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Introduction
In potential flows, which assume an ideal fluid without
viscosity, only pressure and inertia forces determine the
flow dynamics (Fig. 1). Real fluids do have viscosity, and
the flow field can be very differe11t (Fig. 2). Boundary
layers, thin layers of fluid in which

2. Hydrogen bubble visualization of water. flowing past

the object .in Fig. 1.
viscosity effects are significant, are formed along
solid boundaries. In some cases, these boundary layers,
under the influence of pressure gradients, significantly
affect the entire flow field.
The streamline pattern of a real fluid, air, flowing
past an airfoil at a small angle of attack (Fig. 3) is very
I. Potential flow streamlines about a thin plate attached nearly what one would predict from inviscid flow
to a cylinder.

© 1970 Education Development Center, Inc.

 2

uniform flow over a long flat plate (Figs. 5 and 6).

The flow is visualized by hydrogen bubbles generated by
electrolysis along wires oriented perpendicular to the
plate. Upstream of the plate the front and back edges of
hydrogen-bubble patches remain perpendicular to the
streamlines, showing that the flow is uniform and free
of vorticity (Fig. 5). Downstream of the leading

3. Smoke visualization of air flow past an airfoil at a

small angle of attack.

theory. Because the Reynolds number is large, the

influences of viscosity are confined to a narrow region
close to the surface of the wing. The primary effect of
viscosity is to create a drag force on the wing through
5. }'low approaching a flat platein a water channel.
the integrated effect of surface shear stresses, When the
angle of attack of the airfoil is increased, viscous effects
become very pronounced and change the flow field in a
qualitative manner. Pressure gradients imposed on the
boundary layers become so large

6. Timelines produced at wires perpendicular to the

plate correspond closely to velocity profiles.

edge of the plate the flow is still uniform and. free

of vorticity except in a narrow region adjacent to the
plate (Fig. 6). This narrow region containing vorticity
is the viscous boundary layer. I n this layer, both
4. Same airfoil, at a large angle of attack.
viscous forces and inertial forces ate important. Out
side of this boundary layer viscous forces can be
that separation of the boundary layer occurs on the neglected.
upper surface (Fig. 4). A region of recirculating flow is The experimental fact that there is no slip between
formed over most of the upper surface of the wing, the plate and the layer of fluid immediately adjacent to
which is then said to be stalled. An understanding of it is shown in Fig. 6. The velocity of the liquid at the
how viscous forces can influence the entire flow field, surface of the plate is zero. This is called the no slip
as shown in Figs. 2 and 4, is intimately related to an boundary condition of viscous flow.
understanding of the behavior of boundary layers. The thickness of the boundary layer increases along
The film shows the causes of boundary layers, how the length of the plate. Physically, fluid deceleration is
they grow, how they respond to pressure gradients, and transferred successively from one fluid layer to the next
the differences in the behavior of laminar and turbulent by viscous shear stresses acting in the layers. The
boundary layers. boundary-layer thickness is sometimes defined as the
distance, δ , from the surface to where the velocity, U,
Flow Along a Flat Plate reaches some fixed percentage (say 95%) of the free
We first examine a boundary-layer flow where stream value (Fig. 7a). The local shear stress, τ , is
pressure gradients are negligible two-dimensional related to the velocity gradient normal to the surface
 3

7a. Definition of boundary-layer thickness δ.

9. The area integral of vorticity 𝜔 equals the line integral

of the velocity around the hounding contour.

is the sum of the vorticity enclosed within it. The

contour shown in Fig. 10 is at the upstream station; it
is of unit length along the plate, and more than a
boundary-layer thickness high. The free-stream velocity
is parallel to the top of the contour but is directed in
the opposite sense. This contributes U 0 times a unit
length to the value of the circulation. The components
of vertical velocity along the right and left parts of
the contour are virtually zero and, because there is
7b. Relationship of shear stress τ to velocity gradient at
wall. no slip, the velocity contribution to the circulation at
the surface is exactly zero. Therefore, the total
circulation is U 0 times a unit length. At any
downstream station the circulation is also equal to
U 0 times a unit length. Therefore the total amount of
vorticity within each contour is the same. Because there
is no vorticity upstream of the plate and because the
circulation per unit length along it is constant, we
conclude that all of the vorticity in the boundary layer is
introduced at the leading edge as a consequence of the
no-slip boundary condition.
Even though the total amount of vorticity contained
in the boundary layer per unit length of the plate is
8. Boundary-layer velocity profiles near the leading edge the same, the distribution of vorticity normal to the
(left) and far downstream (right). plate does change along its length. Viscosity acts,
through the mechanism of molecular diffusion, to
∂u spread the vorticity transversely as it is convected
by τ =μ , where µ is the fluid viscosity (Fig.
∂y downstream. The local boundary-layer thickness can
7b). The composite photograph of Fig. 8 compares the be thought of as a measure of the distance vorticity has
velocity profiles at upstream and downstream stations
along the plate. The velocity gradient at the wall is
less downstream than upstream, indicating that the wall
shear stress decreases along the plate.
One way to understand the mechanism of boundary
layer growth is to consider the time history of the
vorticity within the boundary layer. Stokes' theorem
states that the area integral of the vorticity vector, 𝜔,
bounded by a closed contour, is equal to the line integral
of the velocity vector around the bounding contour,
which' is called the circulation, Г. (See Fig. 9.)
∅ ω ∙ da=∅ V ∙ ds=Γ
In other words, the circulation around a closed 10. Evaluation of the circulation per unit length about a
contour at the upstream station.
contour
4

diff used away from the plate. We can relate the

factors controlling this growth process in the following
approximate way by considering that the transverse
diffusion length, δ, is of the order of √ vt , where v is the
kinematic viscosity and t is the time of diffusion. At

13. Composite blowup of upstream and downstream

boundary-layer profiles from Fig. 12.

The boundary layer upstream of the contracting

portion of the flow channel is much thicker than the
11. Boundary-layer growth along a flat plate,
boundary layer emerging from it (Figs. 12 and 13). Most
of this decrease in boundary-layer thickness through the
a distance l from the leading edge, the time during
flow contraction is attributable to the twoto-one decrease
which vorticity has diffused is approximately
in flow area. However, using the local distance h from
t ≅ l/U 0 the lower wall to the nearby stream line as a reference
(Fig. 11). Thus.
δ
l
∞
√ √
v
lU 0
=
1
ℜ
relation- ship is valid only at high Reynolds
This
dimension (Fig. 13), we see that the boundary-layer
thickness relative to this dimension has also decreased.
This decrease in relative thickness of the boundary layer
can be explained using the vorticity arguments just
numbers, where δ /l≪1. As an example of the developed.
Reynolds-number dependence, note that increasing The amount of vorticity contained in a contour of a unit
the flow velocity de creases the boundary-layer length along the plate and of height h is twice as large
thickness at a given station along the plate. With a downstream' 'as it is upstream because the free-stream
higher main-stream velocity, at any position along velocity has doubled through the contraction. This new
the plate the boundary layer thickness is less vorticity is of course added to ·the boundary-layer fluid at
because it has had less time to grow. the wall. It is as though a new boundary layer were being
created within the older one at each increment along the
Favorable Pressure Gradients way. The combined profile at the exit is relatively thinner
The pressure gradients in the flow direction because there has been little time for lateral diffusion of the
along the fiat plate in Figs. 5 and 6 were negligibly new vorticity in the boundary layer. Downstream,
small. In most other flow situations, there are therefore, a larger percentage of the total vorticity is near
regions of decreasing pressure and regions of the wall than upstream. This results in a relatively thinner
increasing pressure in boundary layer.
Instead of discussing vorticity concentration and
diffusion, the same conclusions can be reached using force
arguments. At each differential increment in distance along
the contracting portion of the channel the pressure gradient
causes a corresponding incremental increase to the main
flow velocity, according to Bernoulli's equation. In the
outer portions of the boundary layer, where changes in
shear stress are small, the velocity increases by almost the
same increment. It is only very near the wall that the
incremental increase in velocity is substantially different
from the free-stream value. The fluid velocity at the wall
12. F1ow in a converging channel (two-to-one remains zero be cause of the no-slip condition. It is as
contraction ratio). though a new and therefore thin boundary layer were being
added to the existing one at each step along the
the flow direction. By using the two-to-one contraction.
contracting flow channel of Fig. 12 and observing
the behavior of the boundary layer along the fiat
side, we can ex amine the effects of a pressure
distribution which de creases in the flow direction (a
favorable pressure gradient).
 6
The integrated effect is to enhance the already high flow reversal. For the small-angle diffuser of Fig. 14,
shear stress near the wall and decrease the lateral the positive pressure gradient is very small, and no flow
distance required for the velocity to attain 95 per cent separation occurs. The large-angle diffuser of fig. 15
of the free-stream value. imposes a larger positive pressure gradient which the
boundary layer cannot sustain without separating from
Unfavorable Pressure Gradients the wall between the second and third stations in Fig.
15. At the second station the flow near the wall is to
In the slightly divergent channel (a diffuser) of Fig. the right, while at the third station the flow near the
14, the free-stream static pressure increases in the flow wall is to the left. The point on the wall where the
direction, thereby subjecting the wall boundary layers fluid in the upstream boundary layer meets the fluid
to a positive (or unfavorable) pressure gradient. If the from the region of flow reversal is called the
r,·-( >.. unfavorable gradient is small enough (as it is in separation point. The wall shear stress is zero there.
Down stream of this point the fluid which was in the
upstream boundary layer is no longer in contact with
the wall, and is separated from it by the region of
reversed or

14. Flow in a small-angle diff user.

the flow of Fig. 14), then the. increasing pressure in

the free stream causes a corresponding decrease in the
free-stream velocity, increases the boundary-layer
thickness, and decreases the wall shear stress, without
causing flow separation. These effects can be deduced 16. Bubbles generated at three wires in the downstream
from either of the two arguments used in the previous section of the diffuser of Fig. 15 show reversed flow near
the wall.
section. Using pressure and velocity arguments it
recirculating flow. The boundary layer is said to
follows that the positive pressure gradient decreases the
ha.ve separated. The point of separation of the laminar
free-stream velocity and decreases the boundary layer
boundary layer in Fig. 16 is just upstream of the first
ve1ocity by almost the same increment except very mar
bubble wire. A comparison of the flow fields of Figs.
the wall. The size of the increment de creases rapidly
3 and 4 illustrates the enormous changes that
near the wall and must be zero at the wall. A major
boundary layer separation can cause.
consequence of this incremental de crease in velocity
is to decrease the velocity gradient Laminar to Turbulent Transition

In most practical situations the Reynolds

number is large and the boundary layers are
turbulent rather than laminar. Stages in the
transition from a laminar to a turbulent boundary
layer are shown in Fig. 17. In Fig. 17 a slight
adverse pressure gradient causes transition to occur
within the field of view. The steps in the
transition are complicated and interdependent.
First, there is the growth of nearly two-dimensional
waves, Tollmien-Schlichting waves, followed by
the appearance and growth of three-dimensional
or shear stress at the wall. This change in boundary disturb ances, which contain streamwise vorticity.
layer profile can be seen by comparing the profiles at Further downstream turbulent spots can be seen.
the first two stations of Fig. 15. Finally, fully turbulent flow appears.
15.The deceleration
A diverging channelofwith
the aflow
largerimposed by a positive
diff user angle. The transition process is influenced by many fac
pressure gradient cannot be very large or sustained too tors: free-stream disturbances, plate roughness, pressure
long by the boundary-layer fluid without the wall shear gradients, vibration, sound, etc. Therefore, the position
stress going to zero, followed downstream by local where the transition process starts varies with time in
a random way.
 In the turbulent boundary layer, the flow is
downstream (compare Figs. 18b and 16), and no flow
reversal is evident.

A Turbulent Boundary Layer Along a

Flat Plate

Laminar and turbulent boundary layers are different,

and the differences explain why a turbulent boundary
layer is able to withstand without separating a larger
unfavorable pressure gradient than a laminar boundary
layer. Consider again the flow along a long

17. Side view of a long cylinder* with its axis aligned

with an Bir· flow. The faired nose of the cylinder is out
of view to the left (upstream). A sheath of sll1oke
generated upstream develops patterns which show. stages
of boundary layer transition. (Courtesy F.N.M Brown,
University of Notre Dame.)
*The. cylinder appears · to be tapered. because the camera
is looking at a slight angle upstream.

Placing an obstruction in a boundary-layer flow

stimulates he naturally occurring processes and has tens
the onset of transition. In Fig. 18, the boundary layer on
the lower wall of the diffuser has been made turbulent
by inserting a trip rod upstream. The turbulent boundary
layer is able to withstand the adverse pressure gradient 19. Instantaneous displacement profiles for flow
in the diffuser and does not separate, while the laminar along Ii thin plate. The boundary layer on the upper
surface has been made turbulent, while the flow along
boundary along the top wall is separated, with reverse the lower surface is laminar.
flow along the wall (Fig. 18a).
flat plate. In Fig. 19, the boundary layer on the lower side
is laminar and two-dimensional; the boundary layer on the
upper side has been tripped by a wire upstream and is
turbulent. The motions in the turbulent boundary layer are
unsteady and three-dimensional. Some motions are
perpendicular to the plane of view. Because the
displacement of a bubble line

18a. Flow in channel of Fig. 15 with lower boundary layer

made turbulent.

20a. The upper boundary layer is turbulent the lower,

laminar. Superposition of many instantaneous velocity
profiles suggests mean velocity profiles.
I
corresponds closely to an instantaneous velocity profile,
superimposing a number of individual displacement lines
18b. Three bubble wires show unseparated, turbulent provides a method of obtaining a mean velocity profile for
flow along the bottom wall. the turbulent layer. The superposition
 the extra momentum near the wall in the turbulent
boundary layer along the bottom wall enabled it to
withstand the unfavorable pressure gradient without
separating.
Similarly, turbulent boundary-layer flow on the up
per surface of an airfoil delays large-scale separation,
or stall, until higher angles of attack are reached.
Vortex generators, small blades set perpendicular to
the surface of airplane wings, are often used to delay
the onset of separation. They are so named because
they introduce additional axial vorticity which
enhances the naturally occurring rotary momentum
interchange in already turbulent boundary layers, and
thereby increase the momentum of the fluid near the
surface.
20b. The mean laminar (solid) and turbulent (dashed)
profiles are compared. Summary
also gives an experimental notion as to where the
turbulent fluctuations occur and how large they are At large Reynolds numbers, boundary layers, thin
in the plane of mean motion. Figure 20a was con layers of fluid in which viscosity effects are significant,
structed by such a superposition - Fig. 20b compares are formed along solid boundaries, because viscous
the mean laminar and turbulent profiles. fluids cannot slip at solid boundaries. In the absence
The velocity gradient perpendicular to the plate is of pressure gradients, the boundary layer along a flat

√
larger for the turbulent layer than for the laminar layer
(Fig. 21), and therefore the turbulent layer has 11
surface increases in thickness as l . Negative (or
ℜ
favorable) pressure gradients in the flow direction,
which accelerate the flow, decrease the boundary-layer
thickness and increase the velocity gradient at the
wall. Positive or unfavorable pressure gradients tend to
decelerate the flow, to increase boundary-layer
thickness, and to decrease the velocity gradient at the
wall. Un favorable pressure gradients can cause
boundary-layer separation, which often results in
drastically altered flow patterns and losses in
performance of such devices as airplane wings and
diffusers.
At relatively low values of Reynolds number,
boundary layers tend to be laminar. At higher
the larger wall shear stress or drag. The circulation is Reynolds numbers, a boundary layer is unstable to
the same for both layers, since the free-stream velocity is small disturbances. The disturbances grow, resulting in
the same. Both boundary layers therefore contain the transition to a turbulent boundary layer. Most
same total amount of vorticity per unit length of the practical flow situations involve high Reynolds
21. Velocity
plate. However,gradients
the for the profiles areof
distributions compared.
vorticity in the two numbers and turbulent boundary layers. Because of
layers are very different. In the turbulent layer more three dimensional interchanges of momentum, a
vorticity is concentrated near the plate, even though turbulent boundary layer is thicker and has a larger wall
some vorticity has also spread farther from the plate velocity gradient than a laminar layer at the same
(Fig. 20b). Reynolds number. The increased momentum near the
The distribution of momentum in the two boundary wall al lows a turbulent boundary layer to withstand a
layers is also different. In the turbulent layer high larger unfavorable pressure gradient than a laminar
momentum fluid is transported toward the plate, and layer without separating, but results in higher wall
low-momentum fluid is transported away from the shear stress and drag.
plate, by unsteady random rotary motions associated
with vorticity aligned in the flow direction. There is References
more momentum near the wall in the turbulent boundary 1. Schlichting, H., Boundary Layer Theory, McGraw-
layer, even though the turbulent boundary layer is Hill, 1960.
thicker. In the diffuser experiment (Figs. 18a and b), 2. Hazen, D. C., "Boundary-Layer Control" (An
NCFMF Film).
3. Goldstein, S., Modern Developments in Fluid
Mechanics, Dover, 1965.