J Autism Dev Disord (2016) 46:2349–2362

DOI 10.1007/s10803-016-2768-7

ORIGINAL PAPER

Learning with Technology: Video Modeling with Concrete–

Representational–Abstract Sequencing for Students with Autism
Spectrum Disorder
Gulnoza Yakubova1 • Elizabeth M. Hughes2 • Megan Shinaberry3

Published online: 17 March 2016

Ó Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016

Abstract The purpose of this study was to determine the Research on improving educational opportunities and
effectiveness of a video modeling intervention with con- instructional strategies for students with autism spectrum
crete–representational–abstract instructional sequence in disorder (ASD) have generally focused on skills related to
teaching mathematics concepts to students with autism improving social, communication, behavior, and daily
spectrum disorder (ASD). A multiple baseline across skills living (e.g., Banda et al. 2010; Coyle and Cole 2004;
design of single-case experimental methodology was used Mechling and Ayres 2012; Petursdottir and Carr 2011).
to determine the effectiveness of the intervention on the Students with ASD also need to possess basic academic
acquisition and maintenance of addition, subtraction, and skills, such as mathematics, reading, and writing to be able
number comparison skills for four elementary school stu- to perform functional and daily life activities and ulti-
dents with ASD. Findings supported the effectiveness of mately increase their independence; however, few research
the intervention in improving skill acquisition and main- studies examined instructional strategies on teaching aca-
tenance at a 3-week follow-up. Implications for practice demic skills necessary for independent functioning (e.g.,
and future research are discussed. Bouck et al. 2014; Pennington 2010; Spencer et al. 2014;
Yakubova et al. 2015; Weng and Bouck 2014). Limited
Keywords Autism
Concrete–representational–abstract attention to teaching academic skills necessary for inde-
instructional sequence
Technology-based intervention
pendent life can be disadvantageous given the necessity of
Mathematics at least basic academic skills to perform daily life activi-
ties, such as purchasing, managing the budget, and others.
Further, upon graduation from high school, students with
ASD have limited access to supports and consistently have
& Gulnoza Yakubova
grim outcomes (Taylor and Seltzer 2011). Additionally, the
[email protected] economic development in the twenty-first century and rise
Elizabeth M. Hughes
of jobs that require at least some level of academic skills
[email protected] necessitate the teaching of academic skills necessary for
Megan Shinaberry
various aspects of post-school adult life (Bartholomew
[email protected] et al. 2015).
Preparing for adult life requires a long-term educational
1
Department of Counseling, Psychology and Special planning to ensure students to have the skills to be suc-
Education, Duquesne University, G9-C Canevin Hall,
600 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15282, USA
cessful. Planning to transition for post-school life begins no
2
later than age 16 [Individuals with Disabilities Education
Department of Counseling, Psychology and Special
Improvement Act (IDEIA) 2004], but the trajectory for
Education, Duquesne University, G9-B Canevin Hall,
600 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15282, USA student learning begins well before students are 16 years of
3 age. Many academic skills, such as mathematics, naturally
Department of Counseling, Psychology and Special
Education, Duquesne University, 109 Canevin Hall, grow in complexity and difficulty [National Mathematics
600 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15282, USA Advisory Panel (NMAP) 2008]. Moreover, acquisition of

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skills in mathematics from early grades provides founda- ing. CRA has been successfully used to teach mathematics
tion for further success in increasing independence in post- to students with disabilities varying from basic addition or
school life (Cihak and Foust 2008). Therefore, long-term subtraction skills (Flores 2009) to algebra (Witzel 2005;
success in mathematics requires that students master and Witzel et al. 2003). Many studies focus on learning needs of
maintain skills to remain on target to learn skills that students with learning disabilities; however, recent research
translate into functional independence. Early understanding documents the effectiveness of CRA instructional sequence
and proficiency in mathematics is important for students to to teach mathematics skills, such as addition, subtraction,
have access to more advanced mathematics, such as alge- and multiplication to students with ASD (Flores et al.
bra (NMAP 2008) and associated benefits, such as post- 2014a; Stroizer et al. 2015). CRA builds on understanding
secondary school, gainful employment, and careers in the that visual supports encourage learning of mathematics
growing STEM fields (Murray 2013). (NMAP 2008) and builds from previous work by Bruner
and Kenney (1965) who describe the process of learning by
first doing, then representing information through images,
Challenges to Learning Mathematics for Students and finally transforming information to a formal or abstract
with ASD level. The transition to the abstract sequence may span
several lessons (Flores 2009) or more rapid succession with
Students with ASD face many challenges learning mathe- one lesson at each phase (Hughes and Riccomini 2011). The
matics, yet limited research supporting interventions exist gradual progression to the abstract level promotes mastery
in this area. A quarter of students with high-functioning at each level, but requires ample time to transition to
ASD scored at least one standard deviation lower in practice with abstract numbers and symbols. Associated
mathematics assessments than in vocabulary assessments with the CRA sequence, the NMAP (2008) recognized the
(Williams et al. 2008). Mathematics requires high levels of benefits of visual aids through a sequence from picture (or
executive functioning (e.g., problem solving, sequencing, diagram) representations to the abstract level; however,
self-regulation), which may be challenging for students more recent research in the field includes the initial concrete
with ASD (Ozonoff et al. 1991). Consequently, students component. Perhaps, a more ambitious CRA sequence that
with ASD may have challenges remembering operations, explicitly demonstrates the CRA progression may also be
processing mathematics language, and organizing problem- effective, thus, emphasizing the progression from the con-
solving strategies (Minshew et al. 1994). Further, students crete to abstract within one lesson format but reducing the
with ASD may have difficulty processing abstract concepts time needed to deliver CRA interventions.
(Rourke and Strang 1978) that dominate mathematics.
It has been suggested that non-symbolic understanding of
mathematics quantities is innate while the symbolic skills are
learned or acquired (Kolkman et al. 2013). For example, The Importance of Integrating Technology-Based
understanding that the quantity of three apples is greater than Supports in Teaching Students with ASD
two oranges is natural; however, understanding 3 [ 2 must
be learned. This leap to the symbolic and abstract represen- Technology plays a significant role in the lives of students
tation may be cognitively taxing or developmentally chal- with disabilities serving as an equalizer both during in-
lenging for some students. Consequently, some students may school and post-school life (Braddock et al. 2004). Simi-
need additional scaffolded instruction prior to solving larly, technology has become the integral part of education
equations at the symbolic, abstract level. Visual represen- for students with ASD and its effectiveness is well docu-
tations are effective aids in learning mathematics (NMAP mented (Odom et al. 2014). Students with ASD benefit
2008) and may be used developmentally to support student from the use of technology in enhancing social, academic,
learning. As such, visual aids are incorporated into various employment, and independent life skills from elementary
mathematics interventions for students with ASD such as grades to adulthood in school, home, and community set-
number lines and touch points (Cihak and Foust 2008) and tings (Fletcher-Watson 2014; Odom et al. 2014). In addi-
virtual manipulatives (Bouck et al. 2014). tion, many students with ASD find technology engaging
and spend more time on activities presented via technology
(4.5 h on average per day) than non-technology activities
Concrete–Representational–Abstract Sequencing (2.8 h on average per day) (Mazurek et al. 2012).
One commonly used technology-based intervention,
One instructional strategy that systematically supports video-based intervention (VBI), has strong impact on skill
students’ learning from non-symbolic to abstract nature of acquisition of students with ASD. VBI that includes video
skills is concrete–representational–abstract (CRA) sequenc- modeling, point-of-view video modeling, video self-

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modeling, and video prompting has strong evidence-base licensed psychologist. The center partnered with local
of effectiveness in teaching numerous skills such as social, school districts to provide intensive intervention to children
communication, play, adaptive, academic, and job-related with ASD from young ages to allow integration into typical
skills (Plavnick 2013). A type of VBI, point-of-view video classrooms in the schools. Students with ASD who expe-
modeling, has both evidence of effectiveness and user- rienced significant challenges in their home schools were
friendliness and displays the video recording of the task/ educated in the center using a verbal behavior program and
skill completed from the first person-perspective (Plavnick a state-approved online curriculum. The online curriculum
2013). Various strategies are used in teaching mathematics was provided by the state’s distance learning charter school
skills and incorporating technology is increasing with the system, which was a tuition-free, public charter school
use of virtual manipulatives (Bouck et al. 2014), video serving students kindergarten through high school. Stu-
prompting (Weng and Bouck 2014), and point-of-view dents at the center also received intensive instruction on
video modeling via iPads (Yakubova et al. 2015). For social, behavioral, communication, and functional skills.
instance, point-of-view video modeling intervention via Multidisciplinary team that involved educators, behavior
iPads was effective in improving word problem-solving analysts, psychologists, physical therapists, speech-lan-
skills of four high school students with ASD (Yakubova guage pathologists, and occupational therapists designed a
et al. 2015). Using this intervention, students were able to comprehensive treatment plan for each child. Each class-
view the entire video instruction, and then solve the room included a certified teacher and personal care assis-
problems and rewatch the video instruction as necessary. tant with up to 10 students and was supervised by Board
This allowed students to learn at their individual learning Certified Behavior Analyst (BCBA).
pace until skill mastery. Chris was a 5-year old male student. He also had a
Given the strong evidence-base of VBI and the benefits secondary diagnosis of speech and language impairment.
of integrating technology, the goal of this study was to He was in a kindergarten classroom and below grade level
extend this area to teaching basic mathematics skills when in mathematics. Scores from the Woodcock Johnson III
combined with CRA instructional sequence and contribute Achievement Test (Woodcock et al. 2001; 2007) reported
to efforts on improving outcomes of students with ASD. that Chris was within the high-average range. Specifically,
The research questions were: (a) To what extent do stu- his math problem-solving standard score was 119 and
dents with ASD improve the response accuracy in solving within the 90th percentile. Throughout his school day,
problems involving subtraction, addition, and number Chris exhibited disruptive and defiant behaviors, including
comparison with single and double digit numbers between refusal to attend to the task and working extremely quickly
the baseline and intervention phases using the video when he did not want to continue working on the task that
modeling intervention with CRA instructional sequence? he started. Prompts were provided to remind him to take
and (b) to what extent do students with ASD maintain skills his time and continue working. He was regularly provided
3 weeks following the conclusion of the intervention with reinforcement for his on-task behavior and general
phase? participation in the classroom.
Adam was a 6-year old, male student in the first grade. In
mathematics, Adam performed below grade level and did
not have addition, subtraction, or number comparison
Method skills. However, Adam was able to count up to 100. No
standardized assessment scores were obtained for this
Participants student at school. The student had minimal communication
ability and his speech was in the form of echolalia. He also
Four students, Chris, Brittany, Adam, and David, partici- had compulsive and repetitive behaviors. The teacher used
pated in the study. Students participated in the study a behavior support plan to address Adam’s attention-
according to the following criteria: (a) meeting the diag- seeking and off-task behaviors and used a strict rein-
nostic criteria of ASD per Diagnostic and Statistical forcement schedule within the classroom.
Manual of Mental Disorders-5 [DSM-5; American Psy- David was a male, 6-year old kindergarten student.
chiatric Association (APA) 2013], (b) difficulties in Academically, David was below grade level. Prior to par-
mathematics per teacher’s recommendation, (c) no prior ticipating in this study, David maintained the ability to
experience with video modeling and CRA sequencing, and count up to 25. Scores from the Woodcock Johnson III
(d) willingness to participate. All students were enrolled in Achievement Test (Woodcock et al. 2001; 2007) reported
an academic program at a private educational center that that David’s Brief Math level was within the low-average
served students with ASD and had a diagnosis of ASD range. Specifically, brief math score was within the 9th
according to DSM-5 (APA 2013) and reconfirmed by a percentile and his overall IQ was within the 18th

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percentile. Throughout the day, David had scripting served as a self-prompting sheet for students when they
behaviors and expressed compulsive tendencies, which needed to determine the next step in the task completion
interrupted his schoolwork at times and required repetition process. During each intervention session, each student
to retain new skills. watched the video modeling clip independently on an
Brittany was a 6-year old kindergarten student diag- iPad and then solved problems using manipulatives and
nosed with ASD. Academically, Brittany was below grade colored crayons.
level both in mathematics and reading. Brittany was able to
count up to 100 and relied on her finger when counting.
Scores from the Woodcock Johnson III Achievement Test Dependent Variable and Data Collection
(Woodcock et al. 2001; 2007) reported that Brittany was
within the average range. Specifically, Brittany’s standard The accuracy of solving problems involving single- and
score was 95 and her overall achievement score was within double-digit subtraction, addition, and number comparison
the 36th percentile. Throughout the school day, Brittany was the dependent variable. The dependent variables meet
had a tendency to rush through the task and needed verbal components of Kindergarten Common Core State Stan-
reminders to work at a careful pace to avoid making errors. dards for Counting (CCSS) for Cardinality and Operations
At times, she expressed the inability to work on a task, and Algebraic Thinking and First Grade CCSS Operations
sometimes due to lack of desire and sometimes due to and Algebraic Thinking. The dependent variable was
stomach pain. defined as the percentage of correct responses on a set of
four problems for each skill (subtraction, addition, and
number comparison). During all phases, permanent product
Independent Variable recording was used to collect data on students’ response
accuracy (Kennedy 2005). Graduate research assistant, the
Point-of-view video modeling with CRA instructional third author, had an extensive experience working with
sequence and a cue sheet of task-analysis steps derived children with ASD in providing both academic and non-
from the video modeling clip served as the independent academic supports. Graduate research assistant was also
variable. The point-of-view video modeling instructional trained in single-subject experimental design. She imple-
clips demonstrated solving problems related to founda- mented the intervention and collected data during all
tional skills of mathematics essential for use in everyday phases of the study. Upon conclusion of each session, she
life (i.e., single- and double-digit subtraction, addition, and collected students’ response sheets and marked each
number comparison) at the concrete, representational, and response as correct or incorrect and calculated percentage
abstract levels and included an explicit step-by-step audio correct. Reliability of data accuracy is described in Inter-
explanation. The intervention featured all three phases of observer Agreement (IOA) section.
CRA in one video clip presented to the students all at once
rather than in a developmental sequence. Within this Experimental Design
intervention we explored a more rapid succession within
phases, such that it provided purposeful reminders about The study used a multiple baseline across skills design of
the sequence. Scaffolding the students by reviewing the single-case experimental methodology to determine the
sequence of learning in a brief video model reminded effectiveness of the intervention on the acquisition and
students of the conceptual basis for solving the equations maintenance of target skills for students with ASD (Baer
and the transition to abstract sequencing. Manipulatives et al. 1968). This design was selected as it allowed
were available if students needed additional scaffolds researchers to examine continued demonstration of inter-
during the assessments. vention effects and maintenance of skills. Replication of
Each video clip featured a sample problem and prob- effect across each skill and student was established by
lems used in the video modeling clips were not used in progressively introducing intervention to each skill at a
any of the data collection phases of the study. One point- time.
of-view video modeling clip, recorded from a first-person
perspective, per problem type featured an adult’s hands Setting
solving a sample problem using colored manipulatives
and markers on a one-page paper. The description of All data collection sessions took place in a quiet office of
construction of video modeling clips appears in ‘‘Mate- the educational center. In this space, each student sat at a
rials’’ section. Part of the independent variable, task- desk to watch videos on an iPad and solve problems. The
analysis checklist derived from video modeling clip door to the office was closed to limit outside distractions.

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The length of time each student was in the office varied A Checklist
based on the time needed to complete the tasks.
The checklist was part of the intervention students received
Materials and was derived directly from video modeling clip.
Checklist was in the form of task analysis of steps in
Problem Sets solving problems and served as self-prompting for students
during the intervention phase. Students with ASD often
Efforts were made to target skills at an appropriate level for require adult prompting (Hume et al. 2009). The goal of
each student. Prior to beginning the baseline phase, stu- providing students with a checklist was to shift prompting
dents took part in an evaluation session to determine and from an adult to self and allow students to complete tasks
select skills to target for the study. Researchers made a set without relying on adults to prompt the next step in the task
of problems involving single- and double-digit addition, sequence. Checklist included CRA steps in a written format
subtraction, and number comparison for initial evaluation. and steps were listed the same way as in the video clip.
The classroom teacher was consulted and asked to provide During intervention, students had a hard copy of the
professional input based on knowledge of each student’s checklist and referred to the checklist while solving for
academic needs (e.g., past performance, informal assess- problems after viewing a video clip. All students used the
ments, curricula demands, prerequisite skills). Per class- checklist for reference early in the intervention phase. At
room teachers’ recommendation and initial evaluation times, Brittany, Adam, and David requested the checklist to
results, the following became the target skills: (1) sub- be read to them. Brittany used the checklist for four of the
traction of two single-digit numbers for all students (e.g., subtraction and addition intervention sessions. She
9 - 5); (2) addition of two single-digit numbers for Chris, requested that the checklist was read to her, yet, asked the
Brittany, and Adam (e.g., 5 ? 6) and addition of single- reading to stop after using the manipulatives to solve.
and double-digit numbers in a value up to 20 for David Adam and David did so for three of the intervention ses-
(e.g., 6 ? 12); (3) comparison of three single-digit num- sions. Chris referred to the list for two sessions, but did not
bers and finding the number that has the least value for request that the list was read to him.
Brittany, Adam, and David (e.g., 9/5/8) and comparison of
two single-digit numbers and finding the number that has iPad 2Ò
less value for Chris. Then, the authors developed a set of
100 problems for each target skill and randomly selected Each student had access to an iPad device equipped with
four new problems per skill for each session. Problems point-of-view video modeling clips during the intervention
used in one session were not repeated in any other session phase. The iPad was used to deliver the intervention due its
of the study. portability, ease of navigation, and touch screen feature.
All video clips were recorded using the video camera on
Video Clips the iPad 2Ò prior to student use.

Five video clips were made—one for each skill. The video Procedure
clips ranged in duration from 3 min and 8 s to 3 min and
55 s. Each video featured the hands of an adult model General Procedures
using manipulatives and a worksheet to solve the problem
and included corresponding verbal instruction for the target Students participated in the study for 3 days a week and a
skill. Colored manipulatives and markers were used in total of 23 days. Each day included one session of the
video clips to help students differentiate the number values study. At the beginning of each session, the trainer pro-
in a problem set. When modeling how to solve problems at vided each student with a new set of four problems per
the concrete level, the model demonstrated solving the skill. During baseline and maintenance, students had access
sample equation using different colored manipulatives for only to four sets of problems per skill per session and were
each number in the problem. Next, the model solved the asked to solve. During the intervention phase, students had
same problem at the representational level by drawing access to video modeling clips on iPads and a hard copy of
colored circles corresponding to the color of manipulatives. checklist. At the beginning of each session, students were
Then, the model solved the same problem at the abstract given verbal directions to start solving problems and
level using numbers and symbols of addition, subtraction, redirected to the task if they got off-task. Consistent with
and comparison. During intervention sessions, students had students’ regular instruction at the school, each student
access to the same colored manipulatives and markers used received verbal reinforcement and encouragement. For
in the video clips. instance, the trainer redirected the student’s attention when

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any student was off-task by saying ‘‘keep going’’ and ‘‘take Maintenance
your time’’. When students exhibited on-task behavior, the
trainer reinforced positive behavior by saying, e.g., ‘‘You Three weeks following the conclusion of the intervention
are working very hard, thank you’’. phase, each student solved a set of four problems per skill
for three sessions. The maintenance phase lasted approxi-
mately 10 min per session. Students did not receive the
Baseline intervention during this phase. The purpose was to deter-
mine the extent to which each student maintained skills.
The baseline phase lasted 10–15 min per session and a Students were given the same verbal cues at the beginning
minimum of five sessions per skill for each student. Each of maintenance, as they were given in baseline and inter-
student worked on a set of four problems per skill and did vention sessions.
not receive intervention or assistance on solving problems.
Students had one-page paper with four problem sets for Procedural Reliability and Interobserver Agreement
each skill and a pen/pencil. The decision to move from
baseline to intervention was based on visual analysis of To determine the accuracy of data, a second trained inde-
students’ performance and change in trend. The experi- pendent rater, a graduate student who was not involved
menters ensured that baseline for each skill had a minimum with the study, randomly selected 30 % of data sheets for
of five data points and exhibited stable or downward trend each phase per student. The rater checked the percentage of
prior to a new skill being introduced to the intervention data accuracy for each skill per student during at least 30 %
phase. of each phase to get IOA data. IOA was calculated by
dividing the number of agreements by the number of
agreements and disagreements and then multiplying by
Intervention 100 % (Kennedy 2005). Data accuracy for each student
had an IOA of 100 % for each skill per phase.
The intervention phase lasted approximately 30 min per A second independent and trained rater collected data on
session. This included the students watching video clips procedural reliability by marking the occurrence and
and solving problems. During each session, students wat- nonoccurrence of the intervention implementation steps
ched each video clip for approximately 3 min. Following using a checklist during at least 30 % of the intervention
the viewing of the video clip per skill, the trainer guided phase. The rater used the following steps to conduct the
students through the checklist to check students’ compre- procedural reliability data: (1) Each student was presented
hension of the video content, which took an approximate of with 4 problems per skill during each intervention session;
2–3 min. During intervention sessions, students had an (2) Each student had access to an iPad that included an
option of rewatching video clips as many times as needed instructional CRA-based video modeling clip; (3) Each
prior to and while solving problems. However, only during student was told to access and watch a video clip on an
the first two sessions, students rewatched the video clip in iPad; (4) Each student individually watched the video clip
its entirety once, and then solved problems. During the on an iPad during each intervention session; (5) Each
following two–three sessions, students rewatched the first student had a checklist to refer to the CRA steps; (6) The
two phases of CRA being modeled once, and paused the trainer conducted the comprehension check of the CRA
video while drawing or using the manipulatives once. video instruction per student as needed. Procedural relia-
Then, each student solved a set of four problems per skill bility was calculated by dividing the number of occur-
and used the checklist as needed. During each session, the rences and nonoccurrences, and then multiplying the result
trainer handed out worksheets with manipulatives and by 100 % (Kennedy 2005). Procedural reliability was
crayons and directed students to the task, for instance, 100 % per skill for each student.
saying ‘‘Go ahead, do your best’’ or ‘‘Find which is less’’.
At the end of each session, the trainer collected the Social Validity
response sheets and marked each response as correct or
incorrect. Students stayed in the intervention phase for a Upon conclusion of the intervention phase, students and
minimum of five sessions and moved to the next phase classroom teachers responded to informal social validity
upon solving at least three of four problems per skill for questionnaire. When administering social validity ques-
two consecutive sessions. When mastery was achieved tions, the trainer provided each student with questions and
with one skill and not the other two, the student continued explained the purpose of administering social validity
to receive intervention for the prior skill until mastery was questions, the questions, and response scales. Then, each
achieved for the following skill. student individually read and responded to four questions

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by circling the response on a four-point Likert scale that Baseline Intervention Maintenance

included word options from ‘‘strongly disagree’’ to 100

90
‘‘strongly agree’’ along with smiley and frowney face picture 80
70
icons per response option. Student social validity questions 60
50
included the following: (a) I liked learning how to solve 40
30
problems from video clips via iPad; (b) I liked watching the 20 Subtraction
10
videos of problem solving with pom poms, drawing circles, 0

Percentage of response accuracy

and solving the problem; (c) I learned how to solve problems 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

after watching videos; and (d) I would like to use video clips 100
90
to learn more problem solving. The classroom teacher 80
individually responded to the following social validity 70
60
questions: (a) Do you think your students improved skills of 50
40
subtraction, addition, and number comparison? Why/Why 30
not? (b) Do you think this intervention is practical in terms of 20 Addition
10
time used to teach during each session? (c) What did you like 0
about the intervention? (d) What did you not like about the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

intervention? (e) Do you think you will consider using the 100
90
intervention in teaching other topics and content areas to 80
students with ASD? Why/Why not? 70
60
50
40
Data Analysis 30
20 Comparison
10
Visual analysis was the primary method of data analysis 0
consistent with single-case experimental research method- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Sessions
ology (Kratochwill et al. 2013). The authors analyzed data
using a four-step process of visual analysis to determine the Fig. 1 Percentage of response accuracy across subtraction, addition,
existence and magnitude of a causal relationship between and number comparison problems for Chris
the intervention and target skills (Kratochwill et al. 2013).
The first step in the process included examining the pattern improved accuracy during intervention compared to base-
and stability of baseline data prior to the introduction of the line levels. Students also maintained their skills at a 3-week
intervention. Next, the authors examined within-phase data follow-up, though differences among students and skills
for the trend, level, and variability. Then, the authors existed.
examined data between the adjacent phases for the overlap,
immediacy of effect, and consistency to determine whether Chris
the manipulation of the intervention is related to the change
in target skills. Fourth, the authors combined the analysis Subtraction Problems
from the previous three steps to determine whether or not a
causal relationship existed between the intervention and When solving subtraction problems during baseline, Chris
target skills. To supplement visual analysis, the authors had 20 % mean response accuracy with low and
calculated the improvement rate difference (IRD), effect stable trend. This increased to an intervention mean of
size for single-case experimental design (Parker et al. 93.18 % with a mean level change of 73.18 %. Interven-
2009). tion data showed increasing and stable trend with no
overlap of baseline data points. During a 3-week follow-up
assessment, Chris maintained 100 % response accuracy.
Results IRD score of 1.0 was found between baseline and inter-
vention and baseline and maintenance phases.
Point-of-view video modeling with CRA instructional
sequence resulted in improved performance of addition, Addition Problems
subtraction, and number comparison skills (see Figs. 1, 2,
3, 4). Differences among students’ performance for each Chris solved addition problems with 3.13 % mean accu-
skill indicated that not all students improved each skill at racy during baseline and 95 % mean accuracy during
the same rate. Results from visual analysis demonstrated intervention. This resulted in mean level change of
that each student solved mathematics problems with 91.87 %. Baseline response was low and stable while the

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Baseline Intervention Maintenance and stable trend. Upon introduction of the intervention,
100
90 Adam started improving response accuracy reaching a
80 mean of 61.36 %. This resulted in 56.36 % mean level
70
60 change between baseline and intervention with no overlap
50
40 of data points. During a 3-week follow-up assessment,
30 Subtraction
20 Adam had 0 % response accuracy. When determining
10
0 effect size, IRD score between baseline and intervention
Percentage of response accuracy

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 was 0.28 indicating minimal effectiveness of the inter-

100 vention. IRD score between baseline and maintenance was
90
80 0.
70
60
50 Addition Problems
40
30
20 Addition During baseline, Adam solved addition problems with a
10
0 mean accuracy of 6.25 % with baseline data showing a low
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
and stable trend. During intervention, his response accu-
100
90 racy improved to a mean of 87.5 % with increasing,
80
70 stable trend. This resulted in mean level change of
60 81.25 %. Three-week follow-up assessment showed no
50
40 evidence of the student’s retention of the skill. IRD score
30
20
Comparison
between baseline and intervention was 1.0 indicating a
0 strong effect of the intervention on skill acquisition. IRD
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
score of 0.0 was obtained between baseline and mainte-
Sessions
nance conditions.
Fig. 2 Percentage of response accuracy across subtraction, addition,
and number comparison problems for Adam Number Comparison Problems

When solving number comparison problems, Adam’s

intervention data had an increasing trend. Three-week response accuracy improved from a baseline mean of
follow-up data showed that Chris solved problems with 12.5 % to an intervention mean of 72.5 %. Data during
mean accuracy of 91.67 %. When determining effect size, baseline had an initial increasing trend and stabilized
IRD score was 1.0 indicating a strong effectiveness of the during later sessions. Mean level change between baseline
intervention between each of the two comparing condi- and intervention was 60 % with one baseline data point
tions: baseline and intervention and baseline and mainte- overlapping with intervention data points. At a 3-week
nance phases. follow-up assessment, Adam’s response accuracy averaged
41.67 %. Calculation of IRD resulted in a score of 0.60
Number Comparison Problems between baseline and intervention indicating chance
effectiveness and a score of 0.0 between baseline and
Chris had 0 % response accuracy during baseline. Upon maintenance.
introduction of the intervention, his response accuracy
immediately improved and reached a mean of 100 % David
accuracy. Chris continued to solve problems with 100 %
accuracy at a 3-week follow-up assessment. Calculation of Subtraction Problems
effect size showed a strong effectiveness of the interven-
tion with IRD score of 1.0 between baseline and inter- When solving subtraction problems, David’s average
vention and baseline and maintenance phases. baseline performance was 4.16 % with low and
stable trend. Upon introduction of the intervention, David’s
Adam performance immediately increased and reached a mean of
90 % resulting in 85.84 % mean level change. At a 3-week
Subtraction Problems follow-up assessment, David solved problems with 92 %
mean accuracy. The IRD between baseline and intervention
When solving subtraction problems during baseline, yielded a score of 1.0 indicating no overlap of data points
Adam’s response accuracy had a mean of 5 % with low between the baseline and intervention phases and strong

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Baseline Intervention Maintenance Baseline Intervention Maintenance

100 100
90 90
80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 Subtraction 20 Subtraction
10 10
0 0
Percentage of response accuracy

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Percentage of response accuracy

100 100
90 90
80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30
30
20
20 Addition
Addition 10
10
0
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
100
100 90
90 80
80 70
70 60
60 50
50
40
40
30
30
20 20
Comparison 10 Comparison
10
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Sessions Sessions

Fig. 3 Percentage of response accuracy across subtraction, addition, Fig. 4 Percentage of response accuracy across subtraction, addition,
and number comparison problems for David and number comparison problems for Brittany

intervention effectiveness. Similarly, the IRD between in 57.5 % mean level change. During a 3-week follow-up
baseline and maintenance phases yielded a score of 1.0. assessment, David maintained his skills and solved prob-
lems with 100 % accuracy. Effect size calculations
Addition Problems between baseline and intervention resulted in an IRD score
of 0.7. IRD score of 1.0 was obtained between baseline and
David’s mean baseline accuracy was 6.25 % with maintenance phases.
stable and low trend. With the introduction of the inter-
vention, David’s performance increased immediately
resulting in a mean accuracy of 95 % with no overlap of Brittany
data points and mean level change of 88.75 %. The student
maintained the addition skills with 100 % accuracy at a Subtraction Problems
3-week follow-up assessment. Calculation of IRD between
each of the comparing conditions (baseline and interven- During baseline, Brittany solved subtraction problems with
tion and baseline and maintenance) was 1.0, indicating a mean accuracy of 5 % and a low, stable trend. This
strong effectiveness of the intervention. changed to an average of 75 % accuracy during interven-
tion with initial varying performance and then increasing,
stable trend. Response accuracy between baseline and
Number Comparison Problems intervention had two overlapping data points and a mean
level change of 70 %. A 3-week follow-up data showed
When solving problems involving number comparison that Brittany solved problems with an average of 75 %
during baseline, David’s response accuracy reached 20 % accuracy. IRD score between baseline and intervention was
mean with low and variable trend. Upon introduction of 0.18 with one intervention data point having 0 % response
intervention, David solved problems with greater accuracy accuracy. IRD score between baseline and maintenance
with a mean of 77.5 % and increasing trend. This resulted was 1.0.

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Addition Problems some students’ skill acquisition and maintenance based on

visual analysis of data. Individual differences among stu-
Brittany’s baseline response accuracy had a mean of dents’ responses existed. Two main findings were found:
13.89 % with initial variable trend, which stabilized later. (1) increase in students’ responses on addition, subtraction,
Mean response accuracy increased to 90 % during inter- and number comparison problems from baseline to inter-
vention resulting in mean level change of 76.11 % with an vention phases, suggesting the effectiveness of a technol-
increasing and stable trend and no overlap of data points. ogy-based intervention (i.e., point-of-view video modeling
During a 3-week follow-up assessment, Brittany solved instruction with CRA instructional sequence) and (2)
problems with 100 % accuracy. IRD score between base- continued response accuracy at a 3-week follow-up
line and intervention was 1.0 indicating the strong effec- assessment for all skills for three of four students. Students
tiveness of the intervention. Similarly, IRD score of 1.0 and teachers also held positive perceptions on the effec-
was obtained between baseline and maintenance. tiveness and practicality of the intervention.
Our findings support and extend research on teaching
essential mathematics skills necessary for independent
Number Comparison Problems functioning in school and community, such as addition,
subtraction, number comparison, budget management,
When solving number comparison problems, Brittany had making purchases to satisfy consumer needs, and many
a baseline mean of 10 % and intervention mean of 80 % others (e.g., Cihak and Foust 2008; Weng and Bouck
response accuracy resulting in 70 % mean level change. 2014). The intervention used in the current study builds
Baseline had a low and variable trend, while the inter- from the history of success with video modeling to teach
vention had an increasing trend with an overlap of one data non-academic skills to students with ASD and is similar to
point. During a 3-week follow-up assessment, the student the work of Yakubova and colleagues (Yakubova et al.
solved problems with a mean of 91.67 % accuracy. IRD 2015) who used point-of-view video modeling intervention
calculation between baseline and intervention resulted in a to teach mathematics to high school students with high-
score of 0.80 and between baseline and maintenance in a functioning ASD. Additionally, this work extends CRA
score of 1.0 pointing to the strong effectiveness of the research, specifically, as an intervention to use with stu-
intervention. dents with ASD, similar to the work of Flores et al.
(2014a). Yet, the current study is novel in many ways. The
current project combined a point-of-view video modeling
Social Validity intervention with CRA instructional method resulting in
the opportunity to provide students with a portable,
All students responded positively to all social validity engaging, and self-operated intervention.
questions and expressed their favor of the intervention and All students in the current project improved their per-
the benefits of learning from video-based CRA instruction formance on all skills from baseline to intervention. While
in learning subtraction, addition, and number comparison differences existed in the rate of improvement among
skills. Three students expressed their desire to use the students, with some students showing immediate
intervention in learning more about solving problems. improvement and others showing gradual improvement, all
Chris did not indicate that he would be willing to learn students acquired skills and were able to solve problems
more problems via the intervention. One possible expla- with greater accuracy during later intervention sessions.
nation could be that he felt he already mastered all the These findings suggest that students with ASD can learn
skills targeted in the study with 100 % accuracy and mathematics skills essential for success in school and post-
thought that he would do well without the intervention. school life with appropriate instruction. This can help
Teachers held positive perceptions about the intervention contribute to both research and practice efforts on
and expressed the benefits and practicality of the inter- improving school learning to better prepare students with
vention to their students. the skills necessary for post-school independent
functioning.
The findings of the study also contribute to interventions
Discussion on teaching essential mathematics skills via CRA instruc-
tional sequence and video-based intervention in a student-
The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness operated manner with portable electronic technology.
of VBI with CRA instructional sequence in teaching Research supporting CRA spans decades with a focus
addition, subtraction, and number comparison skills to mainly on students with learning disabilities (e.g., Harris
students with ASD. The intervention had a strong effect on et al. 1995; Witzel et al. 2003) or non-descript learning

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challenges (e.g., Flores et al. 2014b). Research on CRA students who struggle with task completion even after
instruction has expanded to support the instruction of stu- watching instructional video clips while allowing more
dents with other disabilities, such as intellectual disabilities advanced students to move forward with learning and
(Morin and Miller 1998) and ASD (Flores et al. 2014a). practicing other skills.
Findings of this study, though early examination of CRA Students’ increased performance across all skills
effectiveness in teaching students with ASD, suggest that continued throughout 3-week follow-up assessment
educators can teach mathematics skills progressing through except for one student, Adam. While Adam improved his
three levels of instruction: concrete, representational, and skills during intervention, skill maintenance was a chal-
abstract. This has the potential to help students with ASD lenge. This underscores how intrapersonal differences
learn abstract mathematics skills at more visual and con- may impact the outcome of an intervention and the need
crete levels prior to learning them at an abstract level. for student-level, data-driven instructional decisions. The
This intervention differed from previous CRA studies initial increase in Adam’s performance indicated that the
(e.g., Flores 2009), in that all three phases were shared in challenge of the skill level was appropriate, but his
one video. This type of CRA delivery allowed students to inability to maintain the skills suggests more scaffolding
explicitly see the transition from concrete to representa- was needed to truly master the skill and retain the
tional to abstract notations of mathematics as one problem learned content. Perhaps, extending the duration of the
was demonstrated all three ways. The linked CRA pro- intervention phase or revisiting the intervention in
gression in conjunction with the repetition and explicit delayed intervals could help students like Adam engage
instruction within the VBI may have contributed to overall in multiple opportunities for skill practice and increase
student learning and maintenance, as supported by the likelihood to maintain skills after stopping the interven-
findings of this study. Scaffolding student learning by tion. Teachers working with students with ASD who
reviewing the sequence of learning in the VBI reinforced have more communication and behavior challenges than
the concept and process for for solving the equations and peers can use technology-based intervention to the ben-
the transition to abstract sequencing. Manipulatives were efit of each student and provide longer intervention
available if students needed additional scaffolds during the sessions and more one-on-one practice based on stu-
assessments; however, during maintenance, many students dents’ needs. Another implication is providing opportu-
elected not to use the manipulatives suggesting that they nities for continued practice of acquired skills following
naturally no longer need the concrete element of the removal of the intervention to help students maintain
scaffolding. skills.
Technology has been useful in teaching both school-age
students and adults with ASD. Technology in instruction Limitations and Recommendations for Future
has benefits over traditional teaching strategies and caters Research
to visual preferences and skills of students with ASD
(Fletcher-Watson 2014). The effectiveness of technology is Several limitations exist which highlight the need for future
evident in teaching a wide array of skills, such as com- research. While sample size is consistent with single-case
munication, reading, writing, math, functional, and com- experimental methodology, replication of research with
munity-based skills in both school and community other students with ASD from different geographic regions
environments (Fletcher-Watson 2014; Odom et al. 2014). and with large sample sizes is important to increase gen-
Technology also helps bridge the achievement gap between eralization of findings. The main component of the inter-
students with and without disabilities both in-school and vention was point-of-view video modeling CRA
post-school life (Braddock et al. 2004). The findings of the instructional sequence. Checklist sampled directly from the
current study suggested the effectiveness of a technology- video modeling clip was part of the intervention as the self-
based intervention in teaching addition, subtraction, and prompting strategy for students. Though students naturally
number comparison skills. All students had an iPad device faded the use of the checklist in later sessions of the
pre-programmed with necessary videos and watched intervention, it is important to note that this self-prompting
instructional video clips independently at their own pace. procedure might have also affected students’ performance.
Thus, teachers can use technology to the benefit of each Thus, future research is necessary to examine whether
student and allow students repeat teacher instruction until video-based CRA instructional sequence alone is effective
they achieve skill mastery. Using technology-based inter- and to what extent. Next, skill maintenance is another area
vention, teachers have the flexibility of individualizing for future research. Adam did not maintain his skills at a
instruction for each student and provide each student with 3-week follow-up assessment. Examining ways of
individualized help during learning process. Teachers can improving skill maintenance for students who are mini-
provide more live teacher intervention and practice to mally verbal and have severe repetitive and compulsive

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2360 J Autism Dev Disord (2016) 46:2349–2362

behaviors will offer insights into helping students maintain Conclusion

acquired skills. Providing self-prompting checklist during
all phases of the study and examining the effectiveness of The findings of this study contribute to research and practice
the point-of-view video modeling CRA intervention alone on determining evidence-based practices in teaching stu-
could be an interest of future research in seeking ways to dents with ASD. Findings support research on the effec-
improve skill maintenance. tiveness of using VBI with students with ASD and extend
Future research is necessary to examine the effective- efforts to combining CRA instructional sequence in teaching
ness of CRA instructional sequence with VBI in teaching skills of addition, subtraction, and number comparison.
mathematics skills functionally relevant for secondary VBIs that have strong evidence-base in teaching numerous
school students with ASD transitioning into post-secondary skills to students with ASD hold potential to improve stu-
education, employment, and independent living. These dents’ skill acquisition and individualize and enrich learning
kinds of efforts could help determine ways of teaching when combined with other teaching strategies.
academic skills in a way functionally relevant for students’
post-school goals and contribute to better outcomes for Acknowledgments This project was supported by a grant from
Faculty Development Fund at Duquesne University awarded to Gul-
youth with ASD. Another limitation of the study is related
noza Yakubova and Elizabeth M. Hughes.
to Brittany’s performance data with the third skill, number
comparison. Best practices of multiple baseline across Author Contributions GY conceived of the study, participated in
skills design indicate that the intervention should be its design, data analysis, coordinated and drafted the manuscript;
EMH participated in the design and coordination and helped to draft
introduced to the third skill after there is evidence of
the manuscript; MS participated in data collection and helped to draft
improvement for at least two sessions for the prior skill. the manuscript.
Brittany started the intervention phase for number com-
parison following one session of intervention for the sec-
ond skill. Though she had immediate improvement both for
the second and third skills during intervention, this limi- References
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