CHAPTER TWO

BLOCK DIAGRAMS & SIGNAL

FLOW GRAPHS

MEng 5772 – Regulation and Control Engineering

 Block Diagrams
3

 In the introductory section we saw examples of block diagrams

to represent systems, e.g.:

 Block diagrams consist of

🞑 Blocks – these represent subsystems – typically modeled by, and labeled
with, a transfer function
🞑 Signals – inputs and outputs of blocks – signal direction indicated by
arrows – could be voltage, velocity, force, etc.
🞑 Summing junctions – points were signals are algebraically summed –
subtraction indicated by a negative sign near where the signal joins the
summing junction
 Standard Block Diagram Forms
4

 The basic input/output relationship for a single block is:

Y s = U s ⋅G s

 Block diagram blocks can be connected in three basic forms:

🞑 Cascade
🞑 Parallel
🞑 Feedback

 We’ll next look at each of these forms and derive a single‐

block equivalent for each
 Cascade Form
5

 Blocks connected in cascade:

X1 s = U s ⋅ G1 s ,X2 s = X1 s
⋅ G2 s Y s = X 2 s ⋅ G3 s = X 1 s
⋅ G2 s ⋅ G3 s
Y s = U s ⋅ G1 s ⋅ G2 s ⋅ G3 s = U s ⋅ Geq s
Geq s = G1 s ⋅ G2 s ⋅ G3 s

 The equivalent transfer function of cascaded blocks is the

product of the individual transfer functions
 Parallel Form
6

 Blocks connected in parallel:

X1 s = U s ⋅ G1 s
X 2 s = U s ⋅ G2 s
X 3 s = U s ⋅ G3 s

Y s = X1 s ± X 2 s ± X 3 s

Y s = U s ⋅ G1 s ± U s ⋅ G2 s ± U s ⋅ G3 s
Y s = U s G1 s ± G2 s ± G3 s = U s ⋅ Geq s

Geq s = G1 s ± G2 s ± G3 s

 The equivalent transfer function is the sum of the individual

transfer functions:
 Feedback Form
7

 Of obvious interest to us, is the feedback form:

Y s = E s G s
Y s = R s —X s G s
Y s = R s —Y s H s G s

Y s 1+G s H s = R s G s
G s
Y s = R s ⋅
1+G s H s

 The closed‐loop transfer function, T s , is

Y s G s
T s = =
R s 1+G s H s
 Feedback Form
8

G s
T s =
1+ G s H s

 Note that this is negative feedback, for positive feedback:

G s
T s =
1—G s H s
 The G s H s factor in the denominator is the loop gain or open‐loop
transfer function
 The gain from input to output with the feedback path broken is the
forward path gain – here, G s
 In general:
forward path gain
T s =
1 — loop gain
 Closed‐Loop Transfer Function ‐ Example
9

 Calculate the closed‐loop transfer function

 D s and G s are in cascade

 H1 s is in cascade with the feedback system consisting of D s ,
G s , and H2 s
D s G s
T s = H s ⋅
1
1 + D s G s H2 s
H1 s D s G s
T s =
1 + D s G s H2 s
 Unity‐Feedback Systems
10

 We’re often interested in unity‐feedback systems

 Feedback path gain is unity

🞑 Can always reconfigure a system to unity‐feedback form
 Closed‐loop transfer function is:
D s G s
T s =
1+ D s G s
 Block Diagram Algebra
11

 Often want to simplify block diagrams into simpler,

recognizable forms
🞑 To determine the equivalent transfer function

 Simplify to instances of the three standard forms,

then simplify those forms
 Move blocks around relative to summing junctions
and pickoff points – simplify to a standard form
🞑 Move blocks forward/backward past summing junctions
🞑 Move blocks forward/backward past pickoff points
 Moving Blocks Back Past a Summing Junction
12

 The following two block diagrams are equivalent:

Y s = U1 s + U2 s G s = U1 s G s + U2 s G s
 Moving Blocks Forward Past a Summing Junction
13

 The following two block diagrams are equivalent:

1
Y s = U s G s + U s = U s + U s G s
1 2 1 2
G s
 Moving Blocks Relative to Pickoff Points
14

 We can move blocks backward past pickoff points:

 And, we can move them forward past pickoff points:

 Block Diagram Simplification – Example 1
15

 Rearrange the following into a unity‐feedback system

 Move the feedback block, H s , forward,

past the summing junction
 Add an inverse block on R s to
compensate for the move

 Closed‐loop transfer function:

1 H s G s
H s G s
T s = =
1+G s H s 1+G s H s
 Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
16

 Find the closed‐loop transfer function of the following

system through block‐diagram simplification
 Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
17

 G1 s and H1 s are in feedback form

G1 s
G s =
eq
1 —G1 s H1 s
 Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
18

 Move G2 s backward past the pickoff point

 Block from previous step, G2 s , and H2 s become a

feedback system that can be simplified
 Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
19

 Simplify the feedback subsystem

 Note that we’ve dropped the function of s notation, s , for clarity

G1G2
1— G1H1 G1G2
Geq s = =
G G H
1+ 1 2 2 1— G1H1 + G1G2H2
1— G1H1
 Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
20

 Simplify the two parallel subsystems

G4
G s = G +
eq 3
G2
 Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
21

 Now left with two cascaded subsystems

🞑 Transfer functions multiply

G1G2G3 + G1G4
Geq s =
1 — G1 H1 + G1 G2 H2
 Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
22

 The equivalent, close‐loop transfer function is

G1G2G3 + G1G4
T s =
1 — G1 H1 + G1 G2 H2
23 Multiple‐Input Systems
 Multiple Input Systems
24

 Systems often have more than one input

🞑 E.g., reference, R s , and disturbance, W s

 Two transfer functions:

🞑 From reference to output
T s = Y s ⁄R s
🞑 From disturbance to output
Tw s = Y s /W s
 Transfer Function – Reference
25

 Find transfer function from to

🞑 A linear system – superposition applies
🞑 Set
 Transfer Function – Reference
26

 Next, find transfer function from to

🞑 Set
🞑 System now becomes:

w
w
 Multiple Input Systems
27

 Two inputs, two transfer functions

D s G s Gw s G s
T s = and Tw s =
1+D s G s 1+D s G s

 is the controller transfer function

🞑 Ultimately, we’ll determine this
🞑 We have control over both and w

 What do we want these to be?

🞑 Design for desired performance
🞑 Design w for disturbance rejection
28 Signal Flow Graphs
 Signal Flow Graphs
29

 An alternative to block diagrams for graphically describing systems

 Signal flow graphs consist of:

🞑 Nodes –represent signals
🞑 Branches –represent system blocks
 Branches labeled with system transfer functions
 Nodes (sometimes) labeled with signal names
 Arrows indicate signal flow direction
 Implicit summation at nodes
🞑 Always a positive sum
🞑 Negative signs associated with branch transfer functions
 Block Diagram Signal Flow Graph
30

 To convert from a block diagram to a signal flow

graph:
1. Identify and label all signals on the block diagram
2. Place a node for each signal
3. Connect nodes with branches in place of the blocks
 Maintain correct direction
 Label branches with corresponding transfer functions
 Negate transfer functions as necessary to provide negative
feedback
4. If desired, simplify where possible
 Signal Flow Graph – Example 1
32

 Connect nodes with branches, each representing a system block

 Note the ‐1 to provide negative feedback of X1 s

 Signal Flow Graph – Example 1
33

 Nodes with a single input and single output can be

eliminated, if desired
🞑 This makes sense for X1 s and X2 s
🞑 Leave U s to indicate separation between controller and plant
 Signal Flow Graph – Example 2
34

 Revisit the block diagram from earlier

🞑 Convert to a signal flow graph

 Label all signals, then place a node for each

 Signal Flow Graph – Example 2
35

 Connect nodes with branches

 Signal Flow Graph – Example 2
36

 Simplify – eliminate X5 s , X6 s , and X7 s

 Signal Flow Graphs vs. Block Diagrams
37

 Signal flow graphs and block diagrams are

alternative, though equivalent, tools for graphical
representation of interconnected systems
 A generalization (not a rule)
🞑 Signal flow graphs – more often used when dealing
with state‐space system models
🞑 Block diagrams – more often used when dealing with
transfer function system models
38 Mason’s Rule
 Mason’s Rule
39

 We’ve seen how to reduce a complicated block

diagram to a single input‐to‐output transfer
function
🞑 Many successive simplifications

 Mason’s rule provides a formula to calculate the

same overall transfer function
🞑 Single application of the formula
🞑 Can get complicated

 Before presenting the Mason’s rule formula, we

need to define some terminology
 Loop Gain
40

 Loop gain – total gain (product of individual gains) around

any path in the signal flow graph
🞑 Beginning and ending at the same node
🞑 Not passing through any node more than once
 Here, there are three loops with the following gains:
1. —G1H3
2. G2H1
3. —G2G3H2
 Forward Path Gain
41

 Forward path gain – gain along any path from the input
to the output
🞑 Not passing through any node more than once
 Here, there are two forward paths with the following
gains:
1. G1G2G3G4
2. G 1G 2G 5
 Non‐Touching Loops
42

 Non‐touching loops – loops that do not have any

nodes in common
 Here,
1. 1 3 does not touch 2 1
2. 1 3 does not touch 2 3 2
 Non‐Touching Loop Gains
43

 Non‐touching loop gains – the product of loop gains

from non‐touching loops, taken two, three, four, or
more at a time
 Here, there are only two pairs of non‐touching loops
1. —G1H3 ⋅ G2H1
2. —G1H3 ⋅ —G2G3H2
 Mason’s Rule
44

P
Y s 1
T s = = Σ TΔ
k k
R s Δ
k=1
where
P = # of forward paths
Tk = gain of the k th forward path
Δ = 1 — Σ(loop gains)
+Σ(non‐touching loop gains taken two‐at‐a‐time)
—Σ(non‐touching loop gains taken three‐at‐a‐time)
+Σ(non‐touching loop gains taken four‐at‐a‐time)
—Σ …
Δk = Δ —Σ(loop gain terms in Δ that touch the k th forward path)
 Mason’s Rule ‐ Example
45

 # of forward paths:  Σ(NTLGs taken two‐at‐a‐time):

P= 2 —G1H3G2H1 + G1H3G2G3H2
 Forward path gains:  Δ:
T1 = G1G2G3G4
Δ = 1 — —G1 H3 + G2 H1 —G2 G3 H2
T2 = G1G2G5 + —G1H3G2H1 + G1H3G2G3H2
 Σ(loop gains):
—G1 H3 + G2 H1 —G2 G3 H2
 Mason’s Rule – Example ‐
46

 Simplest way to find Δk terms is to calculate Δ with the k th

path removed – must remove nodes as well
 k = 1:

 With forward path 1 removed, there are no loops, so

Δ1 = 1 — 0
Δ1 = 1
 Mason’s Rule – Example ‐
47

 k = 2:

 Similarly, removing forward path 2 leaves no loops, so

2
2
 Mason’s Rule ‐ Example
48

 For our example: P

Y s 1
P= 2 T s = = Σ TkΔk
R s Δ
T1 = G1G2G3G4 k=1
T2 = G1G2G5
Δ = 1 + G1 H3 — G2 H1 + G2 G3 H2 — G1 H3 G2 H1 + G1 H3 G2 G3 H2
Δ1 = 1
Δ2 = 1

 The closed‐loop transfer function:

T1Δ1 + T2Δ2
T s =
Δ
G1G2G3G4 + G 1G 2G 5
T s =
1 + G1 H3 — G2 H1 + G2 G3 H2 — G1 H3 G2 H1 + G1 H3 G2 G3 H2
49 Preview of Controller Design

K. Webb MAE 4421