MOBILE COMPUTING

LAB
Name: Dheeraj
Enroll no: 00520703117
Branch: Information Technology
Year: 4rth -Final year
Submitted to: Dr. Sanjeev Kumar

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 EXPERIMENT-1
Aim:
Introduction to Mobile Computing
Theory:
Mobile Computing is a technology that allows transmission of data, voice and video via a
computer or any other wireless enabled device without having to be connected to a fixed
physical link. The main concept involves
● Mobile communication
● Mobile hardware
● Mobile software
Mobile communication
The mobile communication in this case, refers to the infrastructure put in place to ensure that
seamless and reliable communication goes on. These would include devices such as protocols,
services, bandwidth, and portals necessary to facilitate and support the stated services. The data
format is also defined at this stage. This ensures that there is no collision with other existing
systems which offer the same service.

Since the media is unguided/unbounded, the overlaying infrastructure is basically radio wave-
oriented. That is, the signals are carried over the air to intended devices that are capable of
receiving and sending similar kinds of signals.

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Mobile Hardware
Mobile hardware includes mobile devices or device components that receive or access the
service of mobility. They would range from portable laptops, smartphones, tablet Pc's, Personal
Digital Assistants.

These devices will have a receptor medium that is capable of sensing and receiving signals.
These devices are configured to operate in full- duplex, whereby they are capable of sending
and receiving signals at the same time. They don't have to wait until one device has finished
communicating for the other device to initiate communications.
Above mentioned devices use an existing and established network to operate on. In most cases,
it would be a wireless network.
Mobile software
Mobile software is the actual program that runs on the mobile hardware. It deals with the
characteristics and requirements of mobile applications. This is the engine of the mobile device.
In other terms, it is the operating system of the appliance. It's the essential component that
operates the mobile device.

Since portability is the main factor, this type of computing ensures that users are not tied or
pinned to a single physical location, but are able to operate from anywhere. It incorporates all
aspects of wireless communications.
Result:
Mobile Computing introduced successfully.

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 EXPERIMENT-2
Aim:
To study about architecture of Global System for Mobile communication.
Theory:
GSM (Global System for Mobile communication) is a digital mobile network that is widely
used by mobile phone users in Europe and other parts of the world. GSM uses a variation of
time division multiple access (TDMA) and is the most widely used of the three
digital wireless telephony technologies: TDMA, GSM and code-division multiple
access (CDMA). GSM digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down a channel with two
other streams of user data, each in its own time slot. It operates at either the 900 megahertz
(MHz) or 1,800 MHz frequency band.
GSM, together with other technologies, is part of the evolution of wireless mobile
telecommunications that includes High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD), General
Packet Radio Service (GPRS), Enhanced Data GSM Environment (EDGE) and Universal
Mobile Telecommunications Service (UMTS).
Composition of the network
The GSM network has four separate parts that work together to function as a whole: the mobile
device itself, the base station subsystem (BSS), the network switching subsystem (NSS) and
the operation and support subsystem (OSS).
The mobile device connects to the network via hardware. The subscriber identity module (SIM)
card provides the network with identifying information about the mobile user.

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The BSS handles traffic between the cell phone and the NSS. It consists of two main
components: the base transceiver station (BTS) and the base station controller (BSC). The BTS
contains the equipment that communicates with the mobile phones, largely the radio transmitter
receivers and antennas, while the BSC, is the intelligence behind it. The BSC communicates
with and controls a group of base transceiver stations.
The NSS portion of the GSM network architecture, often called the core network, tracks the
location of callers to enable the delivery of cellular services. Mobile carriers own the NSS. The
NSS has a variety of parts, including mobile switching centre (MSC) and home location register
(HLN). These components perform different functions, such as routing calls and Short Message
Service (SMS) and authenticating and storing caller account information via SIM cards.
Since many GSM network operators have roaming agreements with foreign operators, users
can often continue to use their phones when they travel to other countries. SIM cards that hold
home network access configurations may be switched to those with metered local access,
significantly reducing roaming costs, while experiencing no reductions in service.
Security details
Although GSM was designed as a secure wireless system, it can still experience attacks. It uses
authentication measures, such as challenge-response authentication, which prompts a user to
provide a valid answer to a question, and a pre shared key that can come in the form of a
password or passphrase.

Result:
GSM studied successfully.

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 EXPERIMENT-3
Aim:
To study about specifications of Code-Division Multiple Access.
Theory:
CDMA (Code-Division Multiple Access) refers to any of several protocols used in second-
generation (2G) and third-generation (3G) wireless communications. As the term implies,
CDMA is a form of multiplexing, which allows numerous signals to occupy a single
transmission channel, optimizing the use of available bandwidth. The technology is used in
ultra-high-frequency (UHF) cellular telephone systems in the 800-MHz and 1.9-GHz bands.
CDMA employs analog -to-digital conversion (ADC) in combination with spread spectrum
technology. Audio input is first digitized into binary elements. The frequency of the transmitted
signal is then made to vary according to a defined pattern (code), so it can be intercepted only
by a receiver whose frequency response is programmed with the same code, so it follows
exactly along with the transmitter frequency. There are trillions of possible frequency-
sequencing codes, which enhances privacy and makes cloning difficult.
The CDMA channel is nominally 1.23 MHz wide. CDMA networks use a scheme called soft
handoff, which minimizes signal breakup as a handset passes from one cell to another. The
combination of digital and spread-spectrum modes supports several times as many signals per
unit bandwidth as analog modes. CDMA is compatible with other cellular technologies; this
allows for nationwide roaming. The original CDMA standard, also known as CDMA One,
offers a transmission speed of only up to 14.4 Kbps in its single channel form and up to 115
Kbps in an eight-channel form. CDMA2000 and Wideband CDMA deliver data many times
faster.
Steps in CDMA modulation
CDMA is a spread-spectrum multiple-access technique. A spread-spectrum technique spreads
the bandwidth of the data uniformly for the same transmitted power. A spreading code is a
pseudo-random code that has a narrow ambiguity function, unlike other narrow pulse codes. In
CDMA a locally generated code runs at a much higher rate than the data to be transmitted. Data
for transmission is combined by bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) with the faster code. The figure
shows how a spread-spectrum signal is generated.

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 Generation of a CDMA signal
Each user in a CDMA system uses a different code to modulate their signal. Choosing the codes
used to modulate the signal is very important in the performance of CDMA systems. The best
performance occurs when there is good separation between the signal of a desired user and the
signals of other users. The separation of the signals is made by correlating the received signal
with the locally generated code of the desired user. If the signal matches the desired user's code,
then the correlation function will be high and the system can extract that signal. If the desired
user's code has nothing in common with the signal, the correlation should be as close to zero
as possible (thus eliminating the signal); this is referred to as cross-correlation. If the code is
correlated with the signal at any time offset other than zero, the correlation should be as close
to zero as possible. This is referred to as auto-correlation and is used to reject multi-path
interference.
An analogy to the problem of multiple access is a room (channel) in which people wish to talk
to each other simultaneously. To avoid confusion, people could take turns speaking (time
division), speak at different pitches (frequency division), or speak in different languages (code
division). CDMA is analogous to the last example where people speaking the same language
can understand each other, but other languages are perceived as noise and rejected. Similarly,
in radio CDMA, each group of users is given a shared code. Many codes occupy the same
channel, but only users associated with a particular code can communicate.

Result:
CDMA studied successfully.

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 EXPERIMENT-4
Aim:
To study about architecture of General Packet Radio Services.
Theory:
General Packet Radio Services (GPRS) is a packet-based wireless communication service
that promises data rates from 56 up to 114 Kbps and continuous connection to the Internet for
mobile phone and computer users. The higher data rates allow users to take part in video
conferences and interact with multimedia Web sites and similar applications using mobile
handheld devices as well as notebook computers. GPRS is based on Global System for
Mobile (GSM) communication and complements existing services such circuit-switched
cellular phone connections and the Short Message Service (SMS).
In theory, GPRS packet-based services cost users less than circuit-switched services since
communication channels are being used on a shared-use, as-packets-are-needed basis rather
than dedicated to only one user at a time. It is also easier to make applications available to
mobile users because the faster data rate means that middleware currently needed to adapt
applications to the slower speed of wireless systems are no longer be needed. As GPRS has
become more widely available, along with other 2.5G and 3G services, mobile users of
virtual private networks (VPNs) have been able to access the private network continuously
over wireless rather than through a rooted dial-up connection.
GPRS architecture works on the same procedure like GSM network, but, has additional
entities that allow packet data transmission. This data network overlaps a second-generation
GSM network providing packet data transport at the rates from 9.6 to 171 kbps. Along with
the packet data transport the GSM network accommodates multiple users to share the same
air interface resources concurrently.
Following is the GPRS Architecture diagram:

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GPRS attempts to reuse the existing GSM network elements as much as possible, but to
effectively build a packet-based mobile cellular network, some new network elements,
interfaces, and protocols for handling packet traffic are required.
Therefore, GPRS requires modifications to numerous GSM network elements as summarized
below:

GSM Network Element Modification or Upgrade Required for GPRS.

Mobile Station (MS) New Mobile Station is required to access GPRS services.
These new terminals will be backward compatible with
GSM for voice calls.

BTS A software upgrade is required in the existing Base

Transceiver Station(BTS).

BSC The Base Station Controller (BSC) requires a software

upgrade and the installation of new hardware called the
packet control unit (PCU). The PCU directs the data
traffic to the GPRS network and can be a separate
hardware element associated with the BSC.

GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs) The deployment of GPRS requires the installation of new
core network elements called the serving GPRS support
node (SGSN) and gateway GPRS support node (GGSN).

Databases (HLR, VLR, etc.) All the databases involved in the network will require
software upgrades to handle the new call models and
functions introduced by GPRS.

GPRS Mobile Stations

New Mobile Stations (MS) are required to use GPRS services because existing GSM phones
do not handle the enhanced air interface or packet data. A variety of MS can exist, including
a high-speed version of current phones to support high-speed data access, a new PDA device
with an embedded GSM phone, and PC cards for laptop computers. These mobile stations are
backward compatible for making voice calls using GSM.
GPRS Base Station Subsystem
Each BSC requires the installation of one or more Packet Control Units (PCUs) and a
software upgrade. The PCU provides a physical and logical data interface to the Base Station
Subsystem (BSS) for packet data traffic. The BTS can also require a software upgrade but
typically does not require hardware enhancements.

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When either voice or data traffic is originated at the subscriber mobile, it is transported over
the air interface to the BTS, and from the BTS to the BSC in the same way as a standard
GSM call. However, at the output of the BSC, the traffic is separated; voice is sent to the
Mobile Switching Center (MSC) per standard GSM, and data is sent to a new device called
the SGSN via the PCU over a Frame Relay interface.
GPRS Support Nodes
Following two new components, called Gateway GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs) and, Serving
GPRS Support Node (SGSN) are added:
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
The Gateway GPRS Support Node acts as an interface and a router to external networks. It
contains routing information for GPRS mobiles, which is used to tunnel packets through the
IP based internal backbone to the correct Serving GPRS Support Node. The GGSN also
collects charging information connected to the use of the external data networks and can act
as a packet filter for incoming traffic.
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
The Serving GPRS Support Node is responsible for authentication of GPRS mobiles,
registration of mobiles in the network, mobility management, and collecting information on
charging for the use of the air interface.
Internal Backbone
The internal backbone is an IP based network used to carry packets between different GSNs.
Tunnelling is used between SGSNs and GGSNs, so the internal backbone does not need any
information about domains outside the GPRS network. Signalling from a GSN to a MSC,
HLR or EIR is done using SS7.
Routing Area
GPRS introduces the concept of a Routing Area. This concept is similar to Location Area in
GSM, except that it generally contains fewer cells. Because routing areas are smaller than
location areas, less radio resources are used While broadcasting a page message.
Result:
GPRS studied successfully.

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 EXPERIMENT-5
AIM:
To write a Matlab program to calculate the link budget for satellite communication and also to
calculate the Carrier to noise ratio for uplink and downlink and also the overall carrier to noise
ratio.
Theory:
A link budget is an accounting of all the gains and losses in a transmission system. The link
budget looks at the elements that will determine the signal strength arriving at the receiver. The
link budget may include the following items:
• Transmitter power.
• Antenna gains (receiver and transmitter).
• Antenna feeder losses (receiver and transmitter).
• Path losses.
• Receiver sensitivity (although this is not part of the actual link budget, it is necessary to know
this to enable any pass fail criteria to be applied).
Where the losses may vary with time, e.g. fading, and allowance must be made within the link
budget for this - often the worst case may be taken, or alternatively an acceptance of periods
of increased bit error rate (for digital signals) or degraded signal to noise ratio for analogue
systems.
Received power (dBm) = Transmitted power (dBm) + gains (db) - losses (dB)
The basic calculation to determine the link budget is quite straightforward. It is mainly a matter
of accounting for all the different losses and gains between the transmitter and the receiver.
Losses = FSL + AML + RFL + PL + AA
FSL = Freespace loss
AML = Antenna Misalignment loss
RFL=Receiver Feeder loss
PL=Polarization Loss
AA = Atmospheric Absorption.
Carrier to Noise Ratio – Uplink
CNRu=EIRPu+GTRu-Lossu+228.6
Carrier to Noise Ratio – Downlink
CNRd=EIRPd+GTR-Lossd+228.6
Overall Carrier to Noise Ratio
CNRoverall=CNRu X CNRd / (CNRu+CNRd)
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Program:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
EIRPu=input('Enter the uplink EIRP:'); %dbW
EIRPd=input('Enter the downlink EIRP:');
GTRu=input('Enter the uplink G/T:');
GTRd=input('Enter the downlink G/T:');
FSLu=input('Enter the uplink FSL:');
FSLd=input('Enter the downlink FSL:');
RFLu=input('Enter the uplink RFL:');
RFLd=input('Enter the downlink RFL:');
AAu=input('Enter the uplink AA:');
AAd=input('Enter the downlink AA:');
AMLu=input('Enter the uplink AML:');
AMLd=input('Enter the downlink AML:');
Lossu=FSLu+RFLu+AAu+AMLu; %calculating total losses in UPLINK
Lossd=FSLd+RFLd+AAd+AMLd; %calculating total losses in DOWNLINK
CNRu=EIRPu+GTRu-Lossu+228.6; %calculating CNR of UPLINK
disp(sprintf('%s %f %s','total carrier to noise ratio for uplink is:',CNRu,'decilog'));
CNRd=EIRPd+GTRd-Lossd+228.6; %calculating CNR of DOWNLINK
disp(sprintf('%s %f %s','total carrier to noise ratio for downlink is:',CNRd,'decilog'));
CNRt=CNRu*CNRd/(CNRu+CNRd); %calculating total CNR
disp(sprintf('%s %f %s','total carrier to noise ratio is:',CNRt,'decilog'));

OUTPUT:

Result:
The program for power received by an antenna and path loss in Free space propagation was
simulated successfully.

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 EXPERIMENT-6
Aim:
To write a Matlab program to calculate the median path loss for Okumura model for outdoor
propagation.
Theory:
The Okumura model for Urban Areas is a Radio propagation model that was built using the
data collected in the city of Tokyo, Japan. The model is ideal for using in cities with many
urban structures but not many tall blocking structures. The model served as a base for the Hata
Model.
Okumura model was built into three modes. The ones for urban, suburban and open areas. The
model for urban areas was built first and used as the base for others.
Coverage
Frequency = 150 MHz to 1920 MHz Mobile Station Antenna Height: between 1 m and 10 m
Base station Antenna Height: between 30 m and 1000 m Link distance: between 1 km and 100
km Mathematical formulation
The Okumura model is formally expressed as:
L = LFSL + AMU – HMG – HBG – ∑ KCORRECTION
where,
L = The median path loss. Unit: Decibel (dB)
LFSL = The Free Space Loss. Unit: Decibel(dB)
AMU = Median attenuation. Unit: Decibel(dB)
HMG = Mobile station antenna height gain factor.
HBG = Base station antenna height gain factor.
Kcorrection = Correction factor gain (such as type of environment, water surfaces, isolated
obstacle etc.)
Okumura model does not provide a mean to measure the Free space loss. However, any
standard method for calculating the free space loss can be used.

Program:
clc;
clear all;
close all;

Hte=30:1:100; % Base Station Antenna Height

Hre=input('Enter the receiver antenna height 3m<hre<10m : ');
d =input('Enter distance from base station 1Km<d<100Km : ');

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f=input('Enter the frequency 150Mhz<f<1920Mhz : ');
c=3*10^8;
lamda=(c)/(f*10^6);
Lf=10*log((lamda^2)/((4*pi)^2)*d^2); %Free Space Propagation Loss
Amu=35; % Median Attenuation Relative to Free Space (900 MHz and 30 Km)
Garea=9; % Gain due to the Type of Environment (Suburban Area)
Ghte = 20*log(Hte/200); % Base Station Antenna Height Gain Factor
if(Hre>3)
Ghre = 20*log(Hre/3);
else
Ghre = 10*log(Hre/3);
end
%Propagation Path Loss
L50 = Lf+Amu-Ghte-Ghre-Garea;
display ('Propagation pathloss is : ');
disp(L50);
plot(Hte,L50,'LineWidth',1.5);
title('Okumura Model Analysis');
xlabel('Transmitter antenna Height (Km)');
ylabel('Propagation Path loss(dB) at 50 Km');
grid on;

Output:

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Result:
The program for Okumura Model – Outdoor Propagation was simulated successfully.

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 EXPERIMENT-7
Aim:
To write a Matlab program to calculate the median path loss for Hata model for outdoor
propagation.
Theory:
In wireless communication, the Hata Model for Urban Areas, also known as the Okumura-Hata
model for being a developed version of the Okumura Model, is the most widely used radio
frequency propagation model for predicting the behaviour of cellular transmissions in built up
areas. This model incorporates the graphical information from Okumura model and develops
it further to realize the effects of diffraction, reflection and scattering caused by city structures.
This model also has two more varieties for transmission in Suburban Areas and Open Areas.
Hata Model predicts the total path loss along a link of terrestrial microwave or other type of
cellular communications.
This particular version of the Hata model is applicable to the radio propagation within urban
areas.
This model is suited for both point-to-point and broadcast transmissions and it is based on
extensive empirical measurements taken.
PCS is another extension of the Hata model. The Walfisch and Bertoni Model is further
advanced.
Coverage Frequency: 150MHz to 1500MHz
Mobile Station Antenna Height: between 1m and 10m
Base station Antenna Height: between 30m and 200m
Link distance: between 1km and 20km.
Mathematical formulation Hata Model for Urban Areas is formulated as:
LU = 69.55 + 26.16 log f – 13.82 log hB – CH + [ 44.9 – 6.55 log hB] log d.
For small or medium sized city,
CH = 0.8 + (1.1 log f – 0.7) hM – 1.56 log f. and for large cities,
CH = 8.29 (log (1.54 hM))2 – 1.1, if 150 ≤ f ≤ 200
CH = 3.2 (log (11.75 hM))2 – 4.97, if 200 ≤ f ≤ 1500
Where,
LU = Path loss in Urban Areas (dB)
hB= Height of base station Antenna. (m)
hM = Height of mobile station Antenna. (m)

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f= Frequency of Transmission (MHz).
CH = Antenna height correction factor
d= Distance between the base and mobile stations (km).
The term "small city" means a city where the mobile antenna height not more than 10 meters.
i.e. 1 ≤ hM ≤ 10m
Program:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
f=input('enter the frequency of transmisson in mhz:');
Hb=input('enter the height of base station Antenna in meter:');
Hm=input('enter the height of mobile station Antenna in meter:');
d=input('enter the distance between the base and mobile stations:');
n=input('enter 0 for small city and 1 for large city:');
if n==0
ch=0.8+(1.1*log10(f)-0.7)*Hm-1.56*log10(f);
else
if f>=150 && f<=200
ch=8.29*(log10(1.54*Hm))^.2-1.1;
else if f>=200 && f<=1500
ch=3.2*(log10(11.75*Hm))^.2-4.97;
end
end
end
Lu=69.55+26.26*log10(f)-13.82*log10(Hb)-ch+(44.9-6.55*log10(Hb))*log10(d);
fprintf('%s %f %s\n','Path loss in Urban Areas=',Lu,'db\n');
Output:

Result: The program for Hata Model – Outdoor Propagation was simulated successfully.

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