Topic 1: Limits

A function is a relation that is onto, where a relation is a collection of ordered pairs. Sometimes
the term is used to describe a relation in general. Examples of functions that are onto are: f(x)=
2x+7, g(x)=x 3 , h(x)= x 2 − 4 for x ≥ 0.

1. Epsilon-delta definition of a limit

A real number L is said to be the limit of some function f(x) as x approaches a number 𝑥0 when,
for every 𝜀 > 0, there exists a 𝛿 > 0 such that |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜀 whenever 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑥0 | < 𝛿. If the
above statement holds, then, we write

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑥0

This means that the function f(x) can be made as close to L as possible by taking values of x that
close to 𝑥0 .

2. Calculation of limits of functions

 Limits of polynomials can be calculated by direct substitution.

 Direct substitution can also be used to calculate limits of rational functions provided the
substitution does not result in any of the following indeterminate:

0 ∞
𝑜𝑟 .
0 ∞

 The above means that

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓( 𝑥0 )
𝑥→𝑥0

Examples
Evaluate the following limits

1. lim (3𝑥 + 5) = 3(2) + 5 = 11

𝑥→2

𝑥−1 0−1
lim ( ) = ( ) = −1
𝑥→0 𝑥2 + 1 02 + 1
However substitution does not work in any of the following:
 −6𝑥+3𝑥 2
(i) lim ( )
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 −4
𝑒
𝑥 −1
(ii) lim ( ),
𝑥→1 𝑥−1

because substitution will reduce the functions to one of the indeterminates cases stated above.

3. L’Hospital’s Rule
0 ∞
When we have an indeterminate case like 𝑜𝑟 we avoid substitution and apply the rule
0 ∞

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
lim [ ] = lim [ ]
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔′ (𝑥)

Examples

𝑥 1
(i) lim 𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥 = lim [ ] = lim [ ] =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑥→∞ 3𝑒 3𝑥

x2 −9x+4 2x−9 2 1
(ii) lim = lim = lim =
x→∞ 3x2 +7x+8 x→∞ 6x+7 x→∞ 6 3

3. Special Limits

sinx
(i) lim =1
X→0 x

tanx
(ii) lim =1
X→0 x

1
(iii) lim (1 + x)x= e
X→0
1 x
(iv) lim (1 + ) = e
X→∞ x

4. Application of Special Limits

Below are examples of the applications of special limits indicated above

 7 7
7 tan( ) 7tan( )
x x
(i) lim x. tan ( ) = lim [ 1 ] = lim [ 7 ]=7
x→∞ x x→∞ x→∞
x x

1
1 𝑛 1 2𝑛+1 1 −1 2
(ii) lim (1 + ) = lim [(1 + 2𝑛+1) (1 + 2𝑛+1) ]
𝑛→∞ 2𝑛+1 𝑛→∞

1 1 1
1 2𝑛+1 2 1 − 1 2𝑛+1 2 1
2
= lim [(1 + ) ] lim (1 + 2𝑛+1) = lim [(1 + ) ] . 1 = 𝑒2
𝑛→∞ 2𝑛+1 𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 2𝑛+1

5. Limit Theorems

Below are some important limit theorems or properties

(i) lim[f(x) ± g(x)] = lim f(x) ± lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a

(ii) lim[f(x)g(x)] = lim f(x) lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a

f(x) lim f(x)

x→a
(iii) lim [ ]=
x→a g(x) lim g(x)
x→a

(iv) lim c = c
x→a

(v) limc f(x) = c lim f(x)

x→a x→a

To show that a given number L is the limit of some function f(x) as x approaches a number x0 we
show that for every 𝜖 > 0 , there exists a 𝛿 > 0 such that |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < ε whenever 0 <
|𝑥 − 𝑥0 | < 𝛿. We do this by starting with an ε then finding a 𝛿, expressed in terms of 𝜖 such that
the conditions specified above are satisfied.

Example
Show that lim x 2 = 4 using the Epsilon-delta definition
x→2

Solution

We show that for every 𝜖 > 0, there exists a 𝛿 > 0 such that
 |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| = |x 2 − 4| < ε

wheneve𝑟 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑥0 | = |𝑥 − 2| < 𝛿

Now |x 2 − 4| = |x + 2||x − 2|.

Letting 1< 𝑥 < 3, that is, taking a value of x that is within one unit radius from 2. And ubstituting
ε
3 for x in |x + 2| , |x + 2||x − 2| becomes 5 |x − 2| < ε which implies that |x − 2| < 5 .
ε
But |x − 2| < 𝜕. We therefore set 𝛿 = 5

6. Continuity

A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x = x0 if and only if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥0 )

𝑥→𝑥 0

Example:

Show that the function f(x)= 3x + 7 is continuous at x=2.

Solution:
f(2)=3(2)+7=13 and hence we show that lim(3𝑥 + 7) = 13. We also show that
𝑥→2
ε
|3x + 7 − 13| = |3x − 6| = 3|x − 2| < 𝜀 => |x − 2| < . Now 0 < |𝑥 − 2| < 𝛿.
3
ε
We therefore set 𝛿 = 3. Since a 𝛿, in terms of ε, has been found, lim(3𝑥 + 7) = 13. Hence f(x)=
𝑥→2
3x + 7 is continuous at x=2.

7.Differentiability
𝑓(𝑥+𝜕𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
A function f(x) is said to be differentiable if and only if lim exists. If this limit exists,
𝜕𝑥→0 𝜕𝑥
it is denoted f′(x) and is referred to as the derivative of the function f(x). The process of finding
𝑓(𝑥+𝜕𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
lim , if it exists, is referred to as differentiating the function from the definition.
𝜕𝑥→0 𝜕𝑥

x2 +3
Example: Show that the function f(x)= is not differentiable at x = 1
x−1

(x+𝜕𝑥)2 +3 x2 +3 [(x+𝜕𝑥)2 +3][x−1]−[x2 +3][(x+𝜕𝑥)−1]

𝑓(𝑥+𝜕𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥) − [(x+𝜕𝑥)−1][x−1]
(x+𝜕𝑥)−1 x−1
Solution: lim = lim = lim
𝜕𝑥→0 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥→0 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥→0 𝜕𝑥
 [x2 +2x𝜕𝑥+(𝜕𝑥)2 +3][x−1]−[x2 +3][(x+𝜕𝑥)−1]
[(x+𝜕𝑥)−1][x−1]
lim
𝜕𝑥→0 𝜕𝑥

[x3 +2x2 𝜕𝑥+𝑥(𝜕𝑥)2 +3x−x2 −2x𝜕𝑥−(𝜕𝑥)2 −3]−[x3 +3x+x2 𝜕𝑥+3𝜕𝑥−x2 −3]

[(x+𝜕𝑥)−1][x−1]
lim
𝜕𝑥→0 𝜕𝑥
1 𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥−2𝑥𝜕𝑥−3𝜕𝑥+𝑥(𝜕𝑥)2 −(𝜕𝑥)2
= lim 𝜕𝑥 [ [(𝑥+𝜕𝑥)−1][𝑥−1]
]
𝜕𝑥→0

𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3
= . When x=1 the general derivative is not defined hence the function f(x) =
(𝑥−1)2
x2 +3
is not differentiable at x = 1
x−1

1.8 Integration

Improper integral

An integral is an improper integral if either the interval of integration is not finite (improper
integral of type 1) or if the function to integrate is not continuous (not bounded) in the interval of
integration (improper integral of type 2).
∞
∫0 e−x dx is an improper integral of type 1 since the upper limit of the integration is infinite.

1 dx 1
∫0 x
is an improper integral of type 2 because x is not continuous at 0. To evaluate improper
∞ t
integrals of type 1 we let ∫a f(x)dx = lim ∫a f(x)dx.
t→∞

b t
To evaluate improper integrals of type 2 we let ∫a f(x)dx = lim− ∫a f(x)dx if f(x) is continuous
t→b
on[a,b) and not continuous at b. If f(t) is continuous on (a,b] and not continuous at a, we let
b b
∫a f(x)dx = lim+ ∫t f(x)dx. Improper integrals are said to be convergent if the limit is finite and
t→a
that limit is the value of the improper integral, divergent if the limit does not exist.

Example 1:
∞1 t1
Evaluate ∫1 dx = lim ∫1 dx = lim ln[|x|]1t = lim (lnt − ln1) = lim lnt = ∞
x t→∞ x t→∞ t→∞ t→∞

∞1
Hence ∫1 dx is divergent.
x

Example 2:
3 dx
Evaluate ∫0 √9−x2

3 dx t dx x t t
Solution: ∫0 √9−x2
= lim− ∫0 √9−x2 = lim− [sin−1 (3)] = lim−(sin−1 (3) − sin−1 0)
t→3 t→3 0 t→3
 π
=sin−1 1 − 0 = 2

1.9 Arc length

For a function which is continuous and has first derivative continuous on an interval [a,b], the length
b b dy 2
of the arc from a to b is given by ∫a √1 + [f ′ (x)]2 dx = ∫a √1 + [dx] dx

Example: Find the length of the arc 0f y 2 = x 3 from (1,1) to (4,8).

3
dy 3 1
Solution: From the function, we realize that y = x 2 and = 2 x2
dx

4 dy 2 4 9 21
L=∫1 √1 + (dx) dx = ∫1 √1 + (4) x dx = 27 (80√10 − 13√13)