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The Effect of Gender on Organizational Commitment of Teachers: A Meta

Analytic Analysis

Article  in  Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice · March 2011

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Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 46 (2012) 356 – 362

WCES 2012

The effect of gender on job satisfaction of teachers: a meta-analysis

study

Ayhan Aydin a, Sengul Uysal b*,Yilmaz Sarier c

a
Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi,Turkey
b
Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi,Turkey
c
Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi,Turkey

Abstract

The purpose of this research study is to analyse the effect of gender on the job satisfaction of teachers. Eleven theses between 2005-
2009 were preferred. Research problem in this study is that whether teachers’ gender affects job satisfaction of teachers, if there
is, how big the effect size is. In parallel with the aim, meta-analysis is used as the research method that combines the research
findings of the master and doctoral thesis produced in Turkey. The mean effect size was calculated as -0,02. It means that the
effect of gender on the job satisfaction is on the favor of males

Keywords job satisfaction; meta analysis; educational administration

1. Introduction

‘How satisfied with your job?’ is a common question asked or heard in our daily lives. Many researchers have
tried to develop several types of job satisfaction scales to answer this question. On the other hand a scale is needed
to improve the job satisfaction of employees in an organization. In education, it has been seen crucial to analyse the
variables which influence the teachers’ commitment and job satisfaction. Job satisfaction can be defined as one's
affective attachment to the job viewed either in its entirety (global satisfaction) or with regard to particular aspects
(facet satisfaction) (Tett& Meyer, 1993). For Cribbin (1972), job satisfaction is an entire feeling which an employee
tries to get from his work, administrators, colleagues and organization (Eroğlu, 2000). Greenberg and Baron (2000),
states that job satisfaction is a persons’ positive or negative feelings about their job. Perie and Baker (1997), defines
job satisfaction as an affective reaction to an individual’s work situation. Ivancevich states that job satisfaction is an
attitude that individulas have about their jobs. It results from their perception of their jobs. (Ivancevich, 1990). In
order to talk about the effect of gender on job satisfaction of teachers, it has been observed that there is a need of
meta-analytic effect analysis study on these themes. Research problem in this study is that whether teachers’ gender
affects job satisfaction of teachers, if there is how big the effect size is.

1.1.The factors influencing job satisfaction

The research studies related to the subject state the major factors influencing job satisfaction as pleasant mood,
job believes (Ilies& Judge, 2004), talent believes (Rhodes, Hollinshead & Nevill, 2007), flexiblity, responsibility,

* Ayhan Aydin. Tel.: +0-5057155453

E-mail address:[email protected]

1877-0428 © 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer review under responsibility of Prof. Dr. Hüseyin Uzunboylu
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.05.122
 Ayhan Aydin et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 46 (2012) 356 – 362 357

(job variety) (Houston, Meyer & Paewai, 2006), (role clarity), (job control) (Korunka, Scharitzer, Carayon &
Sainfort, 2003), ,autonomy in decision making (Zembylas & Papanastasiou, 2005), financial conditions and the level
of autonomy (Garrido, Perez & Anton, 2005), supportive human resource management (Stevens et al., 2006),
transformational leadership (Nguni, Sleegers & Denesen, 2006), colleague relations and participative work
conditions (Rhodes et al., 2007).
Wages and salaries are important factors which help both personnel attain their basic needs and instrumental in
providing upper- level needs satisfaction (Luthans, 1992). Another factor which influences job satisfaction is
promotion possibilities. If people think that they will not have much promotion possibilities, they may be affected
adversely (Feldmann, 1985). Interaction with peers is an important factor in job satisfaction. Working in a good
team makes the job more enjoyable. If the team consists of the members with similar attitudes and values together
with organizational citizenship behavior-

duty (Murray, 1999). Proving good physical working conditions (cleanliness of the working place, lightening,
adequate tools and equipment, for instance) enables employees to carry out their jobs easily, comfortably and
ions such as flexible time, job sharing and shorter
workweeks are quite valued by employees because they can facilitate (or do not interfere with) valued off the job
activities such as persuing hobbies (Feldmann, 1985).
As a personal factor, experience is said to increase job satisfaction. Age is another individual factors affecting

increases with age and experience (Dewar&Werbel, 1979; Parasuraman, 1982). Gender is another variable linked to
commitment and job satisfaction. Women also report greater job dissatisfaction than men. Some of the major
reasons include low pay, limited promotion opportunities and etc. Women also report that many managements do a
poor job of running their organizations. Some of the specific areas that are criticized include the ability to set goals,
make employees feel important, assign reasonable workloads and provide feedback on job performance (Newstrom,
1997). The largest economic study about this subject is performed in 1997 by Clark, using the data obtained from
1991 British Household Panel Survey (BHPS). Unless some factors were remained constant, the job satisfaction of
women was higher than men. As a result Clark estimated that the working conditions of women were so bad in the

2. Method

In parallel with the aim, meta-analysis is used as the research method that combines the research findings of the
master and doctoral thesis produced in Turkey. In this section, the procedures that were carried out for data
collection, coding of the studies according to the principles determined, the definition of independent and dependent
variables and calculation of effect sizes were explained. The purpose of this research study is to analyse the effect of
gender on the job satisfaction of teachers. The theses done between 2005-2009 were preferred. Firstly, eleven theses
including necessary information for meta-analysis were obtained and coded. While coding, the author, date, name of
the research study and its type and sample with the place it was performed were included. Standardized effect size was
preferred because of the varieties in sample sizes and scales. While interpreting the size effects, the classifications
developed by Cohen and Thalheimer and Cook were used. In our research study experimental group is females
while the control group is males. When effect size value is positive, it is in favour of females and when negative, it is
the effect of the
gender of education administrators and of education administrators who participated in the service training to their
tasks: a meta-
358 Ayhan Aydin et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 46 (2012) 356 – 362

3. Findings
In this part, the meta analytic findings of research studies about the effect of gender on the job satisfaction of
teachers are stated. Eleven research studies are included in this study. Most of the research studies (%36) were

Table 2. Job satisfaction and its levels

Level of job satisfaction
Job satisfaction
No of research studies Intrinsic factors(motivators) Extrinsic factors (motivators)
1 x
2 x
3 x
4 x
5 x
6 x
7 x
8 x x x
9 x x
10 x
11 x
Total 8 3 3

3.1.The findings of effect size analysis

No of samples, arithmetic mean, Standard deviation, total standard deviation and effect size of research studies
about job satisfaction, intrinsic factors and extrinsic factors in terms of gender are stated in tables below. When
effect size value is positive, it is in favor of females and when negative, it is in favor of males.

Tablo 3. No of samples, arithmetic mean, Standard deviaton, effect size of research studies about job satisfaction in terms of gender
No of Standard No of Standard Total
Mean Mean
No of females deviation males deviation Standard Effect
female male
research female male deviation Size
study nkad X kad Skad nerkek X erkek Serkek Stoplam ES

2 131 3,36 1,005 129 3,09 0,962 0,98 0,27

4 162 2,78 0,89 102 3,01 0,71 0,82 -0,27
5 217 25,35 9,25 117 26,07 8,68 9,05 -0,08
6 45 1,59 0,92 190 1,2 0,9 0,90 0,43
7 253 48,35 8,87 247 48,26 8,3 8,59 0,01
8 39 68,1 11,96 19 73,73 11,33 11,76 -0,48
10 27 3,22 0,68 228 3,31 0,69 0,69 -0,13
11 115 3,67 0,76 211 3,8 0,64 0,69 -0,19

Table 3 shows the no of samples, arithmetic mean, standard deviation, total standard deviation and effect size of
research studies about job satisfaction in terms of gender. In the second research study effect size value is 0,27 (on
the favor of females) and in the sixth it is 0,43 (on the favor of females) while in the fourth research study it is -0,27
(on the favor of males) and in the eighth it is -0,48 (on the favor of males). In this studies effect size values are
between 0,20 and 0,50, so according to Cohen and et all (2000) it can be interpreted as moderate effect. For the
classification of Thalheimer and Cook, (2002) it is also possible say that the second fourth research studies have
small effect while the sixth and eighth have medium effect. Rest of the research studies has negligible effect size
values.
Table 4. No of samples, arithmetic mean, Standard deviation, effect size of research studies about intrinsic factors in terms of
gender

No of Standard No of
Mean Mean Standard Total
No of females deviation males Effect
female male deviation Standard
research female Size
study nkad X kad Skad nerkek X erkek male deviation
ES
 Ayhan Aydin et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 46 (2012) 356 – 362 359

Serkek Stoplam
1 131 3,36 1,01 129 3,09 0,96 0,98 0,27
8 39 43,69 7,20 19 46,47 6,98 7,13 -0,39
9 158 3,71 0,68 139 3,78 0,67 0,68 -0,10

Table 4 shows the no of samples, arithmetic mean, standard deviation, total standard deviation and effect size of
research studies about intrinsic factors in terms of gender. In the first study effect size value is 0,27 (on the favor of
females) while in the eight study it is -0,39 (on the favor of males). In these studies effect size values are between
0,20 and 0,80, so according to Cohen and et all (2000) it can be interpreted as moderate effect. For the classification
of Thalheimer and Cook, (2002) it is also possible say that they have small effect. The other research study has
negligible effect size value.

Table 5. No of samples, arithmetic mean, Standard deviation, effect size of research studies about extrinsic factors in terms of
gender

No of Standard No of Standard Total

Mean Mean
No of females deviation males deviation deviation Effect
female males
research female male Standard Size
study nkad X kad Skad nerkek X erkek Serkek Stoplam ES

3 154 24,55 6,50 92 26,62 5,02 5,99 -0,35

8 39 24,41 5,86 19 27,26 5,67 5,80 -0,49
9 158 2,87 0,91 139 2,99 0,79 0,86 -0,14

Table 5 shows the no of samples, arithmetic mean, standard deviation, total standard deviation and effect size of
research studies about extrinsic factors in terms of gender. In the third study effect size value is -0,35 (on the favor
of males) and in the eighth study it is -0,49 (on the favor of males), so according to Cohen and et all (2000) it can be
interpreted as moderate effect. For the classification of Thalheimer and Cook, (2002) for the third research study it
is possible say that it has small effect but for the eighth it has medium effect. The other research study has
negligible effect size value.

Table 6. Mean effect size and related values to the fixed effects model
95% confidence
interval for effect
Mean effect Chi size
Q statistics for
size Degree of square The The
Z value P value Heterogeneity
freedom value lower upper
ES (0,05) limit limit
ES L ESU
Job satisfaction -0,02 7 -0,55 0,27 22,47 14,07 -0,06 0,01
Intrinsi
c 0,03 2 0,41 0,32 7,38 5,99 -0,04 0,11
Level of job factors
satisfaction Extrins
-0,25
ic 2 -3,01 0,00 2,14 5,99 -0,33 -0,17
factors

Table 6 shows that the mean effect size was calculated as -0,02 between the lower limit of -0,06 and the upper
limit of 0,01 with 95% confidence interval. It means that the effect of gender on the job satisfaction is on the favor
of males. According to Cohen and et all (2000) it can be interpreted as small effect. For the classification of
Thalheimer and Cook, (2002) it is possible say that it has negligible effect. For intrinsic factors it is calculated as 0,03
which is on the favor of females. According to Cohen and et all (2000) it can be interpreted as small effect. For the
classification of Thalheimer and Cook, (2002) it is possible say that it has negligible effect. For extrinsic factors it is
360 Ayhan Aydin et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 46 (2012) 356 – 362

calculated as -0,25 which is on the favor of males. According to Cohen and et all (2000) it can be interpreted as
moderate effect. For the classification of Thalheimer and Cook, (2002) it is possible say that it has small effect. Z
value was calculated as -3,01 for extrinsic factors. P value found as 0,00 shows that it is meaningful statistically for
the extrinsic factors. For the fixed effects model, the effect size in population is assumed to be the same for all studies
included in a meta-analysis. Therefore, the test of homogeneity (Q) was used. For job satisfaction, the Q value was
calculated as 22,47 which is greater than chi square value of 14,07 and for intrinsic factors the Q value was
calculated as 7,38 which is greater than chi square value of 5,99. It means that the calculations done by the fixed
effects model is heterogeneous, so the random effects model was used.

Tablo 7. Mean effect size and related values to the random effects model
95% confidence
interval for effect
Summary Chi size
effect size Degree of Q statistics for square The The
Z value P value
freedom Heterogeneity value lower upper
ES (0,05) limit limit
ES L ESU
Job satisfaction -0,03 7 -0,35 0,34 8,38 14,07 -0,11 0,05
Intrin
Level of job sic
-0,01 2 -0,07 0,45 2,46 5,99 -0,16 0,14
satisfaction factor
s

According to the random effects model, the mean effect size was calculated as -0,03 between the the lower limit
of -0,11 and the upper limit of 0,05 with 95% confidence interval. It means that the effect of gender on the job
satisfaction is on the favor of males. According to Cohen and et all (2000) it can be interpreted as small effect. For
the classification of Thalheimer and Cook, (2002) it is possible say that it has negligible effect. For intrinsic factors it
is calculated as -0,01 which is on the favor of males. According to Cohen and et all (2000) it can be interpreted as
small effect. For the classification of Thalheimer and Cook, (2002) it is possible say that it has negligible effect. The
calculation done by the random effects model shows that the Qvalue is not greater than the chi square value. It means
that this study is homogeneous.

4. Discussion
In this part, all the findings were summarized and discussed. Conclusions and suggestions were written. In this
research study, eleven thesis which include the necessary data according to coding principles were chosen. Most of
the research studies were carried
dissertation and the rest of it is master thesis.
According to the fixed effects model, the mean effect size was calculated as -0, 02. It means that the effect of
gender on the job satisfaction is on the favor of males. According to Cohen and et all (2000) it can be interpreted as
small effect. For the classification of Thalheimer and Cook, (2002) it is possible say that it has negligible effect.
Many research studies carried out in European countries state that women report higher job satisfaction than men
despite a clearly disadvantaged position in the labor market in terms of earnings, recruitments/dismissals, promotions
and career prospects. In Austria, Finland, the Netherlands, Sweden and England women are more satisfied with their
jobs than men with their jobs. Our result is different for, women in our country driven out to work economic reasons
rather than to achieve personal satisfaction: they they take the role of breadwinner, helping to pay the grocery bill or

satisfaction may be a transitory phenomenon and caused by their improved position in the labor mark

Moch and Pooyan (1987) stated that men are more satisfied with their jobs than women.
 Ayhan Aydin et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 46 (2012) 356 – 362 361

For intrinsic factors it is calculated as 0,03 which is on the favor of females. According to Cohen and et all (2000)
it can be interpreted as small effect. For the classification of Thalheimer and Cook, (2002) it is possible say that it
has negligible effect. For extrinsic factors it is calculated as -0, 25 which is on the favor of females. According to
Cohen and et all (2000) it can be interpreted as moderate effect. For the classification of Thalheimer and Cook,
(2002) it is possible say that it has small effect. It means that while women are interested in task autonomy, task

sufficient feedback, men are more sensitive to the factors like salary, promotion, style of supervision and working
conditions. Bender and et.all (2005) implied that the job satisfaction of men increases with additional earnings while
that of women does not. As a major reason women desire flexibility is to fulfill household responsibilities, this can
be thought of as a specific element of flexibility that may be valued differently by men and women.
For the fixed effects model, the effect size in population is assumed to be the same for all studies included in a
meta-analysis. Therefore, the test of homogeneity (Q) was used. The Q value was greater than chi square value for
job satisfaction and intrinsic factors It means that the calculations done by the fixed effects model is heterogeneous,
so the random effects model was used. After applying the random effects model it was found that the research study
was homogenous.
It is obvious that meta-analysis has become a popular method used in social sciences. However, there is not
sufficient number of studies carried out in Turkey. It would be better to carry out some research studies using meta-
analysis. Besides this, the determinant, flexibility between work and home, appear to be of greater value to women.
The policies which forces women to choose between home and work may reduce their job satisfaction. It would be
better to leave this mandatory attitude.

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