Republic of the Philippines Department of Education

Region III – Central Luzon During the chemical reactions of photosynthesis, energy is
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF CITY OF BALANGA provided in the form of a very high-energy molecule called
BATAAN NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SENIOR HIGH ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, which is the primary energy
SCHOOL currency of all cells. Just as the dollar is used as currency to buy
City of Balanga, Bataan goods, cells use molecules of ATP as energy currency to
perform immediate work. The sugar (glucose) is stored as starch
or glycogen. Energy-storing polymers like these are broken
down into glucose to supply molecules of ATP.
NAME: Year &Section:
Metabolic Pathways
The processes of making and breaking down sugar molecules
ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 illustrate two types of metabolic pathways. A metabolic
2nd Quarter - Week 1, Day 1- 4 pathway is a series of interconnected biochemical reactions that
Learning Competency with Code: convert a substrate molecule or molecules, step-by-step,
1. Explain coupled reaction processes and describe the role of through a series of metabolic intermediates, eventually yielding
ATP in energy coupling and transfer. a final product or products. In the case of sugar metabolism, the
(STEM_BIO11/12-IIa-j-3) first metabolic pathway synthesized sugar from smaller
2. Explain the importance of chlorophyll and other pigments. molecules, and the other pathway broke sugar down into
(STEM_BIO11/12-IIa-j-4) smaller molecules. These two opposite processes—the first
requiring energy and the second producing energy—are
LECTURE NOTES: referred to as anabolic (building) and catabolic (breaking down)
pathways, respectively. Consequently, metabolism is composed
Forms of Energy, Laws of Energy Transformation and Role of of building (anabolism) and degradation (catabolism).
ATP
Anabolic and Catabolic Pathways
Scientists use the term bioenergetics to discuss the concept of Anabolic pathways require an input of energy to synthesize
energy flow through living systems, such as cells. Cellular complex molecules from simpler ones. Synthesizing sugar from
processes such as the building and breaking down of complex CO2 is one example. Other examples are the synthesis of large
molecules occur through stepwise chemical reactions. Some of proteins from amino acid building blocks, and the synthesis of
these chemical reactions are spontaneous and release energy, new DNA strands from nucleic acid building blocks. These
whereas others require energy to proceed. Just as living things biosynthetic processes are critical to the life of the cell, take
must continually consume food to replenish what has been used, place constantly, and demand energy provided by ATP and
cells must continually produce more energy to replenish that other high-energy molecules like NADH (nicotinamide adenine
used by the many energy-requiring chemical reactions that dinucleotide) and NADPH. ATP is an important molecule for
constantly take place. All of the chemical reactions that take cells to have in sufficient supply at all times.
place inside cells, including those that use energy and those that The breakdown of sugars illustrates how a single molecule of
release energy, are the cell’s metabolism. glucose can store enough energy to make a great deal of ATP,
36 to 38 molecules. This is a catabolic pathway.
Catabolic pathways involve the degradation (or breakdown) of
complex molecules into simpler ones. Molecular energy stored
in the bonds of complex molecules is released in catabolic
pathways and harvested in such a way that it can be used to
produce ATP. Other energy-storing molecules, such as fats, are
also broken down through similar catabolic reactions to release
energy and make ATP. It is important to know that the chemical
reactions of metabolic pathways don’t take place
spontaneously. Each reaction step is facilitated, or catalyzed, by
a protein called an enzyme. Enzymes are important for
catalyzing all types of biological reactions—those that require
Most life forms on earth get energy as well as those that release energy.
their energy from the sun. Plants use photosynthesis to capture
sunlight, and
herbivores eat those plants to obtain energy. Carnivores eat the
herbivores, and decomposers digest plant and animal matter.

Metabolism of Carbohydrates
The metabolism of sugar (a simple carbohydrate) is a classic
example of the many cellular processes that use and produce
energy. Living things consume sugar as a major energy source, Forms of Energy
because sugar molecules have a great deal of energy stored Energy is the capacity to cause change. It is also the ability to
within their bonds. The breakdown of glucose, a simple sugar, rearrange a collection of matter. In the
is described by the equation: environment different forms of energy exist: Kinetic, Light and
Potential energy.
• Kinetic- energy associated with relative motion of objects
Carbohydrates that are consumed have their origins in • Thermal energy-type of kinetic energy associated with random
photosynthesizing organisms like plants. During movement of atoms. When thermal
photosynthesis, plants use the energy of sunlight to convert energy is transferred in the form of heat.
carbon dioxide gas (CO2) into sugar molecules, like glucose • Light Energy- main energy source is the sun and powers
(C6H12O6). Because this process involves synthesizing a photosynthesis (anabolic process).
larger, energy-storing molecule, it requires an input of energy • Potential Energy- possessed energy of a matter at rest (non-
to proceed. The synthesis of glucose is described by this moving form)
equation (notice that it is the reverse of the previous equation): • Chemical energy- potential energy released in a chemical
reaction

1
Laws of Energy Transformation
Thermodynamics is the study of energy transformations that
occurs in a system (collection of matter). Living systems are
considered as open systems because energy and matter are
transferred between systems and the surroundings.

1st Law: The energy of the universe is constant: Energy can be

transferred and transformed but it cannot be created nor
destroyed. Plants do not produce energy, but transforms energy
from the sun. Some
energy becomes unavailable to do work because most is lost as
heat. Transfer of energy and transformation makes the matter ATP is the primary energy currency of the cell. It has an
more disordered. Disorder of matter is measured through adenosine backbone with three phosphate groups attached.
entropy. As its name suggests, adenosine triphosphate is comprised of
adenosine bound to three phosphate groups.
2nd Law: Every energy transfer or transformation increases the Adenosine is a nucleoside consisting of the nitrogenous base
energy of the universe. adenine and a five-carbon sugar, ribose. The three phosphate
• i.e In a room full of people, breathing increases entropy since groups, in order of closest to furthest from the ribose sugar, are
all are exhaling carbon dioxide. labeled alpha, beta, and gamma. Together, these chemical
• Organisms as open system increase order as long as the order groups constitute an energy powerhouse. However, not all
in their surroundings decreases. This shows that as living bonds within this molecule exist in a particularly high-energy
organism transfers/transforms energy to its surroundings, the state. Both bonds that link the phosphates are equally high-
disorder increases, thus increases entropy. energy bonds (phosphoanhydride bonds) that, when broken,
release sufficient energy to power a variety of cellular reactions
Free Energy and processes. These high-energy bonds are the bonds between
• Energy that can do work under cellular conditions the second and third (or beta and gamma) phosphate groups and
• Gibbs free energy is the energy in the system that can perform between the first and second phosphate groups.
work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout The reason that these bonds are considered “high-energy” is
the system: ΔG = ΔH – TΔS because the products of such bond breaking—adenosine
• Also known as free energy change diphosphate (ADP) and one inorganic phosphate group (Pi)—
• Measure of system’s instability (trend: tendency to change to have considerably lower free energy than the reactants: ATP
a more stable state) and a water molecule. Because this reaction takes place with the
• Increase in G: UNSTABLE i.e. concentrated dye use of a water molecule, it is considered a hydrolysis reaction.
• Decrease in G: STABLE i.e. dye dispersed in water In other words, ATP is hydrolyzed into ADP in the following
• In chemical reactions: as reaction precedes equilibrium, the reaction:
free energy of reactants and products decreases (decreases free
energy). If products will be removed free energy will increase
• When systems reach maximum stability, the system reaches
the state of equilibrium. If equilibrium is reached there is NO Like most chemical reactions, the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP is
WORK. In chemical reactions proceeding equilibrium NO NET reversible. The reverse reaction regenerates ATP from ADP+
CHANGE in the relative concentration of reactants and Pi. Indeed, cells rely on the regeneration of ATP just as people
products. rely on the regeneration of spent money through some sort of
• Exergonic reactions- energy is released (energy outward), income. Since ATP hydrolysis releases energy, ATP
more decrease in free energy= more work regeneration must require an input of free energy. The
done formation of ATP is expressed in this equation:
• Endergonic reactions- energy is absorbed (energy inward).
Plants stores energy in the form of
glucose (from carbon dioxide and water
Hydrolysis of ATP
Equilibrium and Metabolism • process of breaking down bonds between the phosphate
• Equilibrium = NO WORK. This usually happened in isolated groups
systems that reach equilibrium. • this happens when a water molecule breaks the terminal
• A cell that reaches the state of equilibrium is DEAD phosphate bond
• A normal cell is not in equilibrium, because its products are • HOPO32-, abbreviated P I leaves ATP
not accumulated within its system, • Forming Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
INSTEAD the products becomes a reactant in the next step. • Energy is released. This comes from the chemical change of
the system state of lower free energy
ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate and NOT from the phosphate bonds.
Even exergonic, energy-releasing reactions require a small • Hydrolysis releases so much energy because of the negative
amount of activation energy in order to proceed. However, charges of the phosphate groups. These charges are crowded
consider endergonic reactions, which require much more together and their mutual repulsion contributes to the instability
energy input, because their products have more free energy than of that region of the ATP. The energy equivalent of the
their reactants. Within the cell, where does energy to power triphosphate tail of ATP is compared to a compressed spring.
such reactions come from? The answer lies with an energy
supplying molecule called adenosine triphosphate, or ATP.
ATP is a small, relatively simple molecule, but within some of
its bonds, it contains the potential for a quick burst of energy
that can be harnessed to perform cellular work. This molecule
can be thought of as the primary energy currency of cells in
much the same way that money is the currency that people
exchange for things they need. ATP is used to power the
majority of energy-requiring cellular reactions.

2
How the Hydrolysis of ATP Perform Work Light, as it encounters an object, is either reflected, transmitted,
• Proof that ATP releases heat: in a test set up, the hydrolysis of or absorbed. Visible light, with a wavelength of 380–750nm, is
ATP releases energy in the form of heat in the surrounding the segment in the entire range of electromagnetic spectrum that
water. is most important to life on earth. It is detected as various colors
• Most of the time when an animal is exposed in a cold by the human eye. The color that is not absorbed by pigments
environment, the reaction of the body is through shivering. In of objects is transmitted or reflected and that is the color of the
this reaction of the organism, shivering uses ATP during muscle object that we see.
contraction to warm the body. Since it will also be a
disadvantage for organisms to generate heat during ATP
hydrolysis, in order to maintin the living conditions inside the
cell, the energy released during ATP hydrolysis is used by
proteins to perform work: chemical, transport and mechanical
• Hydrolysis of ATP leads to change in the shape of protein and
in its ability to bind to another molecule. Phosphorylation (ADP
to ATP) and dephosphorylation (ATP to ADP) promote crucial
protein shape changes during important cellular process.
Pigments are the means by which plants capture sun’s energy
to be used in photosynthesis. However, since each pigment
absorbs only a narrow range of wavelength, there is usually a
need to produce several kinds of pigments of different colors to
capture more of sun’s energy.

Chlorophyll
•is the greenish pigment found in the thylakoid membrane
inside the chloroplast of a plant cell.

Chlorophyll absorbs blue and red light while it transmits and

reflects green light. This is why leaves appear green.

There are several kinds of chlorophyll. Among these,

chlorophyll a plays the most important role in photosynthesis.
It directly participates in converting solar energy to chemical
energy.

The Regeneration of ATP Other pigments in the chloroplast play the part of accessory
• ATP is a renewable it can be regenerated by the addition of pigments. These pigments can absorb light and transfer the
phosphate to ADP energy to chlorophyll a. One of these accessory pigments is
• Catabolism (exergonic) provides the free energy to chlorophyll b. Some carotenoids also contribute energy to
phosphorylate ADP. chlorophyll a. Other carotenoids, however, serve as protection
• ATP formation is not spontaneous, so there is a need to use for chlorophyll by dissipating excessive energy that will
free energy for the process to work. otherwise be destructive to chlorophyll.
• ATP cycle is the shuttling of inorganic phosphate and energy.
• It couples the cell’s energy yielding processes (exergonic) to Structure of chlorophyll
energy consuming process (endergonic) • Head—a flat hydrophilic head called porphyrin ring. It has a
• ATP regeneration happens very fast (10M molecules of ATP magnesium atom at its center. Different chlorophylls differ on
used ad regenerated per second) the side groups attached to the porphyrin.
• If ATP could not be regenerated by phosphorylation of ADP, • Tail—a lipid-soluble hydrocarbon tail.
HUMANS would use nearly their body weight in ATP each
day. How does photoexcitation of chlorophyll happen?
1. A chlorophyll molecule absorbs photon or light energy.
2. An electron of the molecule in its normal orbital, said to be
in its ground state, will be elevated to an orbital of a higher
energy. The molecule is now in an excited state. The molecule
only absorbs photon that has the energy that is equal to the
energy needed for it to be able to elevate from the ground state
to the excited state.
3. The excited state is unstable. Hence, excited electrons drop
back down to the ground state immediately after, releasing
energy in the form of heat and photon. This happens in isolated
chlorophyll molecules. However, chlorophyll molecule that is
found in its natural environment in the thylakoid membrane
forms a photosystem together with proteins and other organic
molecules to prevent the loss of energy from the electrons.
The Importance of Chlorophyll and Other Pigments
Terminology:
Chromatography
•is a separation technique used to identify various components
of mixtures based on the differences in their structure and/or
composition.

Pigments
•are substances that absorb visible light. Different pigments
absorb light of different wavelengths.

3
Photosystem 12. Describe how phosphorylation works (what drives it)?
A photosystem is an aggregate of pigments and proteins in the 13. How does the cell go about the continuous release of heat
thylakoid membrane responsible for the absorption of photons during ATP hydrolysis?
and the transfer of energy and electrons. It is composed of: 14. What will happen to the body if the regeneration of ATP is
•Light-harvesting complex— is also called the ‘antenna’ very slow?
complex and is consisted of several different pigments 15. How does the multi-step open hydroelectric system explain
(chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids) bounded with cellular respiration?
proteins. When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon, energy is
passed on from one pigment molecule to another pigment ACTIVITY # 3:
molecule until the energy reaches the reaction center. Specific Instruction: Write your answer on a separate sheet
•Reaction-center complex—is composed of a pair of of paper
chlorophyll a and a primary electron acceptor. The primary
electron acceptor is a specialized molecule that is able to accept 1. How do plants cope with the change in season? Give a
electrons from the pair of chlorophyll a. The pair of chlorophyll detailed description and explanation.
a in the reaction-center is also specialized because they are 2. How do plants capture the sun’s energy?
capable of transferring an electron to the primary electron 3. What happens to light when it hits an object?
acceptor and not just boosting the electron to a higher energy 4. What wavelength of light is most important to life on earth?
level. 5. What color/s of light does chlorophyll absorb? What color
does it reflect?
There are two types of photosystem: 6. What composes a photosystem?
•Photosystem II—was discovered later after the discovery of 7. In what part of the photosystem does the first step of light
Photosystem I, but functions first in the light reaction of reaction take place?
photosynthesis. The chlorophyll a in the reaction- center of 8. Differentiate the two types of photosystem.
Photosystem II effectively absorbs light with a wavelength of
680nm and thus called P680. ACTIVITY # 4:
•Photosystem I—was discovered first. Its reaction-center has a Construct a sketch/diagram on the photoexcitation of
chlorophyll a called P700 because it is effective in absorbing Chlorophyll. Write your sketch /diagram on a long bond
light with a wavelength of 700nm. paper/newsprint.

ACTIVITY # 1:
Specific Instruction: Write your answer on a separate sheet
of paper ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
2nd Quarter - Week 2, Day 1- 4
PART 1: Hugot-lines
A. Create “hugot-lines” based on the laws of transformation of 1. Describe the patterns of electron flow through light reaction
energy. events (STEM_BIO11/12-IIa-j-4)
B. Give justification for each “hugot-line” you will create. 2. Describe the significant events of the Calvin cycle
Make sure that the “hugot-lines” are in tune with the scientific (STEM_BIO11/12-IIa-j-5)
concepts of the law of thermodynamics.
•Introduction:
PART 2: ATP in everyday life. Autotrophic organisms use the pigment chlorophyll to harvest
A. Make an analogy relating the concepts under ATP (ATP solar energy to produce the stored energy as chemical bonds of
cycle, ATP hydrolysis, How ATP allows organisms to do work) ATP and carbohydrates. In eukaryotes, chlorophyll is
or the relevance of ATP in our lives. associated with thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast.
B. After listing the analogies or the relevance of ATP in our Photosynthesis in eukaryotes involves three essential processes:
lives, write your reflection/ realization regarding the topic. 1. Energy absorption from sunlight via pigments during light-
dependent reaction
ACTIVITY # 2: 2. Reactivation of reaction center
Specific Instruction: Write your answer on a separate sheet 3. Carbohydrates production by carbon fixation during dark
of paper. reaction.

1. Explain metabolism through creating an appropriate analogy.

2.What is the difference between Catabolic and Anabolic
reaction? How do each process compliment one another?
3. What is the importance of having exergonic reactions in the
body?
4. What is the disadvantage if there are not enough endergonic
reactions in the body? Relate this to the ATP cycle.
5. What happens when energy transforms to another form? Is
the yield unchanging for every transformation? Why or Why
not?
6. Which law of thermodynamics states that energy transfer or
transformation increases the state of disorder of the universe? During PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
7. Why do we consider living organisms as open systems?
8. If free energy is higher, does it mean that the system is more •Energy from sunlight is harvested and used to drive the
stable (Y/N)? What does this imply in the amount of work that synthesis of glucose from CO2 and H2O. By converting the
can be done? energy of sunlight to a usable form of potential chemical
9. If free energy is lower,does it mean that there is greater work energy, photosynthesis is the ultimate source of metabolic
capacity? (Y/N) N What does this imply about the systems energy for all biological systems.
stability?
10. How can you say that a cell has reached equilibrium? What •Photosynthesis takes place in two distinct stages. (A) In the
properties does it display? light reactions, energy from sunlight drives the synthesis of
11. (Y/N) Is the hydrolysis of ATP reversible? If Yes, explain ATP and NADPH, coupled to the formation of O2 from H2O.
your answer. (B) In the dark reactions (named because they do not require

4
sunlight), the ATP and NADPH produced by the light reactions ATP synthase channel triggers the synthesis of ATP from ADP.
drive glucose synthesis. The ATP contains high-energy phosphate bonds.
•In eukaryotic cells, both the light and dark reactions of
photosynthesis occur within chloroplasts—the light reactions in 6. Meanwhile, photon is also absorbed and energy is passed on
the thylakoid membrane and the dark reactions within the from one pigment molecule to another until the energy reaches
stroma. the reaction center complex of Photosystem I. The energy
excites the electron present in the pair of P700 chlorophyll a
The two stages of photosynthesis: located here. The excited electron is then transferred to a
Light reactions—use sunlight to initiate electron transfer, primary electron acceptor, making the P700 positively charged
thereby reducing NADP+ to NADPH and splitting water to and now seeking electrons to fill up the missing ones. This is
give off oxygen as a by-product. filled up by the electrons from Photosystem II that are passed
•form ATP through phosphorylation on through the electron transport chain.
•take place in the thylakoids of the chloroplast
7. The photo-excited electron from the primary electron
Calvin Cycle—sometimes referred to as ‘dark reactions’ acceptor of Photosystem I enters another electron transfer
because it does not require light energy for its processes to take chain, passing the electron to an iron-containing protein called
place ferredoxin (Fd).
•incorporates CO2 into organic molecules through carbon
fixation 8. An enzyme, the NADP+ reductase, then transfers the electron
•uses NADPH and ATP to produce carbohydrate from the fixed to NADP+ and stabilizes it by adding a proton (H+) to form
carbon NADPH. NADPH is then released to the stroma and becomes
•takes place in the stroma of chloroplast part of the Calvin Cycle.
•returns ADP, inorganic phosphate, and NADP+ to the light
reactions Cyclic Electron Flow Aside from the usual route of electron
flow as described in the events of the light reactions (i.e.,
noncyclic or linear electron flow), photo-excited electrons may
take a short-circuited route which utilizes Photosystem I but not

Photosystem II. The ferredoxin goes back to the cycle and

passes the electron to the cytochrome complex and to the Pc
until it reaches P700 chlorophyll instead of transferring the
electron to NADP+reductase. Due to this event, no NADPH is
produced but ATP is still synthesized.

Light Reactions Events

1. Light energy or photon is absorbed by a pigment molecule of

the light-harvesting complex of Photosystem II and is passed on
to other pigment molecules nearby until the energy makes it to
the reaction center. In the reaction center, it is absorbed by the
P680 pair of chlorophyll a.
• also referred to as light-independent reactions or “dark
2. The electron in this pair of chlorophyll a is raised to an reactions”
excited state and is transferred to the primary electron acceptor. • takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast
P680 loses its electron and becomes positively charged • second stage of photosynthesis that is involved in the
(P680+). formation of sugar from CO2 using chemical energy stored in
ATP and NADPH, the products of light reactions
3. The positively charged molecule attracts electrons from a
water molecule, resulting to the splitting up of H20 into two The Calvin Cycle
electrons, two hydrogen ions (H+), and an oxygen atom with Important points to know:
the provision of light energy. The oxygen atom immediately •The sugar that is produced in the Calvin Cycle is not the six-
combines with another oxygen atom to form an oxygen carbon glucose that we are familiar with. This is formed later
molecule (O2) which is then released outside the leaf through on. What is produced in the Calvin Cycle is a three-carbon sugar
the stomata. known as G3P or glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.
•The Calvin Cycle needs to ‘spin’ three times to make one
4. The excited electrons are then passed on from the primary molecule of G3P from three molecules of CO2.
electron acceptor to the electron carrier molecules through the
electron transport chain until they reach Photosystem I. The Three Phases of Calvin Cycle:
electron carrier molecules involved here are plastoquinone 1. Carbon Fixation
(Pq), a cytochrome complex, and plastocyanin (Pc). •Carbon fixation is a process of incorporating an inorganic
carbon molecule, CO2, into an organic material.
5. At each transfer, the electrons release small amounts of •In this phase, the CO2 molecule is attached to a five-carbon
energy. This energy is used to pump hydrogen ions across the sugar molecule named ribulose biphosphate (RuBP) aided by
membrane. The splitting up of water molecules results to an an enzyme named rubisco or RuBP carboxylase. Rubisco is
uneven distribution of hydrogen ions in the stroma and the believed to be the most abundant protein in the chloroplast and
lumen. The H+ ions tries to equalize their distribution by maybe on Earth.
moving from the lumen to the stroma through the aid of a •The resulting product, a six-carbon sugar, is extremely
membrane protein called ATP synthase. This is referred to as unstable and immediately splits in half. The split forms two
chemiosmosis. The movement of hydrogen ions through the molecules of a 3-phosphoglycerate (3-carbon).

5
2. Reduction
•A phosphate group (from ATP) is then attached to each 3- a. Electrons b. NADPH, c. Light energy; d. ATP
phosphoglycerate by an enzyme, forming 1,3- O2 pigments
phosphoglycerate. (chlorophyll)
•NADPH swoops in and reduces 1,3-biphosphogycerate to e. Electrons, f. Proton g. Carbohydrates, h. Ribulose
G3P. NADP+, gradient, ADP + P, bisphospha
•For every six G3Ps produced by the Calvin Cycle, five are H2O, ADP + P, NADP+ te, CO2,
recycled to regenerate three molecules of RuBP. Only one G3P electron ATP ATP,
leaves the cycle to be packaged for use by the cell. acceptors synthase NADPH,
•It will take two molecules of G3P to make one molecule of necessary
glucose. enzymes
•The ADP and NADP+ that is formed during the Calvin Cycle
will be transported back to the thylakoid membrane and will Part 3: Provide the best answer(s) for each question.
enter the light reactions. Here, they will be ‘recharged’ with 1. Temperature and light intensity are two of the factors that
energy and become ATP and NADPH. may affect the rate of photosynthesis. Explain how the said
factors affect photosynthesis. Which of the two would you
3. Regeneration of RuBP expect to have more effect on the rate at which the Calvin Cycle
•Five molecules of G3P undergo a series of complex enzymatic proceeds? Why?
reactions to form three molecules of RuBP. This costs the cell 2. Many urban areas in our country are becoming less eco-
another three molecules of AT, but also provides another set of friendly in exchange for new buildings and commercialization.
RuBP to continue the cycle. What do you think is the implication of this in relation to
photosynthesis?
What happens to G3P after its release from the cycle? 3. With your knowledge on photosynthesis, correlate the
•Two G3Ps can combine together to form either glucose or process in helping curb the effects of climate change.
fructose which are both are six-carbon sugar.
•Glucose and fructose can be combined to form sucrose.
•Glucose can be connected in chains to form starch. ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
•G3Ps can also be used in lipid and protein synthesis. 2nd Quarter - Week 3-5
1. Differentiate aerobic from anaerobic respiration
The cost of making carbohydrate: STEM_BIO11/12-IIa-j-6
To make one molecule of G3P, the chloroplast needs: 2. Explain the major features and sequence the chemical events
•3 molecules of CO2 of cellular respiration STEM_BIO11/12-IIa-j-7
•9 molecules of ATP
•6 molecules of NADPH Cellular Respiration
In cellular respiration, glucose is converted to pyruvic acid
which can enter either through aerobic respiration or anaerobic
ACTIVITY # 1: respiration.
Specific Instruction: Write your answer on a separate sheet In aerobic respiration, pyruvic acid molecules enter the
of paper mitochondria and through a series of chemical reactions known
as the citric acid cycle (Kreb’s cycle) via electron transport
Part 1: Provide the best answer(s) for each question chain. In the Kreb’s cycle, the pyruvic acid is converted to
1. What are the two kinds of reactions in photosynthesis? carbon dioxide. The electron transport chain accepts the
2. What are the basic stages of the Calvin cycle? electron from the breakdown products of the Kreb’s cycle and
3. What are the reactants and products of photosynthesis? glycolysis via the NADH and FADH2. At the end of the chain,
the electrons are combined with hydrogen ions and molecular
Part 2: Directions: Copy and fill-in the table for the major events oxygen to form water. This process can produce ATP. During
and features of photosynthesis. The option table is given for you this process, the glucose molecule is broken down and the
to answer the needed materials and end products of carbon atoms released from glucose are combined with oxygen
photosynthesis. to produce carbon dioxide.
In anaerobic respiration, pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid.
Major Events and Features of Photosynthesis There is a production of two ATP molecules for each glucose
molecule.
REACTION
NEEDED END
SERIES MATERIALS PRODUCTS
1. Light-dependent
reactions (take
place in the
thylakoid
membrane)

a. Photochemical
reactions

b. Electron
transport

c. Chemiosmosis
2. Carbon fixation
reactions (take
place in stroma)

6
In Cellular respiration: Differences and Similarities of Aerobic, Anaerobic and
• Oxygen is reduced to water Fermenting Organisms
• Has electron transport chain located within the cristae of the Differences Similarity

mitochondria, where ATP is produced by chemiosmosis Aerobic,

Anaerobic
• Has enzyme-catalyzed reactions within the semi-fluid interior Aerobic Organisms Anaerobic Organisms
Fermenting
Organisms
and
• A carbohydrate is oxidized to carbon dioxide Fermenting
Organisms
ATP is
Glycolysis-means “sugar-splitting” that occurs in the cytosol of Use oxygen Do not use oxygen
Do not use
oxygen
produced

the cell. It does not require oxygen to breakdown glucose into

pyruvate. Lactate (lactate CO2 is the
fermentation) or waste product
H2O and potassium nitrite ethyl alcohol
H2O is the by-product
are the by-products (alcoholic
Krebs cycle-completes the metabolic breakdown of glucose to fermentation) is
the by-product)
carbon dioxide and produces 2 ATP. Final acceptors Electrons are
of electrons are transferred
pyruvate reduced from glucose to
Oxidative phosphorylation-a process occurring in mitochondria Electron acceptor is O2 With electron transport
to lactate, and NADH
and is reduced to water chain
and accounts for majority of the ATP production. acetaldehyde
reduced to ethyl
alcohol
Electron Transport Chain-contains the chain members (carrier
With electron transport Electron acceptor is No electron
and protein complexes, ATP synthase complex and ATP chain nitrate or sulfate transport chain
channel protein. These membrane proteins shuttle electrons
during the redox reactions. The electrons will be used to Occur in prokaryotes
Occur in
Occur in prokaryotes prokaryotes
produce ATP by chemiosmosis. and eukaryotes
and eukaryotes

Simple and
NADH and FADH2-these are electron acceptor molecules that Requires no special
faster
alternative to
organelles
contain high-energy electrons. They transport the electrons to cellular
respiration
ETC to produce many more ATPs by oxidative
Requires no
phosphorylation. special
organelles

ATP synthase-is an enzyme that is responsible for the great Glycolysis and
waste product
production of ATPs. This happens when it uses the energy formation are
coming from H+ ions to bind ADP and phosphate group two sets of
reactions that
together to produce ATP. occur

ACTIVITY # 1:
Specific Instruction: Write your answer on a separate sheet
of paper

Part 1: Procedure: Refine your knowledge on cellular

respiration by doing the sample graphic organizer below. Fill-
out the table and distinguish how the two types of respiration
are alike and different. Then write your conclusion based on
the similarities and differences you have listed.

Summary of Cellular Respiration

SOME SOME END
STAGE SUMMARY STARTING PRODUCTS
MATERIALS
Series of reactions in which Pyruvate,
glucose is degraded to ATP, NADH
Glucose,
1. Glycolysis (in pyruvate; net profit of 2
ATP, NAD+,
cytosol) ATPs; hydrogen atoms are
Pi
transferred to carriers; can
proceed anaerobically
Pyruvate is degraded and Acetyl CoA,
combined with coenzyme A CO2, NADH
2. Formation of Pyruvate,
to form acetyl CoA;
acetyl CoA (in coenzyme A,
hydrogen atoms are
mitochondria) NAD+
transferred to carriers; CO2
is released
Series of reactions in which CO2, NADH,
the acetyl portion of acetyl FADH2, ATP
3. Citric acid Acetyl CoA,
CoA is degraded to CO2;
cycle (in H2O, NAD+,
hydrogen atoms are
mitochondria) FAD, ADP, Pi
transferred to carriers; ATP
is synthesized
Chain of several electron ATP, H2O,
transport molecules; NAD+, FAD
electrons are passed along
4. Electron chain; released energy is
transport and used to form a proton NADH, FADH2,
chemiosmosis (in gradient; ATP is O2, ADP, Pi
mitochondria) synthesized as protons
diffuse down the gradient;
oxygen is final electron
acceptor

7
Part 2:

Part 3: Provide the best answer(s) for each question. Part 5: Directions: Compare fermentation with anaerobic and
1. Explain how NAD+, pyruvate, oxygen and ATP are aerobic respiration by analyzing the diagram below.
involved in aerobic cellular respiration.
2. What is the role of oxygen in cellular respiration.
3. What are the members of the chain in the electron transport
system?
4. What do the cristae (or folds) in the mitochondrion contain?
5. What happens to the hydrogen ions (H+) carried by NADH
and FADH2?
6. Contrast the energy-investment step with the energy-payoff
step of glycolysis.
7. How is aerobic cellular respiration different between
prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms?
8. What happens during electron transport and what it has to
do with a proton pump?
9. Using arrows show in simple diagram the metabolic for
glycolysis. Part 6: Provide the best answer(s) for each question.
10. Explain how ATP can continue to be produced in the 1. What are the three kinds of enzyme-controlled reactions so
absence of oxygen. that the chemical-bond energy from a certain nutrient is
released to the cell in the form of ATP?
Part 4 2. What are the hydrogen electron acceptors for aerobic and
Directions: Compare aerobic and anaerobic respiration by anaerobic respiration as well as in fermentation?
accomplishing the Venn diagram below. 3. These are the by-products of aerobic respiration that are
considered low-energy molecules.
4. What are the outputs produced by anaerobic respiration?
What about in fermentation?
5. What are two general metabolic mechanisms by which
certain cells can oxidize organic fuel and generate ATP
without the use of oxygen?

8
 3. The positively charged hydrogen ions that are released from
the glucose during cellular respiration eventually combine
Part 7 with ion to form .
Directions: This is a modified TRUE or FALSE activity. Write A. another hydrogen, a gas
the word TRUE if the underlined word/phrase being referred B. a carbon, carbon dioxide
to is correct. If it is FALSE, change the word/phrase to make C. an oxygen, water
the whole statement correct based on the concept of cellular D. a pyruvic acid, lactic acid
respiration. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper. 4. The Krebs cycle (also known as citric acid cycle or
1. Fermentation and anaerobic respiration enable the cells to tricarboxylic acid) and ETC are biochemical pathways
produce ATP without the use of oxygen. performed in which eukaryotic organelle?
2. The term cellular respiration includes both aerobic and A. Nucleus
anaerobic processes. B. Ribosome
3. Fermentation is a complete degradation of sugars or other C. Chloroplast
fuel that occurs without the use of oxygen. D. Mitochondrion
4. An electron transport system consists of a number of 5. Anaerobic pathways that oxidize glucose to generate ATP
molecules, majority are proteins, located in the matrix of the energy by using an organic molecule as the ultimate hydrogen
mitochondria of eukaryotic cells and the plasma membrane of acceptor are called
aerobic prokaryotes. A. Fermentation
5. Pyruvate oxidation and the citric acid cycle, oxidative B. Reduction
phosphorylation: electron transport chain and chemiosmosis C. Krebs cycle
are the metabolic stages reserved for cellular respiration. D. Electron pumps
6. The breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide is completed 6. When skeletal muscle cells function anaerobically, they
in the electron transport chain. accumulate the compound, which causes muscle soreness.
7. ATP synthase is the enzyme that makes the bulk of the ATP A. Pyruvic acid
from ADP and Pi by chemiosmosis. B. Malic acid
8. ATP synthase uses the energy of an existing hydrogen ion C. Carbon dioxide
gradient to power ATP synthesis. D. Lactic acid
9. Phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP stores at least 14.6 7. Each molecule of fat can release of ATP, compared with a
kcal per molecule of ATP. molecule of glucose.
10. Citric acid cycle generates 2 ATP whether oxygen is A. smaller amounts
present or not, whether the conditions are aerobic or B. the same amount
anaerobic. C. larger amount
D. only twice the amount
Part 8: Provide the best answer(s) for each question. 8. In complete accounting of all ATPs produced in aerobic
1. How many metabolic pathways are present in aerobic respiration, a total of ATPs: from the ETC, from
respiration? glycolysis, and from the Krebs cycle.
2. Where in the cell part does glycolysis take place? What A. 36, 32, 2, 2
about the formation of Acetyl CoA, Krebs cycle and the B. 38, 34, 2, 2
electron transport chain and chemiosmosis? C. 36, 30, 2, 4
3. How many reduced NADH molecules are produced after D. 38, 30, 4, 4
the glucose has been completely broken down to ATP? And 9. The chemical activities that remove electrons from glucose
what stage of the aerobic respiration is glucose completely result in the glucose being
broken down to carbon dioxide? A. reduced
4. As glucose is split in the cytosol of the cell, is there a B. oxidized
release of carbon dioxide as by-product of the reaction? C. phosphorylated
5. What molecule accepts the hydrogen atoms at the end of D. hydrolyzed
electron transport chain? 10. Which of the following is NOT true of the citric acid
6. What is the major goal of NADH and FADH2 in aerobic cycle? The citric acid cycle
respiration? A. includes the preparatory reaction
7. Why do you think the cell needs to digest glucose or any B. produces ATP by substrate-level ATP synthesis
other nutrients such as protein and fats? C. occurs in the mitochondria
8. Among the metabolic pathways of cellular respiration, D. is a metabolic pathway, as is glycolysis
which phase is the major contributor of ATP?
9. What happens to pyruvate if oxygen is not available in the
cell?
10. How many acetyl-CoAs are produced from each glucose
molecule?

Part 9:
MULTIPLE CHOICE:
Directions: Read and understand each item and choose the
letter of the correct answer. Write your answers on a separate
sheet of paper.

1. Majority of the CO2 is released during

A. Glycolysis
B. Citric acid cycle
C. Electron transport chain
D. Oxidative phosphorylation
2. Cellular respiration processes that do not use O2 are called
A. Heterotrophic organism
B. Anaerobic organism
C. Aerobic organism
D. Anabolic