SCS 1101 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND COMPUTING

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEMS

The term computer is derived from the Latin word compute, which means to calculate. A
computer is an electronic machine, devised for performing calculations and controlling operations
that can be expressed either in logical or numerical terms. In simple terms, a computer is an
electronic device that performs diverse operations with the help of instructions to process the
information in order to achieve the desired results. Computer application extends to cover huge area
including education, industries, government, medicine, scientific research etc.

A computer is one of the most influential forces available in modern times. Due to its
memory, high speed and perfection, its application can be extended to almost infinite levels.
Millions of complex calculations can be done in mere fraction of time. Difficult decisions can be
made with accuracy for comparatively little cost. Computers are widely seen as instruments for
future progress and as tools to achieve substantiality by way of improved access to information by
means of video conferencing and e- mail. Indeed computers have left such an impression on modern
civilization that we call this era as the information age.

Characteristics of Computers
The main characteristics of computers are:
a) Speed
b) Storage
c) Accuracy
d) Versatility
e) Automation
f) Diligence
g) Reliability

a) Speed :
Computers are capable of carrying out the task with enormous speed. Today‟s computers,
according to their class, can perform from 4 MIPS (Millions of instructions per second) to 100
MIPS. What may take days for manual calculations may take only a few hours for computers to
perform. Inside the computer the information signal travels at incredible electronic speed.
b) Storage:
Computers can store enormous quantity of information. Which is expressed in terms of
Kilobytes (or) Mega Bytes (MB) or Gega Bytes (GB). It is achieved through its „Main memory‟ or
„Primary storage‟ and through „auxiliary storage‟ or „Secondary storage‟. The Hard disks Floppy
disk, Compact Disc(CD) and Magnetic Tape storage are examples of secondary storages. These
large volumes of storage occupy much lesser space compared to paper documents and this aspect of
computers makes them more powerful.
c) Accuracy:
The accuracy of a Computer is consistently high. In fact, this quality of the computers make
them indispensable in various fields such as Scientific Research, Space Research, Weather
Predictions and many other areas where precision of a high order is required. The accuracy of the
computer is best achieved by programming them in the most efficient manner. When it comes to
very complex mathematical or scientific problem the computer‟s accuracy has no substitute.

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 d) Versatility:
Computers are versatile in that they can perform almost any task, provided they are given
the appropriate logical steps. For example, they are capable of performing wide ranging tasks such
as construction of a payroll, inventory management in a factory, hotel billing, hospital management,
banking applications and any imaginable task in every walk of life.
e) Automation:
The biggest advantage of computers is that it is automatic in its operation. Once a programming
logic is initiated the computer performs repeated operations without human interventions until
program completion.
f) Diligence:
Computers are machines and that do not get tired or „lose concentration‟ like human beings.
If a large number of calculations say million calculations are to be performed the resultant output
will remain exactly the same even if operations are repeated any number of times. But when a
human being is asked to do the same job this consistency cannot be achieved. Thus for those who
want consistent and continuous standard output, computer‟s „diligence‟ is of great help.

g) Reliability:
The computers give very accurate results with predetermined values. They correct and
modify the parameters automatically, giving suitable signals. They give formatted results with high
degree of precisions.

Computer Generations
Introduction
The history of computer development is often discussed with reference to different
generations of computing devices. In computer terminology, the word generation is described as a
stage of technological development or innovation/evolution. A major technological development
that fundamentally changed the way computers operate resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper,
more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices characterize each generation of computers.

Generations of Computers

1. First Generation (1940-1956): Vacuum Tubes

First generation computers were vacuum tube / thermionic valves-based machines. These
computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. A magnetic drum is a
metal cylinder coated with magnetic iron-oxide material on which data and programs can be stored.
Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.

First generation computers relied on binary-coded language (language of 0s and 1s) to

perform operations and were able to solve only one problem at a time. Each machine was fed with
different binary codes and hence were difficult to program. This resulted in lack of versatility and
speed. In addition, to run on different types of computers, instructions must be rewritten or
recompiled.

Examples: ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator), EDVAC (Electronic

Delay Storage Automatic Calculator), and UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computers).
 Characteristics of first generations computers:
  These computers were based on vacuum tube technology.
 These were the fastest computing devices of their times. (computation time was in milliseconds)

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  These computers were very large, and required a lot of space for installation.
 Since thousands of vacuum tubes were used, they generated a large amount of heat. Therefore,
air conditioning was essential.
 These were non-portable and very slow equipments.
  The lacked in versatility and speed.
 They were very expensive to operate and used a large amount of electricity.
 These machines were unreliable and prone to frequent hardware failures. Hence, constant
maintenance was required.
 Since machine language was used, these computers were difficult to program and use.
 Each individual component had to be assembled manually. Hence, commercial appeal of these
computers was poor.

2. Second Generation Computers (1956-1963): Transistors

In the sixties, there was lot of development in semiconductor field - a field of materials. In
vacuum tubes, a filament is heated to emit electrons, (the basic component of an atom) that carry
current. In 1946,Willam Shockley and a few of his colleagues invented transistors, which do not
need any heating to liberate electrons in addition to being smaller in size, they saved power due to
the absence of heating and hence the cooling needed. The smaller size resulted in smaller distances
that the electrons have to travel to transmit information from one part of the computer to another.
Hence calculations became faster. The reliability also increased. Today you cannot see any second
generation computers.

The smaller size of components saw mass production of computers which became
cheaper. Many companies started buying and using them increasing the demand. Computer
programming languages developed further to make programming easier and user friendly. Yet if
you compare today‟s computers, they were a lot behind. The increased use of computers and the
consequent mass production sent the prices crashing down. Computer scientists and electronic
engineers were developing more sophisticated computers.

 Characteristics of second generation computers:

 These machines were based on transistor technology.
 These were smaller as compared to the first generation computers.
  The computational time of these computers was reduced to microseconds form milliseconds.
 These were more reliable and less prone to hardware failure. Hence, such computers required
less frequent maintenance.
 These were more portable and generated less amount of heat.
 Assemble language was used to program computers. Hence, programming became more time
efficient and less cumbersome.
 Second generation computers still required air conditioning.
 Manual assembly of individual components into a functioning unit was still required.

3. Third Generation Computers(1964 - early 1970s): Integrated circuits

In second generation computers, one could recognize the circuit components such as
transistors, resistors and capacitors distinctly. There were physically separate or “discreet”. Slowly
scientists started integrating these components together so that they are not separate. They were
fused into the circuits. People called it large scale integrated circuits (LSI). Computers using such
components were called third generation computers. Since components were packed together more
densely, the size of computers became smaller. Programmers also developed more sophisticated
software. By 1970, engineers developed a device called microprocessor. Lot of circuits was packed
into it. Intel 4004 was one such chip.

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  Characteristics of third generations computers:
 These computers were based on integrated circuit (IC) technology.
  They were able to reduce computational time from microseconds to nanoseconds.
 They were easily portable and more reliable than the second generation.
 These devices consumed less power and generated less heat. In some cases, air conditioning was
still required.
 The size of these computers was smaller as compared to previous computers.
  Since hardware rarely failed, the maintenance cost was quite low.
 Extensive use of high- level languages became possible.
 Manual assembling of individual components was not required, so it reduced the large
requirement of labour and cost. However, highly sophisticated technologies were required for
the manufacture of IC chips.
 Commercial production became easier and cheaper.
4. Fourth Generation Computers (Early 1970s – till date): Micro processors
More and more circuits were packed in a microprocessor. The components were integrated
further and very large scale integration (VLSI) technology revolutionized computer field further.
Intel Corporation made chips such as 8080 and 8086 to be followed by 80286, 80386, 80486 and
now the Pentium processor. These chips perform calculations faster. They are not only used in
computers, but also in measuring devices and even in house hold devices such as washing
machines.
Computers using such VLSI chips progressively shrunk in size. Computers using the
microprocessors are termed as microcomputers. The software technology also developed further.
Programmers developed more sophisticated and user friendly software. In course of time, the cost
of these computers have come down so much that even individuals bought them so they came to be
known as personal computers.
 Characteristics of Fourth generation computers:
  Fourth generation computers are microprocessor-based systems.
 These computers are very small.
 Fourth generation computers are the cheapest among all the other generations.
  They are portable and quite reliable.
 These machines generate negligible amount of heat, hence they do not require air
conditioning.
 Hardware failure is negligible so minimum maintenance is required.
 The production cost is very low.
  GUI and pointing devices enable users to learn to use the computer quickly.
 Interconnection of computers leads to better communication and resource sharing.

5. Fifth Generation Computers (Present and beyond): Artificial Intelligence

Up to fourth generation, the classification was based purely on hardware. Fifth generation
computers are classified based on software also. VLSI technology is used in fifth generation
computers. They have large main memories. The speed is also high. In addition to all this, Fifth
generation computers run software called „expert systems‟.

 Characteristics of Fifth Generation computers:

 Mega Chips:
Fifth generation computers will use Super large Scale integrated (SLSI) chips, which will
result in the production of microprocessor having millions of electronic components on a single
chip. In order to store instructions and information, fifth generation computers require a great

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 amount of storage capacity. Mega chips may enable the computer to approximate the memory
capacity of the human mind.
 Parallel Processing:
Most computers today access and execute only one instruction at a time. This is called serial
processing. However, a computer using parallel processing accesses several instructions at once and
works on them at the same time through use of multiple central processing units.

 Artificial Intelligence (AI):

It refers to a series of related technologies that tries to simulate and reproduce human
behaviour, including thinking, speaking and reasoning. AI comprises a group of related
technologies: expert systems (ES), natural language processing (NLP), speech recognition, vision
recognition, and robotics.

Some points for discussion

1. Explain any five characteristics of computer
2. Discuss in detail about the various generations of computers.
3. List out the characteristics of First Generation Computers.
nd
4. Write short notes on the characteristics of 2 Generation Computers.
th
5. What are the characteristics of 4 Generation Computers?

COMPUTER SYSTEM

A computer system is a combination of various components. It performs the system

functions such as input, processing, output, storage and control. A computer system consists of the
following components:
1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Human ware
4. Firmware
5. Bridge ware

1. Hardware
The physical components of the computer, such as electrical, electronics and mechanical
unit are known as the hardware of the computer. That is, the input units, output units and CPU are
called hardware. Thus hardware is the equipment involved in the function of a computer. It consists
of the components that can be physically handled. The function of these components is typically
divided into three main categories: input, output, and storage. Components in these categories
connect to microprocessors, output and storage. Components in these categories connect to
microprocessors, specifically, the computer's central processing unit (CPU), the electronic circuitry
that provides the computational ability and control of the computer, via wires or circuitry called a
bus.

2. Software:
The computer performs operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
only when the user instructs it to do so. The user issues instructions and the CPU acts in accordance
with the instructions. The sets of instructions, which control the sequence of operations, are known
as programs, and collectively programs are called software. The software can be broadly classified
into two types. They are:
a. System Software
b. Application software

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3. Human ware:
The man- machine interface is called a human ware. The people who work with the
computer are collectively called the human ware or livewire.

4. Firmware:
The computer programs permanently stored in ROM or PROM are called firmware. These
programs are provided by hardware manufacturer along with the computers. Generally these are
booting programs which help in the starting of a computer. Such programs cannot be erased or
overwritten.

5. Bridge ware:
The computer components and programs used to translate instructions and information
written for one type of computer into a format that another type of computer can understand is
called bridge ware. This is necessary because different computers are made by different
manufacturers.

COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

Aims & objectives
After reading this Lesson you will be able to understand:
 Meaning of hardware and software.
 Components of hardware.
 Features of software.
 Difference between hardware and software.

INTRODUCTION:
A computer system consists of hardware, the physical unit (parts) of the computer that are
capable of computing and manipulating information and software (set of instructions or programs)
that carries out predefined tasks to complete a given job. The computer performs operations like
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division only when the user instructs it to do so. The user
issues instructions and the CPU acts in accordance with the instructions. The sets of instructions,
which control the sequence of operations, are known as programs, and collectively programs are
called software.

We can equate hardware and software with human body and human intelligence,
respectively. All human physical actions such as walking and eating are based on the thoughts and
feelings, which is raised by the brain. If the brain does not raise thoughts and feelings, we do not
perform any physical activity. Similarly, the actions and functioning of every hardware equipment
is driven by software. The combination of physical equipment (hardware) and logical instructions
(software) gives modern computing system their power and versatility.

COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

We generally refer to a computer as a system [Computer System) since computer is made
up of integrated components: input and output devices, storage, Central Processing Unit etc that
work together.

The main components of a computer system are:

(1) Input Unit

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 (2) Output Unit
(3) Storage Unit
(4) Central Processing Unit [CPU] { the Control Unit and Arithmetic Logic Unit of a Computer
System are jointly known as Central Processing Unit

INPUT UNIT
The input unit is used for entering the data and instruction into the computer for
performing computation of the data. The input unit accepts or reads the list of instructions and
data and converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable form. It supplies the
converted instructions and data to the computer for further processing. The devices used for this
purpose are called as Input Devices. Key Board and Mouse are the important input devices used
in our offices. Light pen, Joy stick, tracker ball, Touch pad, Scanner and Pointing stick are some
of the Input Devices.

a) Key Board:

The keys in Computer keyboards are almost similar to the keys in a typewriter but in addition
there are some special operational keys carrying special symbols that help us in giving instructions
to computer.

b) Mouse:
Mouse is an essential component in the modern computers which use
Windows and other Graphical Use Interface [GUI] applications.
Mouse is a small service in which a small ball is kept inside and the
ball touches the pad through a hole at the bottom of the mouse. When
the mouse is held in hand pushed along a flat surface [mouse pad],
the ball inside the mouse rolls and this movement of the ball is
converted into electronic signals and sent to the computer, now we
get advanced versions of mouse like optical mouse, scroll mouse
cordless mouse etc. using the mouse the cursor [the small blinking
vertical line we see in the monitor ] can be moved in any direction.
The mouse is used for selecting part or full text or object, and also for
dragging and dropping the selected text or object.
How to handle the mouse?
When we slide the mouse left across the mouse pad the mouse pointer of the screen moves
left on the screen. When we slide it right the pointer moves right. When the mouse is moved
forward or backward, it causes the pointer to move up and down.
The following actions are performed with the mouse:

Clicking:
Keeping the mouse pointer at any position, if we click the mouse button the cursor will
move to that position.

Selecting:
To select a text for copying or deleting, keeping the mouse pointer at the beginning of the
text, click the mouse button [left button] and without releasing the finger move the mouse till the
end of the text and then release the finger. The text thus selected is highlighted and can be copied or
deleted.

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Dragging:
After selecting the text as above, bring the mouse pointer at the selected text, press the left
mouse button with the finger and without releasing the finger drag the selected text to any desired
position.
Right clicking:

By pressing and releasing the right mouse button, the short cut menu is activated.
c) Scanner:
Scanner is an image acquisition device connected to the computer, which captures either
an image of a text document or a picture and transfers it into bits of information, which a
computer can understand and manipulate.

How does a scanner work?

The scanner uses a light source, typically a cold cathode lamp to illuminate the scanned
object. The light is then reflected off the object and into Charged Coupled Device [CCD]. The
Charged Coupled Device collects the information, and through a series of electronic devices
converts the analog signal into as series of digital signals which can then be read and processed by a
computer.

Uses of scanners:
Optical Character Recognition OCR – We can convert text based document images into text
that can be edited by a word – processing software. Enrich our presentations and documents by
adding images. Convert hard-copy images or documents into a fax format for faxing or for record
purpose. Add scanned images to our e- mil to enrich the content.

Type of scanners: Flatbed Scanner, Sheet fed, Handheld, Card scan.

 Flatbed Scanner:
The flat bed scanner as shown in the illustration is one of the
most commonly used and most recommended scanners. This
scanner allows the user to place a full piece of paper, book,
magazine, photo or any other object onto the bed of the scanner and
have the capability to scan that object.
Flatbed scanner

A sheet containing text can be scanned using the scanner and saved as an image file. There is
software to convert the image file once again into a text file.
 Sheet fed scanner:
This scanner allows us to scan pieces of paper. The sheet
fed scanner is a less expensive solution when compared to the
flatbed scanner.

Sheet fed scanner

 Handheld Scanner:
The handheld scanner allows the user to drag over select
sections of pages, books, magazines, and other objects scanning
only sections. However it can be tedious to drag the handheld
correctly which can cause distortion in the image being scanned.

Hand held scanner

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  Card scan Scanner:
This scanner is mainly used to scan visiting cards for creating
data base of the addresses.

Card scan
Scanner
d) Punched cards
Punched cards are still in use as medium for recording data and instructions in the form of
punched holes to denote and then they are sequentially read by the card Reader. The card Reader
sends the data and instructions to the CPU to process them. The punched cards used for data
processing are made generally of 80 columns and 12 rows. Today 96 columns cards are available.
In these cards a hole in punched to represent the binary l. The absence of a hole represents binary 0.
If a card is punched wrongly, it cannot be corrected. Further, the punched cards are not reusable,
i.e., cannot be used for any other data. Many numbers of cards are required for the computer
programs. Such a collection of cards is called a deck. Each card has the left top corner cut to
identify the arrangement of the cards is correct or not. The cards are read by a Unit called a card
Reader. The punched cards are placed in the Read Hopper after verification. On receiving the
command from the control unit the device moves the cards one by one over two sub-devices. One of
which, sense the punched holes (0s and 1s) and transcribes the pulses to the CPU. Then the output is
given as per user specification.
Advantages
1. It is very easy to read data on the cards
2. The cards are less expensive than other storage media.
3. It is much simple to operate.
4. After inserting a card, if an error is detected, the whole system stops functioning.
Disadvantages
1. Punched cards are bulky when put together, so they require large space to store them.
2. The cards are easily damaged and perishable.
3. Transfer of data is relatively very slow.
4. An incorrectly punched card cannot be corrected, it must be replaced.
5. Unit Record machines require manual intervention at every stage.
6. Data is not processed in ordinary language. It has to be translated into something we can
understand.

e) Paper Tapes
The punched paper tape is a continuous strip of a paper about one inch wide and up to 300
meters long. The characters are recorded on tape, which may be 5 or 8 as per the design of the tape.
These punched positions are called as channels. It is the oldest media, of input and output media.
Her also, a hole represent 1 and its absence represents 0. Data from the tape is read through a Tape
Recorder per second. The tape comes in various forms viz., Oil paper, dry paper, metalized paper
and laminated paper.
Advantages
1. Compared to the punched card, it is more compact and economic on storage.
2. It is less in weight and easy for mailing etc.
Disadvantages
1. Since the roll is so long, correcting or inserting data can be very tedious process and time
consuming.

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 2. The life of the paper tape is short. This makes it inconvenient for storing over a long period. It
is not durable.
3. Moreover, it is sequential data processing medium.

f) Magnetic Tape
Because of the problems faced in the paper media, magnetic substances have come. First
among these was the magnetic tape. This is also a sequential media for normally between 1.25-
2cms. Wide and up to 900 meters long. It is made of plastic with a metallic magnetic oxide coating
on one side. Generally, data is recorded on either a 7 parallel-rack-tape or on a 9 parallel-track-tape.
Writing on and reading from the tape is done with the assistance of READ/WRITE head. The
number of characters per inch length of tape stored is called the 'density' of the tape. This varies
from 550 to 1600 or even 16K. The 9 Track tapes have the higher densities. Then comparing with
the punched card and punched tape, the magnetic tape has certain advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages
1. Data are stored very compactly.
2. It is very easy to handle the Magnetic Tape than the Deck of Cards.
3. The Magnetic tape costs less than the cards.
4. It requires less storage space for data and therefore has a large capacity.
5. It is reusable i.e., the old data can be wiped out and fresh information could be recorded on it.
6. The speed of transferring the data is very high comparing to paper devices.

Disadvantages
1. In magnetic tapes, the data has to be accessed sequentially. This makes the retrieval of data
slow.
2. The punched cards can be read visually, whereas to read the magnetic tape a I machine is
needed.
3. The tape is subject to the usual wear and tear of time.
4. Data will be erased if the tape is exposed or placed nearby any Magnetic field or high voltage
circuits.

g. Magnetic Disk
It is yet another step in the evolution of Input/Output devices. The Magnetic Disk has an
advantage over the punched cards and Magnetic Tapes i.e., the data stored on a disk can be read
randomly while in the magnetic tape, the data are read sequentially. Random access is that the
particular record in the file can be detected directly and the access time is saved. In Magnetic disk
the record is accessed in a fraction of second i.e., less than 0.01 sec. The disk varying in diameter
are generally coated on both sides with magnetic oxide. Each surface of the disk is divided into a
number of sectors, called storage segments. The storage segment is a specific portion of a specific
side of the disk. A segment can store one or more record of a file, which will vary according to the
size of the record. While searching, a particular record can randomly be selected and directly
accessed, because, each storage segment is uniquely marked by an address with side number, track
number, sector number etc.

h. Joysticks and Trackballs

Joysticks provide an alternative method for feeding the computer visually interesting data.
When you move the joystick, cursor on the screen moves in a corresponding way. A trackball is a
plastic sphere mounted in a socket so that it is free to rotate in any direction.

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 i. Touch Screens
Touch Screens are another favorite "user friendly" method for feeding data into computer.
User can command the computer to perform various useful tasks simply by touching specific
sectors of the screen with their forefingers. The computer senses the Location of the finger in
various ways.

OUTPUT UNIT
The results of the data processed by the computer are available in electronic signals. The
output unit converts these signals into a form which could be easily understood by us. The output is
usually given either on the screen by visual display unit/monitor or in a printed form by printers.

a) Monitor (Visual Display Unit or Screen)

The monitor is made up of cathode-ray tube CRT due to which it also

called C.R.T terminal. The screen consists of horizontal and vertical
sweep circuits similar to T.V. sets. The screen‟s inside is coated with
dots of phosphor called pixel and can be used for games or graphics
or displaying the results of a calculation done by computer. The more
the number of pixel or dots in a screen, the better will be the
capability of computer to display an information.

This capability is known as resolution. The characters typed with the keyboard are displayed
on the screen. We can thus verify whether the programs we enter into computer is corrector not.

Tips for avoiding computer vision syndrome:

Long hours of staring at a computer screen causes dryness and reduces the blinking rate of
the eyes. Burning, itchiness and watering of eyes are the common visible syndromes of computer
vision syndrome. Often headache is a direct consequence of the glare emitted by the screen.

  To avoid the syndrome the following measures are to be taken:

  Make sure that the computer screen is not too close to your face.
 Position the screen so that it is either at eye level, or slightly lower.
 Tilt the monitor slightly to eliminate reflection or glare.
 Make sure that primary light source [such as windows] is not shining into your
face or directly on the monitor.
  Frequently look away from the screen and focus on far away objects.
 Reduce the contrast and brightness of the screen by adjusting the controls on the monitor. 

b) Printer
Printer is the most commonly used output device. It is used to prepare permanent documents
in human – readable form [hard copy]. There are several types of printers that are designed for
different types of applications.

Printers are of two types- impact and non impact. Impact printers use the familiar typewriter
approach of hammering a typeface against paper and inked ribbon. Non- impact printers do not hit
or impact a ribbon to print. They use thermal, electrostatic, chemical and inkjet technologies.

Depending on their speed and approach of printing, printers are also classified as
character printers, and page printers.

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 Types of Printers:
1. Dot Matrix Printer:
In this printer characters to print are made up of a finite
number of dots and so, the print head consists of an array of pins.
Characters to be printed are made up of a finite number of dots and so,
the printer. The character code is decoded by the printer electronics
and activates the appropriate pins in the print head. Many dot matrix
printers are bi-directional. i.e., they print from left to right as well as
from right to left on return. This enhances the speed of printing. The
printing speed is around 300 characters per Dot Matrix Printer second.

2. Line Printer:
Unlike a dot matrix printer, line printer prints a
complete line at a time. Two types of line printers are
available.

3. Drum Printer
It consists of cylindrical drum. The characters to
be printed are embossed on its surface.
Line Printer
4. Chain Printer:
It has a steel band on which the character sets are embossed. Printing speed varies from 150
lines to 2500 lines per minute with 96 to 160 characters on a15 inch line. Six to eight lines per
vertical inch are printed. Usually 64 and 96 character sets are used with English letters.

5. Inkjet Printer:
It consists of print heard, which has a number of small holes of
nozzles. Individual holes are heated very rapidly by an integrated
circuit resistor. When the resistor heats up, the ink near it vaporizes
and is ejected through the nozzle and makes a dot on paper placed
near the head. A high – resolution inkjet printer has around 50
nozzles within a height of 7mm and can print with a resolution of
more than 300 dots per inch. Latest inkjet printers have multimedia Inkjet Printer
heads, one per color , which allow color printing. The printing speed
is around 120 characters per second.
6. Laser Printers:
 In laser printer an electronically controlled laser beam traces out
the desired character to be printed on a photo conductive drum
 The drum attracts an ink toner on to the exposed areas. This
image is transferred to the paper, which comes in contract with
the drum.
 The drum attracts an ink toner on to the exposed areas. This
image is transferred to the paper, which comes in contract with
the drum.
 Very fast printers print 10,000 lines per minute. These printers
 give excellent outputs and can print a variety of fonts. Laser Printer
 Low speed laser printers, which can print 4 to 16 pages per
minute, are now very popular.

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 STORAGE UNIT AND CPU
The purpose of the storage unit of the computer is to store the data entered before processing
and also to store the results after processing. The Central Processing Unit [CPU] is the brain of any
computer system. In a computer system all major calculations and comparisons are made inside the
CPU. The CPU is also responsible for activating and controlling the operations of other units of a
computer system.

Storage Unit

  There are two types of storage devices.

a. Primary storage device
b. Secondary Storage device.

a. PRIMARY STORAGE DEVICE OR RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY [RAM]:

Primary storage is usually referred to as Random Access
Memory [RAM] because it is possible to randomly select and use any
location of this memory to directly store and retrieve data and
instructions. It is also referred to as read/write memory because
information can be „read‟ from a RAM chip also be „written‟ into it.
The Random Access Memory requires some times for accessing data
and is considered to be the fastest memory. Each bit in a RAM stores RAM
information by means of electric charge, where the presence of an electric charge indicates „1‟ and
the absence of an „0‟. RAM is called Temporary storage, because data persists until the machine is
on.
ROM
A Read Only Memory [ROM] is one in which information is permanently stored. The
information from the memory can only be read and it is not possible to write fresh information into
it. This is the reason why it is called ROM. When the power supply is switched off, the information
stored inside ROM is not lost as it is in the case of a RAM chip. ROMs are mainly used by
computer manufacturers for storing the micro programs so that they cannot be modified by the
users.

b. SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

This section of the memory is also referred to as backup storage because it is used to store
large volume of data on a permanent basis which can be partially transferred to the primary storage
as and when required for processing.

The storage capacity of the primary storage of today‟s computers is not sufficient to store
the large volume of time handled by most data processing centres. As a result, additional memory,
called auxiliary memory or secondary storage, is used with most computer systems.
Hard Disk, Floppy Disk, Tape and Compact Disc are the main secondary storage devices.

i). Hard Disk:

The hard disk used in the PC is permanently
fixed, hard disks with storage capacities of 8 GB, 10GB,
20GB, 40GB, are quite common, the CPU can use the hard
disk to load programs and data as well as to store data We
should operate the PC within a dust- free and cool room
(Preferably air-conditioned) to prevent hard disk crash.

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 ii). Floppy Disk:
Floppy disk is flexible circular disk of diameter 3.inches made of
plastic coated with a magnetic material. This is housed in a square plastic
jacket. The floppy disk can store 1.4 Mbytes of data [also called 1.44Mnytes,
since it holds 1440Kytes]. Data recorded on a floppy disk is read and stored in
a computer‟s memory by a device called a floppy disk drive[FDD]. A floppy
disk is inserted in a slot of the FDD. Some of the floppies have limited life
time. The floppies have to be recycled periodically to keep them alive. A
frequently recycled floppy. [i.e used] will have a life time of 3to 4 years to do
recycling take out old floppies occasionally and try to read them once, at least
the directory.
iii). Compact Disk:

CD-ROM [Compact Read Only Memory] uses a laser beam to

record and read data along spiral tracks on a 51/4‟‟ disk. A disk can store
around 650/00MB of information. CD-ROMs are normally used to store
data as back up. Using a CD Writer, lot of information can be written on
CD-ROM and stored for future reference.

iv). Tape Drives:

Even though tape drives are one of the oldest of storage technologies, they can still hold the
most data on a single cartridge. A computer tape drive works similar to a tape recorder or a VCR. A
plastic tape ribbon is coated with magnetic particles which are polarized by a magnetic field
generated by the read/write head.

Since tape is a sequential, and not a random- access media, a tape drive has to wind through
a tape to locate a specific bit of data. This makes accessing data slow so tape is mainly used for
system backups and regular archiving of files and records.

Tape dives allow users to backup large amounts of data. Tape drives are capable of backing
up a couple hundred megabytes to several gigabytes of information without having to spend large
sums of money on disks.

iv). DLT [Digital Linear Tape]

DLT drives are a robust and durable medium. The DLT segments the tape into parallel
horizontal tracks and records data by streaming the tape across a single stationary head. Released in
1991 DLT drives are very reliable, high-speed, and high-capacity making the DLT drives an
excellent use for Network backups.

 DAT [ Digital Audio Tape ]

The popular choice for tape drives is DAT.

This format is best known for digital audio

recording although DAT drives can‟t play DAT audio.
These drives use a recording technique called helical
scanning which is used in VCRs. The 4mm tape is
wrapped round a spinning read/write head that records
data in overlapping diagonal tracks. These overlapping tracks allow for
high data density and faster data transfer speeds. There are a few DAT

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standards but the most common is Digital Data Storage [DDS]. DAT
tapes can hold 2GB [SSS] to 40GB [DDS-4] of compressed data.

v). Micro Vault USB Storage Media

Micro Vault media plugs directly into the computer‟s SB port – and acts
just like another drive. It is small, light, Shock-proof and moisture
– proof. This nifty flash memory storage device is compact and durable
enough to carry in any pocket. The device is recognized automatically
when we connect it to the computer. By connecting it via USB, the files
can be transferred by dragging and dropping. There are no cables or
adaptors needed, no power cord and no driver software to install. It‟s
compatible with both Macintosh and Windows operating systems, and even comes with
software that password protects the contents of the device.
They are perfect for sharing PowerPoint presentations, digital photos, MPEG video and
MP3s, transporting files between work and home, or sharing files with friends and colleagues.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

Central Processing Unit (CPU): This unit performs processing of instructions and data inside
the computer.
The Central Processing Unit [CPU] is the brain of any computer system. In a computer system all
major calculations and comparisons are made inside the CPU. The CPU is also responsible for
activating and controlling the operations of other units of a computer system.
The control unit and the arithmetic logic unit of a computer system are jointly known as the Central
Processing Unit. While the control unit takes care of the flow of data from input unit to storage unit
and the flow of final results to the output unit, the arithmetic logic unit is the place where the actual
execution of instructions taking place during the processing operation.

The CPU has three components:

a) The Control Unit
b) The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and
c) The Memory Unit.
a) Control Unit:
It controls the overall operation of the computer system. It is considered as the heart of the
computer system. It controls all the other units, directs them to operate in a proper way and co-
ordinates various operations performed.
It instructs the input device to transfer the data and instructions to the main memory and
then to the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU). Then, it sends the processed result from ALU to the
memory unit for storage and transfers it to the visual display unit or to the ' printer.
The control unit coordinates the various parts of the computer system - the arithmetic logic
unit, the memory unit and the peripheral units. Besides, it controls the flow of data into, from and
within the main storage as per the program instructions.
To perform its control operations effectively and quickly, the control unit has four basic
components. They are

15
 (a) Instruction Register
(b) Decoder
(c) Address Register and
(d) Instruction Counter
The instruction register receives one by one the instructions to be executed in the required
sequence. Then, the operation code of the instructions is transferred to decoder, which decodes the
operation code. And it activates the appropriate circuits of the arithmetic and logic unit to perform
the operation. The address register enables the data in the location specified in the instruction to be
transferred to a specified accumulator for the arithmetic and logic unit.
b) Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
This unit performs two kinds of operations, the arithmetic processing and logical processing.
In arithmetic processing it performs all mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. In logical processing, it performs the relational and logical operations
such as comparing larger or smaller values, true or false statements, etc.
c) Memory Unit
This unit holds the intermediate results during the course of calculations and provides the
data as and when required. This internal storage is also called primary memory or main memory.
This memory takes the data from an input device and stores it until the computer is ready to
process it. It also stores processed data and intermediate results. When the processing is finished,
it transfers the results to an output device.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HARDWARE & SOFTWARE

HARDWARE SOFTWARE
1.It is the physical unit of the 1.It is a collection of programs to bring the
computer hardware system into operation
2. It has no permanent structure but can
2. It has permanent structure and be altered and reused
cannot be altered 3. It is not affected by these agents to
3. It is normally affected by agent some extent
like dust, heat, humidity, etc 4. It is written by a well versed
4. Hardware understands only programmer and generally in higher
machine language ,lower level level language which is readable by
language or binary human being
5. It is represented by the Higher Level
5. It works with binary code, the Languages such as BASIC, COBOL,
presence or absence of Pulses as 1‟s Etc.,
or 0‟s.

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SOFTWARE
Software is a generic term for organized collection of computer data and instructions. It is
responsible for controlling, integrating, and managing the hardware components of a computer and
to accomplish specific tasks. In other words, software tells the computer what to do and how to do
it. For example, software instructs the hardware what to display on the user‟s screen, what kinds of
input to take from the user, and what kinds of output to generate. Thus, software communicates with
the hardware by organizing the control sequences, and the hardware carries out the instructions
defined by the software.

A computer needs to be instructed to perform any task. These instructions are given in the
form of computer programs, which are written in computer programming languages. A program
controls the activity of the processor. The moment the hardware (processor, memory, etc.), acts as
per the instructions of a program, the program is said to be in running or executing state.

A set of programs, which are specifically written to provide the user a precise functionality
like solving a specific problem is termed as a software package. For example, word processing
software package provides functionality to the computer so that it can be used to create text
documents like letters and mailing lists. Similarly, an image processing software package assists a
user in drawing and manipulating graphics.

FEATURES OF SOFTWARE

1. Ease of use
The software systems and applications are becoming more and more easy to use. In fact,
software developers and system analysts go to great lengths to ensure that the products they develop
are user- friendlier than their competitor‟s products.

2. Graphical user interface (GUI)

GUI or graphical user interface has now become the default standard for most of the
software applications. Gone are the days of the crude character based interfaces of UNIX and DOS
application. Today‟s software applications and products provide the users with perceptive, graphical
and easy-to-use interfaces. Now the users do not have to remember the cryptic system commands or
shortcut keys that were a must in the character based era. Now almost any task can be accomplished
by a mouse click.

3. Multi-platform capability
Today‟s software applications are not developed for just one platform. Most of the software
applications supports multiple platforms-both hardware and software platforms. There are software
applications that support hardware platforms ranging from mainframes to PCs and different
software platforms like MVS, Solaris, AIX, UNIX, Windows and so on. For example IBM‟s DB2
Universal database is available for a variety or hardware and software platforms.
Another important feature of today‟s software application is that they support multiple languages
and multiple currencies. Many vendors are providing their applications in many languages like
English, Arabic, Japanese, and Chinese and so on.

4. Compatibility with other software

Now the competition for each market segment in the software marketplace is rather fierce.
We have many software vendors battling for the market share in the same segment. For example,
Microsoft Word 2000 supports all previous versions of Work like Word 97, Word 6, Word and so

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on. The two features –compatibility with earlier versions and compatibility with other products
make it easier for the users, as they can choose the application they want and still use the old files
they have created using other applications or using older versions of the same application.

5. Mail enabling
Mail enabled applications are designed to take advantage of on e- mail. These are the
familiar word processors, spreadsheets, and other individual desktop applications that have e-mail
features built to them. There is another class of message-centered programs that are built
specifically around e- mail functions.
6. Web enabling
With the ever- increasing popularity of internet and the amount of information that is
available on the net, most software applications are now web-enabled. Web enabling helps the user
in many different ways. Its use starts while the user is installing the application. During installation,
most of the applications will automatically connect to the Internet and to the vendor‟s web site and
will register their products (earlier one had to fill in a paper form and mail or fax it to the vendor).

The computer being a machine cannot perform on its own. It needs to be instructed to
perform even a simple task like adding two numbers. Computers work on a set of instructions called
computer software (programs), which clearly specify the ways to carry out a task.

Software can be categorized as system software and application software. System

software is a generic term for referring to any computer program whose purpose is to help the user
to run the computer system, whereas application software employees the capabilities of a computer
directly to a task that the user wishes to perform.

CATEGORIES OF SOFTWARE

SYSTEM SOFTWARE:
System software consists of several programs, which are directly responsible for controlling,
integrating, and managing the individual hardware components of a computer system. You must
have noticed that a new computer system is always accompanied by some software, either stored in
a floppy or CD, which is supplied by the manufacturer. This software manages and supports the
computer system and its information processing activities.

System software is more transparent and less noticed by the users, they usually interact with
the hardware or the applications this software provides a programming environment in which
programmers can create applications to accommodate their needs. This environment provides
functions that are not available at the hardware level and performs the tasks related to the execution
of an application program. Hence, system software acts as an interface between the hardware of the
computer and the software application.

In simple terms, system software makes the computer functional. They provide basic
functionality like file management, visual display, and keyboard input are used by application
software to accomplish these functions. Some examples of system software are:
1. Operating system
2. Device drivers
3. Language translators
4. System utilities.

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1. Operating System:
It is the first layer of software loaded into computer memory when it starts up. As the first
software layer, all other software that gets loaded after it depends on it for various common core
services. These common core services include disk access, memory management, takes scheduling,
and user interfacing. In addition the operating system ensures that different programs executing at
the same time do not interfere with each other. It provides a software platform on top of which other
programs can run. In simple words, the operating system organizes and controls the hardware.
Examples of operating systems are Windows XP, UNIX, and Linux. The basic functions of an
operating systems are:

a) Process Management:
It handles the creation, deletion, suspension, resumption, and synchronization of process.

b) Memory Management:
It handles allocation and de-allocation of memory space as required by various programs.

c) File Management:
It is responsible for creation and deletion of files and directories. It also organizes, stores,
retrieves, names, and protects all the files.

d) Device Management:
It manages all the devices of the computer system such as I/O devices like printers and
modems. If any device fails, it detects the device failure and notifies the same to the user.

e) Security Management:
Protects system resources and information against destruction and unauthorized use.

f) User interface:
Provides the interface between the user and the hardware.

2. Device Drivers:
Device drivers are system programs, which are responsible for proper functioning of
devices. Every device, whether it is a printer, monitor, mouse or keyboard, has a driver program
associated with it for its proper functioning. Whenever a new device is added to the computer
system, a new device driver must be installed before the device is used. A device driver is not an
independent program; it assists and is assisted by the operating system for the proper functioning of
the device.

3. Language translators:
Computers only understand a language consisting of 0s and 1s called machine language. To
ease the burden of programming entirely in 0s and 1s, special programming languages called high-
level programming languages were developed that resembled natural languages like English.
Language translators help in converting programming languages into machine language. To be
precise, they convert programming statements into the 0s and 1s that the computer is able to
process.
Depending on the programming language used, language translators are divided into three
major categories: compilers, interpreter, and assembler.

a) Compiler:
The programs written in any high- level programming language (C or Pascal) needs to be
converted into machine language. This is achieved by using a complier.

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b) Interpreter:
An interpreter analyses and executes the source code in line-by- line manner, without
looking at the entire program. In other words, an interpreter translates a statement in a program and
executes the statement immediately, before translating the next source language statement.

c) Assembler:
Compared to all the types of programming languages, assembly language is closest to the
machine code. It is fundamentally a symbolic representation of machine code. The assembly
language program must be translated into machine code by a separate program called an assembler.
The assembler program recognizes the character strings that make up the symbolic names of the
various machine operations, and substitutes the required machine code for each instruction. In short,
an assembler converts the assembly codes into machine codes, making the assembly program ready
for execution.

Typical software generally comprises millions of lines of programming statements or code.

The code is divided into logical groups and stored in different independent modules so that the
debugging and maintenance of the code becomes easier. Before execution, different object codes
resulting from the independent modules have to be linked together to create and executable
program. A linker is a system program that links together several objects modules and libraries to
form a single, coherent, program (executable program). The part of the operating system that brings
an executable file residing on disk into memory and executes it is known as loader. Being
responsible for tasks like loading, linking and relocation, loader performs the function of a linked
program and then immediately schedules the executable for execution without creating an
executable file as an output.

4. System Utility:
System utility programs perform day-to-day tasks related to the maintenance of the
computer system. They are used to support, enhance, and secure existing programs and data in the
computer system. They are generally small programs, having specific tasks to perform:

a) File Management:
These utilities make it easier to manage data files. Many programs are written to help users to
find the files, create and organize directions, copy, move, and remove files.

b) Backup:
It may happen that sometime data files are corrupted, or accidentally deleted. In such a case,
data backups become very useful. A backup system utility is essential for those organizations,
which want to keep their data intact.
c) Data Recovery:
It is the process of retrieving deleted or inaccessible data from failed electronic storage
media such as computer hard disk drives, removable media, optical devices, and tape cartridges.
d) Virus Protection:
Anti- virus programs are essential system utilities for a computer system functioning in a
network. They provide the security to the system form viruses that can damage the computer
system.
e) Disk Management:
Disk management program includes various system softwares like disk defragmenter, data
compressor and disk formatting tools. De-fragmentation implies putting fragments of files in a
sequential order onto the disk which reduces the time to access the file.

20
f) Firewall:
It is commonly used to protect information such as e- mail and data files within a physical
building or organization. Essentially, a firewall is designed to protect a computer from unauthorized
access, especially via network.

g) Disk Cleanup:
To keep a computer running smoothly, regular maintenance is vital. Therefore, one should
use the disk cleanup utility, which easily determines which files on hard drive are no longer needed,
then delete those files.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE:
The most often seen software by a user is the application software. It used to accomplish
specific tasks rather than just managing a computer system. For a user, the computer system has no
specific use without application software. Application software may consist of a single program,
such as Microsoft‟s Note pad (for writing and editing simple text). It may also consist of a
collection of programs, often called a software package, which work together to accomplish a task,
such as database management software. Application software may also include a larger collection of
related but independent programs and packages (a software suite), which have a common user
interface or shared data format, such as Microsoft Office suite.

Applications softwares are dependent on system softwares. A system software (like

operating system) acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware, while
application software performs specific tasks. Applications are pieces of software that perform tasks
for the user besides helping the computer operate, which is the tasks of system software.
Applications softwares are controlled by system software, which manages hardware devices and
performs background tasks for them. The distinction between the two is important. Without system
software, the computer will not run, and without application software, the computer, no matter how
powerful, will not be helpful in meeting user requirements. Think of it this way-applications apply
the computer‟s thinking power to business tasks such as tracking the general ledger or billing your
customers.

Application software ranges from games, calculators, and word processors (document
creating programs), to programs that “paint” images on screen (image editors). Applications
represent real world tasks. They can be easily divided by looking at exactly what function they
serve. Some of the most commonly used application software is discussed below:

1. Word processor:
A word processor is software used to compose, format, edit, and print electronic documents.
Word processing is one of the earliest applications for office productivity and the personal
computer. It involves not only typing, but also checking the spelling and grammar of the text and
arranging it correctly on the page. A variety of different typefaces is available for a verity of effects.
It is possible to include pictures, graphs, charts and many other things within the text of the
document. It also allows for changes in margins, fonts, and colour. Nowadays, virtually all personal
computers are equipped with a word processing program, which has the same function as a
typewriter for writing letters, reports or other documents, and printing. Examples of some well-
known word processors are Microsoft Word and Word Perfect.

2. Spreadsheets:
One of the first commercial uses of computers was in processing payroll and other financial
records, so the programs were designed to generate reports in the standard “spreadsheet” format
bookkeepers and accountants used. A spreadsheet application is a rectangular grid, which allows

21
text, numbers, and complex functions to be entered into a matrix of thousands of individual cells.
The spreadsheet provides sheets containing cells each of which may contain text and / or numbers.
Cells may also contain equations that calculate results from data placed in other cells or series of
cells. A simple example might be a column of numbers totaled in a single cell containing an
equation relating to that column.

Spreadsheet software are used predominantly for accounting a other numerically-based

tasks, because financial and mathematical data and analysis are often managed in a tabular style,
with columns of financial figures being manipulated and then influencing other data computations.
Microsoft Excel and Lotus 1-2-3 are examples of spreadsheet applications.

3. Image Editors:
Image editor programs are designed specifically for capturing, creating, editing, and
manipulating images. These graphics programs provide a variety of special features for creating and
altering images. In addition to offering a host of filters and image transformation algorithms, some
image editors also enable the user to create and superimpose layers. Most graphic programs have
the ability to import and export one or more graphic file formats. These computer programs enable
the user to adjust an image to improve its appearance. With image editing software, one can darken
or lighten an image, rotate it, adjust it contrast, crop out extraneous detail, and much more.
Examples of these programs are Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator and CorelDraw.

4. Database management systems:

Database management software is a collection of computer programs that allow storage,
modification, and extraction of information from a database in an efficient manner. It supports the
structuring of the database in a standard format and provides tools for data input, verification,
storage, retrieval, query, and manipulation. When such software is used, information systems can be
changed much more easily as the organization‟s information requirements change. New categories
of data can be added to the database without disrupting the existing system. It also controls the
security and integrity of the database from unauthorized access. FoxPro and Oracle are database
management systems.

5. Presentation applications:
A presentation is a means of assessment, which requires presentation providers to present
their work orally in the presence of an audience. It combines both visual and verbal elements.
Presentation software allows the user to create presentations by producing slides or handouts for
presentation of projects. Essentially, such computer programs allow users to create a variety of
visually appealing electronic slides for presentation. Microsoft PowerPoint is one of the most
famous presentation application.

6. Desktop publishing software:

The term desktop publishing is usually used to describe the creations of printed documents
using a desktop computer. It is a technique of using a personal computer to design images and
pages, and assemble type and graphics, then using a laser printer or image-setter to output the
assembled pages onto paper, film, or printing plate. These softwares are used for creating
magazines, books, newsletters, and so on. Such software assist in creating sophisticated documents
including complicated page designs, detailed illustrations, and camera-ready types faces. Quark
Express and Adobe PageMaker are desktop publishing software.

Some Points for discussion

i. What is computer hardware?

22
 ii. Identify and explain the functions of computer parts/hardware
iii. Write short notes on input and output devices
iv. What is the difference between memory and storage? Why do we require both to function
properly?
v. What are the functions performed by CPU?
vi. Explain in detail the various types of printers
vii. Write short notes on Primary Storage Devices and Secondary Storage Devices
viii. List out the differences between hardware & software.

Points for Discussion

1) Discuss in detail about the features of software?.
2) Explain in detail the various categories of software.
3) Write short notes of the basic functions of Operating System.
4) What are language translators? Explain.
5) State and explain the functions of system utility software.
6) What are application software? Explain the most commonly used application software.
7) Write notes on applications of computers in business

TYPES OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Introduction
Our society is being reshaped by rapid advances in information technologies, Computer,
Telecommunication networks and other digital systems that have vastly increased our capacity to
know, achieve and collaborate. These technologies allow people to transmit information quickly
and widely, linking distance places and to create communities that just a decade ago were
unimaginable.
It is difficult to appreciate just how quickly information technology is evolving. Five
decades ago ENIAC, one of the earliest computers stood ten feet tall and stretched eighty feed wide;
while today, one can buy a musical greeting card with a silicon chip that is 100 times faster than
ENIAC. This extraordinary phase of information technology is bringing people and cultures
together and creating new social dynamics in the process. It is leading to the formation of closely
bonded and widely dispersed community of people united by their interest in doing business or in
sharing experiences and intellectual pursuits. New forms of knowledge accumulation are
developing, as are computer based learning system that opened the way to innovate modes of
instruction and learning.

A computer is an electronic machine, operating under the control instructions stored inside
its memory. As an aid in problem solving, it accepts data, both numeric and non numeric, processes
and presents it in the desired form.
The following are the various types of computer systems:

Various types of Computer Systems

1. Analog Computers
Analog is the Greek word, which means similar. So, in analog computers, the similarities
between any two quantities are measure by electrical voltages or current. The analog computers
operate by measuring instead of counting.

23
 The analog computer works on the supply of continuous electrical signals. The display is
also continuous. Its output is in the form of graphs.

Analog Signal: An analog signal is a continuous variable electromagnetic wave. It can

consume an infinite number of voltage or current values.

Characteristics of analog computer

The analog computer has the following important characteristics:
a) It operates by measuring.
b) It requires physical analog.
c) It functions on continuously varying quantities.
d) The output is usually represented in the form of graph.
e) In analog, the calculations are first converted in equation and later converted into electrical
signals.
f) The accuracy of the output is poor.
g) It has limited memory space.
h) It is not versatile. i.e., it has limited application.
i) The speed of analog computer is low.
j) Not suitable for business and industry.

2. Digital Computers
These computers work with quantities represented as digits. They operate on discrete
quantities. In digital computer, both numeric and non- numeric information are represented as
strings of digits. These computers use binary codes, 0‟s and 1‟s, to represent the information. The
information is given to the computer in the form of discrete electrical signals.

The basic operation performed by a digital computer is addition. Hence, the other operations
such as multiplication, division, subtraction and exponentiation are first converted into “addition”
and then computed.
Characteristics of digital computer
The digital computer has the following characteristics:
a) It operates by counting.
b) It functions on discrete numbers.
c) The calculations are converted into binary numbers i.e., 1s and 0s.
d) The output is represented in the form of discrete values.
e) Its accuracy is good.
f) It has large memory space
g) It is versatile in nature and is suitable for a number of applications
h) In digital computers, the numbers, words and symbols can be used.
i) Its processing speed is high.
j) It is highly suitable for business application.

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 Analog VS Digital computer

S. No Analog computer Digital computer

1 It operates by measuring It operates by counting

2 It requires physical analog It functions on discrete numbers

3 The calculations are first The calculations are converted into
converted to equations and later binary numbers(1s and 0s)
converted into electrical signals
4 The output is in the form of The output is in the form of
graph discrete values
More accurate
5 Less accurate
High speed
6 Less speed
More memory is available
7 Limited memory is available
Highly flexible
8 Lacks flexibility
Can process alpha number
9 Cannot process alpha- information
numeric information More number of applications
10 Limited application
Highly suitable for business
11 Not suitable for applications
business applications

3. Hybrid computers:
The computer which possess the features of both analog and digital computers are called
hybrid computers. That is, the hybrid computers have the good qualities of both analog and
digital computer.

With the hybrid computer the user can process both continuous and discrete data. This
computer accepts either digital or analog or both types of input and gives the results as per
requirements through special devices. In the hybrid computers a converter is fixed to convert the
analog data into digital data and vice versa. These are special purpose devices and are not widely
used.
Hybrid Computers

Analog Special purpose

Hybrid digital

General purpose
Digital

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4. General Purpose Computer
These are designed and constructed to cater almost all the needs of the society. They can
perform various operations. In fields of engineering, science, commerce and industry. They are
able to perform according to the programs created to meet different needs. The general – purpose
computer can be used to prepare stores reports, sales reports, payroll, etc. a general purpose
computer can solve a much broader class problems specifically a general purpose digital
computer is remarkably versatile.

5. Special Purpose Computers

These computers are designed to solve a particular problem or task, the computers are
provided with limited memory and speed necessary for a particular job. The instructions needed
to perform the particular task are incorporated into the internal memory of the computer. It does
not posses unnecessary options, hence it is economical. E.g. Business purpose computers and
scientific purpose computers.

6. Micro Computers
Because of its small size and the use of micro-processor, this computer is called micro
computer. All the computers have three units namely input, output and central processing unit,
(CPU). The entire CPU is contained in a single or a few microchips. When equipped with
memory and input/output control circuitry, it is called micro computer. Its storage capacity is low
when compared to mini and main frame computers. It is able to accept most of the high level
languages. However, it uses an interpreter or complier for running high level languages.

Microchips contain micro electronic circuitries which are very tiny. Large numbers of
these can be packed tightly on to a single tiny piece of silicon. Silicon is a material found in sand.
The microchip is made by building up a series of very thin layers of silicon and of the tiny
components which are held in it.

The Micro computers are small and portable. They are relatively inexpensive, the micro
computers have excellent graphic capabilities. The maximum word length varies according to the
configuration of the microcomputers.
Kinds of Microchips
The microchips can be classified as follows:
a) Micro Processors: These are the most powerful kind. They are almost tiny computers in
themselves. Each one ahs a processing Unit, a memory and a special area to handle input and
output. Microprocessors are the most important part of the CPU of a modern computer
b) Memory Chips: These are the common form of computer memory. They are used to hold
information either temporarily or permanently.
c) Input and Output Chips: In these chip circuits the flow of information is the both
directions.
Features of Micro Computers
a) Its storage capacity is low.
b) Its rate of acceptance and transfer of data is limited i.e., a maximum of 5 lack bytes / second.
c) It is able to accept most high level languages. However it uses an interpreter when running
high level language because most micros do not have sufficiently large memory to support
compliers.
d) The maximum word length it holds is 16-bits.

26
Advantages
a) They are small and portable.
b) They are relatively inexpensive.
c) They work as soon as they are switched on.
d) They have excellent graphic capabilities,
e) They do not occupy much space.
f) They do not consume much power.
Disadvantages
a) Micros have a limited storage capacity.
b) They are relatively slow.

7. Workstation
Workstation is a type of computer used for engineering applications (CAD/ CAM), desk
top publishing, software development, and other types of applications that required a moderate
amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities. Workstations
generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, at least 64MB (Mega bytes) of
RAM, built – in network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a
mass storage device such as a dish drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless
workstation, comes without a disk drive. The most common operating systems for workstations
are UNIX and Windows NT. In terms of computing power, workstations lie between personal
computers and mini-computers, although the line is fuzzy on both ends high-end personal
computers are equivalent to low-end workstations. And high-end workstations are equivalent to
minicomputers. Like personal computers, most workstations are single-user computers.
However, workstations are typically liked together to form a local-area network, although they
can also be used as stand-alone systems.

8. Mini Computers
The size of the mini-computer is in between the size of micro and main frame computers.
It is more powerful than a micro computer. Mini computers are usually designed to serve
multiple users. Today, mini- computers are the popular data processing systems in the field of
business and industry. These computers accept all high level languages.

Characteristics
1. It is a general purpose machine with a smaller CPU than a main frame
2. Its storage capacity is about 2 mega words
3. Its word lengths are usually 12, 16, 24, 32 bits.
4. Its rate of acceptance and transfer of data is a maximum of 4 million bytes/seconds
5. It can support all high level languages.
6. It can support many terminals i.e., more than 20 terminals.

Advantages
a) It performs almost all the tasks that a mainframe computer does.
b) It is relatively inexpensive and is within the purchasing power of the small and medium sized
business firms.

Disadvantages
a) They are very expensive
b) They required large room space.
c) Their consumption of electricity is very high.
d) Maintenance coast is also very high.

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 9. Mainframe
A mainframe is an ultra high performance computer made for high volume, processor intensive
computing. It is mainly used for large volumes of data processing, high performance online
transaction processing systems.
Mainframe is an industry term for a large computer. The name comes from the way the
machine is build up: all units (processing, communication etc.) were hung into a frame. Thus
the main computer is build into a frame, therefore: Mainframe. Mainframes are typically
manufactured by large companies such as IBM, Amdahl, Hitachi.
Their main purpose is to run commercial applications of Fortune 1000 businesses and other
large-scale computing purposes.
Think here of banking and insurance businesses where enormous amounts of data are
processed, typically (at least) millions of records, each day.
But what classifies a computer as a mainframe?
 A mainframe has 1 to 16 CPU's (modern machines more)
 Memory ranges from 128 Mb over 8 Gigabyte on line RAM
 Its processing power ranges from 80 over 550 MIPS
 Large number of simultaneous users
 Large memory and storage capacity

10. Super Computers

The super computers are very costly. Hence it is rarely used. Its capacity is abnormally
high, it cannot be compared with any other computers in capacity, function, speed, accuracy,
language etc., they have operations done in parallel, rather than sequential. They are employed
for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations. The
chief difference between a super computer and a main frame computer is that a super computer
channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible. But main frame uses its
power to execute many programs concurrently. CRAY – 3, Cyber 205, and PARAM are some
well known super computers.

Characteristics
a) They use several processors working simultaneously.
b) They process at a rapid speed.
c) The main memory ranges form 8 to 64 megabytes.
d) They have operations done in parallel, rather than sequentially. They are used in weather
forecasting, supersonic aircrafts design and other works that require billions of calculations
per second.
e) They can be used for animated graphics- fluid dynamic calculations etc.,

11. Laptop computer:

Laptop computer, simply laptop (notebook computer or notebook), is a small mobile computer,
which usually weighs 2-18 pounds (1-6 kilograms), depending on size, materials, and other
factors.

Laptops usually run on a single main battery or from an external AC/DC adapter which
can charge the battery while also supplying power to the computer itself. Many computers also
have a 3 volt cell to run the clock and other processes in the event of a power failure.

As personal computers, laptops are capable of the same tasks as a desktop computer,
although they are typically less powerful for the same price. They contain components that are

28
similar to their desktop counterparts and perform the same functions, but are miniaturized and
optimized for mobile use and efficient power consumption. Laptops usually have liquid crystal
displays and most of them use different memory modules for their random access memory
(RAM), for instance, SO-DIMM in lieu of the larger DIMMs. In addition to a built- in keyboard,
they may utilize a touchpad (also known as a trackpad) or a pointing stick for input, though an
external keyboard or mouse can usually be attached.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF DIGITAL COMPUTER

Today, the most commonly used computers in business are digital computers. Even
though they may differ in constructional details, the basic principles of operation are almost the
same.
A computer is basically a device used for processing of data, it performs the following
three operations in sequence:
a) Receives the data and instruction.
b) Processes the data as per the instructions.
c) Output the result i.e., information.
This cycle of operation of a computer is known as the input process – Output cycle. This can
be explained in the following figure.

IPO - Cycle

Input Output
Process

Instructions
The data are provided to the computer through the input devices. They are encoding
such a way, which the computer can understand. The computer then processes the data with the
help of instructions provided to it, then it produces a meaningful and desired output known as
information.

The above functions are collectively known as the basic principles of operation of a
digital computer. These can be expanded as follows:
a) Accepting inputs
b) Memory manipulation
c) Arithmetic operations
d) Decision making and
e) Giving output
Block diagram of a computer

ALU

INPUT MEMORY OUTPUT

CONTROL

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1. Analog computers- calculations are converted to equations and then converted into electrical
signals. Output is in the form of graph.
2. Digital computers- calculations are converted into binary numbers and output is in the form
of discrete numbers.
3. Hybrid computers include the characteristics of both analog and digital computers.
4. A micro computer is a small, low cost digital computer, which usually consists of a
microprocessor, a storage unit, an input and output channel, all of which maybe on one chip
inserted into one or several PC boards. Micro computers include desktop, laptop and
handheld models such as PDAs
5. A mini computer is a small digital computer, which is normally able to process and store less
data than a mainframe but more than a micro computer.
6. A mainframe is an ultra high performance computer made for high volume, processor
intensive computing. It is mainly used for large volumes of data processing, high
performance online transaction processing systems.
7. A super computer is a special purpose machine. There are unique and parallel architectures in
order to achieve high speed and being effective on a small range of problems.

Points for discussion

1) Explain in detail about various types of computers.
2) Write short notes on the characteristics of analog & Digital Computers.

IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTERS IN BUSINESS

Computer plays an important role in business environment as every organisation adopts it in
some form or the other to perform the tasks in effective manner. In the past few years‟ rapid
development in IT, particularly in communications, electronic service networks, and multimedia have
opened up new opportunities for corporates. All these are contributing towards new and effective
ways of processing business transactions, integrating business processes, transferring payments and
delivering services electronically. It has affected the business in the following ways:

1. Office Automation
Computers have helped automation of many industrial and business systems. They are
used extensively in manufacturing and processing industries, power distribution systems, airline
reservation systems, transportation systems, banking systems, and so on. Computer aided design

(CAP) and computer-aided manufacture (CAM) are becoming popular among the large industrial
establishment.

2. Stores large amount of date and information

Business and commercial organizations need to store and maintain voluminous records
and use them for various purposes such as inventory control, sales analysis, payroll accounting,
resources scheduling and generation of management reports. Computers can store and maintain
files and can sort, merge or update as and when necessary.
3. Improves Productivity
With the introduction of word processing software, Computers have recently been applied
to the automation of office tasks and procedures. This is aimed at improving the productivity of
both clerical & managerial staff.

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4. Sharing of data and information
Due to networking of computers, where a number of computers are connected together to
share the data and information, use of e- mail and internet has changed the ways of business
operations.

5. Competitiveness
Computers offer a reliable and cost-effective means of doing business electronically.
Routine tasks can be automated. The customers can be provided support round the clock, which
is 24 hours a day. With advancement in IT sector, corporates are spreading business around the
world thus, increasing their presence and entering new markets.
6. Security
To provide security to data and important computer programs, almost every organisation
has some security programs to avoid the illegal access of the company‟s information by
unauthorized persons. The three fundamental attributor of a security program are confidentially,
integrity and availability which allow access to only authorized persons in an organization.
7. Cost Benefits
The extensive availability of internet based information means that companies have a wider
choice of suppliers which leads to a more competitive pricing. Due to the presence of internet the
role of the middleman becomes less important as companies can sell their product or services
directly to the customer.
8. Marketing
Corporates engaged in e-business can take help of their respective websites to create brand
awareness of their products, thus, creating new avenues of promotion of their products. In
addition, companies‟ websites can also provide better services such as after sales service to the
customer.

APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS
Introduction
Computer plays a very important role in each and every aspect of our life, be it banking,
insurance or transportation, it is useful for preparing payroll of the employees, maintenance of
optimum inventory level, sales order processing, reservation of tickets etc. It processes the
transactions very quickly and accurately. So, it finds applications in various stages of business

Business Applications
The following are some of the areas of business in which computers are applied:

1. Payroll Processing:
Business means selling goods and services. To carry out such activities, business
management employs people. They have to be paid monthly salaries and the details regarding
pay particulars of employees have to be kept track.
Business community employs computers for such payroll applications and runs a
program consisting of a number of smaller programs or modules. Each module performs a
particular function of the payroll. Sometimes we call this set of programs as payroll system.

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 To calculate the pay of an employee, management normally uses the following details
employees.
(1) Employee number (This is a unique number assigned to the employee to identify him just as
your roll number in the school) (2) Name, (3) Basic pay, (4) Allowances (House rent allowance
and other allowances), (5) deductions (Example Provident Fund deduction) and (6) Bank account
number. These details above the employees do not change but they have to be used every month.
So they are entered into a file in a computer storage medium and permanently stored. This file
goes with the name master file. The file creation module of the payroll system creates this file
once.

Before calculation of the pay of employees every month, some figures in the master need
changes. For example, if an employee completes a year of service, he normally gets an
increment. Such figures are updated using the master update module of the payroll system. After
updating, another module of the payroll system reads details from master file and calculates net
pay. The program also prints out pay slip for each employee to be handed over to him. A pay slip
shows the employee number, name, basic pay, various allowances, various deductions and net
pay.

The payroll system also generates a number of statements. It prints out the statement
showing employee number, name, bank account number and net pay. This statement is sent to
the bank, which transfers the net pay from the company‟s account to the individual employee‟s
account in the bank. Some companies copy this statement on to a floppy and send to the bank
which processes this statement on its computer.

The payroll system generates a provident fund deduction statement. This statement shows
the employee numbers, names and amount deducted. Another statement showing the names,
employee numbers and tax deducted is printed. The company sends it to Income Tax office. Thus
we see that a number of statements can be printed from the same master file.

2. Inventory Control:
The second application is the use of computers to keep track of the purchase and issues of
parts and raw materials needed in an organization. These parts and raw materials are called
inventories and the set of programs used to keep track of the purchase and issue of these
inventories constitute the inventory control system.

In business, a particularly quantity of each item or raw material has to be stocked. Too
less a stock would result in non-availability of these items, when the manufacturing activity
needs it. Too much of stock of these means, more money in terms of investment in buying the
excess stock. Business pays interest on money invested, and the excess interest paid on cost of
excess stock is a loss to business. So the business maintains an optimum quantity of material.
The inventory control system maintains a file with part number, name, quantity on stock a level
of stock at which the company orders for fresh quantity (called reorder level) and the suppliers‟
addresses. This file is the inventory master.

When an item is issued, the inventory update program updates the inventory master reducing
the stock by the quantity issued. If the resultant stock falls below the reorder level, the inventory
control program prints out an order to the supplier of the item automatically. It can be mailed to
the supplier. When the supplier supplies the item, the inventory control program updates the
stock on hand.

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 The inventory control system keeps track of the supplies and issues. So, it can tell the
management of the company the usage of these items over a period of time quickly. It also
maintains an optimum level of stock of these items.

3. Sales Order Processing

Real –time systems offer the possibility of a greatly prompt service to the customer. His
order can be processed within virtually no time. The finished goods inventory file may have data
terminals throughout the sales territory. So much that the CRT‟s can be made to display the
invoice on a terminal for the salesman who is in the customer‟s plant and can input the
particulars there and then! The customer would be made immediately in the general ledge. The
invoice can also be posted to the accounts receivable file instantaneously. The selection of
warehouse that is closest to the customer can also be made and a coy of the invoice could be
displayed at the warehouse terminals. Beside, the following functions can be performed rapidly.
  The inquiries about the customer‟s accounts status can be answered by the salesman.
 Credit appraisal can be carried out on- line.
 Sales analysis master file can be updated online. This file provides a ready
Information to the sales manager regarding sales trends, etc.,
 Inventory replenishment order can be determined as a part of the sales order processing.

ON-LINE APPLICATIONS

4. Banking:
In banks the customers, present cheques for withdrawing money. The clerk verifies from
the register the signature of the customer. (The customer has signed in the application form while
opening an account). Then he checks from a ledger the customer‟s balance. If the customer has
sufficient balance to cover the cheque amount, the clerk passes the cheque for payment, and
updates the balance

There are a number of operations that the bank carries out of which the above is an example. We
will see how the above operation called personal banking is computerized.

Suppose you want to open a bank account. The bank official hands over a form to you.
You fill up the details (such as name, address, profession etc.) and sign the application. The bank
stores this information in a computer on which a banking software runs. The customer‟s
signature is scanned by suitable devices and incorporated in the computer file.

If you present a cheque to the clerk in the bank, he can check the signature manually. If
he is satisfied with the correctness, he can enter you account number and the cheque amount into
the computer which checks your account and updates the amount. The clerk then pays you the
money. In the method, the payment is manual and accounting is automatic. There is another way
where the checking of you accounts as well as payment is made by computer using an automatic
teller machine. Let us study this.

A machine similar to automatic coffee vending machine is installed at selected places. It

is connected to the bank‟s computer. When you open an account, the bank gives you a special
type of card. Your name, account number and address are suitably recorded. Your signature is
magnetically recorded in that card. All these details are suitably converted and recorded in the
computer also. When you want to withdraw money, you go to the teller counter and press a few
buttons. You then insert your card in the slot provided in the machine. The machine reads you
account number and signature from the card. It sends them to the computer which checks you
account number and signature. If they tally, the computer sends a relevant message to the

33
automatic teller machine. It asks you to enter the amount. You may enter the amount through the
buttons on the machine. Again the computer checks if you have sufficient balance. If so, it
instructs the machine to pay you. The ATM then delivers the cash on the tray fixed in it. You
may collect the money.

This is only one example of application of computer in banks. Now large systems
installed at the head office of a particular bank are connected to systems installed at its branches
all over the country. The computers of different banks are also connected together. By sending
suitable messages money can be transferred from one bank to the other. This is called Electronics
Funds Transfer.

5. Railway Reservation System:

Application of computers in railway reservation has made tremendous impact in India.
Before computerizing, there were a number of counters, each counter serving a particular train or
a few trains. If you want to make a reservation to, say Delhi, you have to go to the particular
counter and join the queue. The clerk had a register in which two or three pages are allotted to
each date. He may have two or three more registers for other trains for which he is making
reservation.

He puts seat numbers on a page one by one and keeps writing the names of passengers for
whom he reserves seats against seat numbers. After some time, if somebody cancels his ticket, he
strikes off the name. When the next person reserves for that time and date, the clerk writes his
name above the cancelled name. This gives rise to lot of confusions. In a number of situations,
two persons used to be allotted the same seat.
With the increasing population the Government is increasing the number of trains. Thus
the volume of data to be handled has also increased enormously. You can just imagine the
confusion this will create if we are still following the manual system of reservation.

We just saw how manual system has become unsuitable in the present context. Now let us
study how the computerized railway reservation system works.

There is a central computer with a number of terminals connected to it the details of all
trains for which reservation is done at the region are stored in the computer. The railway
reservation system runs on this computer. The terminals are situated in booking counters. It is
possible to install the terminals in a far off place and connect them to the computer through
cables.

When the passenger presents the reservation form to the booking clerk he enters the train
number, date, name, age and other details of the passenger. The program checks availability of
seats in that particular train on that particular date. If accommodation is available, the clerk
presses a button on the key board and the computer prints out the ticket on the printer connected
to the terminal. It also updates the computer file to reflect the new reservation position.

Suppose you wanted the ticket for train number 1, but you get only a waiting list. The
clerk tells you your position in the waiting list. If you want you can get a wait listed ticket. If not,
you tell the clerk to check for accommodation in a different train to your destination. The clerk
only has to re-enter the train number. The computer checks availability, reserves you ticket on
that train if a seat is available and prints the ticket.

34
 Thus you can go to any booking counter and request for reservation in any train being
operated on that station. Also the errors found in the manual reservation method are eliminated.

The reservation system is broader based as follows: Today computers in different cities
are connected together. (It is called networking). Suppose you are in Coimbatore. You want to
book your journey from Madras to Coimbatore. You can go to a booking counter (Railways have
opened a number of booking counters in the same city) in Coimbatore and reserve your ticket
from Madras to Coimbatore. Thus there is lot of flexibility in reservation.

We studied that computers are capable of storing lot of data on the hard disk. They are
also capable of retrieving data fast. So the list of passengers for a particular day for a particular
train is also printed out very fast.

The reservation data for a number of trains over a period of time is available. By suitable
software, the railway authorities can prepare the data regarding passengers traveling in different
trains to different places during different periods. This helps them plan for new trains, reschedule
the running trains and make lot of analysis regarding passenger traffic.

6. Air Lines Reservation System:

We saw how computers handle the railway reservation and offer a number of advantages.
They can be used also in Airlines reservation. Only difference will be that some booking
counters in the reservation network may be situated in different countries.
This means that we have to connect computers across the countries. Such networks are
operational now.
In the coming years, computerized reservation systems will become very common. Even
hotel accommodation reservation systems for major hotels are coming up. If we integrate flight
and hotel reservation, it is convenient for the passengers.

REAL-TIME APPLICATIONS

In real time applications, computers control an on going activity. Let us consider the
example of a manufacturing process. A product C is made from raw materials A and B. The
quality of C depends upon, among other things, the quality of A and B and their quantities. In big
manufacturing processes, raw materials are fed by machineries. Due to problems i n machineries,
the performances may vary from machine to machine. This affects the quality of final product.
Manual inspection of quality and operation of these machineries to control the quantity are slow.
This slows the manufacture of C from raw materials A and B. Signals from C are fed to the
computer. Suitable sensors are installed in the lines carrying raw materials as well as finished
product. These generate signals. The values of these signals for correct proportion of raw
materials are stored in the computer. When the process is on signals keep coming from the output
line depending up the quality of finished product.

Let us see what happens if either A or B varies in quality. The quality of the finished
product also suffers. The sensor in the finished product line senses this. The signals generated by
it change in strength. They are sent to the computer. It compares the signals with already stored
signals. The difference is used to change the quantity of raw materials A and B.

Manual control of this process is slow. Moreover, if people inspect quality and operate
machineries feeding raw materials, they become tired after sometime. But computer does not. So
the quality of product is uniform. Moreover, there may be processes where the presence of

35
human beings continuously for hours together will be injurious to their health. In such places
computer control avoids such ill-effects.

7. Education
Today, most schools and higher educational institutions have computers in the
classroom for teacher and students. In education, teachers, students, researchers and school
administrators benefits from the usage of ICT. Teachers use computers to research for teaching
materials, participate in online forums and online conferences as well as to aid their teaching.
Students use the computers as a reference tool. They use computers to browse the Internet to look
for information. Researchers use computers to collect and process data. School administrators use
computers for administrative purposes to make sure that the entire operation runs smoothly.

Open Distance Learning (ODL) or online learning can be implemented as computers are the main
medium in delivering the knowledge from one location to the other locations. This type of
learning consists of online forum, discussion, quizzes, test questions and many more.

8. Industry
Computers are used to facilitate production planning and control systems, to support
chain management and to help in product design in the industrial sector. In the industrial sector,
workers, researchers and administrators benefits from the usage of ICT. Workers use machines
that are connected to computers to operate. In some productions, robots are used to take over jobs
that are dangerous to the workers. Researchers use computers to analyze and collect research data
for future reference. Administrators use computers to oversee the entire operations in the plant or
factory to detect specific errors or defects that occurred in the process.

9. E-Commerce
E-commerce helps in boosting the economy. It makes buying and selling activities
easier, more efficient and faster. For this application, computers, Internet and shared software
are needed. In the e-commerce sector, customers, suppliers and employees benefits from the
usage of ICT. Customers use computers to be connected online with suppliers to purchase
products. This method can save time and cost as they do not have to go to any outlets. Suppliers
use computers to keep track of their transactions. All products are bar coded and can be read by
the computer scanner to help in determining prices and managing inventory. Employees use
computers and telephones to communicate with their customers for any enquiries.

10. Healthcare
In the medical field, computers are very important in running the operations. Medical staffs use
computers for various purposes, namely:
 Maintaining patient records
 Monitoring patients‟ vital sign
 Assisting doctors, nurses and technicians with medical tests by using computer and
computerised devices.
 Using medical software to help with researching and diagnosing health conditions.

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 SUM UP
1. Computer is useful in business processes like payroll processing for generating statements
useful for various departments like provident office, ESI etc.
2. It is useful for inventory control activities such as maintaining optimum inventory level and
re-order level.
3. Online applications in banking and reservation have brought about advantages like saving of
time and money.
4. Car manufacturing industries and other production functions use real time applications
effectively.
For example visit Indian railways website to know how online ticket reservation is made.

Points for discussion

1. Explain in detail about the application of computers in business.
2. Explain in detail about on- line applications.
3. Write short notes on Real- Time Applications.

DATA PROCESSING
Data Processing Concepts
  Data
Data means any collection of raw hand figures facts. Data can be considered as the raw
material of information. The data may be numerical such as payroll, employee Number, etc.
or non- numerical like Student names, Product names, etc.

  Data Processing
As data is in its raw form it cannot solve any problem. The data needs some processing to
make it useful. Data processing is the conversion of data into a more useful form. That is,
transmission of data into meaningful information is called data processing.

 Information
The result obtained by data processing is called information. That is, the processed data is
known as information. However, information produced in one data processing step may be
used as data in the next data processing step.

DATA Vs INFORMATION
Data
Information

Raw records Completed One

Un ordered Ordered
Unrefined Data Refined Data
What prevails What is necessary?

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DATA PROCESSING CYCLE
Data Processing is viewed as a system that accepts data as input, processes it into
information as output. This can be explained with the help of the following diagram.

INPUT OUTPUT

Data PROCESSING Information

Data

DATA TYPES
The data types may be as follows:
1. Qualitative data: It denotes the characteristics of things such as Average, Fair etc.
2. Quantitative data: It is expressed in terms of measurable quantities such as 10 KG, 40
degree Celsius etc.
3. Numeric Types: The data types may also be an integer (+, -) without any fractional part or
real number which includes integers and fractions.
4. Floating Point Representation: These data types consist of 3 components namely:
(1) Mantissa (2) Radix or Base and (3) Exponent
Besides the above, the data types include alphabetic data and alphanumeric data.

KINDS OF DATA PROCESSING

The important kinds of data processing are as follows:
1. Manual Data Processing: Data is processed without the help of mechanical devices. Here
the data is processed using manual things such as abacus, slide rule, Napier bones etc.
2. Mechanical Data Processing: In Mechanical Data Processing, mechanical devices like
calculators, tabulators, etc, are used for processing.
3. Electronic Data Processing: In Electronic Data Processing, the data is processed by either
analog or digital computer.

OBJECTIVES OF DATA PROCESSING

After the industrial revolution, the needs of the mankind increased. Man had to deal with
large volume of data. He had to cope up with more and more information. The information
collected is to be sorted out, stored and retrieved at short intervals. This necessitated the concept
of data processing.

As the complexities of business increased, the number of functions to be performed also

increased. The data processing system must be responsible to supply the information when it is
needed, so as to make the performance of the organization optimum.

Let us have a look at the general objectives of Data Processing.

1. Handle huge volume of Data:

The basic objective of data processing is to handle huge data in order to enable the
organization to function efficiently.

2. Qualitative and quantitative information:

The next important want of data processing is to provide qualitative and quantitative
information.

38
3. Proper and Timely Information:
Different kinds of information are needed in almost all organizations. Data processing
provides correct and timely information.

4. Storage and retrieval of data:

Through data processing, information can be stored and retrieved as and when necessary.

5. Helps in Decision-making:
In every organization various decisions are taken at different levels. Such decisions can
be more accurate if effective data processing system is used

6. Improves Productivity:
To improve productivity, various measures are to be identified and implemented. It is
possible through the properly designed data processing system.

7. Maintaining Performance at Optimum Level:

To maintain the performance of the organization at best possible level various functions at
different levels of the organization are to be coordinated. There should be a smooth flow of
information among various functional departments. This can be easily achieved through data
processing system.

8. Efficient Office Management:

In office management also data processing plays a very important role, through which
office automation can be done.

STEPS IN DATA PROCESSING

1. Identifying the data
2. Input of Data.
3. Manipulation of Data.
4. Output of Information.
5. Storage of Information

1. Identifying the data

Accuracy of information depends on accurate data input. The first step in data processing
therefore, is to locate necessary facts and figures from source documents. Accurate, relevant and
adequate data must be used as input.

2. Input of data:
After extracting the necessary data from the source documents, they must be transposed
in a suitable form acceptable to the computer. Great care should be taken to avoid wrong entries
in the forms.

3. Manipulation of data:
It involves the process of shifting, sorting and rearranging the given input. Before
processing, validation procedures may be built in to the code to so that input forms do not accept
any incorrect data.

39
4. Output of information:
The main purpose of data processing is to provide meaningful information to the
decision- maker. Hence, in data processing the person involved must be very careful about what
information is needed and in what form he likes to have it.

5. Storage of information:
The data processed need to be kept for future use. All the processed data will need some
form of secondary storage. When storing the data, it is always important to maintain a backup. It
should be noted that at each and every step the storage might be done.

PRACTICAL DATA PROCESSING APPLICATIONS IN BUSINESS

The following are some data processing information undertaken by commercial
organizations.
1. Process Control:
In the production process, a computer is directly connected to some plant to control and
monitor it. Here, the computer receives the data directly from the plant. It analyses the input data
and initiates action to control the on- going process.

2. Accounting:
The Data Processing System can be used to maintain the accounting records and in
preparation of final accounts. The general ledger, Accounts Payable, Accounts Receivable, etc.,
are the examples for the computerized accounting systems followed in most business
organizations.

3. Payroll preparation:
In personnel department the data processing system is used to record the operations of the
number of employees of different departments in each shifts, leave taken, deductions such as
ESI, PF and finally in the preparation of Pay Slips.

4. Sales Analysis:
The Data Processing system is highly useful in sales analysis. The sales manager can
prepare the sales forecast on the basis of per month‟s sales reports and subsequent future actions
can be taken.

5. Inventory Management:
Actually the Data Processing System is a boon to every organization, in respect of
inventory management. Data Processing is used to maintain up-to-date information about stock,
their costs and to initiate orders when the times are about to be exhausted.

6. Office Automation:
The modem offices and business organizations are dependent upon computer based office
automation for their competitiveness and better management.

7. Banking and Insurance:

Data Processing Systems are highly needed in the Banking sector where the customer
satisfaction is the main criteria. To provide quick and perfect service, data processing system is
used. Automatic Teller machines are places in big cities and linked to central computers. Hence,
the delay in processing is completely avoided.

40
 8. Insurance and stock broking:
Insurance companies and stock broking firms also use the computerized data processing
systems. Large volume of data have to be processed for the preparation of policy statements,
interest calculations, renewal notices and in dealing with the securities.
9. Managerial aid:
The Data Processing System is used as a managerial aid in decision-making for solving
business problems. It is also very useful in the areas of linear programming, PERT, CPM etc.

Today it appears that the computer is everywhere. Not only the business organization, the
other institutions are also using data processing system for their regular use. We cannot think
about a situation without a computer. Robotics and Artificial Intelligence are the two promising
areas of applications.

DATA PROCESSING OPERATIONS

The data after some processing is transformed into information, which is organized and
meaningful. It includes the following operations.
1. Data Generation
It involves the operation of collecting the original data. It implies that the raw data are
collected and set out in the form of original document called a source document.
2. Recording
Here raw data is converted into an acceptable form. That is, the data is transcribed from
the source documents on the cards or on some other specified forms and are made readable for
the machines. This operation is performed throughout the IPO cycle. The punched cards and
paper tapes, magnetic tapes, a magnetic disks, tape cassettes, floppy disks, magnetic drums, tape
cassettes, floppy disks, RAM cartridge, charged coupled devices, etc., are used as data recording
media.
3. Verification
After the data have been recorded, their accuracy has to be checked. This can be done
with the help of another machine called verifier or by re-reading.
4. Classification
Classification of information is the next important operation in which the data is
separated into various categories.
5. Sorting
Sorting involves sequencing the data in a pre-determined order to facilitate processing.
The order may be either alphabetic or numeric.

6. Merging
It is the operation of combining two or more ordered (sorted) sets of data to form another
single ordered set.

7. Calculating
Here calculation of greater magnitude can be processed. Calculation involves solving
equations and manipulation of the source data such as addition, subtraction, etc.

8. Data Storage
The results of processing one set of data are retained in storage for future use of
reference. The basic requirement for utilizing the computer in all business applications is the

41
ability to store and access data. The data is stored in a location called memory referred by its
address. In large organizations, huge volume of data is to be stored and accessed. Hence, some
auxiliary storage devices are also needed for the effective data processing.

The memory is measured by the following units:

(a) BIT (Binary digit)
It is the smallest possible unit of information. It can be either 0 or 1.
(b) NIBBLE
Four bits form one nibble
(c) BYTE
It is a unit of information consisting of fixed number of bits. It is a combination of 8 bits
(d) CHARACTER
It is represented by one byte. It can be a letter, digit, punctuation mark or special
characters.

(e) WORD
The combination of 2 bytes or 4 bytes or 8 bytes is a word.
The data measurement is as follows:
8 bits - 1 byte
1024 bytes - 1 kilobyte (KB)
1024 KB - 1 Mega Byte (MB)
1024 MB - 1 Giga Byte (GB)
1024 GB - 1 Tetra Byte (TB)

(f) SECONDARY STORAGE (Backing/Auxiliary Storage):

(a) Magnetic disk - it includes the following:
Hard disk – Rigid, Floppy disk - Flexible
(b) Magnetic tape
(c) Magnetic drum
(d) Mass storage Device - cartridge
(e) Optical Disks - CD ROM (Compact Disk - ROM)/DVD disk (digital versatile disk)

9. Data Retrieving:
Data retrieving is the process of searching or locating a data item from the storage. In
EDP system, the data is retrieved from the storage device in sequential, indexed sequential or
random access mode. The on-line data storage and retrieval is very useful for the proper
functioning of a modern business establishment.

10. Reporting:
Generally in business data processing, the processing operation comes to an end with the
reporting of data. In this operation the results of the data processing are made available to others.
The processed information may be reported in a number of ways depending on the use of results.
The results may be printed out in the form of pay slips, bills, etc. or in the form of reports as ESI
Reports, PF Reports or Sales Reports, etc.,

SUM UP
1. Data in its raw form cannot be used. It must be converted into information to make it useful.

42
2. To process the data various steps are involved such as identification of data, input and
manipulation of data etc.
3. Data processing is useful for decision making and improving productivity in an organisation.

Points for discussion

1) Write short notes on objective of data processing.
2) What are the steps involved in Data Processing? Explain.
3) Explain the various data processing applications in business
4) Explain in detail about Data Processing Operations.

DATA PROCESSING SYSTEMS

After reading this lesson, you will be able to understand:
1. Various methods of data processing.
2. Draw backs and special features of data processing

Introduction
The methods of data processing depend upon the following factors:
(a) Volume of data to be processed
(b) Complexity of data processing operations
(c) Computational demands
(d) Processing time constraints and
(e) Economic factors.
Various methods or modes of data processing are given below:
(i). The single user system
(ii). Batch processing
(iii). Multi-programming
(iv). On-line Processing
(v). Real-Time processing
(vi). Time sharing concept
(vii). Distributed processing

Data Processing Systems

The methods of data processing are explained below:
1. The single user system
It is one- man show and is indicative of one of the earlier stages of computer development.
Here only one person can work at a time. Hence, especially if the machine is meant for the use of
many persons, much computer time is wasted waiting for one person to finish and debug his
program on the machine.

2. Batch Processing
This is an old system but even today it is used for data processing in computing
machines, in which the capacity of the CPU is limited. In this system, the data is collected for a
predetermined period of time, after which it is accumulated in sequential manner.

In this system the source transaction documents are first collected before being sent to
computer room. A batch of transactions is entered onto a computer media by data entry devices.
The transactions are validated during data entry and verified with the source documents from the

43
 check lists. The validated and verified results on reports are returned to the user departments. In
batch processing system the emphases is on maximizing the computer resource utilization.

In batch processing, the processing cycle called Batch processing cycle repeats itself at
every regular intervals. The elements this cycle are given below:

(i) Data capture.

(ii) Data transmission.
(iii) Data transcription, verification and validation.
(iv) Job Processing.
(v) Job assembly putting together the batch for processing.
(vi) Job disassembly (separating out the reports after processing)
(vii) Reports and distribution.

Features
(a) Here, the data is accumulated into batches and processed periodically.
(b) The jobs are processed one after the other without any user interaction.

The concept of Batch Processing is dearly explained with the help of the following
diagram:
Concept of Batch Processing
Stores Department Production Department

Transaction Transaction

Data Preparation Data Preparation

Punch Cards
Punch Cards

Computer

Report

Examples of applications which can use batch processing are:

(1) Payroll Processing: In payroll processing the data are collected for a stipulated period of
time usually one month and processed at regular intervals after which payments are
distributed to all the employees.
(2) Telephone Billing: Here the subscriber does not get a bill for every call he makes. Instead,
his calls are recorded at a centralized place and are processed on a predetermined period of
time to prepare his bills.
(3) Financial accessing
(4) Budgeting and Budgeting control

44
(5) Production planning and control
(6) Project planning and control
(7) Project planning and control

Drawbacks in Batch Processing:

The following are the drawbacks of batch processing:
1. Time gap between capture of data
2. Time consuming to debug
3. Delay in generating reports

3. Multi-programming:
In batch processing, programs are executed one by one. The memory and ALU of the
machine are not being fully utilized. To get the maximum use of the machine, multi-
programming system is used. “Multi-programming enables to store and execute more than one
program in the CPU at the same time”. The multi-programming concept is event based. The
purpose of multi-programming is to increase utilization of the computer system as whole.

Multi-programming is defined as execution of two or more program that all reside in

primary storage. Since the CPU can execute only one instruction at a time, cannot simultaneously
execute instructions from two or more program. However, it can execute instructions from one
program then from second program then from first again, and so on. This type of processing is
referred to as concurrent execution. Using concept of concurrent execution, multi-programming
operate in the following way:

When processing is interrupted on our program, perhaps to attend an input or output

transfer, the processor switches to another program. This enables all, parts of the system, the
processor, input and output peripherals to be operated concurrently thereby utilizing the whole
system more fully. When operating on one program at a time the processor or peripherals would
be idle for a large proportion, if the total processing time, even though this would be reduced to
some extent by buffering. Buffering enables the processor to execute another instruction while
input or output is taking place rather than being idle while transfer was completed. Even then,
when one program is being executed at a time, basic input and output peripherals such as floppy
disk drive and line printers are slow compared with the electronic speed of the processor and this
causes an imbalance in the system as a whole. However, in a multi-programming environment
the CPU can execute one program's instructions while a second program is waiting for I/O
operations to take place.

In a system of multi-programming storage is allocated for each program. The areas of

primary storage allocated for individual programs are called „partitions‟. Each partitions must
have some form of storage protection and priority protection to ensure that a program must have
some form of storage protection to ensure that a program is one portion will not accidentally
write over and destroy the instructions of another partition and priority (when two or more
programs are residing in primary storage) because both programs will need access to the CPU's
facilities (e.g.; the arithmetic and logic section) A system of priority a method that will determine
which program will have first call on the computer's facilities is normally determined by locating
the program in specific partitions.

Programs that have the highest priority normally are stored in an area called the
„foreground partition‟. Programmes with lowest priority are stored in an area called „background
partition‟.

45
4. On-Line Processing
Definition of Online Processing:
Online processing refers to processing of individual transactions as they occur from their
point of origin as opposed to accumulating them into batches. This is made possible by such
direct access devices as Magnetic disk and Magnetic Drum and number of terminals connected
to, and controlled by a central processor. In this way, various departments in a company can be
connected to the process by cables. If operating companies are a number of miles away from the
processor then they are linked by means of telegraph or telephone lines. This type of processing
provides multi access to information files by terminal users and also enables them to update with
transactions data.

It is a non-sequential process in which data is directly transmitted between input/ output

device and a computer system via communication links. It is a method of processing where many
users have direct access to the same system, and where the file is updated as soon as the
transaction is completed.

Special Features
1. In this method data is not accumulated, instead it is entered and executed directly.
2. Quick Processing - By means of direct communication with the computer and continuous
flow of input, the delay between transactions and their processing is avoided.
3. This method reduces the data entry errors, because the user who generates, the data is the one
who keys it in.
4. This system validates data at various points and ensures that correct data is being entered.
5. Under this method the system performs the whole task in a conversational 'manner helping
the data entry process.
6. In on line processing, one has the latest update immediately.

Online processing ensures that the records are in updated at any time whereas this is so
with batch processing say once a week but the fact remains that online processing is usually more
costly. Therefore in choosing one of the processing both updating of records and costs are to be
considered.
CONCEPT OF ON-LINE PROCESSING

Record MEMORY
TERMINAL 1
Input
Input Storage

Output Storage

Record
Storage
Disk
Program
Storage

Query
TERMINAL 2
Record
System Retrieval
Response

On-line Applications:
Systems are being developed and are already in use for a wide range of application in
different type of industries described below:

46
 a. Electricity and Gas Boards: By means of terminals situated in showroom it is possible to
inform perspective customers of the availability of the appliances in response to their
inquiries.
b. Banking: It is possible to inform bank customers of the status of their accounts in
response to an inquiry by accessing relevant file using on online terminal.
c. Tour Operators Reservation Offices accept telephone inquiries from travel agents
regarding the availability of holidays in respect of client's inquiries. By means of
terminals, the availability of the required holidays can be checked and booked
immediately.
d. Stock Exchange: Terminals located in major stock Exchange through out the country and
the offices of participating brokerage from enable the speedy processing of share
dealings.
e. Stock Control: Terminals located in warehouse provide the means for automatic
recording of stocks, updating of stock records, reservations, follow-up of outstanding
orders and the printing of picking list etc.,
Benefits provided by Online Systems: Online systems provide a number of benefits all of
which assist in improving administrative efficiency which is essential in today's competitive
business environment. A number of benefits are out-lined below:

a. Integration of clerical work with the computer:

On-line systems assist in harnessing activities of clerical staff to the computer by the use
of terminals. They can have access to information which they require for the efficient
performance of their jobs in dealing with customer enquiries and order processing.

b. Elimination of tedious tasks:

Routine clerical tasks are replaced by terminal operations providing a greater degree of
job interest, operating efficiency and job satisfaction.

c. Reduction in paper work:

Volume of paper work generated by normal clerical system and batch processing system
is relatively high. Online systems reduce the volume of print out required for management report
since the information can be displayed on terminal screen on demand.
d. Improved accuracy:
As terminal messages are checked accuracy before being transmitted to the computer by
data validation programs, the quality of formation in a system increases as the input errors are
reduced. Hence, information is more reliable.
e. File updating improved:
Master files are more easily updated by terminal key board with regard to transaction
data, as special runs do not require to be set up as is the case with batch processing applications.
f. Management Information more readily available:
Management information becomes more readily available by direct access facilities
which enables mangers to obtain a greater degree of control to the operations for which they are
responsible.
g. Improved customer services:
Improvements in the level of customers service can be expected in these systems
concerned with appliances sales, booking systems and accounting enquiries.

47
h. Reduced data preparations cost:
On-line system dispense with the need to convert human sensible data into machine
sensible data thereby eliminating punching and verifying operations. This saves time and the cost
associated with such operations.
5. Real Time Processing
It is also called as interactive mode or Direct mode. This system makes the user to have
direct contact with the computer through his terminal. It is an alternative approach to an on- line
processing system. Here the data is processed, the instant it occurs. There is no delay between the
time data is available, and the time it is processed.
The term real time refers to the technique of updating files transactions date immediately
after the event to which it relates occurs. This is in distinction to batch processing which
processes related data to batches of pre-defined periods of time. Real time systems are basically
on- line systems with one specially in inquiry processing. The response of the system to the
inquiry itself is used to control the activity. An on- line production data collection system that
simply accepts input and utilities it for payroll and costing purposes cannot be termed real-time,
but if, on the other hand, the system is designed to provide immediate information to monitor the
production processes, it is a real time system.

Special Features
(a) Program is always under execution.
It produces output to control, direct or affect the outcome of an ongoing activity or process.
(c) In this method, the control is exercise during the actual functioning.
(d) It is meant exclusively to perform one task.
(e) It is like an online system with; title constraints on response time availability.
(f) It is called a real time system because it has to give results based on dead lines
which are imposed by the real world outside.
(g)The data which has to be produced by the systems has to be in such a less time, that they can
influence the external events which are based on this data.
Thus the response of a real time system is one type of feedback control system. The
response time would naturally differ from one activity to another. If the example, it is the
launching of a space vehicle, the response time should be in split second whereas in business
situation even a few minutes of response time may be alright. Online updating in real time
usually leads to transaction as a by-product. For example, the updating in real time a customer's
order may lead to such transactions as dispatch noted and purchase requests, etc. Real time
systems offer accountants and others in business a chance to fulfill the potential of the computer
as a tool of management.
Concept of Real Time Processing
Terminal Terminal Terminal Terminal
1 2 3 4

Computer

Data

48
Guided Missile System
Real Time Processing is suitable in the following type of business operations:
i. Wholesale supplier and manufacture - Availability of stocks.
j. Airline - Flight seat availability.
k. Manufacturing - Status of production orders.
l. Process Control.
m. Space Craft Control.

Real time systems usually operate in multi-programming and multi-processing: This

increases both availability and reliability of the system. CPU's in real time system should possess
the, capability of what is known as program interrupts. These are temporarily stoppage or halts in
the execution of a program so that more urgent messages can be handled on priority. It may be
worth noting that some computers systems are dedicated to real time operations and others
aredesigned to operate in both batch and real time modes so that they can also serve as stand by
unit to each other.

6. Time Sharing
It is a special type of on- line processing in which several users share the resources of an
on- line computer system to avoid turn about time, especially when results are needed quickly;
another system is available i.e., time sharing system. In this method the individual user has an
independent local terminal. The terminal is connected to a main computer, which does all the
processing work.
Under this system each person on a terminal has to log into the system. The system then
lists him in the order in which he has logged on. Once everybody has logged on, the system will
permit the first in the list to run his program. The time given for running the program is generally
10 milliseconds. It is called a time slice or a time slot or a quantum. Starting then, with the first
to log on, each user is given his time slice. Once all have made use of it, the system starts all over
again, repeating the cycle. The system maintained is called a polling system whereby each
terminal is polled on a round robin basis.
All the instructions given by the users are carried to the centrally located main computer
system and processed there and retrieve back by the user instantaneously. Since, the centrally
located main computer has high-speed processor, users may feel that they are sharing the same
computer resources.

Features
1. The processor time is shared between two or more persons.
2. The processor switches from one user's job to another at a rapid rate under the
control of a monitor program.
3. This concept is time based.

49
 The concept of time-sharing can be explained with the help of the following diagram.

Concept of Time –Sharing Processing

Disk

Program
Terminal 1 Program Terminal 1

NI
M
O

O
R
T
Area
Data of
Terminal 1
Terminal 2

Program of
Terminal 2
Terminal 3 Data Area
Program
Data of
Terminal 2
Printer

Let us suppose that there are three terminals, each person on a terminal has to log into
the system. The system then lists him the order in which he has logged on. Once everyone has
logged on, the system will permit the first on the list to run his program. The time given for
writing a program is called a time slice or time slot. Starting from the first, each user is given
his time slice. Once, all the three users have made use of it, the system starts all over again,
repeating the cycle. The sequence maintained is called Polling System. Most time sharing
systems respond to user's instructions in milli/micro seconds.

Advantages of Time-Sharing System

(1) Simultaneously several users can be served.
(2) All the users have the same priority.
(3) All the users get equal amount of processor time.
(4) The interaction with the running programs is possible.

Time-Sharing Vs Multi-programming
The difference between these two methods is that in "time, sharing" the CPU links only
one terminal at a time and its total time is shared uniformly by all the users. But in
multiprogramming, the CPU links more than one terminal or other peripherals at a time.
Therefore, multiprogramming more efficiently utilizes the main memory and the central
resources than time sharing. Time sharing is employed only for multi terminal system
whereas multi programming is meant both for single as well as the multi terminal system.

7. Distributed Processing
In computer science, a form of information processing in which work is performed by
separate computers that are linked through a communications network. Distributed processing
is usually categorized as either plain distributed processing or true distributed processing.
Plain distributed processing shares the workload among computers that can communicate with
one another. True distributed processing has separate computers perform different tasks in
such a way that their combined work can contribute to a larger goal, such as the transfer of
funds from one bank to another. This latter type of processing requires a highly structured

50
 environment that allows hardware and software to communicate, share resources, and
exchange information freely. At the highest (and most visible) levels, such distributed
processing can also require data-transfer mechanisms that are relatively invisible to users but
that enable different programs to use and share one another's data.
Distributed data processing system is a network of several computers in remote
stations, each of which is linked to a single host computer. The larger, central computer
maintains the firm's master data base and system log. Each remote system is a fully
independent computer that maintains its own local data base in addition to communication
with the master computer. These individual computers are tied together through a high speed
communication network. This allows individual computers to communicate with one another
in a variety of ways depending on the CIS requirements.

Many small computers (called nodes) are employed as data collection points in several
departments. They are connected to a main computer system (called File Server) in a
centralised department, which controls the entire database. The processing involved here is
known as distributed processing.
The distributed data processing system exists because of the need for large interactive
installations with a high degree of reliability and accuracy. Moreover, large number of mini
computers can be connected in this system which results in cost reduction.

Features
i. Decentralized computer system
ii. Interconnected by communication network (c) More reliable
iii. Since more than one computer is used in the network, it is economical.

Advantages:
Distributed data processing system has many advantages:
a. Local computers on the network offer immediate response to local needs.
b. Systems can be expanded in modular fashion as needed because many small
c. Computers are used as the system is not dependant on large unit that could shut down
the network if it failed.
d. Equipment operating and managing costs are often lower.
e. Minicomputers tend to be less complex than large systems; therefore, the system is
more useful to local users.
Distributed data processing system a number of computer systems are linked together. So the
facilities available-in one computer system can be shared by all. This link is called computer network.

SUM UP
1. There are various methods of data processing such as the single user system, Batch
processing, Multi-programming, On- line Processing, Real- Time processing, Time sharing
concept, Distributed processing.
2. In batch processing data is accumulated and then processed.
3. In online processing data is not accumulated, instead it is entered and executed immediately.
4. Real time processing is an interactive or direct mode. In this type of processing there is no
delay in time between the availability of data and the time taken for processing.
Points for discussion
1) What are the different methods of Data Processing? Explain.
2) List out the applications in which batch processing can be used.
3) What are the features of online processing.
4) List out the various benefits of on- line processing.

51
 DATA REPRESENTATION
Section 3.1 Data Types
  Registers contain either data or control information
 Control information is a bit or group of bits used to specify the sequence
 of command signals needed for data manipulation
 Data are numbers and other binary-coded information that are operated on
 Possible data types in registers:
o Numbers used in computations
o Letters of the alphabet used in data processing
o Other discrete symbols used for specific purposes
 All types of data, except binary numbers, are represented in binary-coded form

 A number system of base, or radix, r is a system that uses distinct symbols for r
 digits
 Numbers are represented by a string of digit symbols
 The string of digits 724.5 represents the quantity
2 1 0 -1
7 x 10 + 2 x 10 + 4 x 10 + 5 x 10

 The string of digits 101101 in the binary number system represents the quantity
5 4 3 2 1 0
1 x 2 + 0 x 2 + 1 x 2 + 1 x 2 + 0 x 2 + 1 x 2 = 45

 (101101)2 = (45)10

 We will also use the octal (radix 8) and hexidecimal (radix 16) number systems
2 1 0 -1
(736.4)8 = 7 x 8 + 3 x 8 + 6 x 8 + 4 x 8 = (478.5)10
1 0
(F3)16 = F x 16 + 3 x 16 = (243)10
 Conversion from decimal to radix r system is carried out by separating the
number into its integer and fraction parts and converting each part separately
 Divide the integer successively by r and accumulate the remainders
 Multiply the fraction successively by r until the fraction becomes zero as you note its
whole numbe

52
  Each octal digit corresponds to three binary digits
 Each hexadecimal digit corresponds to four binary digits
 Rather than specifying numbers in binary form, refer to them in octal or
hexadecimal and reduce the number of digits by 1/3 or ¼, respectively

53
 n
 A binary code is a group of n bits that assume up to 2 distinct combinations
 A four bit code is necessary to represent the ten decimal digits – 6 are unused
 The most popular decimal code is called binary-coded decimal (BCD)
 BCD is different from converting a decimal number to binary
 For example 99, when converted to binary, is 1100011
 99 when represented in BCD is 1001 1001

54
  The standard alphanumeric binary code is ASCII
 This uses seven bits to code 128 characters
 Binary codes are required since registers can hold binary information only

Section 3.2 – Complements

 Complements are used in digital computers for simplifying subtraction and logical
manipulation
 Two types of complements for each base r system: r‟s complement and (r –
1)‟s complement
 Given a number N in base r having n digits, the (r – 1)‟s complement of N
n
is defined as (r – 1) – N

n
 For decimal, the 9‟s complement of N is (10 – 1) – N
 The 9‟s complement of 546700 is 999999 – 546700 = 453299

55
  The 9‟s complement of 453299 is 999999 – 453299 = 546700
n
 For binary, the 1‟s complement of N is (2 – 1) – N
 The 1‟s complement of 1011001 is 1111111 – 1011001 = 0100110
 The 1‟s complement is the true complement of the number – just toggle all bits

n
 The r‟s complement of an n-digit number N in base r is defined as r – N
 This is the same as adding 1 to the (r – 1)‟s complement
 The 10‟s complement of 2389 is 7610 + 1 = 7611
 The 2‟s complement of 101100 is 010011 + 1 = 010100
 Subtraction of unsigned n-digit numbers: M – N
o Add M to the r‟s complement of N – this results
n n
in M + (r – N) = M – N + r
n
o If M ≥ N, the sum will produce an end carry r which is discarded
o If M < N, the sum does not produce an end carry and is equal to
n
r – (N – M), which is the r‟s complement of (N – M). To obtain the
answer in a familiar form, take the r‟s complement of the sum and place a
negative sign in front.

Example: 72532 – 13250 = 59282. The 10‟s complement of 13250 is 86750.

M = 72352
10‟s comp. of N = +86750
Sum = 159282
Discard end carry = -100000
Answer = 59282

Example for M < N: 13250 – 72532 = -59282

M = 13250
10‟s comp. of N = +27468
Sum = 40718
No end carry
Answer = -59282 (10‟s comp. of 40718)

Example for X = 1010100 and Y = 1000011

X = 1010100
2‟s comp. of Y = +0111101
Sum = 10010001
Discard end carry = -10000000
Answer X – Y = 0010001

Y = 1000011
2‟s comp. of X = +0101100
Sum = 1101111

No end carry
Answer = -0010001 (2‟s comp. of 1101111)

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 Section 3.3 – Fixed-Point Representation
  Positive integers and zero can be represented by unsigned numbers
 Negative numbers must be represented by signed numbers since + and – signs
 are not available, only 1‟s and 0‟s are
 Signed numbers have msb as 0 for positive and 1 for negative – msb is the sign bit
 Two ways to designate binary point position in a register
o Fixed point position
o Floating-point representation
 Fixed point position usually uses one of the two following positions
o A binary point in the extreme left of the register to make it a fraction
o A binary point in the extreme right of the register to make it an integer
o In both cases, a binary point is not actually present
 The floating-point representations uses a second register to designate the position
of the binary point in the first register

 When an integer is positive, the msb, or sign bit, is 0 and the remaining bits
represent the magnitude
 When an integer is negative, the msb, or sign bit, is 1, but the rest of the number
can be represented in one of three ways
o Signed-magnitude representation
o Signed-1‟s complement representation
o Signed-2‟s complement representation

  Consider an 8-bit register and the number +14

o The only way to represent it is 00001110
 Consider an 8-bit register and the number –14
o Signed magnitude: 1 0001110
o Signed 1‟s complement: 1 1110001
o Signed 2‟s complement: 1 1110010
 Typically use signed 2‟s complement

 Addition of two signed-magnitude numbers follow the normal rules
o If same signs, add the two magnitudes and use the common sign
o Differing signs, subtract the smaller from the larger and use the sign of the
larger magnitude
o Must compare the signs and magnitudes and then either add or subtract
 Addition of two signed 2‟s complement numbers does not require a comparison or
subtraction – only addition and complementation
o Add the two numbers, including their sign bits
o Discard any carry out of the sign bit position
o All negative numbers must be in the 2‟s complement form
o If the sum obtained is negative, then it is in 2‟s complement form

57
 +6 00000110 -6 11111010
+13 00001101 +13 00001101
+19 00010011 +7 00000111

+6 00000110 -6 11111010
-13 11110011 -13 11110011
-7 11111001 -19 11101101

 Subtraction of two signed 2‟s complement numbers is as follows

o Take the 2‟s complement form of the subtrahend (including sign
bit) o Add it to the minuend (including the sign bit)
o A carry out of the sign bit position is discarded

 An overflow occurs when two numbers of n digits each are added and the
 sum occupies n + 1 digits
 Overflows are problems since the width of a register is finite
 Therefore, a flag is set if this occurs and can be checked by the user
 Detection of an overflow depends on if the numbers are signed or unsigned
 For unsigned numbers, an overflow is detected from the end carry out of the msb
 For addition of signed numbers, an overflow cannot occur if one is positive and
 one is negative – both have to have the same sign
 An overflow can be detected if the carry into the sign bit position and the carry
out of the sign bit position are not equal

+70 0 1000110 -70 1 0111010

+80 0 1010000 -80 1 0110000
+150 1 0010110 -150 0 1101010

 The representation of decimal numbers in registers is a function of the binary

 code used to represent a decimal digit
 A 4-bit decimal code requires four flip-flops for each decimal digit
 This takes much more space than the equivalent binary representation and the
 circuits required to perform decimal arithmetic are more complex
 Representation of signed decimal numbers in BCD is similar to the representation
of signed numbers in binary
 Either signed magnitude or signed complement systems
 The sign of a number is represented with four bits
o 0000 for +
o 1001 for –
 To obtain the 10‟s complement of a BCD number, first take the 9‟s complement
and then add one to the least significant digit

 Example: (+375) + (-240) = +135

58
 0 375 (0000 0011 0111 1010)BCD
+9 760 (1001 0111 0110 0000) BCD
0 135 (0000 0001 0011 0101) BCD

Section 3.4 – Floating-Point Representation

  The floating-point representation of a number has two parts
 The first part represents a signed, fixed-point number – the mantissa
 The second part designates the position of the binary point – the exponent
 The mantissa may be a fraction or an integer
 Example: the decimal number +6132.789 is
o Fraction: +0.6123789
o Exponent: +04
+4
o Equivalent to +0.6132789 x 10
e
  A floating-point number is always interpreted to represent m x r 
 Example: the binary number +1001.11 (with 8-bit fraction and 6-bit exponent)
o Fraction: 01001110
o Exponent: 000100
+4
o Equivalent to +(.1001110)2 x 2
 A floating-point number is said to be normalized if the most significant digit
of the mantissa is nonzero
 The decimal number 350 is normalized, 00350 is not
 The 8-bit number 00011010 is not normalized
 Normalize it by fraction = 11010000 and exponent = -3
 Normalized numbers provide the maximum possible precision for the
floating-point number

Section 3.5 – Other Binary Codes

  Digital systems can process data in discrete form only

 Continuous, or analog, information is converted into digital form by means of an
 analog-to-digital converter
 The reflected binary or Gray code, is sometimes used for the converted digital
data
 The Gray code changes by only one bit as it sequences from one number to the
 next
 Gray code counters are sometimes used to provide the timing sequences that
control the operations in a digital system

59
  Binary codes for decimal digits require a minimum of four bits
 Other codes besides BCD exist to represent decimal digits

  The 2421 code and the excess-3 code are both self-complementing
 The 9‟s complement of each digit is obtained by complementing each bit in
 the code
 The 2421 code is a weighted code
 The bits are multiplied by indicated weights and the sum gives the decimal digit
 The excess-3 code is obtained from the corresponding BCD code added to 3

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 Section 3.6 – Error Detection Codes
 Transmitted binary information is subject to noise that could change bits 1 to
0 and vice versa
 An error detection code is a binary code that detects digital errors during
 transmission
 The detected errors cannot be corrected, but can prompt the data to
be retransmitted
 The most common error detection code used is the parity bit
 A parity bit is an extra bit included with a binary message to make the total
number of 1‟s either odd or even


  The P(odd) bit is chosen to make the sum of 1‟s in all four bits odd
 The even-parity scheme has the disadvantage of having a bit combination of
 all 0‟s
 Procedure during transmission:
o At the sending end, the message is applied to a parity generator
o The message, including the parity bit, is transmitted
o At the receiving end, all the incoming bits are applied to a parity checker
o Any odd number of errors are detected

  Parity generators and checkers are constructed with XOR gates (odd function)
 An odd function generates 1 iff an odd number if input variables are

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 COMPUTER ETHICS
Ethics in General
A guideline is needed to stop the current technology products from being exploited for example
replicating original CDs and selling them as pirated software, this unethical behaviour can be
controlled by the code of conducts.

Unethical refers to any code of conducts that are not conforming to approved standards of social
or professional behaviour.
Computer ethics is a system of moral standards or values used as a guideline for
computer users.

THE TEN COMMANDMENTS OF COMPUTER ETHICS

The United States Institute of Computer Ethics has come out with the Ten Commandments of
Computer Ethics. These principles consider the effective code of conducts for the proper use of
information technology. The Ten commandments of computer ethics are :
1. You shall not use a computer to harm other people.
2. You shall not interfere with other people's computer work.
3. You shall not snoop around in other people's computer files.
4. You shall not use a computer to steal.
5. You shall not use a computer to bear false witness.
6. You shall not copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid.
7. You shall not use other people's computer resources without authorisation or proper
compensation.
8. You shall not appropriate other people's intellectual output.
9. You shall think about the social consequences of the program you are writing or the
system you are designing.
10. You shall always use a computer in ways that ensure consideration and
respect for your fellow humans.

GUIDELINES ON THE E-MAIL AND INTERNET USAGE

Some guidelines from the Department of Public Services of Malaysia:
 use only individual e-mail address to forward individual opinion
 keep the identity name and password a secret to avoid the misuse of your e-mail
without your knowledge
 e-mail must be active to promptly reply the necessary actions needed for any matters
 ensure the total mail kept in the box is within the computer storage capacity
 scan files regularly to avoid the transmission of virus from one computer to another
 do not send e-mails that contain classified information which can
 be used to tarnish other people or country
 choose a suitable time to search the Internet to save access time and cost
 beware of prohibited sites which could affect one's moral, organisation or nation
 print only relevant documents that you think can be used in future to save cost

UNETHICAL COMPUTER CODE OF CONDUCTS

With the advancement of ICT, it is easy for anyone to retrieve your information from the
Internet. You may not realise that when you fill a form on the Internet, your information may
be exposed and stolen.
Examples of unethical computer code of conducts include:
 modifying certain information on the Internet, affecting the accuracy of the
information

62
  selling information to other parties without the owner‟s permission
 using information without authorization
 involvement in stealing software
 invasion of privacy

Intellectual property refers to any product of human intellect that is unique and has value in
the market place. This covers ideas, inventions, unique name, computer program codes and
many more.

ETHICAL COMPUTER CODE OF CONDUCTS

Examples of ethical computer code of conducts include:
 sending warning about viruses to other computer users
 asking permission before sending any business advertisements to others
 using information with authorization

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ETHICS AND LAW

Definition of Ethics
In general, ethics is a moral philosophy where a person makes a specific moral choice and sticks
to it. On the other hand, ethics in computing means moral guidelines to refer to when using the
computer and computer networks. This includes the Internet.
Definition of Law
Law is a legal system comprising of rules and principles that govern the affairs of a
community and controlled by a political authority.

Law differs from one country to another. In the era of technology, computer law is needed to
clarify goods or actions that fall under the computer law. Computer law refers to all areas in law
that requires an understanding of computer technology such as hardware, software and Internet.
Why do we need ethics and law in computing?
 Respecting Ownership
 Respecting Privacy
 Respecting Property

Respecting Ownership
We must respect ownership by not stealing other people‟ s work either by duplicating or
distributing it. Duplicating and distributing copies of audio tapes, video tapes and computer
programs without permission and authorisation from the individual or company that created the
program are immoral and illegal.

Respecting Privacy and Confidentiality

We should respect other people's privacy and confidentiality by refraining ourselves from
reading their mails or files without their permission. If we do so, it is considered as violating an
individual‟s rights to privacy and confidentiality.
Respecting Property
Property here means ownership. Since an individual data and information are considered as
property, therefore, an act of tampering and changing electronic information is considered
as vandalism and disrespect for other people‟s property.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN ETHICS AND LAW

Both ethics and law are complimentary to each other and are made:
 to guide user from misusing computers

63
  to create a healthy computer society, so that computers are used to contribute to a
better life
 to prevent any crime

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ETHICS AND LAWS

ETHICS
GUIDELINE As a guideline to computer users.
MORAL STANDARDS Ethical behaviour is judged by moral
standards.
FREE TO FOLLOW Computer users are free to follow or
ignore the code of ethics.
NO PUNISHMENTS No punishment for anyone who
violates ethics.
UNIVERSALS Universal, can be applied anywhere,
all over the world.
PRODUCE ETHICAL COMPUTER To produce ethical computer users.
USERS
IMMORAL Not honouring computer ethics
means ignoring the moral elements
(immoral).

LAW
CONTROL As a rule to control computer users.
JUDICIAL STANDARDS Law is judged by judicial standards.
MUST FOLLOW Computer users must follow the
regulations and law.
PENALTIES, IMPRISONMENTS Penalties, imprisonments and other
AND OTHER PUNISHMENTS punishments for those who break the
law.
DEPENDS ON COUNTRY Depends on country and state where
the crime is committed.
PREVENT MISUSING OF COMPUTERS To prevent misuse of computers.
CRIME Not honouring the law means
committing a crime.

UNETHICAL VS. LAW BREAKING CONDUCTS

Unethical:
 using the office computer to do personal things
 reading your friend‟s e-mail without his or her permission
 plagiarising and using materials from the Internet for your class assignment without
giving credit to the original author.

Law breaking:
 sending a computer virus via e-mail
 hacking into your school‟s database to change your examination results.
 selling pirated software in a night market

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 COMPUTER CRIMES
A computer crime is defined as any criminal activity that is related to the use of computers.
These activities include computer fraud, copyright infringement, computer theft and computer
attack

COMPUTER FRAUD
Computer fraud is defined as having an intention to take advantage over or causing loss to
other people, mainly on monetary basis through the use of computers.

There are many forms of computer fraud which include e-mail hoaxes, programme fraud,
investment schemes, sales promotions and claims of expertise on certain fields.

Students need to be aware of other computer frauds such as health frauds, scams and hacking.
Students will also most likely get false information while researching information on the
Internet.
COPYRIGHT INFRINGEMENT
Copyright infringement is defined as a violation of the rights secured by a copyright. Copyright
infringement involves illegal copy or reproduction of copyrights material by the black market
group. The open commercial sale of pirated item is also illegal.

With the current technology, the most perfect copy of the original copy can be downloaded
from the internet.
COMPUTER THEFT
Computer theft is defined as the unauthorised use of another person‟s property with the
intention to deny the owner the rightful possession of that property or its use.

Examples of computer theft include:

 transfer of payments to the wrong accounts
 tap into data transmission lines on database at no cost
 divert goods to the wrong destination

COMPUTER ATTACK
Computer attack may be defined as any activities taken to disrupt the equipment of computer
systems, change processing control or corrupt stored data.
Computer attack can be in the forms of:
 physical attack that disrupt the computer facility or its transmission lines.
 an electronic attack that uses the power of electromagnetic energy to overload computer
circuitry.
 a computer network attack that uses a malicious code to exploit a weakness in
software, or in the computer security practices of a computer user

CYBER LAW
WHAT IS CYBER LAW?
Cyber law refers to any laws relating to protecting the Internet and other online communication
technologies.

NEEDS FOR CYBER LAW

In the recent years, many concerns and issues were raised on the integrity and security of

65
information, legal status of online transactions, privacy and confidentiality of information,
intellectual property rights and security of government data placed on the Internet.

Integrity and Security Security of

of Information Government Data

CYBER LAW

Legal Status of Online Intellectual Property

Transactions Rights

Privacy and Confidentially

of Information

These concerns and issues clearly indicate why cyber laws are needed in online activities.

THE CYBER LAW ACTS

The Government has come up with several cyber laws to control and reduce the Internet abuse.
These cyber laws include:
 Digital Signature Act 1997
 Computer Crimes Act 1997
 Telemedicine Act 1997
 Communications and Multimedia Act 1998

Beside these cyber laws, there are three other cyber laws being drafted.
 Private Data Protection Bill
 Electronic Government Activities Bill
 Electronic Transactions Bill

DIGITAL SIGNATURE ACT 1997

The Digital Signature Act 1997 secures electronic communications especially on the Internet.
Digital Signature is an identity verification standard that uses encryption techniques to protect
against e-mail forgery. The encrypted code consists of the user‟s name and a hash of all the parts
of the message.
By attaching the digital signature, one can ensure that nobody can eavesdrop, intercept or temper
with transmitted data.

COMPUTER CRIMES ACT 1997

The Computer Crimes Act 1997 gives protection against the misuses of computers and computer
criminal activities such as unauthorised use of programmes, illegal transmission of data or
messages over computers and hacking and cracking of computer systems and networks.

By implementing the Computer Crimes Act 1997, users can protect their rights to privacy and
build trust in the computer system. At the same time, the government can have control at a
certain level over cyberspace to reduce cyber crime activities.

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TELEMEDICINE ACT 1997
The Telemedicine Act 1997 ensures that only qualified medical practitioners can practice
telemedicine and that their patient's rights and interests are protected.

COMMUNICATIONS AND MULTIMEDIA ACT 1998

The implementation of Communication and Telecommunication Act 1998 ensures that information
is secure, the network is reliable and the service is affordable all over.
This Act also ensures high level of user's confidence in the information and communication
technology industry.

COMPUTER SECURITY
Definition of Computer Security
Computer security means protecting our computer systems and the information they contain
against unwanted access, damage, destruction or modification.
We need to protect our computer from any intruders such as hackers, crackers and script kiddie.
We do not want strangers to read our e-mail, use our computer to attack other systems, send
forged e-mail from our computer, or examine personal information stored on our computer
such as financial statements.

TYPES OF COMPUTER SECURITY

Three types of computer security are:
 hardware security
 software security/data security
 network security

a) HARDWARE SECURITY
Hardware security refers to security measures used to protect the hardware specifically the
computer and its related documents.
The examples of security measures used to protect the hardware include PC-locks, keyboard-
locks, smart cards and biometric devices.

b) SOFTWARE AND DATA SECURITY

Software and data security refers to the security measures used to protect the software and the loss
of data files.
Examples of security measures used to protect the software are activation code and serial number.
An example of security measure used to protect the loss of data files is the disaster recovery plan
method. The idea of this plan is to store data, program and other important documents in a safe
place that will not be affected by any major destruction.

c) NETWORK SECURITY
The transfer of data through network has become a common practice and the need to implement
network security has become significant.
Network security refers to security measures used to protect the network system. One example of
network security measures is firewall. With firewall, network resources can be protected from the
outsiders.

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 INTERNET

INTRODUCTION
Internet is a communication network which bridges all the small computer networks
worldwide as a whole. Internet is based upon Internet technology, in particular World Wide Web
(WWW), to build Information System within organization or enterprise to accomplish
standardization and automation. Fundamentally, it means network computing environments
which let the users share the information through the Internet and Web browsers. Ultimately, it
allows a certain organization to build a Groupware within Web environment at low cost on top of
existing network infrastructure. By doing this, closed organization network would be
interconnected with existing worldwide Internet, which results in diverse information that
strengthens competitive advantages of the organization. Basically, it runs on top TCP/IP and
HTTP and filters out any illegal access through firewall.

Where the Internet connects people and organizations and information sources by using
common protocols to link computers on a public and open – to – all basis, an Internet uses the
same common protocols for internal company or group purposes. Instead of adopting a common
proprietary standard for its communications, information storage and presentation, etc., the
company (or any group of people or companies) decides to use Internet standards and methods.

INTERNET

An Internet can be defined as a network connecting an affiliated set of clients using

standard Internet protocols, esp. TCP / IP and HTTP or as an IP – based network of nodes behind
a firewall, or behind several firewalls connected by secure, possibly virtual, networks.

In general, a web is an unstructured client / server network that uses HTTP as its
transaction protocol. The World Wide Web comprises all HTTP nodes on the public Internet .An
internal web comprises all HTTP nodes on a private network, such as an organization‟s LAN or
WAN. If the organization is a corporation, the internal web is also a corporate web.

If a corporate web connects two or more trading partners, it is often referred to as a

business – to – business web, or an extranet.

Note that internal webs – also known as intranets – are only logically “internal “ to an
organization. Physically they can span the globe, as long as access is limited to a defined
community of interest

CORE FEATURES OF THE INTERNET

There are some characteristics of the internet that gave it the potential to deliver a special
set of business benefits over and above existing IT technologies.

a) Simplicity of Use
The software that is used access the Internet (the web browser software) is comparatively
easy to learn and simple to use. It can operate on wide range of operating system platforms and
can access any mainstream application like SAP and oracle. The flexibility of the web combined
with the simplicity of the browser software has resulted in reduced staff training costs, lower
development costs and an increase in the range of users who can have access to the organization.
b) Breadth of Access
The internet is a global network like the telephone network. Its access is not conditioned
by geographic boundaries. Unlike the telephone network the cost involved in global connection
68
is not related to the distance involved. No other communication medium has had access to such a
large audience and range of people which increases the ability to leverage the value of
information to a scale that has never before been possible.

c) Synergy with other media

Apart from using the existing telecommunication technology, it supports or complements
other media. Internet services have demonstrated a high degree of synergy with other media as
can be seen from the following

Example:

Book, magazine and newspaper publishers have used the web to supplement and extend
their written products.
Publishers of CD-ROMs have used the web to maintain the currency of the information
they can deliver. Microsoft‟s encyclopedias CD-ROM, Encarta, allows seamless interface to
information accessed from the company‟s web site.

Publishers of software and games now deliver their products directly over the internet.
Entertainment companies regularly provide extracts of their films and music recordings to
promote the real products.

d) Low Relative Cost

The costs involved in conducting a process using internet technology is less than those
involving other methods. The internet access requires telephone line for most individual users.
The pricing of telephone service is one which is independent of distance. The charge for the
usage of telecommunication line is based on local charge rate irrespective of what is sent over the
line or how distant the recipient is.

e) Extension of Existing IT Resources

Resource sharing was underlying rationale for the development of the internet. It allows
the IT resources to be shared by multiple users in organizations and also with others related to
the organization such as trading partners.

f) Flexibility of Communication
The web browsers greatly extend the ways in which individuals can communicate. They
support text, voice and multimedia formats and can provide immediate access to shared
information. These facilities are available for intra-company communications as those between
individuals in separate organizations.

g) Security
Security has been a major issue in internet as any security breach can cause financial loss,
leak of sensitive information, etc. standards for secure electronic transactions have been
developed and reasonable security is in place now.

h) Speed and Availability

The transmission speed is very low and it takes a bit too long for downloading files.
However, compared to other means of communication, it is indeed fast. It also provides a wide
range of communication services that are inexpensive and relatively easy to access for millions
of users through a standard set of protocols.

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 INTERNET – TCP/IP
INFRASTRUCTURE

Fire wall Private Web

Public Web
Server Server

INTRANET

Network Servers
Network Servers

Browser Browsers Browser Browser

Desktop Desktop Desktop Desktop

An internet can be as big as a community of interest. Scale is an important factor in web

implementation, but it has no bearing on the logical association of clients that make up an
intranet. For example, a workgroup with one web server, a company with several hundred web
servers, and a professional organization with ten thousand web servers can be considered an
intranet.

INTERNET SOFTWARE:
To connect to the Internet, a computer requires mainly three different kinds of software:

1. TCP/IP: TCP/IP, or Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol, is the basic

communication protocol of the Internet. It allows programs on user‟s computer to communicate
properly over the internet. Usually, when you are set up with direct access to the Internet, your
computer is provided with a copy of the TCP/IP program. Similarly, every other computer that
you may send messages to or get information from also has a copy of TCP/IP.
2. Dialer Software: This software is provided by the ISP to instruct the modem to dial the
phone number, and identify the user‟s machine to the access provider‟s system for access to the
network.
3. Browser: To use the Internet, a web browser is essential. This program allows the user to
view the information available on the world wide web.
17.3 Internet Applications
The Internet has grown from a small project to today‟s biggest network of computers.
Due to this colossal growth, the Internet has become the biggest domain of information.
Nowadays, an Internet user has access to a wide variety of services such as electronic mail, file
transfer, vast information resources, interest group membership, interactive collaboration,
multimedia displays, real-time broadcasting, shopping opportunities, and much more. Some of
the important services provided by the Internet are briefed in the following few sections.

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 1. World Wide Web: (WWW)
The World Wide Web (abbreviated as the web or WWW) is one of the most popular
services available on Internet. It is a subset of the Internet and it presents text, images, animation,
video, sound and other multimedia in a single interface. This greatly enhances the experience of
the Internet surfer. Although the World Wide Web is often referred to as the Internet, they are
actually two different concepts. The Internet is the decentralized global network of computers
that transfer information and the wring that makes all this possible whereas the web is a
collection of documents or websites, that users can access using the Internet and a web browser.
The web is a part of the Internet and it refers to a system of Internet servers that supports
hypertext using a specific Internet protocol called HTTP on a single interface (web browsers). In
addition, almost every protocol type available on the Internet is accessible on the web. This
includes e- mail, FTP, Telnet, and Usenet News. Since the WWW is a subset of the Internet, it
stands to reason that the web could not exist without the Internet. However, the Internet would
still be the Internet without the web.
The operation of the web relies primarily on hypertext, as it is a means of information
retrieval. Hypertext is a document containing words that connect to other documents. These
words are called links, which the user can select. A single hypertext document can contain links
to documents and resources throughout the Internet. With the ability of the web to work with
multimedia and advanced programming languages, the World Wide Web is the fastest growing
and the most interesting part of the Internet. With video conferencing and wireless applications,
the Internet is ready to take us to the new realm of communication and information exchange.
2. Electronic Mail (e-mail)
Electronic mail, or e-mail, is a fast, easy, and inexpensive way to communicate with other
Internet users around the world. It is one of the basic and earliest services of the Internet and the
most used application on the Internet too. E-mail overcomes most of the problems and delays of
getting a physical document from one person to another. Rather, it has the dual advantage of not
only being faster but cheaper to sue as well.
3. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
FTP or File transfer Protocol is a system of rules and a software program that enables a
user to long on to another computer and transfer information between it and his/ her computer. It
was the first service developed for the Internet so that government and educational institutions
could easily exchange files. FTP allows the user to get access to the files stored in the directory
of a remote computer that is connected to the Internet. Using FTP, one can upload and download
files from the remote computer (known as FTP servers), if he/she has access permission on the
remote machine.
4. Telnet
The word “telnet” is derived from telecommunications and network and is a protocol that
allows a user to log on to a remote computer. Telnet is also known as remote login, which means
connecting one machine to another in such a way that a person may interact with another
machine as if it is being used locally.

5. Internet Relay Chat (IRC)

IRC or Internet Relay Chat is a service on the Internet that allows people to communicate
in real time and carry on conversations via the computer with one or more people. It provides the
user with the facility to engage in simultaneous (synchronous) online “conversation” with other
user form anywhere in the world.

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 6. Chatting and Instant Messaging
Chart programs allow users on the Internet to communicate with each other by typing in
real time. They are sometimes included as a feature of a website, where users can log into chat
rooms to exchange comments and information about the topics addressed on the site.

7. Internet Telephony
Internet telephone is the use of the Internet rather than the traditional telephone company
infrastructure, to exchange spoken or other telephonic information. It consists of hardware and
software that enable people to use the Internet as a transmission medium for telephone calls.
There are many Internet telephony applications available. Some, such as Cool Talk and
NetMeeting, come bundled with popular web browsers.

8. Video Conferencing
Video conferencing uses the same technology as IRC, but also provides sound and video
pictures. It enables direct face-to- face communication across networks. A video conferencing
system has to or more parties in different locations, which have the ability to communicate using
a combination of video, audio, and data. A video conference can be person to person (referred to
as “point-to-point”) or can involve more than two people (referred to as “multipoint”) and the
video conferencing terminals are often referred to as “endpoints”.

The following five elements are common to all video conferencing endpoints:
 Camera: The camera captures live images to send across the network.
  Visual Display: It displays the images of the people taking part in the videoconference.
 Audio System: It includes both microphones to capture audio from the endpoint and
loudspeakers to play back the audio received from other endpoints across the network
connection.
 Compression: Videos are very bandwidth- intensive and they take a long time to load.
Therefore, video systems include technologies, often referred to as codes, to compress and
decompress video and audio data, allowing transmission across a network connection in
 near-real time.
 User Interface and Control System: The user interface allows the users to control
interactions for example, placing calls, storing and locating numbers, and adjust
environment settings such as volume. The control system handles the underlying
communication that takes place between endpoints.

9. Newsgroups (Usenet)
Newsgroups are international discussion groups that focus on a particular topic and helps
in gathering information about that topic. The topics discussed here cover all the fields such as
politics, computers, technology, and many more. The information or articles that make up the
“news” are written by people interested in a specific topic. These articles are posted to the
newsgroup so that others can read, reply, and comment on them.

10. Mailing Lists (List server)

The Internet is home to a large community of individuals who carry out active
discussions, organized around topic-oriented forums that are distributed via e- mail. This method
of Internet communications is known as mailing list and it enables people with similar interests
from all over the world to communicate and share information with each other.

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SUM UP
1. Internet is a communication network which bridges all the small computer networks
worldwide as a whole.
2. Characteristics of the internet gave it the potential to deliver a special set of business benefits
over and above existing IT technologies.
3. To connect to the Internet, a computer requires mainly three different kinds of software
namely TCP/IP, Dialer Software, Browser.
4. An Internet user has access to a wide variety of services such as electronic mail, file transfer,
vast information resources, interest group membership, interactive collaboration, multimedia
displays, real-time broadcasting, shopping opportunities, and much more.

Points for discussion

1) What do you mean by Internet? Explain its features
2) Discuss in detail about TCP/IP
3) Write short notes on Internet Softwares.
4) Explain in detail the various services provided by Internet.

An Internet can be defined as a network connecting an affiliated set of clients using standard
Internet protocols, esp. TCP / IP and HTTP or as an IP – based network of nodes behind a
firewall, or behind several firewalls connected by secure, possibly virtual, networks.

EXTRANET AND E-MAIL

After reading this lesson you will be able to understand:
1. Characteristics and uses of Extranet
2. Relationship between intranets, Extranets and e–commerce
3. Infrastructure Requirement for E-Mail
4. Advantages and disadvantages of E-mail
5. Usage of Mails

INTRODUCTION
An Extranet is a private network that uses the internet protocol and the public
telecommunication system to securely share part of business information or operations with -
suppliers, vendors, partners, customers, or other businesses.

Through e- mail, documents are prepared and sent electronically. The recipients need not be
present at the other end to send the message. The message gets stored in the electronic mailbox of
the addressee. The recipient can open the mailbox whenever he is free and can read or print the
message.

EXTRANET
An Extranet can be viewed a-part of a company's intranet that is extended to users outside
the company. It has also been described as a "state of mind" in which the internet is perceived as
a way to do business with other companies as well as to sell products to customers. Extranet
extends the intranet from one location to another across the internet by securing data flow, to
another intranet to a business partner. In these way intranets of business partners, suppliers,
creditors, distributors, customers, and the like are connected to extranets by agreements.

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 An Extranet requires security and privacy. These require firewall server management, e-
issuance and use of digital certificate or similar means of user authentication, encryption of
messages, and the use of virtual private networks that tunnel through the public network.

Characteristics of Extranet
The following are the important characteristics of the Extranet.
a) It is an extended internet-private business networks located outside of the corporate firewall.
b) It can be referred to an intranet that is partially accessible to authorized outsiders.
c) It is a network that uses the internet to link businesses with others that share the common
goals.

Uses of Extranet
Companies can use an Extranet to:
a. Exchange large volumes of data using Electronic Data Interchange.
b. Share product catalogs exclusively with wholesalers or those in the Trade.
c. Collaborate with other companies on joint development efforts.
d. Jointly develop and use training programs with other companies.
e. Provide or access services provided by one company to a group of other companies, such as
an online banking application managed by one company on behalf or affiliated banks.
f. Share news of common interest exclusively with partner companies.
g. The manufacturing companies can coordinate the design manufacturing, scheduling and
delivery across supply chain.
h. With extranet the technology firms can support for their customers and partners and makes it
possible for remote access for employees.
i. The financial services firms by using extranet can reduce costs of proprietary networks.
j. With extranet the publishing companies can increase the speed of design and production
cycles.
k. Other benefits:
Quicker turnaround time
  Improved communication
 Decreased paper flow
 Traceable correspondence
  Better service
 Lower overhead and expenses
  Improved employee morale
 Increased Margins. ,
 Flexibility and scalability.
  Reduced transitional barriers.
 Versatility.
A brief list of examples of extranet could include:

  Allowing suppliers access to relevant inventory levels
 Allowing clients to review their account records
  Allowing students to update address information in real time.
As with intranet, access is granted only where you establish that it is required. User
access is controlled by the latest in security technologies, protecting sensitive material from
intrusion.
What is the relationship between intranets, Extranets and e–commerce?
The answer has three parts. First, intranets, extranets and e-commerce have in common
the use of Internet (predominantly web) protocols to connect business users. Second, intranets

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are more localized and can therefore move data faster than more distributed extranets.
(Bandwidth limitations also apply to e-commerce.) Third, the amount of control that network
managers can exert over users is different for the three technologies.

On an Internet, administrators can narrowly prescribe access and policy for a fixed group
of users. For example, a company could specify Red Hat Linux as its standard desktop operating
system, and Netscape Communicator 5 as its standard browser and mail client. The company
could then write intranet workflow applications that leverage the uniform computing
environment, over which it exercises strong control.

On a business-to business Extranet, system architects at each of the participating

companies must collaborate to ensure a common interface and consistent semantics (data
meanings). Since one company cannot reasonably enforce standards on its trading partners,
extranet application developers must taken into account a wider range of technologies than is the
case for intranets. For example, one company participating in an extranet might be using
Microsoft Internet Explorer, another Netscape Navigator 4.5 and another Navigator Gold 3.x In
order to collaborate via extranet, the applications have to perform adequately on all represented
platforms.

The same is true, even more, for e-commerce, in which the trading partners may be
completely unknown to one another. This is the case when you walk into a supermarket: the
common interest in communication is based on the need to transact business, and not necessarily
on a long-term trust relationship. Thus, e-commerce applications often support a level of security
and transactional integrity (for instance, non-repudiation of orders) not present in intranet or
extranet applications.
E-MAIL
E- mail is an electronic message sent form one computer to another. We can send or
receive personal and business-related messages with attachments, such as pictures or formatted
documents. We can even send songs and computer programs.
The e-mail communication is incredibly simple. A person with a PC and a modem to
connect to the network can communicate with the other(s) so connected to the network. The
message can be prepared and sent instantly. The other person finds the e-mail when he checks his
mailbox and may replay to the message in the same way. The message sent is private and no
other person can read it.
Each user of e- mail service has a user ID or password serving as e- mail address. First
thing to do is to get online using modem and communication software. The system requires user-
id and password. Now the user can prepare his message in the form of a document using a word
processor. The e- mail address of the recipient has to be typed in before the message is sent,

With e- mail each person connected to the system is allotted a mailbox and the software
required for sending and receiving e-mail. The mailbox is simply a file into which the e-mail
system stores electronic documents. The user can check his mailbox for messages over the
network. The sender specifies his identify and that of the recipient. The sender then prepares the
document or retrieves the stored document and sends it.

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 E- mail is a document communication facility. To ensure that the recipient also
understands the emotions as well, a set of special symbols is used to convey some non-verbal
signals. A few of such symbols are given below.

Symbol Emotion
:- Humor
:) Smile
:( Frown
:/ ) Not funny
p- Private
:* Kiss
(:-( Very sad

E- mail is the transmission of information electronically from terminal to terminal. The

document is prepared in a word processor and is mailed electronically. The basic facilities in e-
mail include message creation, message transfer and post delivery service. The e- mail service
may be traditional mainframe based or minicomputer based or LAN based system with PCS to
access from.

How E-Mail Works?

The first thing to be done is to type the message and the e-mail address of the recipient.
Once the „send‟ button is clicked, this e- mail is sent through the telephone line after it‟s
conversion into analog signal by the modem. The e- mail message arrives at our service
provider‟s server. If the server recognizes the e- mail address as valid, the mail will be sent either
through the network of the service provider or through internet gateway to the service provider of
the recipient.

To send e- mail, we need a connection to the internet and access to a mail server that forwards
the mail. The standard protocol used for sending internet e- mail is called SMTP, short for
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It works in conjunction with POP servers. POP stands for Post
Office Protocol.

When we send an e- mail message, our computer routes it to an SMTP server. The server
looks at the e-mail address (similar to the address on an envelope), then forwards it to the
recipient‟s mail server. Once the message arrives at the destination mail server, It‟s stored until
the addressee retrieves it. We can send e- mail anywhere in the world to anyone who has an e-
mail address.

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 E-mail route

With the advent of MIME, which stands for multipurpose Internet Mail Extension, and
other types of encoding schemes, we can not only send messages electronically, but we can also
send formatted documents, photos, sound files, and video files.

Infrastructure Requirement for E-Mail

 Personal Computer
  Telephone Connection
 Modem
 Mailing software viz., Outlook Express or Netscape communicator or Internet Explorer
etc.

  Advantages of E-mail
Messages can be prepared and sent any time convenient for the sender.
  Message can be received at the convenience of the recipient.
 The transmission takes place instantly and the message gets stored in the mailbox of the
 recipient.
  The system can confirm delivery of message.
 Copies of message can be sent to multiple recipients.
 It reduces paper work.

  Disadvantages
 Recipients must be having e- mail connectivity. They must have computer terminals,
modem and telephone.
 They must be subscribing to the same e- mail service provider.
 Poor telecommunication affects the quality of message transmitted.
 Despite all the disadvantages e - mail is a cheap form of information transmission.
INDONET, NICNET, DARTMAIL and ICNET provide this service in India. A user can
be a subscriber to such e- mail service providing agencies and use their facility.
E-Mail Addressing Pattern
Internet e- mail addresses typically have two main
parts: [email protected]
First there is the user name (ibcocppd) which refers to the recipients mailbox. Then
there‟s an axon sign (@). Next comes the host name (satyammail), also called the domain name.
This refers to the mail server, the computer where the recipient ha an electronic mailbox. It‟s
usually the name of a company or organization.
The end of the domain name consists of a dot (“.”) followed by two or three letters (such
as .com and .gov) that indicate the top-level domain. This part of the domain name indicates the
type of organization or the country where the host server is located.
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 E-Mail Messages

E- mail messages are similar to letters, with two main parts.

The header contains the name and address of the recipient, the name and address of
anyone who is being copied, and the subject of the message. Some e- mail programs also display
your name and address and the date of the message.

The body contains the message itself. Just like when sending letters, we need the correct
address. If we use the wrong address or mistype it, our messages will bounce back with messages
like – Return to Sender, Address Unknown routine.
When we receive an e- mail, the header tells us where it came from, how it was sent,
and when. It‟s like an electronic postmark.

Unlike a letter, which is sealed in an envelope, e- mail is not as private. It‟s more like a
post card. Messages can be intercepted and read by people who really shouldn‟t be looking at it.
We should therefore avoid including any confidential information unless we have a way to
encrypt it.

Usage of Mails
  Incoming mails can be checked on a daily basis at least 3 times a day.
 We can use the e-mail facility judiciously and extensively for communicating with
Circle Office / Head Office/ Service Branch / Customers.
 Communicate e- mail id to all domestic and overseas customers and use the facility for
passing on information regarding new schemes launched by Bank and other important
information to them.
 Encourage customers to contact branch through e- mail for information regarding their
urgent banking requirements.
 Use the facility as a marketing tool to attract new customers, exchange greetings with
existing customers and also inform them about recent happenings in the locality.

US SUM UP
1. An Extranet is a private network that uses the internet protocol and the public
telecommunication system to securely share part of business information or operations with -
suppliers, vendors, partners, customers, or other businesses.
2. E- mail allows users to send and receive messages anytime and anywhere in the world.
3. E- mail is popular as it is fast, flexible, and reliable

Points for discussion

1) Write short notes on Extranet.
2) State the characteristics of Extranet.
3) What are the different uses of Extranet?
4) What is E- mail? Explain how it works.
5) What are the infrastructure requirements for E-Mail
6) List out the advantageous and dis-advantages of E- mail.

An Extranet is a private network that uses the internet protocol and the public
telecommunication system to securely share part of business information or operations wit-
suppliers, vendors, partners, customers, or other businesses.

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 NETWORKING
Introduction
With standardized hardware and software, the microcomputers provide user- friendly
environment. It meets the computing requirements of most users. But, the need for interaction
with other computer users and with other computer systems for exchange of data etc., has
increased over the years. Networks are increasingly meeting this need. From the users‟ point of
view the networks may be of two types: Local area network and Wide area network.

Computer networking is the process of inter connecting two or more computers so that
the users can communicate with each other, share resources and overcome other limitations of
stand-alone systems. The network can be established with a variety of combinations of
computers such as a net of only microcomputers, microcomputers and one or more
minicomputers and a set of microcomputers connected to a mainframe computer. The computers
in typical network are autonomous in the sense that they have processing capability independent
of the network.

Advantages of Networking
The main advantages of networking are:
(i). Hardware resource sharing:
Network enables sharing of expensive resources such as processor, storage space and
peripherals like modern, fax, and laser printer.

(ii). Sharing of databases:

The network permits concurrent access to the same data file by many users in the
network. Thus, user in the sales department, production department, inventory department etc
share corporate databases.

(iii). Sharing of Software:

Any user in a network can load and use the software installed on any of the computer of
fileserver in the network.

(iv). Communication between users:

The Network users can communicate between them. E- mail facility can also be used for
communication.

(v). Decentralized data processing:

In a network, the data processing can be decentralized by enabling local offices to capture
and store data, and generate information to meet most of their requirements a local level itself.

(vi) Security of data:

In a networked environment the data is backed up with duplicate storage. Adequate
security measures are also put in place to product the data.

TYPES OF NETWORK
The networks can be classified into three; local area network (LAN), metropolitan area
network (MAN) and wide area network (WAN). They are explained in the following sections:

1. Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN is made up of number of autonomous computers distributed over a wide
geographical area. WANs were originally developed in the late 1960s to enable communication

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between computer centers and sharing of hardware, software and other communication facilities.
WAN can be implemented using private or public networks. In a private network an organization
takes on lease telephone lines to connect such sites into a network. It is also possible to connect
computers in different locations using microwave or satellite transmission. Public networks are
installed by the Government owned telecommunication agencies. WAN spans large geographic
distances. It is also called long-haul network. WAN is usually operated at lower speeds then
MAN and involves delay.

Most organizations use private networks for communication. Society for Worldwide Inter
bank Financial Transactions (SWIFT), a non-profit organization of banks, owns a private
network. The network exchanges financial transactions between the participating financial
institutions, about 3000 in number in over 60 countries. The terminals of these participating
banks are hooked with SWIFT‟s access centers. The network offers data communication service
24 hours a day, 7 days a week.

INDONET, NICNET, SBINET and WELCOMENET are some of the private network in
India. CMC‟s INDONET offers e-mail service to customers for a fee. NICNET is a network of
National Informatics Center that connects all the district headquarters in the country. SBINET is
a private network of State Bank of India and connects its branches across the country.
WELCOMNET connects the hotels of the Welcome Group.

 Features of Wide Area Network

A wide area network (WAN) is used to connect LANs and nodes that are separated by
great physical distance. Generally speaking it is larger version of LAN with several differences:

1. It operates by means of the international telephone network

2. Unlike LANs which owned by their users, WANs operate on public and leased
telephone lines provided by licensed common carriers, or by other means such satellite
and microwave, which are regulated by government agencies.
3. Data transmission is somewhere slower.
4. The WAN compose any of the following system configurations:
5. Single nodes
6. Clusters
7. LANs

Suppose a company has its central headquarters in Coimbatore and the Coimbatore site
contains all departments and equipment for product manufacturing prod distribution, accounting,
and sales. The information pertaining to these operations is tracked by a single centralized
database system. As the company becomes more profitable and expands, it established additional
sales offices on Mumbai and Delhi. Each sales office maintains its own system to record and
track customer orders for its region. At the same time the two sites are linked to the mode at
corporate headquarters and relay each order shipment and inventory and invoice processing.

 Advantages of WAN
The integration of the local nodes into the distributed database linked by the WAN
provides the following advantages:

1. The WAN allows access to database at remote sites, enabling exchange of data.
2. If a remote node fails, remaining nodes on the network can still exchange data.
3. If the network fails, the local mode can still access its own database.

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4. The data used on daily basis by the sales offices resides at the local site, making it easier to
retrieve quickly.
5. The local offices can maintain the data more effectively. The corporate office can access the
data as needed.
6. As a site's database grows larger, its system's storage capacity can be easily upgraded without
affecting the transfer of data between other nodes on network.

One of the most significant aspects of a wide area network when comparing it with freedom of a
local area network is the involvement of a public telecommunications authority. Regardless of
whether the network is made up from system, the controlling authority is almost always the
public authority. In order to protect their equipment and employees, the authority lays down
rules, which must be observed by anyone connecting to their lines. In most countries stringent
requirements are also imposed on the characteristics of the data transmissions.

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Metropolitan area network covers a wider area than a local area network. Usually MAN
covers a large metropolitan city and is a scaled down version of wide area network. It operates at
high speeds over distances sufficient for a metropolitan area.

3. Local Area Network (LAN)

A LAN is a system of interconnected microcomputers, sharing common resources like
disks, printers etc., and links a number of computers workstations) together to allow many people
to use the same software and data files. Each user in such a multi- user environment accesses the
resources through his microcomputer workstation. The network operating system integrates all
the network components and makes operation smooth and transparent. LAN works in restricted
geographical area such as within a large building or offices within a few kilometers.

The LAN is an interconnection of computers that need to communicate with each other in a
limited geographical area. The network may have other sharable devices attached such as fax,
laser printers and copiers. The network includes a central facility with huge storage capacity for
the requirements of the organization. It also has a network operating system for managing the
network.

 Types of LAN:
Local area networks are mainly of two types: Client/ Server LAN and Peer-to-Peer LAN.

a) Client / Server LAN

Client Server LAN has servers and clients. The server is a computer that manages shared
resources: hardware as well as software and data. It is usually a powerful computer with large
RAM and secondary storage capacity. The LAN has a number of microcomputers, called clients,
the request the server for services. The LAN may have many servers each specializing in one
area of service such as file server, printer server, database server etc. A file server stores program
and data files. A database server stores data and a printer server controls printers on the local area
network.

b) Peer-to-Peer LAN:
I n a Peer-to-Peer LAN every computer is equal in status and functioning. All the
computers on the network are capable of communicating independently with any other computer
on the network without using a server. Thus, any computer on the network can access data and

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programs stored on any other computer. The peer-to-peer LAN is less expensive than
client/server LAN. But at the same time this LAN may be slower than a client/server LAN.

 LAN Topology
The design of network requires selection of a particular topology and an architecture for
the interconnection of network component.

Topology refers to the way the computers are physically connected into the network. The
network architecture includes the specifications of the components that can be connected to the
network. IBM‟s Systems Network Architecture (SNA) is an example of vendor developed
network architecture. Such network architecture specifies network components such as terminals,
workstations, printers, cluster controllers, host computer and communications controllers.

There area a number of network topologies. Of them ring, star and bus are popular network
topologies.

a) Star Topology:
In star network the nodes are connected to a central computer called the host computer.
The nodes cannot communicate directly. Each node can communicate with the host computer.
The host computer takes the message and routes it to the other node or nodes.

Node
Node Printer

Host
(Server)/switch
Node Node

Node

The host is the main computer to which other nodes are connected by communication
links. The host computer is responsible for the overall functioning of the network. The node may
be a microcomputer, terminal or any other device like storage device, printer etc.,

In a star network centralization of control over the network resources is easy. It is also
possible to network minicomputer or mainframe with other microcomputers and dumb terminals.
It eliminates single point failure of a common wire. If one of the host computers fails, it does not
usually affect the others in the network. If the host computer/switch breaks down, the entire
network breaks down.

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b) Ring Topology:
In a ring network the computers can communicate directly with each other and also with
the central computer. The nodes are connected to a line that is closed like a loop. The ring
network is more reliable than star network. Even if the central computer in the network fails, the
other computers can continue to communicate with each other.

Node

Node Printer

Ring
Node Node

Node

c) Bus Topology:
A bus network configures computers to a single non- looping channel. The computers
connected to the network share the same bus or communication channel. Bus wiring is easy and
needs much less wring for small segments.

Node Printer Node

Node Node

Old Ethernet bus wiring is prone to cable failure. If the bus wiring connection is broken at
any point, the entire network fails.

d) Hybrid Network:
In most cases, instead of a single topology, a combination of topologies may be used for
greater flexibility and reliability. Hybrid network combines features of Star, Ring and Bus
network:

 Features of LAN
The features of LAN include the following
a) Limited geographical area say within a few kilometers.

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b) Common communication link for sharing information, software and peripheral devices
without regard to proximity of user to such resources on the network.
c) High transmission capability.
d) Low error rate as the network contains built- in component for detecting for system errors.
e) Private ownership by the user.
f) Not subject to regulation by the telecom service.

LAN interconnects computers and computers and components within a limited

geographical area. Such LANs are normally set up within a single site can have one or more
business complex, a hospital, an office- building etc. The site can have one or more buildings but
they should not be too for a way, say less then5 kilometers. A LAN can also include a variety of
computer systems and devices such as workstations, microcomputer, file servers, plotters,
scanners, graphic terminals and printers.

A large personal computer or mini computer serves as the LAN‟s hub. A high capacity
hand disk is attached to the hub as data files and software are stored on the network file server.
The users can load the software on the file server and retrieve data files for processing. The
output can be directed to the printer attached to the LAN.

Any the communication network that meets most or all of the following characteristics
can be classified as LAN,:
a) All the devices on the network share a common transmission medium, that is, the cable and/
or the controller.
b) The devices connected to the network can operate independent of the network.
c) Any device connected to it can communicate with any other device on the network, and
d) The network is capable of supporting heavy data traffic over short distances compared to
telecommunication network.
e) The network covers a limited area usually a few kilometers in radius or a single site like a
university campus, an office or a factory.
f)
 LAN Components
The components of LAN are File server, workstation, network operating system, LAN
cable, Active and Passive hubs etc.

a) Workstation
It is a single- user microcomputer with high power communication facilities. It can
exchange message with other workstations or fileserver.

Workstations can be of two types: user workstation and server workstation. User
workstation is a microcomputer on the network, which is used to access the network. Service
workstation performs service to process other workstations on the network. User workstation
normally does not process requests from other workstations. Server workstation makes available
all sharable network resources to other workstations. More than one server workstations may be
added to the network such as printer server and fileserver. Normally the server workstation is the
most powerful workstation. Server workstation may be dedicated or non-dedicated. In case of
dedicated workstation, it is not available for other user applications. Non-dedicated server
workstation doubles as an individual workstation and at the same time performs network-related
functions.

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 b) File Server
File server is actually a process running on a computer that provides the clients access to
files on that computer. The term is loosely applied to mean computer that runs file server
software. In this sense, it is a powerful computer with special software to serve files to other
workstations on the network. The files, which may be program files or data files, are
simultaneously shared by a number of workstations. Novell Netware is a popular network
operating system.

c) Gateway
The gateway assists in communicating between LANs. A workstation may be dedicated
to serve as gateway. This is required particularly when two networks with different technologies
have to communicate with each other. Gateway may also be used to connect LAN with a
mainframe computer.

d) Network Interface Unit/Card

The network interface is a printed circuit board installed in the microcomputer. It may be
called network card, network adapter or network interface unit. It connects the workstations
functionally and physically with the network.

e) Active Hub/Switch
Hub is an electronic device to which multiple computers are attached usually using
twisted pair cables. Active hub is a powered distribution point with active devices that drive
distant nodes up to one kilometer away. It can connect up to eight nodes on the network. The
maximum distance carried by an active hub is about 2000 ft.

f) Passive Hub
This hub is a distribution point that does not use power or active devices in a network to
connect up to four nodes within a short distance. The maximum distance covered by a passive
hub is nearly 300 ft.

g) LAN Cable
LAN requires superior cable capable of transferring data at high speed. Coaxial cables or
fibre optic cables may be used for networking computer.

h) Network Operating System (NOS)

The NOS integrates all the network components. The NOS facilitates file and print
serving along with other functions like communications and e- mail between workstations. In
most LANs the NOS exists along with the computer‟s operating system.. The computer‟s
operating system processes the system requests first and processes them if they can be done with
the workstation resources. If it is not a local request, meaning that the network resources have to
be used, the request is transferred to NOS for carrying out. Thus, the NOS is responsible for
controlling access to data, storage space and sharing of other peripheral resources.

i) Applications Software
Another component of LAN is application software. It has to be ensured that the
application software works in the multi- user environment.

j) Protocols
Data transmission between devices requires protocol. Protocols are sets of rules and
procedures to control the data transmission between computer and other devices. They are

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common technical guidelines for communication between devices. They specify the order in
which signals will be transferred, the signal for completion of transfer etc. Only Devices using
the same protocol can communicate directly. Both the sending and receiving devices must use
the same protocol for effecting communication. For communication between devices using
different protocols requires intermediate interpretation device or software.

The protocol performs the following functions:

a) Set up a link with the other device in the communication.
b) Identify the component to other components in the communication (sending device‟s channel
ID)
c) Send and interpret the data
d) Provide a continuous feedback on data transmission like data is not being received and
understood.
e) Request for retransmission of garbled data.
f) Engage recovery procedure when error occurs.
g) Provide an acceptable way of terminating transmission so that all devices have completed the
process.

The protocol is embedded in communication software designed to use a particular protocol.

The user need not bother about the protocol as the components involved in the communication
perform the protocol matching. The data communication protocols are of two main types:
asynchronous and synchronous. The synchronous protocol permits continuous data transmission.
The devices in communication must be synchronized with the other. The transmission is
governed by a time interval and not by start-stop bits. For example, clock, in the modern, sets the
time interval.

US SUM UP
1. Computer networking is the process of inter connecting two or more computers so that the
users can communicate with each other, share resources and overcome other limitations of
stand-alone systems.
2. A wide area network (WAN) is used to connect LANs and nodes that are separated by great
physical distance.
3. The LAN is an interconnection of computers that need to communicate with each other in a
limited geographical area.

Points for discussion

1) Discuss the various advantageous of computer network.
2) Explain in detail the different types of network.
3) List out the features of a) WAN; b) LAN
4) Explain in detail about various LAN Topology.
5) Discuss in detail about the different components of LAN.

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 OPERATING SYSTEM

After reading this lesson you will be able to understand:

1. What is an operating system, features and types of operating system and features of
operating system.
2. Major functions of operating system.

Introduction

It is the first layer of software loaded into computer memory when it starts up. As the first
software layer, all other software that gets loaded after it depends on it for various common core
services. These common core services include disk access, memory management, takes
scheduling, and user interfacing. In addition the operating system ensures that different programs
executing at the same time do not interfere with each other. It provides a software platform on
top of which other programs can run. In simple words, the operating system organizes and
controls the hardware. Examples of operating systems are Windows XP, UNIX, and Linux.

OPERATING SYSTEM
The operating system is a software program that acts as an interface between the user and
the computer. It is used to control and manage the hardware components such as keyboard,
monitor, printer, scanner etc.

Functions of an Operating System

a) Process Management:
It handles the creation, deletion, suspension, resumption, and synchronization of process.

b) Memory Management:
It handles allocation and de-allocation of memory space as required by various programs.

c) File Management:
It is responsible for creation and deletion of files and directories. It also organizes, stores,
retrieves, names, and protects all the files.

d) Device Management:
It manages all the devices of the computer system such I/O devices like printers and
modems. If any device fails, it detects the device failure and notifies the same to the user.

e) Security Management:
Protects system resources and information against destruction and unauthorized use.

f) User interface:
Provides the interface between the user and the hardware.

Types of Operating System

These are the different types of operating system:
DOS (Disk Operating System)
MS-DOS was the widely used operating system before the introduction of the Windows
operating system. Even now the MS-DOS commands are used for carrying out many jobs like
copying the files, deleting the files etc. The DOS is a set of computer programs. The main
functions of DOS are to manage files, allocate system resources according to the requirement. It

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 provides essential features to control hardware devices such a keyboard, screen, disk drives,
printers, modems etc. Thus, DOS is a medium through which the user and external devices
attached to the system communicate the command with the system. DOS translate
communication issued by the computer in the format that is understandable by the computer and
instruct computer to work accordingly. It is also translates the result and any error message in the
format for the user to understand.

 DOS Commands
We can type all DOS commands in either upper or lower case letters. There are two basic
types of DOS commands:
 Internal commands
These commands, like COPY, DEL, and TYPE, are stored in computers memory. Many
DOS commands fall into this category.
 External commands
This group of commands is stored on the disk. To use them, either insert the DOS floppy
disk, or change to the directory on hard disk which contains DOS external commands. Examples
of external commands include FORMAT, DISKCOPY, and CHKDSK.
Some commands can take several forms. These separate forms are used by including
various parameters with the command. Parameters, which will be discussed with each command,
are indicate by a / mark. Here is an example of command with an attached parameter:
C:\>DIR/W
[DOS command DIR is attached with parameter W]
All DOS commands must be activated by pressing the <Enter> key after typing the
command.

 Features of DOS
  Single user system
 Machine independence
  Program control
 Peripheral management
 Operating with Directories
  Managing files
 Processing commands
  Managing input and output
 Data securing
 Using Batch files
  Managing memory
 Setting up environment
 Command processing - DOS shell(a set of commands which is used to create the
programs)
 Operating with Assembler.

 Advantages of DOS
The DOS provides the following advantages:
 Machine independence
  More security
 User friendly environment
 More useful in commercial applications.

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  Error finding and recovery is more efficient
 Facilities more graphical user interfaces.
 Easy debugging
WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM
Microsoft Windows is the most popular operating system around the world. Even those
who are new to computers can use it with a little practice. With the help of Windows, we can
operate the computer just by clicking the mouse buttons, Windows95, Windows98, Windows
2000, Windows XP, Windows 7, 8, and Windows 10 are the various versions of Windows.

Windows is an operating system. It is the extension of the disk operating system.

Windows is system software. It requires DOS to run the application programs. The DOS should
be loaded into the memory before the window is executed. After the windows is loaded into the
memory the windows environment takes all the device controls. It also takes care of the memory
management of the programs run by the windows software".
Types of windows
There are two types of windows. They are
(a) Application windows - displays the executable program in graphical user interface mode.
(b) Document window - generated by executable or application program.
1. Windows 98
Windows 98 is the upgraded version of Windows 95. it offers bug fixture and minor
enhancements.
 Features of Windows:
The important features of Windows 98 are as follows:
(a) Graphical User Interface
Windows 98 provides user-friendlier interface to work on. Its improved graphical user
interface makes learning and using windows 98 more natural and easier for all types of users. It
is more powerful, customizable and efficient.

(b) Type of icons (Small Pictures):

There are three types of icons. They are

i) Applications icons - the minimized version of the currently running application programs. It
appears at the bottom of the desktop and can be maximized.
ii) Document icons - the reduced document windows.
iii) Program icons - appear with in program manager and clicking on these icons activate the
associated applications and also load the related documents or files.

(c) Start Button

Introduction of START button by windows 98 made life much simpler while there is a
need to access multiple programs. It is the gateway of accessing most of the functionality
available in the computer loaded with windows 98. Just Click on the start button anytime to start
any programs, open or find documents, change windows settings, get Help, manage Files,
maintain System, much more.
(d) Taskbar
The Task bar provides information and access to the entire task that has been currently
activated by windows 98. Using this one can keep a track of what all programs have been
activated and switched between them.
(e) Windows Explorer

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 Windows Explorer more or less acts as File Manager for windows 98, but with lots of
new features. It is more efficient, faster and user friendly. Using Explorer one can easily browse
through all the drives and network resources available and manage files.
(f) Right Mouse Button
Clicking on the right mouse button activates a pop- up menu in any program so as to help
in completing a task efficiently.
(g) Long File Names
As the MS-DOS convention follows, none-of the file used in DOS environment should be
more than 8 character of primary name and optimal secondary name (extension) of three
characters. However Windows 98 has broken this barrier. Windows 98 supports long file names
maximum of 225 characters. It also allowed space to be used in between file name. This helps to
make files and folders (directory/subdirectory) easier to organize and find.
h) Shortcuts
As the name suggests, SHORTCUTS are the shortest way to access programs, files other
resources in Windows 98. Instead of going through the structural process of accessing a program,
one can create “shortcuts” to access them. It creates links for easy access to file, programs,
folders and more.
i) Multitasking
Multitasking allows the user to activate and accomplish more than one task at a time. For
example, work on a document file WORD programs, which copies file from other computer
available in time on the network. With Windows 98, 32 - bit computing environment, the user
can do more than one task a time.

j) Easy Internet Access

Integration of Internet Explorer 4.0 and Active Desktop, which coupled the Internet html
hypertext links more tightly to the Windows 98 user interface.

k) Software Compatibility
Windows 98 provides complete backward compatibility. It is easily compatible with other
applications developed for MS-DOS and Windows 3.x environment. It also supports latest 32-bit
technology. Most of the latest software packages are now built on Windows 98, operating
environment.

l) Great Gaming Platform

Windows 98 supports rich graphics, high quality audio and video. Software to take
advantage of Intel's Multimedia Extensions (MMX) to the IA - 32 instruction set, which are
designed to improve the performance of multimedia applications and games developed for
windows 98 that uses MMX technology.

m) Hardware Compatibility
Windows 98 provides greater Hardware compatibility as compared to any other operating
environment. It has flexibility of supporting hardware from different vendors.

n) Find utility
Find Utility of windows 98 allows the user to do searches by partial name, last modified
date, or full text. In addition we can save, rename or view files from within the result pane.
(o) Help

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 Windows 98 provides online help to accomplish a task. If the user is not sure how to
perform a task, windows 98 Help will provide structured process how to accomplish the task.
Simply right-click on any object in the user interface (icon) and he can get relevant description
about that object.

(p) Manage more numbers of PC's

Windows 98 can manage up to eight monitors on a- single PC. The user can drag and
drop resize and move desktop items such as windows, folders, icons, and applications, from one
monitor to the next.

(q) Additional facilities

Windows 98 includes additional enhancement of Windows 95 that includes new backup
utilities and disk defragmenter capabilities.

2. Windows NT workstation
Windows NT is a single user; multitasking operating system designed to run on PC
workstations and incorporates all latest developments in operating system technology. It was
introduced in 1993. It includes the following:
(a) Windows NT workstation
(b) Windows NT server, and
(c) Windows NT enterprise edition

 Features
a) Single User Multitasking
The main feature is that even through it is meant for a single user environment, provides
multitasking. For e.g., a user may use a word processor, a drawing program, a spreadsheet
application to produce a document. Without multitasking, simultaneous use of this will not be
possible. They must process with the s/w one by one; provide alignment making changes will be
a tedious process. In a multitasking environment, the user may keep all the applications open,
prepare the documentation and make necessary change. All of these are possible with increased
speed and memory capacity of microprocessors together with the support for virtual memory.

b) Ability to support all applications

The power of Windows NT comes form its ability to support applications written for
other operating systems. This ability is provided through protected subsystems. The protected
subsystems are those parts of NT that interact with the end user.

c) Client server computing model

The way in which the executive, the protected subsystems, and the applications structured
in NT is by using the client/ server computing model, each server implemented as one or more
process. Such process waits for a request from a client for of its services, eg. memory services. A
client, which may be an applications program or another operating system module, requests a
service by sending a message. The message routed through the executive to the appropriate
server. The server performs the operation and returns the results or status information by means
of another message, which is routed through the executive back to the client.

Client/server architecture has the following advantages:

(i) It simplifies the base operating system, the NT executive
(ii) It improves reliability. Each server runs on a separate process with its partition of
memory, protected from other servers. Also, the servers cannot directly access hardware
or modify memory in which the executive the rest, the operating system.

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(iii) It provides a natural base for distributed computing.

d) Support for Threads

An important feature of Windows NT is its support for threads within process. A thread is
a dispatchable unit of work. It is executed sequentially and may be interrupted so that the
processor can turn to other threads. A process is a collection of one or more areas and associated
system resources. This is similar to a program in execution. By checking an application into
multiple threads, the modularity and the timing of application related events could be maintained.

e) Support of Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP)

In a multiprocessor system, to achieve maximum efficiency and reliability a mode of
operation known as symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) is desirable. With SMP, any process or
Thread can be assigned to any processor.

f) Windows NT uses concepts of object oriented design

Windows NT uses some concepts of object oriented design. This approach facilitates the
sharing of resources and data among processes and the protection of resources and data among
processes and the protection of resources from unauthorized access.

 Advantages of Windows NT

a) It simplifies the base operating system
b) It improves reliability
c) It provides a natural base of distributed computing
d) Operating-system routines can run on any available processor and different routines can be
executed simultaneously on different processors.
e) NT supports the use of multiple threads of execution within a single process.
f) NT processes convenient mechanisms for sharing data and resources between processes.
g) NT provides flexible inter process communication capabilities.
g) Functionality-NT can communicate with many different types of computers.

The UNIX Operating System

Like DOS and windows, there‟s another operating system called UNIX. It arrived earlier
then the other two, and stayed back like enough to give us the internet. UNIX is a giant operating
system and is way ahead of them in sheer power. It has practically everything an operating
system should have, and several features which other operating systems never had. Its richness
and elegance go beyond the commands and tolls that constitute it, while simplicity permeates the
entire system. It runs on practically every hardware and provided motivation to the open source
movement.

However, UNIX also makes many demands of the user. In requires a different type of
commitment to understand the subject, even when the user is an experienced computer
professional. It introduces certain concepts not known to the computing community before, and
user numerous symbols whose meaning is anything but clear. It achieves unusual tasks with a
few keystrokes, but it takes time to devices a sequence of them for a specific task. Often, it
doesn‟t tell you whether you are right or wrong, and doesn‟t warn you of the consequences of
your actions. That is probably the reason why many people still prefer to stay away from UNIX.
 Features of UNIX
UNIX is an operating system, so it is has all the features an operating system is expected
to have. However UNIX also looks at a few things differently and possesses features unique to it.
The following section gives a clear idea of the major features of this operating system.

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 a) UNIX: A Multi user System
From the fundamental point of view, UNIX is a multiprogramming system; it permits
multiple programs to run. This can happen in two ways
Multiple users can run separate jobs
A single user can also run multiple jobs.

b) UNIX: A Multi tasking System Too

A single user can also run multiple tasks at the same time as UNIX is a multitasking
system. It is usual for a user to edit a file, print another one on printer, send email to a friend and
browse the Word Wide Web - all without leaving any of the application. This kernel is designed
to handle a user‟s multiple needs.

c) The UNIX Toolkit

By one definition, UNIX represents the kernel, but the kernel by itself doesn‟t do much
that can benefit the user. To properly exploit the power of UNIX, you need to use the host of
applications that are shipped with every UNIX system. These applications are quite varied in
scope. There are general – purpose tools, text manipulation utilities (called filters), compilers and
interpreters, networked applications and system administration tools.

d) Pattern Matching
UNIX features very sophisticated pattern matching features. UNIX features elaborate
pattern matching schemes that use several characters from the Meta character set. The matching
isn‟t confined to filenames only. Some of the most advanced and useful tools also use a special
expression called a regular expression that is framed with characters from the set.

e) Programming Facility
The UNIX shell is also a programming language; it was designed for a programmer, not a
casual end user. It has all the necessary ingredients, like control structures, loops and variables,
that establish it as a powerful programming language in its own right.

f) Documentation
UNIX documentation is no longer the sore point it once was. Even though it is sometimes
uneven at most times the treatment is quite. The principal online help facility available is the man
command, which remains the most important reference for commands and their configuration
files. Thanks to O‟Reilly & Associates, one can safely say that there‟s no feature of UNIX on
which a separate textbook is not available.
Apart from the online documentation, there‟s a vast ocean of UNIX resources available
on the internet. There are several newsgroups on UNIX where you can fire your queries in case
you are stuck with a problem – be it a problem related to shell programming or a network
configuration issue. The FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions) a document that addresses common
problems is also widely available on the Net. Then there are numerous articles published in
magazines and journals and lecture notes available by universities on their Web sites. UNIX is
easily tamed Operating System.

US SUM UP
1. There are different types of operating system: DOS (Disk Operating System), Windows
Operating System, The UNIX Operating System.
2. An operating system performs various functions like Process Management, Memory
Management, File Management, Device Management, Security Management, User interface,

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3. The main functions of DOS are to manage files, allocate system resources according to the
requirement. There are two basic types of DOS commands: Internal commands and External
commands
4. Windows is an operating system. It is the extension of the disk operating system. It requires
DOS to run the application programs. The DOS should be loaded into the memory before the
windows is executed.
5. UNIX is a giant operating system and is way ahead of them in sheer power. It has
practically everything an operating system should have, and several features which other
operating systems never had.
LESSON END ACTIVITY
Work in windows and UNIX operating system and know the difference between the two.
Points for discussion
1) List and explain the functions of an Operating System.
2) Write short notes on different types of Operating System.
3) List out the features of DOS.
4) Write short notes on types of DOS commands.
5) Explain in detail about the features of WINDOWS.
6) Explain the various features of WINDOWS NT Work Station.
7) What are the advantages of WINDOWS NT..
i) The operating system is a software program that acts as an interface between the user and the
computer. It is used to control and manage the hardware components such as keyboard,
monitor, printer, scanner etc.

COMPUTER-RELATED JOB OPPORTUNITIES

After reading this Lesson you will be able to understand:

1. Various job opportunities available in the computer field.
2. Nature of job of a programmer, system analysts, web designer
3. Information technology enabled services like BPO.

INTRODUCTION

The fast spread of IT has generated a need for highly trained workers to design and
develop new information systems and to integrate new technologies in them. It is creating the
need for professional workers who can fulfill the high performance standards in the technology-
based industries. The IT professional plan, design, develops, support, and manage the strategies
and adopt them to fulfill basic objectives of them firm. The rapidly changing technology requires
the employees to have more skills and education. The companies look out for IT professionals
who not only have sound technical knowledge of the subject but also have sound interpersonal
and communication skills.

Computer-related jobs
1. Programmer:
A programmer is a person who writes the code for a computer program. Computer
programs are the instructions given to the computer, telling the computer what to do, which
information to identify, access and process. The programmers write programs, depending on the
specifications given by the systems‟ analysts and software engineers. After the completion of the
design process, the programmer‟s job is to convert that design into a series of instructions that

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the computer can follow. These instructions are coded in a programming language such as C,
C++, and Java, and then tested to ensure that the instructions are correct and produce the required
result. Programmers perform functions such as system designing, and its related services. They
are involved in coding of a project and the successful implementation of the developed system.
There are two types of programmers – application programmers and system
programmers. The application programmers code programs for a specific task (application) in the
organization. On the other hand, the systems programmers code programs for controlling and
maintaining the computer system software.

2. System analyst:
A systems analyst plans, designs, develops, and implements new systems or applies the
existing system resources to perform additional operations. Most of the systems analysts work
with specific type of system like business, accounting, finance, science or engineering and so on.
Some systems analysts are also known as system developers or system architects.

A system analyst determines the problem in the system by discussing it with the
managers and users before starting an assignment. They study the information needs of the
organization to determine the changes that are required to deliver a solution to the problems of
users. To design a system, the systems analysts specify the inputs required by the system, plan
the processing steps and finalize the output to meet the user‟s requirements. Next, the systems
analyst determines the hardware and software needed to set up the system.

Systems analysts prepare the specifications, flowcharts, and process diagrams for the
computer programmers to follow, and then work with the programmers to debut, and to rectify
and errors in the system. They also check the initial use of the system and organize tests to check
the working of the system to ensure that it works as required of planned. Systems analysts who
perform more intricate testing of products are referred to as software equality assurance analysts.
They not only perform tests but also diagnose the problems, suggest solutions and checks
whether the program requirements have been met or not. The analysts, who design, test and
evaluate the Internet, Intranet, local area network (LAN), wide area network (WAN) and other
data communications system are called network and data communications analysts.

3. Network administrator
A network administrator is a person who installs, configures, and supports the local area
network, wide area network, the Internet system or the segment of a network system in an
organization. Every network in an organization requires at least one network administrator.
Network administrators perform the functions such as installation, configuration, maintenance of
computers, and networking of equipment. They also check and ensure the availability of network
to all the users. They supervise the support of other networks and plan, coordinate and implement
network security measures.

4. Database administrator
A database administrator (DBA) is an individual who is responsible for the storage of
data, management of the database, and implementation of the database management system.
They work with database management systems software and determine ways to organize and
store data. They identify user requirements, set up the computer databases, and test and organize
the modifications to the systems. They also ensure the performance of the system in the
organization, understand the platform on which the database is running and adds new users to the
system. DBA is responsible for maintaining data integrity, back up systems and database
security.

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5. Web designers
A web designer is an individual who provides an architectural structure for the effective
communication of clients‟ content by logically organizing the information and making it
accessible. With the rapid growth of the Internet, many jobs relating to design, development, and
maintenance of the web sites and servers have cropped up in the market. The web designer
controls all aspects of design and programming of elements of text and visual design. They are
responsible for maintaining all technical aspects of a web site, including its performance issues
such as speed of access and approving the content of the web site. Web designers create the
artistic feel of the web site, facilitate navigation, and make content on the web site accessible to
the users.

6. Information security analyst

An information security analyst is an individual who performs highly complex analysis
and technical tasks involving assignment and co-ordination of measures to provide information
assurance, event detection, and rapid response across various environments of the enterprise.
Information security analysts design, implement and support integration of information security
solutions including security architectures, firewall administration, integrating security products,
and developing and coordinating security implementation plans. They provide technical support
on security projects that involve a wide range of issues including secure electronic data traffic,
network security, platform and data security and privacy. They review and contribute to the
security activities of business application and development project plans across all business units.

7. Business process outsourcing

Business Processing Outsourcing (BPO) refers to a decision to assign to another party
some or all non-core processes. The main motive of BPO is to allow the company to invest more
time, money, and human resources into core activities and building strategies, which helps in
company growth. The BPO jobs include various sectors like finance, accounts, customer support,
IT services, medicines, among other. Today, the global market is highly competitive and ever
changing. A company must focus on improving productivity and even cut down costs. There
fore, many tasks that use precious time, resources and energy, are being outsourced. BPOs, or the
units to which work is being outsourced are flexible, quicker, and cheaper and very efficient in
performance of the work.

Point for discussion

1) Explain in detail about various computer related jobs in business.

REFERENCES
1. Davis,Gordon.B, and Olson, Malgrethe H., Management Information systems, Mcgraw
Hill Book company
2. „O‟ Brien, James .A, Management Information systems: A managerial end user
perspective, Galgotia Publications Private Limited, New Delhi.
3. Gupta, Uma G., Management Information systems, A managerial perspective, Galgotia
Publications Private Limited, New Delhi.
4. Kenneth C. Laudon and Jane P. Laudon, Management Information system, Prentice Hall
of India.
5. ITL Education Solutions Limited, Introduction to Information Technology,Pearson
Education, New Delhi.

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