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A review: Research progress on microplastic pollutants in aquatic

environments

Yuanqiang Tang, Yunguo Liu, Yu Chen, Wei Zhang, Jianmin

Zhao, Shaoyao He, Chunping Yang, Tao Zhang, Chunfang Tang,
Chen Zhang, Zisong Yang

PII: S0048-9697(20)36101-5
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142572
Reference: STOTEN 142572

To appear in: Science of the Total Environment

Received date: 29 May 2020

Revised date: 2 September 2020
Accepted date: 21 September 2020

Please cite this article as: Y. Tang, Y. Liu, Y. Chen, et al., A review: Research progress on
microplastic pollutants in aquatic environments, Science of the Total Environment (2020),
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142572

This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such
as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is
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© 2020 Published by Elsevier.

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A review:

Research progress on microplastic pollutants in aquatic environments

Yuanqiang Tang1,2, Yunguo Liu1,2*, Yu Chen3, Wei Zhang1,2, Jianmin Zhao3, Shaoyao

He3*, Chunping Yang1,2,4*, Tao Zhang5, Chunfang Tang6, Chen Zhang7, and Zisong

Yang8

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College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China

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Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control, Hunan University, Ministry of

Education,Changsha 410082, China

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3
School of Architecture, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, PR China
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4
Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Petrochemical Pollution Processes and Control, School
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of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Petrochemical Technology,

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Maoming, Guangdong 525000, China

5
Qingyuan agricultural science and Technology Extension Service Center, Guangdong province,
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Qingyuan 511500, PR China.

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6
College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and

Technology Changsha 410004, PR China

7
Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan 316000, PR China

8
College of Resources and Environment of Aba Teachers University, Wenchuan 623002, PR China

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Corresponding author:

1.Yunguo Liu: [email protected]

2. Chunping Yang:[email protected]

3. [email protected]

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Abstract:
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The ubiquitous problems of microplastics in waters is receiving global attention as

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microplastics can harm aquatic organisms, and finally can accumulate in the human
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body through biological chain amplification. In addition, microplastics act as a carrier

capable of carrying heavy metals, organics, which form complex pollutants. These
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new combinations of pollutants, once ingested by aquatic organisms, are amplified

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through the food chain and can have unpredictable ramifications for aquatic

organisms and human beings. Therefore, human beings are not only the source of

plastic pollution, but also the sink of microplastic pollution. Therefore, this study

reviews the source and distribution of microplastics, and their combined ability with

heavy metals,antibiotics, and persistent organic pollutants in aquatic environments.

Furthermore, it describes the interaction between aquatic organisms and microplastics.

Finally, some suggestions are put forward to promote the sustainable application of

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microplastics. This work provides theoretical guidance for combining microplastics

with other pollutants in water, and the accumulation of microplastics in food chain.

Keywords: Biosphere; ecotoxicology; trophic transfer; ecological hazards; aquatic

organisms

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High lights:

・ Composition and adsorption ability of microplastics in aquatic environments

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studied
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・Potention for microplastic accumulation in aquatic organisms

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・Microplastics were accumulated and amplificated in the food chain

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・Microplastics may increase the health risk for the biosphere

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Graphic Abstract:

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Graphic Abstract: Source and confluence of microplastics in the biosphere

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Contents
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1. Introduction
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2. Source and distribution of microplastics in aquatic environments

2.1 Plastic waste directly discharged into water bodies by daily human use

2.2 Microplastics discharged into water bodies by sewage treatment plants

2.3 Plastic waste in navigation, fishery, and water operation industries

3. Combined effects of other pollutants with microplastics in water bodies

3.1 Microplastics as a vector of antibiotics

3.2 Microplastics as a vector of heavy metals

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3.3 Microplastics as a vector of persistent organic pollutants

4. Interaction between aquatic organisms and microplastics

4.1 Interaction with aquatic plants

4.2 Interaction with aquatic animals

4.3 Interaction with aquatic birds

5. Conclusion and research prospect

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Declaration of Competing Interest

Acknowledgements

References
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1. Introduction
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Plastic waste pollution and global microplastic (MP) debris have become serious
na

ecological environment problems in Earth’s biosphere; even karst groundwater cannot

avoid microplastic pollution (Panno et al., 2019). According to the literature (Jambeck
ur

et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2020), more than 8 million tons of microplastic waste were
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discharged into the ocean by the global land environment, and the amount of

microplastic waste in the land soil and surface water was not accurate. Wong et al.

(Wong et al., 2020) discussed the distribution of plastic waste in freshwater

ecosystems and Wang et al. (Wang et al., 2020) discussed the problem of microplastic

pollution in the atmosphere. The main cause of the ubiquitous problem of

microplastics in the biosphere is that the production cost of plastic is low and their

antidegradation ability is strong. Microplastics are also durable, light, convenient to

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carry, and can quickly spread and be fixed in the global biosphere. Some of the

microplastics on the land continue to be fixed in the soil, while the other part remains

in the shallow layer of the soil and enters the water body with the runoff(Melanie

Bergmann et al., 2019; Su, L et al., 2017; Raven Hurt et al., 2020). Eventually,

microplastics reach the ocean through rivers and lakes. There are different criteria for

the division of microplastics in the hydrosphere. The criteria for the division of

of
microplastics in fresh waterbodies are not uniform and each industry has its own

standards. Details can be found in the following literature. France (Dris et al., 2015),

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The United States of America (Carr et al., 2016), Germany (Mintenig et al., 2017),
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Swiss (Faure et al., 2015) and Denmark (Simon et al., 2018) have varying criteria.
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Nanna B. Hartmann et al.(Nanna B. Hartmann et al., 2019) pointed out in the

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literature that the microplastics are classified according to the pre-established

na

standards. Therefore, the commonly used classification system is based on the size of

microplastics (usually using mega, macro, meso, micro and nano as the concept
ur

expression). Of course, plastic fragments can also be classified according to their

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source, shape and plastic polymer type. At present, there is a lack of systematic

framework for classification, which is due to the lack of consensus definition and

ambiguous classification because plastic products are various in different categories

(vershoor, A. J., 2015; Frias, J. P. g. L.; Nash, R., 2018). Microplastics itself has the

meaning of size. Although there is no clear scientific basis for classification according

to size, the more important functions of microplastics may be ignored when studying

according to size. However, an imperfect size classification framework is a better

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mitigation measure to solve the pollution problem of microplastics at present and in

the future It is seen as based on pragmatic reasons and general consensus (Frias, J. P.

g. L.; Nash, R., 2018). Therefore, classification by size is a kind of pragmatism rather

than based on actual evidence. In his paper, Nanna B. Hartmann et al. Proposed a

classification framework. In addition, GESAMP proposed a classification system for

microplastic size in 2015 (GESAMP, 2015). In this paper, the classification methods

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of microplastics in these two papers were referred to.The main criteria for division of

plastics in sea water are based on the guidance provided by the Joint Group of Experts

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on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection (GESAMP).
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Microplastics are divided into giant, large, medium, micro, and nano types, with
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corresponding sizes of > 1 m, < 1 m, < 2.5 cm, < 5 mm, < 0.1 μm. In addition,
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according to the differences in sources, sizes, colours, composite types, and shapes of
na

microplastics in water bodies, experts recently proposed a classification framework

for microplastics in the ocean, which can be also found in the literature of
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Erni-Cassola et al. (Erni-Cassola et al.,2019).

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D’ALESSANDRO et al., (2018). provided a four size classes as: microplastics

(1-5 mm), macroplastics (5-10 mm), megaplastics (10-20 mm) and plastics (> 20 mm)

(D’ALESSANDRO et al. 2018). In addition, Pieper et al. classified the marine debris

(2 ~ 30 cm) which was defined as meso (1 mm - 2.5 cm) and macrodebris (2.5 cm - 1

m)) to eight categories, including Plastics, Cloths/Fabric, Glass, Metal, Rubber,

Processed Lumber, Other and Large (other items above 30 cm) and further 53

subcategories (Pieper et al. 2019).

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Various types of pollutants in the water cycle, such as antibiotics (Quan et al.,

2019), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Zhang et al., 2019), heavy metals (Tang et

al., 2019; Dong et al., 2020; Guo et al., 2020; Tang et al., 2020), and organic

compounds (Zhang et al., 2020), are absorbed by the microplastics in water in

accordance with the pollutant distribution coefficient. This makes microplastics

become carriers of various pollutants in the liquid phase. The accumulated

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microplastics in the sediment, and the combined pollutants of microplastics and heavy

metals, are sorptive and are absorbed by the microorganisms in the sediment (Deng et

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al., 2020). Thereafter, these microorganisms and the floating microplastics in the
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water surface are consumed by plankton (Daphnia or common water fleas). At the
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same time, the microplastics in the water phase are sorptive and are absorbed by
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submerged plants, floating plants, and emergent plants (Besseling et al., 2017; Kokalj
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et al., 2018; Mateos-Cárdenas et al., 2019; Qu et al., 2020). Fish and other aquatic

organisms, including shrimp, bivalves, and amphoteric corals, feed on these plants
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and microorganisms. These microplastics accumulate in different tissues and organs

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of organisms due to predation. Aquatic organisms are exposed to an abundance of

microplastics throughout the water, and the organisms unintentionally consume a

large amount of microplastics as the shape and colour of microplastics are similar to

aquatic food. The source of microplastics in aquatic and forest birds is similar to that

in aquatic organisms (Liu et al., 2019; Chen et al., 2020; Aljaibachi et al., 2019; Van

Colen et al., 2019; Kalčíková, 2020; Choi et al., 2020; Kazour and Amara, 2019;

Boyero et al., 2020; Reichert et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2019). When birds are looking for

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food in wetlands, they often unintentionally consume microplastics of various colours.

The microplastics are fatal to birds(Emma L. Teuten et al.,2008; Kosuke Tanaka et al.,

2019). With movement through the food chain (Lv et al., 2019; Su et al., 2019; Wang

et al., 2019), microplastics bioaccumulate in human beings who are at the top of the

food chain.

Since Matthew Cole et al.,(Matthew Cole, Pennie Lindeque, Claudia Halsband,

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Tamara S. Galloway., 2011) summarized the microplastic pollution in the ocean from

the perspectives of the source and path of the marine microplastics, the evaluation

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model of the microplastics, and the temporal and spatial trends of the abundance of
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the microplastics. More and more scholars have reviewed various microplastics
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literatures that have been published, as described below. Omowunmi H. Fred-Ahmadu

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(Omowunmi H. Fred-Ahmadu et al., 2019) provided a review of the association of

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plastic additives with environmental microplastics, how the structure and composition

of polymers effected on sorption capacities and highlights some of the models that
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have been employed to interpret experimental data from recent sorption studies. Jiao
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Wang et al., (Jiao Wang et al., 2019) summarized the abundance, sources, and

properties of MPs in soil, and also discuss the possible risks posed by MPs to soil

biodiversity, food safety and human health. The impact of microplastics on aquatic

organisms was summarized by Luís Carlos de Sá et al., (Luís Carlos de Sá et

al.,2018), through laboratory research and on-site testing. Their focus was on

evaluating the existing data, mainly the impact of microplastics on fish, without

further analysis.The interaction mechanisms of pristine and weathered MPs with

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pollutants are summarized by Peng Liu et al.,(Peng Liu et al.,), and how weathering

processes affect sorption behavior is critically revealed. Shen Xu et al., ( Shen Xu et

al., 2019) review concluded the occurrence and abundance of microplastics in the

global aquatic environment.The effects of microplastics on aquatic organisms of

different trophic levels were also discussed(Zuccarello P, 2019; Gabriel Enrique

De-la-Torre, 2020), and therefore the occurrence and abundance of microplastics in

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the global aquatic environment was concluded by Chaoran Li et al., (Chaoran Li,

Rosa Busquets,Luiza C. Campos, 2019) Main sources of microplastic found in

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freshwater environments include synthetic textiles, personal care products, industrial
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raw materials and the improper disposal of plastic waste.an assessment of research on
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the sources, distribution and effects of microplastics, and trends in their analysis and
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policy has been carried out. The influence of microplastics on wastewater and sludge
na

treatment and its mechanism were discussed by Zhiqi Zhang and Yinguang

Chen(Zhiqi Zhang, and Yinguang Chen. 2020). The methods and efficiencies of
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removing microplastics from wastewater and sludge were also reviewed and
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compared. Different from the monitoring of microplastics, the evaluation of

microplastics, the impact of microplastics on wastewater and sludge treatment, and

the impact of microplastics on aquatic organisms (including fish and trophic levels)

mentioned in the above review literature, this review paper focuses on the biosphere

In particular, the source and sink of microplastics in the hydrosphere and the hazards

of microplastics at all levels in the hydrosphere and man-land biosphere during the

migration and fate of microplastics, so that humans can take preventive measures in

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key links to maintain the hydrosphere and biosphere life Safety.

Therefore, this study reviews the composition of plastics and their ability to absorb

chemicals, antibiotics, and heavy metals in an aquatic environment(Jiangfan He et al.,

2020; Gabriel Enrique De-la-Torre, 2020; Zhong-zhu Yang et al., 2020). The study

describes in detail the toxic effects on aquatic organisms of microplastics themselves

and of their combination with other pollutants in the biosphere. Additionally, this

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study describes the influence of the adsorption process for heavy metals and other

pollutants loaded on microplastics on the food web and human health. Finally, some

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constructive countermeasures are put forward to promote the sustainable application
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of microplastics.
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2. Source and distribution of microplastics in aquatic environments

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The global and ubiquitous occurrence of microplastics as ecological hazard

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warrants urgent attention (Wang et al., 2019; Li et al., 2019; Vaughan et al.,

2017;Bergmann et al., 2019; Besley et al., 2016; Correa-Herrera et al., 2017; Dawson
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et al., 2018; Hurt et al., 2020; Kapp and Yeatman, 2018; Kroon et al., 2018; Chen and
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Chen, 2020). Scholars in China and worldwide have showcased research on

microplastics from different perspectives (Guo and Wang, 2019; Li et al., 2018; Dong

et al., 2020; Boyero et al., 2020; Chen et al., 2020; Li et al., 2019; Fueser et al., 2019;

Wang et al.,2019; Aljaibachi et al., 2019). These scholars have drawn many

conclusions with differing views. For example, Li et al., (Li et al., 2019),

Mateos-Cárdenas et al., (Mateos-Cárdenas et al., 2019), Qu et al., (Qu et al., 2020),

and other scholars believe that microplastics in the soil surface and waterbodies enter

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the food chain through the interaction of biological and non-biological factors,

affecting ecological security. To improve our understanding of the fate of

microplastics and their impact on the biosphere, it is important to understand the

source of microplastics and the distribution of microplastics in various phases.

Although there are several studies on marine microplastic pollution, emerging

research focuses on microplastics in freshwater, terrestrial, and marine environments

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(Li et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2019). However, few studies focus comprehensively on

the biosphere. According to the analysis of literature on the proportion of plastics used

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in the industry(GESAMP, 2015), aquatic environment debris has become a global
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environmental issue and a growing concern since the rise of the plastic industry in the
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mid-1950s.in 2014, annual global plastic production has reached 311 million tonnes,
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while in Europe, only in 2013, the majority of the plastics(about 60%) is used to make
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items of packaging an building and Construction(Plastics Europe, 2014). In addition,

more than 19% of annual production in Europe during 2013 have been used in the
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construction and decoration industries(Plastics Europe, 2014). However, scholars

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believe that there is no linear correlation between the total amount of plastic used in

the industry and the total amount of plastic waste generated in the industry (Han et al.,

1994; Song et al., 2011; Kousaiti et al.,2019; Chen et al, 2020). Microplastics(Primary

MPs, Secondary MPs) and macroplastics entering the waters come from a wide

variety of land- and sea-based sources.The source sectors were categorized by

producer/consumer responsibility during the lifetime of a plastic product according to

the flow of plastic through the economy(GESAMP, 2015).The difference between

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primary microplastics and secondary microplastics is based on whether particles of

this size were originally manufactured (primary) or produced by decomposition of

larger items (secondary).Although primary microplastics was one of the sources of

secondary microplastics, it is undeniable that,from the perspective of the life cycle of

plastics, the source of microplastics might be related to the influencing factor of

service life. According to the measurement standard of service life (Basic Framework

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Regulation (EC) No. 1935/2004 on food contact materials and products promulgated

by the European Union in 2004, and National standard jointly promulgated by the

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Ministry of Health of China and the National Standardization Administration of China
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in 2008 (GB9685-2008) ), express and packaging industries are the largest source of
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plastic waste. To describe the source and distribution of microplastics, the following
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three aspects are described in this section: plastic waste directly discharged into water
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bodies by daily human use(GESAMP, 2015), microplastics discharged by sewage

treatment plants(Fionn Murphy et al., 2016), and plastic wastes in navigation,

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fisheries, and water operation industries.

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2.1 Plastic waste directly discharged into water bodies by daily human use

Microbeads used in the textile, cosmetics, washing industry, and personal care

products are a prevalent source of microplastics in water and soil environments

(Napper et al., 2015). Scholars such as Rillig and Bonkowski (Rillig and Bonkowski,

2018) have showed that the use of a cuticle remover in toothpastes or facial cleansers

released 94,500 microbeads to the environment, Sarva Mangala Praveena et al.(Sarva

Mangala Praveena et al.,2018,），and Na Tang et al.(Na Tang et al.,2020) also proved

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that toothpaste does release plastic microbeads into the environment. Microplastic

pollution in soil is closely related to the daily production and life of human beings,

and occurs through sources such as the large-scale use of agricultural mulch,

uncontrolled waste dumps, and landfill leachate(D.C.Dioses-Salinas et al.,2020).

In addition, untreated sludge is used as fertiliser for farmlands, which directly brings

microplastics into the farmland and affects the whole agricultural ecosystem.

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Microplastics in ponds, reservoirs, lakes, rivers, and watersheds mainly come from

large plastics in water bodies, which are formed by wind, rain, sunlight, and hydraulic

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turbulence (Fig.1). Microplastics are more easily found in areas with high population
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density or areas close to urban centres (Liu et al., 2019; Yan et al., 2019; Zhou et al.,
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2019; Egessa et al., 2019; He et al., 2020; Aslam et al., 2020). Therefore, this study
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hypothesises that the prevalence of microplastics in water ecosystems is closely

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related to daily activities of humans.

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Fig.1 The process of forming large plastics into microplastics

2.2 Microplastics discharged into water bodies by sewage treatment plants

Plastic beads and fibres are abundant in domestic and industrial wastewater.

Discharge from wastewater treatment plants has been identified as a potential point

source of microplastics, which helps microplastics enter freshwater (UK(Cole et al.,

2011), France (DRIs et al., 2015), Germany (Minteng et al., 2017), Denmark (Simon

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et al., 2018), the Netherlands (Leslie et al., 2017), Australia (Ziajahromi et al., 2017)

and the United States of America (Carr et al., 2016)). Researchers such as Murphy et

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al. (Murphy et al., 2016) found that despite the highly efficient removal rate, using
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three years of flow rate data from the WwTW an estimated 65, 238, 500 items MPs
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could be released from the WwTW every day in the final effluent or 23 billion
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microplastics annually from this WwTW alone ,while Sun et al. (Sun et al., 2018) had
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demonstrated that microplastics produced by wastewater treatment vary from zero to

a concentration of up to 9×104 particles/m3. Furthermore, studies had also found that

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sewage treatment plants could intercept or remove a large number of microplastics in

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the primary sewage treatment stage (Wang et al., 2019; Hao et al., 2019; Jia et al.,

2019; Zhang and Chen., 2020). However, other scholars such as Murphy et al.

(Murphy et al., 2016) and Sun et al. ( Sun et al., 2018) believed that even if more than

90% of the microplastics could be intercepted in the sewage treatment plant, there was

still a large number of microplastic particles entering the water environment.

Therefore, some researchers suggested that the sewage treatment plant was the dual

symbol of a source and sink for microplastics (Hao et al., 2019; Li, 2019).

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2.3 Plastic waste in navigation, fisheries, and water operation industries

Anywhere in the world, microplastic pollution has been found to occur from fibre

film and debris generated by aquaculture activities in estuaries and inner bays (Peng

et al., 2017; Zhao et al., 2018; Mao et al., 2020; Ma et al., 2020; Kruger et al., 2020;

Wu et al., 2020). This is mainly attributed to aged fishing nets and ropes that can

produce a large number of fibres which cannot be removed in sewage treatment plants

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(Browne et al., 2011; Minteng et al., 2016). According to the literature(Xue et al.,

2019; Wu et al., 2019; Sathish et al., 2020; Mao et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2019;

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Krüger et al., 2019). microplastics may be derived from a relatively common plastic
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(low density polyethylene (LDPE)), which is widely used in aquaculture (such as
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ropes and floating drilling rigs). besides, the same as LDPE, EPS plastics were also
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intensely used in aquaculture. In addition, the proportion of fibre microplastics in soil

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is similar to that in sediment, which indicates that fibre microplastics and other

pollutants jointly settle to the bottom of water bodies(Mark Anthony Browne et

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al.,2011). During this process, the microplastics are consumed by aquatic animals and
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plants in different water layers( E. Besseling et al., 2015; Guido Bonello et al., 2018).

The microplastics deposited in the sediment in the water body are mainly fibrous, and

mainly originate from broken culture nets, fishing nets, and fishing lines( Ke Zheng,

2019; Ghosal S et al,2018; Lisa Baumann et al., 2020; Lotte Krüger et al.,2019;

Narmatha Sathish et al., 2020; Pereira, Joã.M et al., 2020). The microplastic film

mainly comes from food packaging bags, plastic bottles, and waterproof film layers

on fish bait woven bags, which are used by fishers. In 2019, Liu et al. (Liu et al., 2019)

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confirmed that human activities played a very important role in the distribution of

microplastics. In addition, various types of plastic waste from ships are predominant

sources of microplastics in water.

3. Combined effects of other pollutants with microplastics in water bodies

3.1 Microplastics as a vector of antibiotics

Microplastics and antibiotics are two new kinds pollutants which have

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potential for negative impacts on water ecosystems. A large number of antibiotics are

released into the environment every year. In China alone, 53800 tons of antibiotics

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were discharged into the surrounding environment in 2013 (Zhang, 2015; Ying, 2016).
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Antibiotics are divided into two types: medical and veterinary. Because of the
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influence of antibiotics on the microbial community and the production of

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drug-resistant genes, an increasing number of researchers are paying attention to

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antibiotics(Li, M.F et al., 2019; Shanchong Chen et al., 2019; Li Cui et al., 2017). The

adsorption of antibiotics by microplastics may lead to their long-range migration and

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cause complex effects. According to the research of Quan et al. (Quan et al., 2019),
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tetracyclines, macrolides, fluoroquinolones, and sulfonamides were common

antibiotics in the global water environment. Quan et al. (Quan et al., 2019) also

revealed that the antibiotics left in the water would cause great risks to aquatic

organisms. If the microplastics were loaded with antibiotics and swallowed by aquatic

organisms, the combined pollution of these two substances would have higher toxicity

and side effects on the aquatic organisms. The adsorption properties of five antibiotics

on five different microplastics were studied (Li et al., 2018). The results showed that

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different types of microplastics had different surface characteristics and different

degrees of crystallographic junction. Therefore, different microplastics have different

adsorption effects on antibiotics. Among these microplastics, Polyamide (PA) has

porous structure and complex hydrogen bonds, so it has the best adsorption capacity

for antibiotics. In addition, it was also found that the adsorption capacity of antibiotics

on different types of microplastics was positively correlated with the partition

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coefficient of n-octanol-water (Li et al., 2018; Zhou et al., 2020). It is understood that

microplastics can accumulate various toxins and chemical pollutants, and act as

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carriers for long-distance transportation. Similarly, it is clear that microplastics can
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also enrich various antibiotics and transport them to great distances (Li et al., 2018;
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Wong et al., 2020).

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There is evidence that heavy metal mercury can be transferred from microplastics
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to Artemia nauplii and can then be consumed by eels in the food web (Tang et al.,

2019). Just as bait animals swallow antibiotics loaded with microplastics and pass
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them from low level organisms to higher level anmals, heavy metals will also be
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transferred to amphibians, fish, corals and other aquatic animals through the

expansion and enrichment of the food chain(Mercogliano et al., 2020; Guo et al.,

2019; Batel et al., 2020; Yu et al., 2020; Qu et al., 2020;Carbery et al., 2018). This not

only endangers the entire hydrospheric biological chain, but also has serious

consequences for the organisms at the top of the food chain, such as human beings

(Figure 2).

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Figure. 2 Sources and sinks of microplastics in nature
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To predict the environmental risks in various water bodies early, it is necessary to
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understand the interaction between different types of microplastics and different

antibiotics. A series of characterisation tools were used to analyse the differences in

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specific surface areas, pore size distribution, crystallinity, and other chemical and
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physical properties for different types of microplastics. This was used to further
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investigate the ability of the differences in adsorption capacity and load antibiotics

with various types of microplastics. The isotherms showed a significant nonlinear

relationship with the adsorption of antibiotics in seawater and freshwater on

microplastics, such as ciprofloxacin (CIP), trimethoprim (TMP), and tetracycline (TC)

between 0.303–0.842 (Hüffer and Hofmann, 2016; Hüffer et al., 2018; Li et al., 2018).

In addition, researchers also found that when the adsorption isotherms were larger

than the Freundlich n value (n > 5), they showed a relatively linear relationship with

the adsorption of sulfadiazine (SDZ) and amoxicillin (AMX) on microplastics (Hüffer

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and Hofmann, 2016; Hüffer et al., 2018; Li et al., 2018；He et al., 2018; Zhang et al.,

2018). For the same antibiotics, there are different models in seawater and freshwater

systems (Li et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2018; Ma et al., 2019). Therefore, to choose an

appropriate model, it is necessary to determine the adsorption mechanism of

antibiotics on microplastics. There are significant differences in the ability of different

types of microplastics to adsorb antibiotics. These ability factors include: specific

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surface area, crystallinity, and polarity. Other physical and chemical properties of

microplastics may also affect their adsorption properties (He et al., 2018; Zhang et al.,

ro
2018; Chen et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2018). It has been reported that the adsorption
-p
capacity of glass plastics is weaker than that of rubber plastic polyethylene (PE), but it
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has been proven that rubber PE does not have a special performance in the adsorption
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of antibiotics (Li et al., 2018). However, the fact that microplastics are strong
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adsorbents of other pollutants does not mean that the adsorption effect of antibiotics is

also strong. The adsorption capacity depends on the π-π interaction between
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microplastics and antibiotics, or the nonspecific interaction such as Vander Waals

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interactions. Non-specific actions, developed pore structure, specific functional

groups (i.e. amide groups), and antibiotic receptor groups form hydrogen bonds.

Therefore, hydrogen bonds may help antibiotic adsorption (Li et al., 2018; Jiang et al.,

2019; Ninwiwek et al., 2019; Dan et al., 2019). This would explain why AMX, TC,

and CIP are highly adsorbed on PA. The octanol water distribution mechanism is a

key factor to determine the adsorption degree of the adsorbate on the microplastics.

Thus, the hydrophilic and hydrophobic degree of antibiotics (expressed by the log Kow

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value) can determine the affinity of antibiotics with various types of microplastics.

This is because antibiotics can be ionised. However, the functional groups of each

antibiotic are different because there is a difference in the ionisation constant (pKa)

between different antibiotics. Therefore, not all hydrophobic antibiotics have a

significant positive correlation with the hydrophobicity of microplastics. For example,

the adsorption of PA by antibiotics has no effect on the hydrophobicity of

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microplastics. Wang et al. (Wang et al., 2015) reported that the adsorption capacity of

the anionic perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) to PE, on the positive surface at a low

ro
pH, was higher than that of the nonionic perfluorooctanesulfonamide (FOSA). This
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meant that antibiotics showed different ionic chemical forms of anions, cations, and
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zwitterions under the influence of different pH values. These three kinds of ionic
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forms could affect the ability and the number of antibiotic ions adsorbed on
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microplastics. In addition, in different water bodies, antibiotic ions show different

chemical forms (Kah et al., 2017). In seawater, antibiotic ions are dominated by
ur

amphoteric ions, while in fresh water, antibiotic ions show amphoteric ions and
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cations. In the experiment, the pH value is higher than the point of zero charge (PZC)

for 5 different types of MPs, which results in a negative charge for these types of

microplastics (Hüffer and Hofmann, 2016; Hüffer et al., 2018; Li et al., 2018). The

CIP adsorption observed in the experiment is enhanced. It is speculated that the

adsorption mechanism is that the cations of antibiotics in freshwater promote the

adsorption of microplastics with negative charges. This is shown in greater detail in

the adsorption mechanism diagram (Figure 3).

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Figure 3 Adsorption mechanism diagram

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3.2 Microplastics as a vector of heavy metals ions
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There are many sources of heavy metal pollution in waterbodies. Irrigation

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waters and clear stream waters are more affected by the natural environment, while
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freshwater and seawater are increasingly affected by human factors. Although there

are differences between the sources of heavy metal pollution in freshwater and
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seawater, there is a common source of heavy metal pollution between them; for
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example, anti-rust paint and anti-pollution paint for ports, wharfs and hulls. The

reason is that these anti-rust and antifouling paints contain a high abundance of heavy

metals. Similarly, there are a large number of microplastics derived from human

activities in gulfs and estuaries (Browne et al., 2011; Turner and Rees, 2016;

Muller-Karanassos et al., 2019; Barletta et al., 2019; Aslam et al., 2020).

The mechanism of metal adsorption on plastics may be various and complex

(Dennis Brennecke et al., 2016; Godoy et al., 2019). Brennecke et al. (Dennis

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Brennecke et al., 2016) found that two types of microplastics, polyvinyl chloride

(PVC) and polystyrene (PS), have a strong adsorption effect on the heavy metal

copper and zinc which are leaked from antifouling paint in the experiment. In addition,

human activities also affect the degree of microplastics and heavy metal pollution in

the water. The researchers, such as Almeida et al. (Almeida et al., 2019) and Wu et al.

(Wu et al., 2019), eluate to simulate the salt marsh environment in the estuary, and a

of
comparison was conducted on the adsorption of copper and cadmium on different

types of microplastics, such as fishing line fibre, film plastic bag microplastics,

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polyethylene microspheres, and cap particles. As a result, researchers found that the
-p
aging of microplastics and the adsorption of metal copper by salinity did not
re

significantly change (Wang et al., 2019; Almeida et al., 2020). In the adsorption
lP

experiment of cadmium, it was found that the medium and microplastics type affects
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the adsorption effect of cadmium (Wang et al., 2019).

Heavy metals and microplastic pollutants are common in aquatic environments.

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Batch experiments were conducted to study the effects of pH, contact time,
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temperature, concentration of supporting electrolytes, and fulvic acid on the

absorption of lead ions in water by aged nylon microplastics (Tang et al., 2020). After

characterisation and parameter estimation, it was confirmed that the absorption of lead

by aging nylon microplastics was spontaneous and endothermic (Tang et al., 2020).

The adsorption of lead (II) was affected by the concentration of sodium chloride, the

pH value of the initial solution, and the concentration of fulvic acid. The importance

of carboxyl groups on the surface of aged nylon microplastics was to control the

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adsorption of lead (II) (Tang et al. 2020).

Freshwater pollution sources are mainly land-based heavy metal pollutants and

there are many sources of marine pollution. Among them, the metal leaching from

antifouling paint and microplastics are two extremely important sources. Brennecke et

al. (Brennecke et al., 2016) revealed the adsorption of metals from antifouling paint to

microplastics for the first time. Due to the inherent characteristics of microplastics,

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they do not easily degrade in water or the sediment environment, and these sediments

accumulate heavy metals. Land-based plastics become microplastics when exposed to

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wind, rain, sun, and other combined effects for a long time. When the heavy metal
-p
ions in the water meet the microplastics, the latter shows a strong affinity and can
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quickly absorb heavy metals from the antifouling coating. Microplastics constantly
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attract heavy metals to themselves through adsorption.

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Recently published literature showed nylon microplastics are widely used in rivers

and oceans, especially in aquaculture areas. Nylon microplastics are easily weathered,
ur

corroded, and degraded in the natural environment. Microplastics can be used as

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carriers to accumulate and transfer heavy metals on the surface of a water body,

resulting in the bioaccumulation of pollutants and poisons in the aquatic environment.

In recent years, the role of microplastics in the adsorption of heavy metals in the

aquatic environment has also attracted scholarly attention. The pH value and

residence time of microplastics in the environment are important factors affecting the

adsorption capacity of PES to metal ions in freshwater. It has been reported that

salinity had no effect on the adsorption of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) by

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microplastics, or the adsorption of heavy metals by microplastics. The binding ability

of cadmium (Cd) to organic ligands, such as plastic polymerisation and microplastics,

has been proven by some studies (Holmes et al., 2014; Almeida et al., 2019).

Therefore, the adsorption ability of microplastics to Cd is mainly affected by the

selection ability of media and organic ligands.

In addition, in different water environments, different types of microplastics can

of
be used as metal carriers. This especially occurs after heavy metals such as Cd, Co, Cr,

Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn are adsorbed (Godoy et al., 2019; Caruso, 2019) (Figure 5). A certain

ro
company has used irrigation water to study the adsorption of heavy metals and
-p
microplastics in water bodies (Godoy et al., 2019). Research shows that several types
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of microplastics can reach a balance of Cr, Cu, Co, and Pb2+ within 5 days (Gao et al.,
lP

2019; Godoy et al., 2019; Caruso, 2019). In addition, Johansen et al. (Johansen et al.,
na

2018) also compared the adsorption of microplastics as a carrier in different water

bodies. pH value is one of the reasons for change in the adsorption of heavy metals by
ur

microplastics. In seawater, the main reason for the increase, or decrease, of the
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amount of heavy metals adsorbed by microplastics is the combination of solution

chemistry and seawater salinity.

3.3 Microplastics as a vector of persistent organic pollutants

Based on the need for functional modification, certain organics or minerals are

added as additives in the plastic synthesis process, such as biological stabilizers,

antioxidants, lubricants, microbial agents, extenders, flame retardants, light and heat

stabilizers, Pigments and plasticizers, minerals such as metal barium compounds are

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also widely used in various plastics, mainly for inerts, extenders and white filling.

Although metal barium is not subject to environmental and health restrictions

(Andrew Turner and Montserrat Filell, 2020), some plastic additives such as

phthalates and bisphenols can cause endocrine disorders. Since the middle of the 20th

century, the production and use of additives in plastics has increased exponentially

(Binetti et al., 2008). Jambeck et al.(Jambeck et al., 2015) predicted that 28 tons of

of
plastic waste will enter the marine environment in 2050. According to (Geyer et al.

2017) , it is estimated that non-fiber plastics contain an average of 7% additives, and

ro
there will be about 2 tons of chemical additives in the marine environment at that
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time.
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The aim of this section is to provide an explanation of microplastic composition

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and how their chemical-physical properties affect the ability of microplastics to

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absorb chemicals in the water environment. Plastics are made of chemical additive

monomers and other chemicals through condensation or addition repeated unit

ur

polymerisation(Qiqing Chen et al., 2018; Yan Zhu et al., 2019). Therefore, a

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discussion about the adsorption performance of plastics should consider the adverse

effect of the chemical additives contained in plastics on the water environment in

addition to the chemical additives that have entered from other channels in the water

environment(Lesley Henderson, and Christopher Green. 2020). This is because of the

natural role of chemical additives in plastic synthesis, such as changing the ductility

and wear resistance of plastics(Jing Gao et al., 2019). Some researchers have found

that the microplastic beads are 106 orders of magnitude higher than the nonylphenol

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in the environmental water column (Mato et al., 2010; Brennecke, 2016; Zheng et al.,

2018), and they speculate that this may be the precipitate of the chemical additive of

the plastic itself. According to the literature (Wu, 2019; Yan, 2013; Zhao, 2019; Fang,

2007), endocrine disruptors were found in the plastic products that people come into

contact with every day, such as toys, credit cards, car steering wheels, and other

plastic products. It was confirmed that these endocrine disruptors have toxic and

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harmful effects on aquatic organisms. Chemical additives in plastics, generally

including endocrine disruptors, are easy to precipitate and enter the water

ro
environment through other forces because there is no covalent bond between them
-p
and the polymers.
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A large number of existing literatures showed that the interaction (adsorption and
lP

desorption) between chemicals in the water environment, especially pollutants and

na

microplastics, was selective (Su Liu et al.,2017;Lu et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2019; Lei et

al., 2019). There were two factors for this selective behaviour: internal and external
ur

(Figure 4). The intrinsic factors depend on the original properties of the two
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interacting substances. The type of microplastics has a great influence on the

adsorption effect, and even for the same type of microplastics, the adsorption effect of

untreated and aged microplastics is very different. Polarity, which is the opposite side

of adsorption, also affects the interaction between environmental chemicals in the

water and microplastics. Most literature showed that the organic pollutants entering

the water environment were usually hydrophobic compounds. Therefore, specific

pollutants and types of microplastics were two key factors that determine the

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adsorption capacity of microplastics to hydrophobic organic compounds. It was also

found that the external factors determining the adsorption and desorption capacity of

microplastics and environmental chemicals were: pH value of the water body, salinity

value of the water body, degree of polymer molecular chain arrangement, pH value,

and coexisting particle strength in the water solution (also called background particle

strength) (Figure 4).

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Figure. 4 Schematic diagrams of the mechanism by microplastics adsorb organic

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compounds and antibiotics

4. Interaction between aquatic organisms and microplastics

The prevalence of microplastics in global waters has raised concerns about the

potential impact on aquatic biota. Wang et al. (Wang et al., 2019) indicated the large

intake of microplastics of aquatic animals, and evaluated the ecotoxicological effects

of microplastics and related chemicals on aquatic biota (including phytoplankton, and

freshwater and marine environment fauna). Wang et al. (Wang et al., 2019) also

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discussed the nutrient transfer of microplastics and related pollutants in the aquatic

food chain, as well as the potential impact on human health. In various water bodies

worldwide, whether in the surface water of fresh water, surface microlayer in seawater,

sediment layer in freshwater, or bottom layer of seawater, almost all the interlayers

have microplastics (Helcoski et al., 2020; Mani et al., 2019; Egessa et al., 2019;

Piñon-Colin et al., 2020; Yan et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2020; Nan et al., 2020; Aslam

of
et al., 2020; Yin et al., 2020; Zhou et al., 2019; He et al., 2020; see Graphic Abstract).

Various aquatic plants and animals in different habitats interact with microplastics in

ro
various ways: entanglement, devouring, trophic transmission, biological enrichment,
-p
and amplification. The interaction between microplastics, including the combination
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of microplastics and associated pollutants, and aquatic plants, aquatic animals, and
lP

birds, respectively, is discussed as follows.

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4.1 Interaction with aquatic plants

There is limited literature on the relationship between microplastics and aquatic

ur

organisms. Most of the literature focused on the growth of microalgae after contact
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with microplastics (Wang et al., 2020; Cunha et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2020; Li et al.,

2020; Correia Prata et al., 2019; Fu et al., 2019; Cheng et al., 2020; Yakun Zhang et

al., 2019; Wang et al., 2019; Hong et al., 2018; Yuanqiang Tang et al., 2020). It has

been reported that the growth of microalgae can be significantly reduced by

microplastic exposure in both freshwater and seawater (Sjollema et al., 2014;

Besseling et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2019; Hong et al., 2018; Correia Prata et al., 2019),

showing a significant dose-response relationship. However, Zhang et al. (Zhang et al.,

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2016), Besseling et al. (Besseling et al., 2017) Mao et al. (Mao et al., 2018) confirmed

that the influence of microplastics on the growth of microalgae would gradually

decrease with the increase of its particle size. After studying the interaction between

microplastics and aquatic plants (Kalčíková, 2020), many scholars found that the

contact between microplastics and plants would not only cause physical damage to the

plants, but also affect their metabolism and gene expression (Hong et al., 2018; Wang

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et al., 2019 ; Cunha et al., 2019; Li et al., 2020) (Table 1).

Microplastics are small and widely distributed in various habitats. Their interaction

ro
with aquatic plants affects the aquatic flora(Li X et al., 2017; Li X , Yang CP et al.,
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2020; Li X, Wu, S et al., 2020). Aquatic vascular plants are important primary
re

producers. They are food for fish and birds in aquatic ecosystems, and a nursery
lP

habitat for many species (Colen et al., 2020; Ma et al., 2020). Gabriela
na

Kalcíkova(Gabriela Kalcíkova, 2020) summarized the interaction mechanism between

microplastics and freshwater aquatic vascular plants. It was considered that due to the
ur

existence of electrostatic force, leaf morphology and epiphytes, the microplastics in

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water were easily absorbed and enriched by aquatic vascular plants. Therefore,

herbivores were easy to absorb the microplastics adsorbed on plant tissues, thus

forming the transfer network of microplastics in aquatic biological chain. Zhihua Feng

et al. (Zhihua Feng et al., 2020) discovered plastics and microplastics with various

shapes, colors and materials in macroalgae. This not only means that macroalgae

enrich microplastics through a variety of mechanisms, but also because a large

number of ropes, net curtains, large floating bowls and floating balls are made of

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microplastics. Therefore, the aquaculture industry also releases a lot of microplastics

into the water body every year.

They can resist predators' attacks and also increase foraging opportunities. However,

contrary to the conclusion of microalgae researchers, Kalčíková (2019) summarised

the knowledge about the interaction between microplastics and aquatic vascular plants,

and emphasised that the effect of microplastics on the plants was limited.

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When microplastics encounter phytoplankton or aquatic vascular plants, they

immediately attach to the root and the back of leaves of aquatic plants (Lemna minor

ro
L., Nymphaea L., Ceratophyllum demersum L.) (Mateos-Cárdenas et al., 2019). This
-p
occurs between microplastics and phytoplankton in freshwater or seawater.
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Microorganisms then colonise (form biofilm) on plants or in water (Kalčíková, 2020;

lP

Li et al., 2020; Qu et al., 2020), although it is reported that microplastics will not
na

affect the growth rate of some aquatic phytoplankton (Dovidat et al., 2019;

Mateos-Cárdenas et al., 2019). However, Bouwman et al. (Bouwman et al., 2019)

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believed that rigid microplastics could affect root length and impact root film.
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However, Mateos-Cárdenas et al. (Mateos-Cárdenas et al., 2019) summed up the

opposite conclusion, they found that both the submerged and floating vascular plants

were not affected by microplastics. Hence, the submerged vascular plants escaped the

fate of microplastic adhesion.

Thus, whether in freshwater, seawater, submerged plants, floating plants, or

emergent plants, microplastics often firmly adhere to the surface. It is generally

believed that the following factors play a decisive role:

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1) The cellulose of plant surface cells is relatively rough and has electrostatic

attraction. It is speculated that there are many adsorption bindings sites.

2) Generally, there are some epiphyte layers on the surface of aquatic plants. The

increase of surface viscosity of these epiphyte layers increases the convenience for

micro plastics to settle on the plant surface.

3) All types of bacteria and microorganisms associated with aquatic plants also play

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an important role on the surface of microplastic colonisation plants.

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4.2. Interaction with aquatic animals

Plants provide important ecological services in aquatic ecosystems. For example,

-p
they provide habitats and shelter for many species, and increasing access to food.
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Although high concentrations of microplastics may not affect plant life, high
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concentrations of microplastics on plant surfaces may affect the nutrient transfer of

na

related animals and microplastics (Browne et al., 2013; Mateos-Cárdenas et al., 2019;

Kalčíková, 2020; Qu et al., 2020). Currently, most researchers believe that the transfer
ur

of nutrients mainly occurs between predators and prey, such as mussels, crabs, and
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fish (Park et al., 2019; Kazour and Amara, 2019; Chae and An, 2019; Su et al., 2019;

Lv et al., 2019; Mbedzi et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2019). Therefore, aquatic plants eaten

by herbivores may also allow microplastics to enter the aquatic food web. For

example, bipeds can ingest microplastics by eating contaminated Lemna minor L.

(Mateos-Cárdenas et al., 2019). Similarly, bipeds cannot distinguish between algae

with and without microplastics, and therefore, the former cannot accurately

selectively feed on the latter (Choi et al., 2020; Korez et al., 2019; Chen et al., 2020).

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Hence, it is necessary to expand the research of microplasticity from consumers to

producers along the food chain (Aljaibachi et al., 2019), and to evaluate the role of

vascular plants in the transfer of microplastic involvement in nutrition.

Aquatic animals such as microorganisms, amphibians, and fish inevitably interact

with microplastics directly or indirectly (Wu et al., 2019; Li et al., 2020; Li., 2019;

Boyero et al., 2020; Su et al. 2019; Lv et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2019). Although some

of
literature showed that the aquatic vascular plants were not affected by the

microplastics which they were exposed to in the aquatic environment

ro
(Mateos-Cárdenas et al., 2019; Kalčíková, 2020), other suggested that the
-p
microplastics could transfer between trophic levels from herbivores to carnivores. For
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example, duckweed can be consumed by bipedal aquatic animals, mussels, fish, and
lP

crabs because these organisms cannot distinguish between microplastics and food.
na

Since the microplastics in plants are consumed, the food chain between aquatic plants

and aquatic animals enlarges and causes irreversible damage to aquatic organisms.
ur

The nature of interaction between microplastics and aquatic animals can be seen in
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Table 2.

Several studies have demonstrated that microplastic stress in vivo (Li et al.,

2019; Mbedzi et al., 2020; Liu, 2017; Li, 2019). This is because of its small size and

widespread nature; scattered in the water, land, and atmosphere (Yan et al., 2019; He

et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2019; Zhou et al., 2019; Yin et al., 2020; Aslam et al., 2020;

Nan et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020; Piñon-Colin et al., 2020; Egessa et al., 2019;

Mani and Burkhardt-Holm, 2019). Microplastic particles in the environment have

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high bioavailability for different species. Microplastics were found in the viscera of

benthic invertebrates, fish, and large mammals at different trophic levels (Besseling,

et al., 2015; Gong, 2018; Hu, 2019; Zheng, 2019; Yu, 2019; Li et al., 2019; Dong,

2019). The ingested microplastics were transferred throughout the food web, which

attracted increasing attention to the threat to aquatic biota. In addition, there was a

disturbance of reproductive capacity and mortality of aquatic organisms, as well as

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the dose-response relationship with physiological stress, that caused behavioural

changes (Mbedzi, 2020), immune responses, metabolic abnormalities, and other

ro
phenomena ( Sun and Sun, 2019; Ouyang et al., 2020; Kang et al., 2020；Li, 2018;
-p
Zheng, 2019; Gong, 2018; Hu, 2019; Li, 2019; Li Aifeng, 2019). Filter-feeding
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benthic organisms mussels, they could ingest and excrete polystyrene microplastics.
lP

Even if they were exposed to microplastics for a long time, the mussels have no
na

obvious pathological effects, and there was no significant evidence that mussels

Ingestion of polystyrene microplastics might lead to oxidative stress(Cátia Gonçalves

ur

et al., 2018). Pereira et al. (Pereira et al., 2020) studied five species of fish (including
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those living in shallow and deep seas) on the Azore Islands and found that pelagic fish

contained more microplastics than benthic fish. In addition, the types of polymers

contained in fishes in different habitats were also different. Pereira et al. (Pereira et al.,

2020) also identified nine different polymers): polyethylene (PE), polyester (PES),

polypropylene (PP), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), poly

Acrylonitrile (PAN), polystyrene (PS), polyamide resin (PA) and polynorbornene

(PNR). They found that the most common polymer was PE (42.3%), followed by PP

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(15.4%) and PES (11.5%). Although PE is the most abundant polymer recovered, it

was only found in pelagic species. In addition to black-spotted sea bream, Pereira et al.

(Pereira et al., 2020) also found that PES exists in all species, except for blue

mackerel, there are also PP projects. PVC was found in tuna, PA was found in

mackerel, and PNR was found in blue fish. In the Azores, not only the white

microplastics floating on the sea are the majority, but also white debris stranded on

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the coastline is also one of the most numerous microplastics. (Pham et al., 2020)

investigated that the reason why Azore Islands fish prefer to eat blue microplastic

particles. they found that it was

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not because of the large number of blue
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microplastics in the water body, but because this is the color of the fish's typical prey.
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During the feeding process of bivalves and planktonic fish, the size scale that passes
lP

through the filter is generally from plankton to small fish (Van Cauwenberghe and
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Janssen, 2014; Fossi et al., 2014). Megaptera novaeangliae) found microplastics. Due

to the large amount of microplastics in the marine environment, Fossi et al., (Fossi et
ur

al., 2014) et al. speculate that the Mediterranean finned whale may ingest 37,000
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microplastic particles per day. E. Besseling et al., (E. Besseling et al., 2015) dissected

humpback whales 2 days after death, and analyzed a part of their gastrointestinal tract,

and found that the polymer types and particle shapes are diverse Sex, several polymer

types (polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene terephthalate,

nylon), they have different particle shapes: flakes, chips and threads, the size is 1 mm

to 17 cm , And proved the potential relationship between the microbial content in the

organism and the foraging area. These effects require greater public attention.

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Wang et al. (Wang et al., 2019) showcased why widely used plastics, particularly in

the form of microplastics, were toxic to the water environment. The researchers also

summarised the most significant physical and chemical properties of microplastics.

Although a large amount of literature reported on the negative impact of microplastics

on aquatic organisms, and the entire aquatic environment, few scholars had proposed

the long-term, comprehensive, and ecological impact of microplastics and related

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pollutants on aquatic ecosystems. Most scholars believed that particle size was the

most important factor affecting the utilisation of aquatic organisms, whether it was for

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dietary or non-dietary purposes. Wang et al. (Wang et al., 2019), Botterell (Botterell,
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2018), Sleight et al. (Sleight et al., 2016), Heinrich and Braunbeck (Heinrich and
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Braunbeck, 2019), and Setälä et al. (Setälä et al., 2018) believed that bioavailability,
lP

one of the key factors for the potential impact of microplastics on different species,
na

depended on the nature of pollutants and the foraging preference of organisms. If

predators do not have a good discrimination strategy for food, they are most likely to
ur

eat microplastics similar in shape and colour to their food. Due to the different
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characteristics of each kind of microplastics, the degree of physical damage to

consumers is also different. The particle size affects the number of microplastics eaten

by aquatic animals. Kokalj et al. (Kokalj et al., 2018), Elizalde-Velázquez et al.

(Elizalde-Velázquez et al., 2020), Aljaibachi et al. (Aljaibachi et al., 2020), Schrank et

al. (Schrank et al., 2019), Sadler et al. (Sadler et al., 2019), and Felten et al. (Felten et

al., 2020) found that the size of microplastics contained in daphnia was almost less

than 100 μm, and the size of microplastics consumed by daphnia showed an

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exponential growth relationship. Similar to daphnia, brine shrimp had a preference of

< 50 μm. The size of prey swallowed by tuna was about 1.3 mm. Therefore,

microplastics similar to its prey size can often be found in tuna intestines. In addition,

the food transport capacity of aquatic organisms also depends on the size of

microplastic particles. When microplastics are swallowed by aquatic animals, the

distribution of microplastics with different sizes in mussels shows a regular pattern.

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Similarly, when the lumen of prawn is greater than 20 mm, the digestive tract is filled

with this microplastics. The microplastic particles are too large to be transported to

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other body parts of prawn through their digestive system; therefore, a large amount of
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microplastics used for eating is retained in the intestine. The density of microplastics
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also affects the physiological function of aquatic organisms. High-density

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microplastics settle at the bottom of the water and become food for benthic organisms.
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Medium density microplastics are easily consumed by the aquatic organisms between

the surface water and bottom water. The excreta of copepods living in the shallow
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surface of water bodies is an important food source for fish and other organisms.
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When these copepods feed on smaller microplastic particles, they can discharge these

microplastic faeces. Through predation, the microplastics are further amplified in

higher organisms throughout the food chain.

4.3. Interaction with aquatic birds

The Earth’s hydrosphere includes various kinds of birds, including aquatic and

forest birds. Aquatic animals and plants provide abundant food for aquatic birds.

Estuarine deltas, coastal wetlands, flood lands, and other habitats are rich in nutrients,

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which not only provide food for various birds, but also provide habitat (Liu, et al.,

2019). Baisha Lake, one of the habitats of migratory birds in Poyang Lake Wetland in

Jiangxi Province, China, was used as an area to study the impact of microplastics on

migratory birds. The results showed that the average abundance of microplastics in

the faeces of migratory birds was 4.93 items/g and mainly consisted of red

microplastics. This study showed that the microplastic pollution of freshwater lakes

of
had been quite serious. The pollution not only caused potential danger and damage to

aquatic organisms, but also caused danger to birds feeding on aquatic organisms. For

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those birds that feed on fish in the water, the combined pollutants of microplastics in
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the water and microplastics in the fish would inevitably enter the birds. Recently,
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experiments had proven that mosquitoes that birds prey on might be the source of
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microplastics in birds(Erica Tennenhouse, 2018).

na

Our ongoing research work and next work focus on the phenomenon of trace

plastic transfer in the food chain. The purpose is to remind people to pay attention to
ur

ecological safety and take the necessary precautions to ensure biodiversity, thereby
Jo

maintaining the safety of the earth's biosphere and hydrosphere. (see Graphical

Abstract).

Conclusion and prospective work

The ability of microplastics of various sizes in the environment to absorb and

combine inorganic compounds, antibiotics, heavy metals, and organic compounds into

new composite pollutants is well established. However, it is necessary to conduct

in-depth research on the biotoxicity, fate, and transport mechanism of microplastics,

38
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composite pollutants formed by microplastics, and other pollutants. This will help

accurately analyse the potential risk and health effects of microplastics in the

environment on human beings in the human-terrestrial biosphere. As a source and

sink of microplastics, human beings are located at the top of the evolutionary chain.

When microplastics and compound pollutants of microplastics enter primary

organisms, human bodies become enriched with these pollutants as we are

of
continuously consuming food containing microplastics. Over a period of time, the

ingestion of toxic and harmful substances, including microplastics, is not only

ro
harmful to the human body, but also harmful to the entire food and ecological chains.
-p
Because the morphological and physiological structure of aquatic organisms are
re

closely related to the possibility of microplastic intake, the potential of transport in

lP

vivo, and the excretion rate, it is difficult to understand the general principle of the
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influence of the size of microplastic particles on different kinds of aquatic organisms.

This influence is still under study. Thus, future research should draw lessons from the
ur

systematic research methods, summarise the various ecotoxicological effects of

Jo

microplastics, and summarise the deep-seated relationship between the toxicological

mechanism and ecotoxicological appearance. This will help provide a comprehensive

framework and guiding principles for the development of biosphere conservation in

the future.

Therefore, it is critical to predict and accurately evaluate the impact of microplastics

on the biosphere. Thus, future research should focus on:

1. Identifying model organisms and microplastic pollution grading standards that

39
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reflect the severity of microplastic pollution.

2. Establishing a long-term biosphere field real-time monitoring platform for

microplastic pollution on a global scale, and building an open large database.

3. Furthering research and development of products that can replace plastic

products.

4. Using aquatic vascular plants to remove microplastics in water bodies through

of
the accumulation and enrichment of microplastics by aquatic vascular plants, to

protect hydrospheric ecology from these pollutants.

ro
5. Using the two classic reactions of sulfonation and Fenton, PE plastic waste
-p
including high-density PE (HDPE) and low-density PE (LDPE) can be converted into
re

organic acids, such as mono- and di-carboxylic acids, thereby reducing the total
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amount of microplasts in the water environment.

na

Declaration of Interest
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The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or
Jo

personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this

paper.

Acknowledgments

This study was financially supported by the National Natural

Science Foundation of China (Grant No.: 51978178, 51521006, and 51978250), and

also thank my little niece Die Jiang and my friend Jianmin Zhao for their helping with

drawing.

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Table 1: Effects of microplastics on microalgae in freshwater and saltwater species

Species Type Microplastics Concentration Exposure Biological Effects References

Size (m µm) Time

Chlamydomonas PP & 400-1000 1 g/L >78 d No significant influence on (Lagarde et al., 2016)

reinhardtii HDPE growth and expression of genes

involved in stress response.

Enhanced expression of genes

involved in sugar biosynthesis

pathways.
Freshwater

Chlorella PS 0.1&1 10-100 mg/L 30 d Inhibition on the algae growth (Mao et al., 2018)

pyrenoidosa from Lag to the earlier

logarithmic phases, resulting in

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reduced photosynthetic activity,

unclear pyrenoidosa, distorted

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thylakoids, and damaged cell
-p membrane.

Scenedesmus PS -0.07 44-1100 mg/L 72 h Inhibition on algae growth. (Besseling et al., 2014)

obliquus Reduction in Chlorophyll-a

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content.

Pseudokirchneriella PS 0.055&0.1 0.1-1 mg/L 72 h Inhibition on algae growth. (Casado et al., 2013)
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subcapitata

Dunaliella PS 1.05–6 25 & 250 mg/L 72 h Significant influence on growth (Sjollema et al., 2016)

tertiolecta with no effect on

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photosynthesis.
Saltwater

Tisochrysis lutea PS 2 3.96 & 39.6 μg/L 30 d Formation of (Long et al., 2017)
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hetero-aggregation for C.

neogracile.
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Skeletonema PVC 1 0-50 mg/L 4d Inhibition on algae growth. (Zhang et al., 2019)

costatum Chlorophyll content

and photosynthesis.

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Table 2: Microplastic ingestion by aquatic organisms in the freshwater and saltwater

environments

Water Type Species Location Reference Microplastics load

Oligochaeta Tubifex tubifex River Irwell, England (Hurley et al., 2017) 129 + -65.4 particles/g tissue

(wet weight)

Mollusca Corbicula flumine Taihu Lake, China (Su et al., 2018) 0.2–12.5 particles/g (wet

weight)
Freshwater

Fish Gobio gobio Eleven French Rivers (Sanchez et al., 12% of the collected fish

2014) contained microplastics

Bird Ardea cinerea Lake Geneva, Switzerland (Faure et al., 2015) 4.3 + 2.6 particles per bird

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Cygnus olor

Anas platyrhynchos

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Crustacea Neocalamus cristatus Northeast Pacific Ocean Deforges et al., 2015 1 Particle per 34 copepods

Euphausia pacifica
-p 1 particle per 17 euphausiids

Polychaete Arenicola marina French-Belgian-Dutch Sea Van Cauwenberghe 2.8 particles/g (wet weight)
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coast et al., 2015
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Mollusca Mytilus edulis North Sea and Atlantic Van Cauwenberghe 0.27 + 0.3 particles/g (wet

Ocean and Janssen, 2014 weight)

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Crassostrea gigas 0.47 + 0.16 particles/g (wet

weight)
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Saltwater

Fish Galeus melastomus Western Mediterranean Sea Alomar and 0.34 + 0.07 particles/individual
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Deudero, 2017

Turtle Caretta caretta South-West Indian Ocean Hoarau et al., 2014 96.2% of the turtle-ingested

debris were plastics

Mammal Megapatera novaeangliae North and west of Ireland Besseling et al., 2015 A total of 16 plastic particles

were found

Phoca vitulina The Netherlands Bravo Rebolledo et 0.26 particles/individual

al., 2013

Bird Puffinus tenuirostris North Pacific Ocean Tanaka et al., 2013 0.04–0.59 g/bird

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Declaration of interests
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or
personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this
paper.

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