country as a whole. The Clean Cooking Alliance has estimated that 98% of the Ethiopian population relies on
solid fuels for cooking, with 74% of urban households using solid fuels. CCA further estimates that, for Ethiopia as a
whole, this leads to more than 45,000 premature deaths from indoor air pollution annually, and more than 21,000
of these are child deaths (CCA 2020). Other estimates suggest the total mortality burden from indoor air pollution
in Ethiopia could be as high as 70,000 annually (UN-Habitat 2017). To our knowledge, a health burden estimate for
indoor air pollution that is specific to Addis Ababa city has not yet been developed, though there is information that
suggests that changes in cookstove type and fuels could reduce the health burden of indoor air exposures to
particulate matter by as much as 70% for households that switch from solid fuels to clean fuels (Sanbata et al. 2014).

34


Figure 3-16. Estimated premature mortality from PM2.5 exposure in 2017 and 2025

ESTIMATED IMPACT OF MEETING ETHIOPIAN AIR QUALITY STANDARD

Action to control air pollutant emissions, including those outlined in Section 6 of this AQMP, if implemented along
with other measures, may have the potential to bring Addis Ababa into compliance with the Ethiopian air quality
3
standard for PM2.5. Achieving compliance with the annual ambient PM2.5 standard of 15 μg/m is the stated goal of
this AQMP, but tools and data do not yet exist to assess whether the measures outlined in this AQMP’s
implementation plan will be sufficient to meet that standard. Nonetheless, it is possible to assess the level of health
benefits that could be achieved if full compliance with the standard is achieved, using the BenMAP-CE tool. The
results are shown in Figure 3-17 below. The left panel shows the estimated health burden in 2025 under a baseline
scenario, where no action is taken to control air pollutants. The right panel shows the health burden in 2025 with
full compliance. The full compliance scenario results in a reduction in total premature adult mortality attributed to
air pollution across Addis Ababa from 6,200 to 1,500, and from 32% of non-accidental adult mortality from all causes
to only 8% of non-accidental adult mortality. This more than 75% reduction in premature mortality, if achieved
through rapid implementation and enforcement of measures in this AQMP, as well as likely additional measures
needed to reach full compliance, would reverse the current trend of increasing air quality concentrations and
premature mortality attributed to air pollution, and could provide substantial health and economic benefits to the
residents of Addis Ababa.

35


Figure 3-17. Comparison of 2025 health burden for baseline scenario with full ambient air quality standard
compliance scenario

Figure 3-18 shows the difference in premature mortality, by woreda, in 2025 if the standard is achieved throughout
Addis Ababa. The reduction in premature mortality, or in other words the major health benefits of achieving the
standard, could be large and widespread throughout all regions of Addis Ababa, but particularly large in the more
densely populated woredas.

Figure 3-19 provides another perspective on the potential benefits of achieving the Ethiopian air quality standard
for PM2.5 in Addis Ababa. As clearly demonstrated in this graph, inaction on air quality in the baseline scenario
(represented by the blue line in the upper part of the figure) runs the risk of a substantial increase in premature
mortality from air pollution in Addis Ababa. This outcome is the result of both the expected rapid increase in
population in Addis Ababa, and the increase in emissions and worsening air quality that could result if no action is
taken to implement reductions in air pollutants that contribute to high particulate matter concentrations. Achieving
the standard, on the other hand, could reduce total premature mortality from air pollution by a substantial amount,
even with expected rapid increases in population. Although non-mortality endpoints were not quantitatively
estimated, there is evidence that the cleaner air could contribute to both better health and economic and

36


educational prosperity for the residents of Addis Ababa, who could spend less time with air pollution-induced
illnesses and more productive time at work and in school.

Figure 3-18: Difference in premature mortality between baseline and full standard compliance scenarios in 2025

37


Figure 3-19. Health Impact of Achieving the Ethiopian Air Quality Standard for PM2.5

3.5 CAPACITY ASSESSMENT

As part of the Megacity Partnership, USEPA and UN Environment reviewed air quality management capacity in Addis
Ababa across multiple relevant institutions. More detail is captured in preliminary planning documents, but in
general, air quality management in Addis Ababa is the jurisdiction and responsibility of the Addis Ababa
Environmental Protection and Green Development Commission. Their coordinating role is complemented by Addis
Ababa city institutions for public health and transport regulation, in particular, and is supported by a cooperative
agreement with the Kotebe Metropolitan University. Other university and institutional roles in the execution of this
AQMP, including at the national level, are outlined in the AQMP implementation plan in Section 6 of this document.
The table below provides a summary of capabilities for each major component of a complete air quality management
system.

38


Table 3-4. Available Air Quality Management Information and Capacity

COMPONENT OF AQMS INITIAL ASSESSMENT OF STATUS ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON CAPACITY

Constitution ensures every citizen has

the right to a clean and healthy
environment. Proclamation 295/2002
establishes the independent EFCCC and
regional EPA. Environmental Pollution
Control Law grants EPA legal authority
over environmental standards and
enforcement of standards.

Emission standards set for industrial,

point sources. From published online
sources, current status of ambient air
quality standards is in draft form.

Health Policy of the transitional Not clear whether authorities could be

government of Ethiopia,1993. It used to address municipal burning or
prioritizes and give emphasis for small-scale household emissions, if
environmental health. those are believed to be large sources.
FMOH Integrated urban sanitation and
hygiene strategy 2017. There is a clear implementation gap in
Laws and Regulations regulation and enforcement despite the
FMOH National Hygiene and
Environmental Health Strategy (2016- availability of regulations, guidelines,
2020), 2016. It has strategic initiative to and manuals
increase the number of institutions
emitting environmental pollutants (air,
water, land and noises) below the
limiting standard from zero baseline.

The National Constitution of the Federal

Democratic Republic of Ethiopia articles
43, 44, 90, and 92 set the direction and
commitment of government related to
urban sanitation management.

Proclamation 200/2000 (Public

Health), Proclamation 300/2002
(Environmental Pollution Control) this
proclamation designed to national
articles. Proclamation 661/2009
(Establishment of EFMHACA)
Some estimates of mobile source
emissions have been made in the It is not clear whether energy use data,
literature. LEAP tool has been used to and conventional pollutant data from
Emission Inventory
characterize energy use and to estimate energy sources, is available for sources
carbon dioxide emissions for National located in Addis Ababa.
Communications
Some availability of data for key Speciated PM data needed for reliable
pollutants for multiple temporary source apportionment seems to be
monitor sites throughout Addis Ababa, limited to short-term research studies.
Ambient and Source Air
based on short-term research studies. Any previously collected filter samples
Quality Monitoring
Not all data from these studies are that have been properly stored could be
publicly available at this time. analyzed to support this effort, but our
understanding is that most data from PM

39


COMPONENT OF AQMS INITIAL ASSESSMENT OF STATUS ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON CAPACITY

Data are supplemented by US Embassy monitoring in Addis has been real-time,

monitors and a permanent PM monitor at not filter-based.
Black Lion Hospital

Air Pollution Should not likely be a short-term focus

Dispersion/Fate and None yet attempted given lack of available data
Transport Modeling
Focus could be on enhancing source
Data Analysis and Currently unknown capacity
apportionment, exposure assessments,
Interpretation
baseline health effects assessments
Public Participation and
Currently unknown capacity
Environmental Justice
Limited examples in the manufacturing
sector

FMOH National Health Adaptation Plan to

Climate Change,2017-2020. This plan has
details of action plan and budget
estimation to tackle health effects due
Control Strategy Planning
to climate change. Other examples may also be relevant
and Development
Ethiopia’s Climate-Resilient Green
Economy strategy has as its objective to
identify green economy opportunities
that could help Ethiopia reach its
ambitious economic growth targets while
keeping greenhouse gas emissions low.
A review of various studies coupled with
interviews with relevant EFCCC and
AAEPA officials reveal that the levels of
Compliance and air quality enforcement and compliance Additional capacity building will be a
Enforcement and are still relatively low with respect focus area for the UN Environment team
to existing legislation due to various
factors as outlined.

Limited efforts by certain NGO’s mostly

focused on transportation

FMOH National Hygiene and

Environmental Communication
Guidelines (2016) gives guidance for
advocacy, social mobilization and
Additional efforts have been
Communication and behavior change, and communication
coordinated by the Addis Ababa health
Outreach activities in relation to hygiene and
department
environment health.

FMOH Hygiene and Environmental Health

Message Guidance (2018) has a core
message for the priority audience
regarding indoor and outdoor air
pollution.

40


4. GAPS AND ISSUES

The Advisory Committee has identified five major areas where capacity gaps can and should be addressed to further
enhance the ability to implement and monitor plan and emissions reduction performance. These are described
below.

4.1 ENHANCING AQ MONITORING CAPABILITIES

This AQMP was developed using the best information available at the time and includes a baseline burden analysis
and health benefits assessment based on satellite measurements combined with a small number of ground-based
measurements. While this offers a reasonable first step, and a sufficient basis for taking action to reduce air pollution
from priority sectors, there remain significant unknowns regarding air quality in Addis Ababa. Concurrent with
efforts to reduce emissions, the AAEPGDC should prioritize planning to improve the characterization of air quality in
the city. Based on support from both UN Environment and the USEPA Megacity Partnership, recommendations for
enhanced air quality monitoring include:

• Five air quality monitoring sensors are installed by UNEP by end of 2019. The process involved consultation
with the AA EPGDC to identify a use case for each sensor (e.g., BRT, land use zoning, etc.); initial training
with local government staff on deployment, maintenance and operation of the sensor network, analysis
and reporting of colocation results from the November 2019 deployment. The AAEPGDC needs further
hands-on capacity building for sustainable delivery of information from the existing and planned air quality
monitoring sensors. These include calibration, retrieving data from the sensors, analysis and interpreting
and distribution of the result
• With support from UN Environment and the USEPA Megacity Partnership, it is important to resolve data
access questions with IAAF (for the sensor deployed at Addis Ababa Stadium) as part of the clear air
partnership.
• A cooperative effort should be undertaken to develop and test a new approach to combining information
on AQ from monitor, sensor, and satellite data to develop a fused data model of measured air quality. The
timing for that product is dependent in part on timely collection of data from the sensor network.
• Based on the results of work to enhance AQ through the above efforts, the AAEPGDC, NMA, and Addis
Ababa University should develop a city-level monitoring strategy for air pollution, to include expansion of
monitoring locations using a combination of reference grade monitors, mid- and low-cost sensors, and
other technologies (e.g., satellite/remote-sensed information). The plan should be designed to produce
improved estimates of population exposures to air pollution, improve coverage in populated areas of the
city that are currently unmonitored, and measure air quality changes in order to assess the effectiveness of
measures undertaken as part of this AQMP. This plan should include measures for developing source
apportionment capabilities as well, which will also help improve evidence-based decision-making to
improve air quality and public health.
• Adding vehicle emissions testing equipment to the testing stations that already do annual inspections of
cars to renew registration could be an effective next step.

41


4.2 IMPROVE EMISSIONS INVENTORIES

Similar to ambient AQ monitoring, an improved knowledge of source categories of emissions can enhance the overall
understanding of air quality in Addis Ababa. Improved emission inventories can support a bottom up approach to
air quality management but are significantly more resource intensive than the top down approach used for the
analysis supporting this AQMP. Nevertheless, the AAEPGDC should consider the steps need to more systematically
deploy elements of a bottom-up approach capability in emissions inventory completion. These steps include
assembling data to support emissions inventory development for four emissions source categories:

1. A mobile source inventory. It is not practical to measure pollutants from all mobile sources, so emissions
are estimated from data on the population of vehicles by vehicle class, estimates of their activity (where,
when, and how far they are driven), and the emissions characteristics of those vehicles. Sometimes “non-
road” sources are also included in the mobile source component of a comprehensive inventory, reflecting
the activity of combustion engines in construction equipment, farm equipment, mining equipment, and
other small engines (perhaps including generators). Some efforts have begun in Addis Ababa, through
cooperation with C40, to better understand and measure vehicle air pollutant emissions rates.
2. A point source inventory. Point sources are stack emissions from major industrial and commercial facilities.
The total emissions from a large point source can also include fugitive emissions from industrial plants. For
example, petroleum refineries have significant emissions from stacks and flares, but also leaks around seals
and from product storage containers. While some efforts have begun in Addis Ababa to monitor emissions
from specific manufacturing facilities on a case-by-base basis, no efforts have been launched to systematize
and manage data on an ongoing basis.
3. An area source inventory. Area sources are small sources of air pollution that by themselves may not emit
very much but, when their emissions are added together, account for a significant portion of total
emissions. Area sources are often too small or too numerous to be inventoried individually. Examples of
area sources include: industrial processes such as chromium electroplating, surface coating of cans and
paper, metal parts cleaning, metal recycling, small chemical manufacturing plants, and bakeries; emissions
from consumer products, such as adhesives and sealants and coatings such as paints; residential heating
and fuel use; prescribed agricultural burns, forest and wildfires, and structure fires; gasoline and diesel
stations; dry cleaners. There are no currently known efforts in Addis Ababa to measure or estimate area
source emissions.
4. A biogenic inventory. Biogenic emissions are emissions that originate from non-anthropogenic sources.
These include sources such as forests which emit some VOCs, and sources of airborne particulates such as
sea salt and crustal material.

A key next step in advancing emissions inventory capabilities is to implement a data management system for
emissions data from permits, modeling, and ongoing work to characterize greenhouse gas emissions – where the
relevant combustion activity factors might be used also to estimate conventional air pollutant emissions. An effort
is needed to obtain and build capacity in implementing a data management system for this purpose.

42


4.3 IMPROVE ACCESS TO LABORATORY FACILITIES

The AAEPGDC currently has laboratory facilities focused on water and soil sampling and analysis. A critical next step
for building municipal level expertise would be to inventory the capacity within the NMA, Addis Ababa University as
well as Kotebe Metropolitan University to conduct a basic level of air quality monitoring analysis. This would include
acquisition of PM2.5 gravimetric devices and then equipment and training to, at a minimum, follow standard
operating procedures to weigh filter samples, access to and ability to conduct gas chromatography–mass
spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis to determine chemical composition of samples.

4.4 IMPROVE NATIONAL-CITY COOPERATION

While the lead agency for the Megacity Partnership was the AAEPGDC, the EFCCC was actively engaged in the
training and AQMP development process. This engagement is critical because certain national level policies are
required to meet the goals of the AQMP, for example limiting the age of vehicle imports and fuel economy standards,
which are more commonly national policies. Identifying the role of the national ministries in the implementation
plan (section 6) and obtaining their buy-in for the measures and roles identified, will be critical for the success of the
AQMP.

An additional set of goals is to strengthen coordinated activities at all levels, initiate aligned and integrated planning
with stakeholders, create partnership and networking with governmental, and non- government actors, such as
private sector and NGOs, to enhance and scale up the desired health benefit. And, it is also very crucial to strengthen
the integration of the Ministry of Health and the Regional Health Bureau with different universities, programs and
initiatives across the country and at the regional level to conduct new research that strengthens the evidence base
linking air pollution and health effect related health burden data.

4.5 ENHANCE EDUCATION AND OUTREACH ON AIR POLLUTION ISSUES

There is a growing awareness in Addis Ababa about the dangers of air pollution, but much more could be done to
raise public awareness about the sources, the role individuals play in creating and mitigating air pollution, and the
role of the public in influencing air quality policies. An informed public can advocate for the investments needed to
reduce air pollution and can also be a part of certain emission reduction strategies, e.g., vehicle emission testing or
cookstove change-out programs. Improving access to air quality information can inform the public of current air
quality, air quality trends and the relationship between air quality and health in Addis Ababa. Publicly available air
quality information is useful for raising awareness about the severity of air pollution among the public; and for
helping citizens to take precautionary measures to avoid or reduce their exposure to air pollution to protect their
health, for example during periods of poor air quality. In addition, sharing air quality data provides a means for
strengthening accountability for air pollution control through a well-informed public.

Together with strategic investments in air quality measurement and data systems, the AAEPGDC should make
commensurate investments in the following:

• Real time air quality information dissemination

• Public relations campaign regarding air pollution and health
• Communications regarding planned mitigation strategies, especially those anticipated to impact the public
(e.g., vehicle testing)
• A public involvement plan for seeking input on the AQMP implementation plan

43


5. OVERALL OBJECTIVE AND GOALS OF THE AQMP

The overall objective of the AQMP is:

“Ambient air quality in Addis Ababa city is brought into full compliance
with national and city ambient air quality standards by 2025, and the state
of compliance is maintained as the city develops economically.”

The individual goals by which the overall objective will be fulfilled are as follows:

• Goal 1: Ambient concentrations of air pollutants comply with the relevant ambient air quality
standards because of planned emission reductions

• Goal 2: Cooperative governance promotes the implementation of the AQMP

• Goal 3: Air quality management is supported by effective systems and tools

• Goal 4: Air quality decision- making is informed by sound research

• Goal 5: Knowledge and understanding amongst decision-makers, stakeholders, and the general
public is improved according to an education and outreach plan

44


6. IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The implementation plan outlined below is designed to fulfill the five goals for achieving the main objective of the
AQMP. Each specific activity includes reference to mandatory and participatory institutional responsibility; expected
time frame for completion from the formal adoption of the plan; indicators to mark successful completion; and a
preliminary categorial estimate of the external funding resources needed to achieve each objective listed. The
legend for the categorical entries in that column is provided below:

Symbol in “External Resource Need” Column

in Tables Meaning

External resources of $50,000 or less

ብር (approximately 1.5 million ብር or less) are
needed to achieve the objective

External resources of between $50,000 and

ብር ብር
$100,000 are needed

External resources of greater than $100,000

ብር ብር ብር
are needed

Resource needs are currently unknown

Unknown
pending a more comprehensive scoping effort

Can be funded by using internal, allocated

None resources or previously secured funding from
external sources

In addition, this implementation plan captures activities that 1) may already be underway, 2) activities that will
require support from partners and donors to accelerate implementation, and 3) activities that have been identified
as priorities for action, but which will require capacity building and investments from outside partners and donors
to ensure success. As a result, each activity has been color coded so that potential partners and donors can see
where investments are needed. 1 – Green,; 2 – Yellow; and 3- Red.

45


GOAL 1 AMBIENT CONCENTRATIONS OF AIR POLLUTANTS COMPLY WITH THE RELEVANT AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS BECAUSE OF PLANNED EMISSION REDUCTIONS
EXTERNAL
MANDATORY PARTICIPATORY RESOURCE
OBJECTIVES ACTIVITIES RESPONSIBILITY RESPONSIBILITY TIME-FRAMES INDICATORS NEED
EPGDC will monitor
and review the
Review the national
process that EFCCC is
ambient air quality
pursuing at the EFCCC, to communicate
standards and other EFCCC publishes findings of
national level, because EFCCC with EPGDC about 2021-2022 None
relevant research and their review
the Addis standards standards development
information, including other
cannot be less
African nations and WHO
stringent than the
national standards
Two years after completion of
Review national National ambient standard .20
Establish city-level ambient standard, decide All members of Advisory decision is made about whether
Addis EPGDC 2022-2023 None
standards whether a standard is Committee a new AA ambient standard is
needed at city-level. needed – if yes, then new
standard is published
AAT Bureau will
Findings of pilot tests are
complete work with
published by AAT Bureau.
C40 to test emissions None –
Complete pilot-level Findings should include a
for 380 vehicles, C40, AAEPGDC, NMA, already
research on existing vehicle AAT Bureau 2021 specific recommendation on the
prepare benefit-cost EFCCC funded
emissions type of equipment that will be
analysis for option of through C40
used to enforce a new city-level
adopting Euro
standard
standards
Addis DVLCA and AAT
Bureau develops an Addis Transport
Establish emissions emissions standard Bureau, supported by
New emissions standards are
standards for vehicles for proposal for review by Addis EPGDC, DVLCA, EFCCC, Mayor’s office 2021-2022 ብር
developed and published
Addis Ababa the Addis Ababa Addis Transport
Transport Authority Bureau
and the Addis EPGDC

46


The AAT Bureau

encourages the
Ministry of Transport
Align national and city to adopt similar AAT Bureau and Min of National vehicle emission
UNEP 2021-2025 None
vehicle emissions standards national vehicle Transport standards
emissions standards
as those established in
Addis Ababa
Enhance EPGDC’s capacity
Build human and
to monitor vehicle Improved monitoring capability
technological capacity
emissions, including EPGDC EFCCC, C40 2021-2022 evidenced by publication of ብር ብር ብር
to monitor more
passenger vehicles, buses, emissions data by vehicle class
comprehensively.
and trucks
Build human and
Enhance EPGDC’s capacity
technological capacity Improved enforcement
to enforce city-level
to enforce more capability evidenced by
regulations for mobile EFCCC, AA Transport
comprehensively. EPGDC 2022-2023 publication of compliance data ብር
sources, including Bureau, DVLCA
Consider future for mobile sources (e.g.,
passenger vehicles, buses,
revision of city-level emission standard fail rates)
and trucks
regulations
Monitor facilities in
Addis, including
Enhance EPGDC’s capacity emissions Improved monitoring capability
to monitor industrial measurement. Build evidenced by development of
EPGDC EFCCC 2021-2022 ብር ብር
facilities, including boilers human and internal database of industrial
and diesel generators technological capacity emissions data
to monitor more
comprehensively.
Build human and
technological capacity
Enhance EPGDC’s capacity to take enforcement
to enforce national-level and compliance action Improved enforcement
regulations for industrial more EPGDC EFCCC 2022-2023 capability evidenced by ብር
sources, including boilers comprehensively. publication of compliance data
and diesel generators Consider future
revision of city-level
regulations

47


Evaluate construction
emissions, building on
enhanced capability to
monitor industrial
facilities, and use the
evaluation to assess
Assess the need for building
whether building Construction Bureau, If assessment shows a need,
construction emissions
construction dust AAEPGDC Construction and 2022-2023 publish new dust emissions Unknown
standards to be added to EIA
emission standards Development Ministry control standards for EIAs
process
should be
incorporated in the
Environmental Impact
Assessment process
for new construction
activity

48


GOAL 2: COOPERATIVE GOVERNANCE PROMOTES THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE AQMP

EXTERNAL
MANDATORY PARTICIPATORY RESOURCE
OBJECTIVES ACTIVITIES RESPONSIBILITY RESPONSIBILITY TIME-FRAMES INDICATORS NEED
Direct the activities of
effective air quality High-level management of
To be established in conjunction
management for the city bureaus and national
with the AQMP launch activities
city of Addis Ababa level Ministries, to include
Develop steering Led by the Mayor with (tentatively June 2021).The
across all at least the transport,
committee, chaired by the support of AA EPGDC 2021 Mayor convenes the Steering None
governmental health, solid waste,
Mayor of Addis Ababa and EFCCC Committee and they meet
stakeholders; evaluate industry ministries and
regularly to direct AQMP
progress by Bureaus bureau, and relevant
activities.
and Ministries to university stakeholders,
achieve AQMP goals.
Establish a cross-
institutional technical AATB, AA Solid Waste
working group for Management Agency],
Establish sector-specific AQMP Kotebe Metropolitan
2021 (Within 3 Identify participants; set up first
working groups at staff level implementation, to University, AA Planning
AA EPGDC, EFCCC months after meeting and schedule for None
under the Addis Ababa include Commission Bureau,
launch) subsequent meetings
Mayor’s Office communication, air FMHACA, MOH, WRI, many
quality monitoring, others to be clarified in
and health impact subsequent activities
assessment

49


GOAL 3: AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT IS SUPPORTED BY EFFECTIVE SYSTEMS AND TOOLS

EXTERNAL
MANDATORY PARTICIPATORY RESOURCE
OBJECTIVES ACTIVITIES RESPONSIBILITY RESPONSIBILITY TIME-FRAMES INDICATORS NEED
Develop a city-level
monitoring strategy
Identification of a partner
for air pollution, to
(donor) to guide EPGDC in
include reference
development of the air quality
grade monitors, low- MOH, AACAHB, FMHACA,
monitoring strategy.
cost sensors, and Addis Ababa University
2021
Develop an overall air other technologies (Black Lion), NMA, C40, UN
EPGDC Completion and dissemination ብር
quality monitoring strategy (e.g., satellite/remote- Environment, USEPA,WRI
of an air quality monitoring
sensed information) and relevant external
strategy
and data management. experts,

Include plans for

developing source

apportionment
capabilities
Implement the
Implementation of key elements
strategy –
Implement the air quality of the air quality management
procurement of EPGDC UN Environment 2021-2022 ብር ብር ብር
monitoring strategy strategy
equipment,

implement training
Create a public
information and
Effectively collect, manage, participation activity Launch a system to share air
UN Environment, C40,
and disseminate air quality to share available AQ EPGDC 2021-2022 quality data provision to the ብር ብር
USEPA, WRI
data to the public information with the citizens of Addis Ababa
public, including data
management system.
Enhance the EPGDC’s Identification of a partner
capacity to monitor (donor) to fund equipment
industrial facilities. EFCCC – requires procurement and capacity
Enhance source specific EPGDC Inspection
Enhance human additional donor TBD development. ብር ብር ብር
monitoring capabilities Team
(training) and participation and funding
technological Implementation of the
(equipment) capacity objective.

50


to source-specific
emissions.
Investigate activity
being pursued in
AATB, SWMA, AA Industry
Ethiopia at national
Bureau, AA Planning and Complete the exploration of
Explore options for and city level to
Development Commission, options for emissions inventory
developing a conventional develop GHG emission 2021 (6 months
with support of USEPA for
pollutant (PM2.5, NOx, Sox, inventories. Identify AA EPGDC from AQMP None
coordination with [NOTE: development of an
VOC, hydrocarbon) steps to use the launch)
Stockholm Environment inventory would be a longer-
emissions inventory activity data for
Institute and SNAP term activity]
conventional
initiative
pollutant inventory
development.

51


GOAL 4: AIR QUALITY DECISION-MAKING IS INFORMED BY SOUND RESEARCH

EXTERNAL
MANDATORY PARTICIPATORY RESOURCE
OBJECTIVES ACTIVITIES RESPONSIBILITY RESPONSIBILITY TIME-FRAMES INDICATORS NEED
Create TWG with
different research
institutes, conduct Kotebe Metropolitan
Coordinate and align public situational and University, Addis Ababa Publish report, and journal
health air quality research problem analysis, University, Center for Env. articles that support the
Ministry of Health EPHI 2021- 2022 None
being conducted by identify priorities and Science and Environmental objective and encourage a focus
academia design different Engineering, Civil Service on action
implementation University, GEOHEALTH
strategies, conduct
researches…..
Build capacity to 2021-2025 (One
Utilize existing monitor assess monitor month after
information to identify information and AQMP launch
Monthly reports on patterns
patterns and trends that can prepare reports on AAEPGDC UNEP and continuing None
and trends
inform AQMP patterns and trends through AQMP
implementation for policy makers and implementation
non-technical staff period)
Complete a children’s
health study (for both
indoor and ambient
None –
Conduct research with the air pollution), time
Drafts submitted to journals; GeoHealth
Black Lion PM monitor and series study linking air
Addis Ababa GeoHealth final research and data are Hub already
associated GeoHealth Hub pollution data from 2021
Hub shared with AQMP partners in has funding
resources on air pollution BAM with morbidity
Addis Ababa from US
links to health data, and possibly
Gov’t
source attribution
analysis of PM filter
samples
Convene a group to
Establish a coordinating Kotebe Metropolitan 2021-2025 Information on ongoing and
interact regularly with
committee to learn about University, Addis Ababa (First meetings newly completed research is
representatives of EPGDC, AATB None
university-based air quality University, Center for Env. within six to shared among academic and
relevant air pollution
related research Science and Environmental twelve months government partners.
research academic

52


programs to share Engineering, Civil Service of plan

information. University adoption)
Conduct capacity
building and analytic
activities to enhance Kotebe Metropolitan University
the capability to revise periodically updates the
Develop local and external Other university and
and improve the Kotebe Metropolitan 2021-2025( BenMAP results as new
capabilities to perform government partners in a ብር ብር
baseline and forecast University Ongoing) monitoring and exposed
health impact analysis supporting role
health impact population data and
estimates that derive information becomes available
from BenMAP
modeling runs.
Form a monitoring and
evaluation team for Periodic review and report to
2021-2025
regularly monitoring AAEPGDC and EFCCC UNEP in a support role Steering Committee on progress None
(Ongoing)
and providing technical of AQMP goals and objectives
support.
Develop research and Funding is secured from
Enhance understanding of surveys of the extent Ethiopian and donor support to
the extent of open burning of open burning in AA Solid Waste Mgmt AA Health Bureau, Ministry complete the study, and the
2021-2022 ብር ብርብር
of waste, and the reasons for Addis Ababa, and Agency of Health EPHI study is published and
open burning assess the health distributed among relevant
impact of this activity decision-makers

53


GOAL 5: KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING AMONGST DECISION-MAKERS, STAKEHOLDERS, AND THE GENERAL PUBLIC IS IMPROVED ACCORDING TO AN EDUCATION AND
OUTREACH PLAN
EXTERNAL
MANDATORY PARTICIPATORY RESOURCE
OBJECTIVES ACTIVITIES RESPONSIBILITY RESPONSIBILITY TIME-FRAMES INDICATORS NEED
Coordinate with
outreach efforts in
other Megacities (e.g.,
parallel activities
Communications products are
Enhance understanding being carried out in
developed and disseminated to
among general public about Accra, Ghana) and Ministry of Health AA Solid Waste 2021-2025
educate the general public ብር
the negative health aspects elsewhere to raise EPHI, AACAHB Management Agency (Ongoing)
about the hazards of burning
of burning solid waste community
solid waste
awareness, consider
implementing
awareness raising
programs
Reach out to MWIE to
pursue activities to
identify renewable
energy options as
alternatives to wood, Ethiopian Federal
Enhance understanding of
charcoal, kerosene, Government, believed
options for technology Cooperation with MWIE is
etc.; improved to be Ministry of Water,
improvement for 2021 established to enhance Unknown
efficiency of Irrigation, and Energy –
cookstoves and home understanding of options
cookstoves to reduce to be coordinated by
heating
pollution; options for EFCCC
clean supplemental
electric power supply
options to be used
during power outages
Enhance understanding Conduct impact
among general public about analyses using tools
Kotebe Metropolitan
the negative health aspects such as BenMAP, data Policy briefs targeted toward
Ministry of Health EPHI University, Addis Ababa 2021 ብር
of all sources of air on the burden of decision-makers
University
pollution, indoor and disease, and other
outdoor analyses

54


Assess options such as C40 – coordinate with

Enhance understanding of car-free days, parking options being assessed in
options for reducing restrictions, the vehicle GHG emissions
Publish a report assessing these
transport emissions to meet commuter plans, AAEPGDC, AATB reduction action plan; 2021-2022 ብር ብር
options
ambient air quality electric mobility, and UNEP for longer-term
standards many others in the support (e.g.., electric
transport sector mobility options)
Provide opportunities
Assist stakeholders and the for constructive
Representatives of
regulated community to feedback and Reports of meeting minutes are
regulated industries, 2021-2025(
understand and comply interaction between AA EPGDC, EFCCC shared on relevant institution None
including public transport Ongoing)
with regulations under the government and websites
providers
AQMP regulated industry
representatives
Develop programming
for Public Service Air
Inform health providers Time (“Healthy
Ministry of Health and 2021-2025( Messages are aired via both
about the impacts of air Message”) to inform ብር
EFCCC Ongoing) radio and TV media
pollution on health the public about
health impacts of air
pollution
Establish a media
Enhance understanding platform to
2021 (Within 6
among the general public communicate the Updates are provided via the
AAEPGDC EFCCC months of AQMP ብር
about the impacts of air status of AQMP efforts, chosen media platform
adoption)
pollution raise awareness
among the public

55


7. MONITORING AND EVALUATION

Successful completion of steps to enhance AQ monitoring in Addis Ababa can provide important information to
evaluate progress toward air quality goals in the city. Using these data, AAEPGDC will perform a mid-term review of
progress in 2 years (at the end of 2023, and a formal evaluation of the plan’s progress after 5 years. Any portion of
the plan may be updated as a result of the review.

Figure 7-1 below provides a summary of the ongoing process of air quality management envisioned. Steps 1 through
3 have been used to formulate this first draft of the plan. Available air quality data and information has been used
to assess the current situation and identify key sources. These results have in turn been used to prioritize actions
for the key industrial point sources and for continued progress in reducing emissions from mobile sources (using
both tailpipe controls and fuels content regulation). This plan represents the first step in taking action (Step 4).

Figure 7-1. Air Quality Management Process Cycle

56


The monitoring and evaluation process will include planned enhancements to the monitor network to expand
monitoring through the sensor deployment effort, and potentially to strengthen ties to the monitoring capability
available at Addis Ababa University (Black Lion Hospital). The data collected will be evaluated at the 5-year formal
review to further assess whether the actions taken will be sufficient to meet the key goal of meeting the PM2.5
standard.

Note that the review will also evaluate the state of emissions drivers, including faster or slower growth in emissions
rates, air pollutant exposures, and the economy. The 5-year formal evaluation will also include an update on the
availability of financing for implementation of the plan and to support meaningful changes in emissions rates and
transition to new technologies, particular for point sources but also for the turnover of the mobile source fleet to
cleaner technologies and the availability in retail settings of cleaner, low sulfur diesel and gasoline.

A strong monitoring and evaluation system also needs to be in place to track progress and support planning and
sector investments. Therefore, to obtain the intended outputs, the planned activities must be implemented using
the required resources such as human resource, materials, organizational setup, budget, etc. The outputs in turn are
also expected to bring intended changes and impacts on community health. Health institutions (FMOH and AACAHB)
will also record baseline information on priority air pollution related diseases, and current level of interventions and
health system capacity prior to starting to adapt air pollution effects, to be best prepared to measure change after
the implementation of this AQMP. The baseline information will be obtained by reviewing documents and/or
conducting surveys.

57


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