Human Body Systems

There are 11 main systems that keep our bodies functioning. Learn the primary roles of each in the
diagram below.

Endocrine Nervous
Regulation of body Processing center for sensory
processes through input, using the input to elicit
hormone production appropriate responses

Respiratory Cardiovascular
Gas exchange between Circulation of blood,
the internal and external which transports gases,
environment nutrients, hormones, and
wastes

Digestive Lymphatic
Physical and chemical Circulation of lymph,
breakdown of food to which maintains fluid
allow absorption of balance and helps
nutrients fight infection

Reproductive Urinary
Production of Filtration of
reproductive cells that blood and excretion
will generate offspring of wastes from the
body

Integumentary Skeletal
Protection against the external Support and protection
environment and regulation of of many internal
temperature organs

Muscular
Voluntary and involuntary
movement

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Human Body: Cardiovascular System
The cardiovascular system circulates blood through the body. The heart pumps
blood through blood vessels—arteries, capillaries, and veins. As blood flows
through these vessels, it delivers oxygen and nutrients to cells while removing
carbon dioxide and waste products from them.

The human heart

The human heart is a muscular pump about the The heart consists of cardiac muscle,
size of a human fist. It has 4 chambers—2 a striated and involuntary muscle.
atria and 2 ventricles. It has 4 heart valves. Two Individual cardiac muscle cells
are located between the chambers and 2 exit (cardiomyocytes) are connected by
the heart, preventing the backflow of blood. intercalated discs that coordinate
synchronized muscle contraction.

cardiac muscle

pulmonary Blood composition

artery The human body contains about 5
liters of blood. Blood consists of red
pulmonary
right vein blood cells, white blood cells,
atrium left platelets, and plasma.
atrium
Arteries carry oxygenated
blood away from the heart
left to arterioles and then to
ventricle capillaries. Capillary walls
are thin—only a single
cell thick—allowing O2 and
nutrients to enter tissues while
right ventricle waste products are removed. Blood
then travels through venules and
into larger veins that carry it back
CO2 O2 to the heart.

capillary bed
pulmonary
loop artery vein

capillaries

vein artery

arteriole venule

The 2 circulation loops

Pulmonary
The right side of the heart pumps oxygen-deficient blood to the lungs where it
lung lung releases CO2 and becomes oxygenated. This blood then returns to the heart.
Pathway: right atrium A right ventricle A lungs A left atrium
heart
right atrium left atrium Systemic
The left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood to body tissues where it delivers
right ventricle left ventricle O2 and picks up CO2 and other waste products. This deoxygenated blood then travels
systemic loop back to the heart where it begins the
pulmonary loop.
Pathway: left atrium A left ventricle A body A
body right atrium
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Human Body: Reproductive System
The male and female reproductive systems are controlled by hormones produced
by the pituitary gland in the brain, and the reproductive organs themselves.
Brain The Reproductive Organs
These organs make, mature, and store gametes, or sex cells, in
the human body. The male gametes are called sperm and female
gametes are called ova or egg cells. Each gamete contributes
half of an offspring’s DNA, providing genetic variation through
hypothalamus
sexual reproduction.

Male reproductive system

Pituitary gland Sperm is made in the seminiferous tubules and stored in the
spinal
cord epididymis. It travels through the vas deferens, where it mixes
with seminal fluids and passes through the urethra.

infundibulum
ureters
anterior posterior
pituitary pituitary
vas deferens
epididymis
Pituitary Gland bladder
head
The pituitary gland secretes hormones
that control the reproductive organs.
It signals the production of sex prostate
hormones and controls ovulation
and the menstrual cycle in women.
urethra
penis

testis
epididymis
body
seminiferous tubules epididymis tail

Female reproductive system

Immature eggs are found in the ovaries where they mature and are Developing
released into the fallopian tubes. An egg travels down the tube to Ovarian Follicle
the uterus, where it either implants and develops into an embryo or
is shed with the lining of the uterus at the end of a menstrual cycle.

fallopian tubes

ovary ovary
mature
uterus egg

vagina

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Human Body: Endocrine System
The endocrine system contains 9 major glands and organs that produce, store,
and secrete hormones.
Brain ™ Hypothalamus
Maintains the body’s homeostasis and regulates body
temperature, heart rate, and blood pressure.

š Pituitary Gland
Composed of 2 lobes: the anterior, which secretes hormones
involved in the body’s growth and development, and the
posterior, which secretes hormones that increase the
reabsorption of water into the kidneys.

› Pineal Gland
Responsible for the production of melatonin, which
plays a major role in the body’s sleep-wake cycle.

Thyroid œ front
This butterfly-shaped gland
produces 3 major hormones: back
calcitonin, triiodothyronine (T3), and
thyroxine (T4). They help regulate
the body’s energy and metabolism.

Parathyroid 
The parathyroid secretes hormones
necessary for calcium absorption.

Thymus ž
The thymus controls production of
T-cells (white blood cells) and plays
a vital role in the body’s ability to   Pancreas
fight diseases. Aids in the digestion of
proteins, fats, and carbohydrates.
Responsible for the production
of insulin and glucagon, which
regulate the level of glucose in
Ovaries/Testes Ÿ the blood.
The male and female reproductive
organs release hormones ¡ Adrenal Gland
responsible for blood circulation, Produces hormones that allow the
mental vigor, and sex drive. body to react to stress, such as
adrenaline and cortisol.
Ovary
Secretes estrogen and progesterone,
which play a key role in the health
of the female reproductive system.

Testis
Secretes testosterone, which is vital
for physical development, bone
density, and libido in males.

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Human Body: Digestive System
The main functions of the digestive system are mechanical and chemical digestion,
and absorption. Digestion is the process in which the body breaks food down into
smaller molecules so that nutrients can be easily absorbed. The entire digestion
process can take anywhere from 24 to 50 hours.

Mouth/Esophagus
us Peristalsis
Digestion begins in the mouth
m
through the mechanical and
chemical breakdown of food.
Smooth muscle tissue inn muscle
Mouth contraction
the esophagus squeezess
the food down toward theh
he
stomach in a process called
peristalsis. Esophagus

Stomach
Mechanical and chemical
digestion continues in the
stomach. Smooth muscle tissue
in the stomach wall squeezes
and churns the material, while muscle
enzymes and chemicals are contraction
added to help further break
down the food.

Stomach structure
The internal structure of the
stomach has ridges and folds
called rugae. This increases the Rugae
surface area within the stomach
and allows it to expand to hold
more food. Stomach Large Intestine
The large intestine, about 5
feet long, is responsible for
Intestines Duodenum eliminating waste matter.
The small intestine and large
intestine (colon) combined
average 25 feet long. Villi

Small Intestine Jejunum

The majority of absorption
takes place in the small
intestine, which is about 20
feet long. The small
intestine has 3
sections: duodenum,
jejunum, and ileum.

Finger-like extensions called Appendix

villi and microvilli increase Microvilli
the surface area of the small Ileum
intestine, allowing maximum
absorption of nutrients and Rectum
water.

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Human Body: Respiratory System
The respiratory system is responsible for gas exchange—the inhalation of oxygen
(O2) and the exhalation of carbon dioxide (CO2). The lungs, conducting airways,
and the diaphragm are key structures of the system.
Lungs and Diaphragm Trachea
Human lungs are sponge-like organs Right Lung Left Lung
found in the thoracic (chest) cavity. (3 lobes) (2 lobes)
The right lung has 3 lobes and is larger
than the bilobed left lung, as the heart
occupies more space on the left side.

The diaphragm is a domed, sheet-like

muscle that separates the thoracic and
abdominal cavities.

Breathing
During inhalation, the diaphragm
contracts, and air is pulled through
the conducting airways into the lungs.
During exhalation, the diaphragm
relaxes, and air is pushed from the
lungs.

Diaphragm
02 02
Inhalation
Trachea
Right Bronchus Left Bronchus
02 02

Bronchi, Bronchioles,
and Alveoli
Air enters the lungs from the trachea
Diaphragm through the right and left bronchus.
These branching airways lead to
Bronchioles
bronchioles and end in microscopic
air sacs called alveoli. The alveoli are
the sites of gas exchange between
the cardiovascular and respiratory
C02 systems.
Exhalation

C02 C02 Bronchioles

Capillary Alveoli
Network
Diaphragm
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Human Body: Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system plays a vital role in the body’s immunity. Lymphatic vessels
transport lymph, a fluid containing infection-fighting white blood cells, from body
tissues into lymph ducts that drain into lymph nodes.

Tonsils Lymph
Node

Thymus
Uvula Tongue

Tonsils are in the back of the throat,

on both sides. Tonsils aid in fighting off
pathogens but sometimes become
infected. A tonsillectomy can be
Spleen
performed to remove infected tonsils.

Lymphocytes are a
type of white blood
cell that produces anti-
bodies for immunity.

The thymus
is a lymphatic organ located
between the lungs and acts
as storage for lymphocytes.

Lymph Nodes
Lymph nodes are small, oval-shaped Spleen
nodes that occur in clusters throughout The spleen a lymphatic organ
the body. They contain lymphocytes and located in the upper abdomen,
help defend the body against infection. behind the stomach. Its function is to
filter blood’s debris and old red blood
Superficial lymph nodes are highly
cells. Lymphocytes are also stored here.
concentrated in the cervical (neck),
axillary (arm pit), and inguinal (groin)
Lymph Node Anatomy
regions. These are palpable and are
often used as indicators of infection.
Afferent lymphatic vessels
Sinus
cervical
Lymphatic
nodule
Germinal
center

axillary Efferent lymphatic

Capsule vessels

inguinal

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 Human Body: Urinary System
The urinary system filters extra water and waste products from the blood to help
maintain proper fluid balance inside the body. An elaborate system of tubes and
tubules intertwines with arteries and veins within the kidneys to allow for maximum
excretion of waste products, such as various salts and proteins. The ureters
carry this waste to the bladder, where it is stored until excretion.

Normal daily urine output range: Inferior vena cava Abdominal aorta
(main vein to heart) (main artery from heart)
800 mL 2200 mL
carries filtered blood carries blood from heart to
from kidneys to body kidneys
BOROSILICATE BOROSILICATE BOROSILICATE BOROSILICATE
GLASS GLASS GLASS GLASS
1000 mL 1000 mL 1000 mL 1000 mL

1000 1000 1000 1000

900 900 900 900

800 800 800 800

700 700 700 700

600 600 600 600

500 500 500 500

400 400 400 400

300 300 300 300

200 200 200 200

100 100 100 100

1000 mL graduated cylinders

Urinary System
Ureters are long, thin tubes that carry
urine from the kidneys (where it is
produced) to the bladder.
Right Left
The bladder is a muscular sac that kidney kidney
stores urine.
Ureter Ureter
The urethra is a narrow tube connected
to the bladder that removes urine from
the body.

Kidneys
The kidneys are found in the upper
abdomen on each side of the spine. These
Glomerulus
fist-size organs filter waste products out
A glomerulus is a small, round
of the bloodstream and produce urine. Bladder pocket within the kidneys that uses
Nephrons concentration gradients to remove
Nephrons contain a network of tubes, veins, nitrogenous waste and salts from the
and arteries that intertwine to exchange blood vessels that pass through it.
salts, wastes, and fluids to remove them Urethra
from the bloodstream.
Afferent arteriole

Kidney Nephron Glomerulus

Efferent
arteriole
Renal artery

unfiltered
blood from
the heart
filtered blood
Renal vein waste Glomerulus Distal
capsule tubule
products
Ureter (urine)
Collecting Nephron
waste products duct loop
(urine) to the bladder
to ureter
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Human Body: Nervous System
The nervous system is made up of the central nervous system and peripheral
nervous system. These systems work together to collect and interpret data from
the body’s internal and external environment and control responses.

Central Nervous System Spinal Brain

The central nervous system cord
(CNS) manages the body’s
essential functions. Made up
of the brain and spinal cord,
the CNS receives sensory
information and coordinates Spinal
an appropriate response. column

Peripheral Nervous
System
The peripheral nervous system (PNS)
connects the CNS to the rest of the body. Spinal
Nerves branch out from the brain and nerve
spinal cord, extending to the organs,
muscles, and other parts of the body.

Neurons are highly specialized cells Nerves

that transmit chemical and electrical
information in the body. Neurons use
short, branched extensions called
dendrites to receive nerve impulses from
surrounding cells. These messages then
travel through the cell body to the axon,
a threadlike structure. The impulse moves
through the axon and is transmitted via
chemical or electrical signals that pass
through a synapse. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that
relay signals between neurons and
Neuron bodily tissues. Neurotransmitters include
adrenaline, dopamine, and endorphins.

Dendrites
Synapse Neurotransmitter
vesicle
Cell body

Nucleus Neurotransmitter
Node of Ranvier

Axon

Myelin direction of
sheath nerve impluse
Schwann
cell nucleus

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Human Body: Muscular System
Muscles are found throughout the body. The 3 types of muscle tissue are skeletal
muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle. Muscles allow the body to do
everything from walking, to pumping blood, to churning food in the stomach.

Types of Muscle Cells

Cardiac muscle is an involuntary
tissue located in the heart. Cardiac
muscle contains intercalated discs, and
the cells appear branched and striated.
Each cell contains a single nucleus.
cardiac
muscle

smooth
Smooth muscle is an involuntary muscle
tissue found in the walls of organs
like the stomach, intestines, and blood
vessels. The cells are wide in the middle
and narrow on the ends. Each contains
a single nucleus.

Skeletal muscle is a voluntary tissue

and is commonly found attached to
bone by tendons. The cells are striated
and each contains multiple nuclei.

skeletal A sarcomere is the contractile

muscle unit within a muscle. Thin filaments are pulled
along thick filaments toward the midline (M-line)
to shorten the muscle fiber, resulting in a
contraction of the fiber. When multiple muscle
fibers contract, the entire muscle shortens.
Skeletal muscle myofibril

tendon fascia fasciculus

Sarcomeres

contracted
muscle
bone M-line

relaxed
muscle
Muscle fiber
myofibrils

nuclei filaments
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Human Body: Skeletal System
Made up of bone and cartilage, the human skeletal system has many important
functions, including support, movement, protection of internal organs, blood cell
production, and mineral storage.

Skeleton Skull
The adult human body has 206 (Cranium)
bones and can be divided into
2 parts—the axial skeleton and Sternum
the appendicular skeleton. Mandible

The axial skeleton (highlighted Cervical Clavicle

in red) includes bones of the vertebrae
skull, vertebral column, ribs,
sternum, sacrum, and coccyx, Scapula
totaling 80 bones.

The appendicular skeleton Thoracic Humerus

includes the 126 bones of vertebrae
the shoulders, pelvis, and
upper and lower extremities. Rib cage

Bone Tissue
There are 2 types of bone Lumbar Ulna
tissue. Compact bone is hard, vertebrae
dense, mineralized tissue that Radius
Pelvic
gives bone its strength. It bone
usually surrounds spongy bone Sacrum
tissue. Spongy bone is a porous Coccyx
layer of tissue that makes bone Carpals
lightweight. Its spaces usually Metacarpals
contain blood vessels and
Phalanges
bone marrow, a soft tissue
that produces blood cells.
Artery
Cartilage
Compact
bone Femur Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue
that forms the embryonic skeleton. Most
is ossified into bone during fetal and
childhood develop-
Patella Femur ment. In adults,
cartilage is found at
Patella
movable joints, and
in the ear, nose,
trachea, and other
structures. It also
connects the ribs
Spongy bone Tibia and sternum.
Cartilage
Fibula
Cartilage
Tibia
Fibula

Tarsals
Metatarsals
Compact bone Phalanges
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Human Body: Integumentary System
The integumentary system protects the body from the external environment and
works with other body systems to regulate internal processes. Major structures
include the skin, glands, hair, and nails. The main functions of the integumentary
system are protection, regulation, and sensation.

Skin Hair shaft

Skin is the largest and fastest-
growing organ in the body. The
outermost layer, the epidermis,
is composed of stratified
squamous epithelial tissue. Epidermis
Below this layer is the dermis,
which contains the cutaneous
Dermis
glands, hair follicles, and most
of the skin’s nerve endings.
The hypodermis (subcutaneous
layer) consists of loose connec- Hypodermis
tive and adipose tissue.

Cutaneous Glands Artery Vein Nerve Adipose tissue

Cutaneous glands within the dermis
include sebaceous and sweat glands.
Sebaceous glands secrete sebum,
an oily substance that waterproofs
and lubricates the skin. Sweat
glands help cool the body through Dermis Hair root
evaporation of sweat.

Sebaceous
Fingernails gland
Fingernails and toenails are made
of densely-packed cells covered in Arrector
keratin. The cuticle, found at the
pili muscle Hair
base of the nail, provides a barrier Matrix Hair is a pigmented filament formed
between the skin and the nail. The Hair follicle by mostly keratinized cells. Human
body of the nail appears pink due to Sweat hair follicles can be divided into 3 main
gland Hair papilla
numerous blood vessels in the nail Blood vessels segments: the bulb, root, and shaft. The
bed underneath. Nails protect the shaft (the visible part of hair) consists
fingers and toes and can be used for of 3 layers: the cuticle, cortex, and
scratching. medulla. The cortex defines texture
Nerve receptors of the skin
and contains the pigment that
Body Free edge gives hair its color.
Lateral
of nail of nail Free nerve Merkel
nail fold
endings disks Medulla
Shaft
Lunula Meissner Cortex
corpuscle
Eponychium
(cuticle) Cuticle
Ruffini Krause
endings end bulbs
Root
Cuticle Nail plate Distal edge Pacinian Bulb
of nail plate corpuscle
Nerve Root hair
Hyponychium plexus
Nail bed
Temperature Pressure Fine
Nail matrix Nail root Phalanx and pain sensitive touch
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