PROBLEMS

IN
SOIL MECHANICS
AND
FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
[For B.E .(Civil); M.E.(Civil) ; A.M.LE.(lndia);
U .P.S.C. and other Competitive Examinations] e
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DEBASHIS MOITRA 'S
Department of Civil Engineering 0
Bengal Engineering College -Deemed University Jt
Howrah. e

DHANPAT R-AI RUBLJCATIONS (P)iTD_ __

FIRST FLOOR.-tlr/4 MADRAS HOUSE •
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Preface
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6. Energy Methods in Structural Mechanics V.K. Manicka Selvam A.M.I.E. students, and, in some cases, even to the post-graduate students of
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering .
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A thorough understanding of the basic principles of a subject like Soil
8. Dock and Harbour Engineering S.P.Bindra Mechanics calls for the solution of a large number of numerical problems. In
the present book a brief introduction to the contents of each chapter bas been
9. Foundation Design Manual N.V.Nayak
given, which is followed by a number of worked-out examples and quite a
few practice problems. For a better understanding of the topics and students
are required to solve all the problems by themselves. Effort has been made to
explain the basic principles underlying the solution of the problems so that
First Edition 1993 the students may develop the habit of having a logical insight into the
numerical problems while solving them.
Reprint 1998
Comments and suggestions regarding the book, from the students as well
as the teachers, will be highly appreciated.
Price : Rs. 6 0.00
Calcutta,
9, March 1993 DEBASHIS MOITRA

Published by Ish Kapur for Dhanpat Rai Publications (P) Ltd.

Printed at A.P. Offsc!. Navecn ShahJara. Delhi- I HXB2.
 1
WEIGHT-VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS

CONTENTS 1.1 Introduction: Matter may exist in nature inthree different states, viz.,
solid, liquid and gaseous. A soil mass in its natural state may consist of all ,
three phases. The basic ingredient is the solid grains which form the soil
Chapter Page skeleton, while the intermittent void spaces are filled up by either air, or water,
or both. Thus, a soil mass in its natural state may be considered a three-phase
.X. Weight-Volume Relationships 1
system.
.:r. Index Properties and Soil Classification 24
d>
1.2 Soil Mass as a Three-phase System : . In a soil mass in its natural
state, the three phases, viz., solid, liquid and gas, are c.ompletely intermingled
Capillarity and Permeability 49 with one another. However, if one can determine the individual voh•mes of

rt 'rl
Stress Distribution
Seepage and Flow-nets
107
solid
81 grains, liquid (i.e., water) and gas (i.e., air) presentm a certain volume

j(
·
Consolidation 133 Va
.,f-- Air 0
Compaction 165
11"
'9
Sheor Strength
Earth Pressure
181
213
Vv
Vw
w
v
10. Stability of Slopes 254 Vs
11. Bearing Capacity .. . 283
12. Deep Foundations 310
Fig.l.l

o£a soil, the entire soil mass can be represented by a schematic diagram, as
shown in Fig. 1.1, where the volume of each constituent part is shown as a
fraction of the total volume. The cross-sectional area of the soil mass is taken
to be unity, so that, the volume of each constituent part is numerically equal
to its height shown in the diagram. Again, the mass of each part may be
obtained by multiplying its volume by the corresponding density.
The.notations used iii the diagram are defined below:
V • total volume of the soil mass
I
l
2 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Weight-Volume Relationships 3

Vs = volume of solid particles in the soil vw

i.e., ...(1.4)
Vv = volume of voids in the soil S =- X 100%
Vw = volume of water present in the voids vv
The value of s may vary from 0% (for dry soils) to 100% (for fully
V0 = . volume of air present in the voids saturated soils).
W = total mass of the soil (v) Specific gravity of solids (Gs or G): It is defmed as the ratio of the
Ws = mass of the solid particles mass of a given volume of solid grains to the JMSS of an equal volume of
Ww = mass of water present in the voids. water, measured at the same temperature.
The mass of air present in the voids is negligible. Ms
i.e., G = _:
Thus, Vv"" Va + Vw Mw
where, Ms = mass of any volume V of solid grains
and, V = Vs + Vv
Mw = mass of water of volume V.
or, V = Vs + Va + Vw
If this volume Vis arbitrarily taken as unity, then in the C.G.S. system
1.3 Basic Definitions : The fundamental physical properties which Ms and Mw become numerically equal to the density of solid grains (ys) and
govern the engineering performance of a soil are defined below :
density of water (yw) respectively. Thus,
(i) Voidratio(e): The void ratio of a soil is defmed as the ratio of volume
of voids to the volume of solids. G = mass of unit volume of solids Ys
v, mass of unit volume of water Yw
i.e., ...(1.1) or, ...(1.5)
e = Ys "' G ·Yw
vs (vi) Mass specifiC gravity (Gm) : It is defined as the ratio of the mass of
The void ratio is a dimensionless parameter, the numerical value of which
decreases with increasing degree of compactness of the soil. a given volume of soil to the mass of an equal volume of water, measured at
(ii) Porosity (n) : It is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the the same temperature.
total volume of the soil mass. It is generally expressed as a percentage. G =!! =]_
i.e., ...(1.6)
)?L=
vv m Mw Yw
i.e., V x 100% ...(1.2)
where y = unit weight of the soil mass.
The void ratio of a soil may be greater or less than 1. However, as the (vii) Bulk density or unit weight (y) : It is defined as the ratio of th total
3 3
volume of voids is always less than the total volume of a soil mass, its porosity mass of a soil to its total' olume. Its unit is gm/cc or t/m or kN/m ,
is always less than 100%. w ...(1.7)
i.e.,
(iii) Water content (w) : The water coment of a soil mass is defined as y =-
the ratio of the mass of water to the mass of solids. It is always expressed as v
(viii) Unit weight of solids (ys): It is defined as the mass of soil solids per
a percentage.
unit volume of solids.
. Ww
J.e., / w = W x 100% ...(1.3)
i.e., ...(1.8)
Degree of saturation (s) : e degree of saturation of a soil mass is
(ix) Dry density (yd) : The dry density of a soil mass is defined as the
defmed as the ratio of volume of water to the volume of voids. It is always
expressed as a percentage. mass of soil solids per unit of the total volume of the soil mass.
4 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Weight-Volume Relations/rips 5

i.e., ...(1.9) e
.. n = ...(1.11)
l+ e
The difference between Ys andyd should be clearly understood. The dry
Alternative proof: The same relationships may also be deduced consider-
dt?nsity of a fully or partly saturated soil is nothing but its bulk density in the ing the schematic diagram of a soil mass as shown in Fig. 1.2 (a) and (b).
dry state.The dry density of a soil depends on its degree of compactness, and
hence, on its. yoid ratio.. . e. ),!nit weight of solids depends only on ;the
properties ofth minerals present in it and is independent of the state in which
the soil exists. e Vo i d n Vo i d
(x) Saturated uni(weiglu (y 1): When a soil mass is fully saturated, its
bulk density is tenned as the saturated unit weight of the soil. (1+e)
(xi) Submerged density (Ysub): The submerged density of a soil mass is
defined as the submerged weight of the soil per unit of its total volume.
1.4 Functional Relationships : In order to assess the engineering
performance and behaviour of a soil, it is required to evaluate the fundamental
properties enumerated in Art.1.3.While some of these properties (e.g., W, G, !al I bl
y etc.) can be easily determined from laboratory tests, some others (e.g., e, s,
Ys etc.) cannot be evaluated directly. However, all of these properties are Fig. 1.2
interdependent. Hence, if mathematical relationships between two or more vv
such properties can be developed then the direct determination of a few of We know that,
e =
them will lead to the indirect detennination of the others. Thus, the functional vs
relationships have an important role to play in Soil Mechanics. Vv = e. Vs.
The most important relationships are established below : Let us consider a soil mass having unit volume of solids.
(i) Relation between e and n : .. Vs = 1, or, Vv = e · 1 = e.
Vv .. Total volume of the soil, V = Vv + Vs = 1+ e
By definition,
e= Vv e
vs Now, n -y=
But, V • Vv + Vs, or, Vs "' V - VV'
V,/V n vv
[·.· n ;] Again, n = - or Vv = n·V
1- n V'
Cqnsidering a soil mass bavir ;g a total volume V = 1,
n V.. "" 1·n • n, or, Vs • V - Vv = 1 - n.
.. e = ...(1.10)
1-n Vv n
Vv :. e- V• ·
Again, by definition, s
n ..
v ARelation between e, G, wands :
V,/Vs e With reference to Fig 1.1,
1+ v,/Ys .. !:;:-; [··· e = ]
W•
6 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Weight-Volume Relationships 7

G+e
But, or, Ys = G ·Yw or, Ysat • T+e·Yw ...(1.14)

V..,·yw Vw V..,!Vv (v) Expressionforyd:

W-= ... --=
Vs ·Gyw Vs·G (V/Vv) ·G
By definition,
V..,!Vv
s
=--- --=- sG
G G/ e G.V/Vv G/ e
e -- (Vv + Vs)I Vv . y.., - 1 + lie ·y w
V/Vs
or, s.e = w.G ...(1.12) Gy..,
(iii) Relation between y, G, sand e: or, Yd = ...(1.15)

The bulk density of a three-phase soil system is given by, Eqns. (1.14) and (1.15) may also be derivecl from eqn. (1.13) as follow:s:
w ww + ws V.., ·Yw + Vs ·Ys For a saturated soils= 1,
y =-- - G + l.e G +
V Vv + Vs Vv + Vs .. From eqn. (1.13) we get, Ysat = + e · Yw • 1'+ 'e ·Yw
Vw ·Yw + Vs ·Gyw Vw + G· Vs 1
·yw For a dry soil, s = 0
Vv + Vs Vv + Vs
G + O.e
Dividing the numerator and denominator by Vv , we get, From ·eqn. ( 1.13) weget, Yd = ·y.., • -Gy..,
--
. 1+e 1+ e
V..,!Vv + G ·VsfVv s + G/ e
y = (vi)Relationbetweeny and yd:
1 + V/Vv . y.., = 1 + ll e .Yw
y ... w =
(s.e + G)le G + se We know that,
(1 + e)le Yw .. 1 + e .Yw v
G + se or, ...(i)
or, y • 1 + e ·y.., ...(1.13)

(tv).Expression for Ysat : Again, ...(ii)

. w w.., + ws V.., ·Yw + Vs ·Ys
From (i) and (ii) we get,
By definition, Ysat = V .. Vv + Vs
vv + vs w.., + ws ws
For a saturated soil, V.., = Vv =-
v • Yw + Vs ·Gy.., y Yd
Ysat • w.., + ws ( w..,)
or, Y = . ·YJ • 1+ ·YJ • (1
(Vv + GVs)IVv ws ws
- (Vv + Vs)IV., ·yw Yd = _]
or, ...(1'.16)
1 + G.(lle) . (G + e)le G + e 1+ w
• 1 + lie . Yw • (1 + e)le . Yw • y-:;-e ·Yw (vii) Relation between Ysub and Ysat :
A soil is said to be submerged when it lies below the ground water table.
Such a soil is fully saturated. Now, according to Archimedes' principle, when
8 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Weight-Volume Relationships

an object is submerged in a liquid, it undergoes an apparent reduction in mass, Solution: From the consideration of degree of saturation, a soil sample
the amount of such reduction being equal to the mass of the liquid displaced may be:
by the object.
(i) Completely dry (s = 0)
Consider a soil mass, having a volume V and mass W, which is fully
submerged in water. ·,,I (ii) fully saturated (s = 1)
Volume of water displaced by the soil =V (iii) partially saturated (0 < s < 1)
Mass of displaced water Unless otherwise mentioned in the problem, a soil sample should always
be taken to be partially saturated .
. . Apparent mass of the soil, W' W - V ·Yw = V ·Ysat - V ·Yw Met·Given:ly,w,G IRequired:1yd,s,e,n I
• V (Ysat - Yw) As e and n are mutually dependent on each other, effectively three
The apparent density or submerged density of the soil is given by, unknown parameters have to be determined from the given data. Select the
appropriate equations which may serve this purpose.
W' V(Ysat - Yw)
Ysub = V• V The value of yd can be determined from :

or, Ysub = Ysat - Yw

EXAMPLES
...(1.17)
Yd = 1 r w
Here, y = unit weight of the soil = 1.9 gm/cc
Two different methods may be employed to solve the numerical w .. water content = 12% = 0.12
problems in this chapter. They are :
1.9
MethodI: Solution using mathematical relationships : Yd = + . = 1.696 gm/cc
This process is somewhat mechanical, one has to memorise all the 1 0 12
equations deduced in Art. 1.4 and should select the appropriate equation/s In order to solve for the other two unknowns, viz., sand e; two equations
while solving a given problem. However, in most of the cases this method are required. Evidently, the following equations will serve the purpose:
can yield the desired result fairly quickly. wG = se, or se = (0.12) (2.65) = 0.318 ...(i)
Method II: Solution from first principles : G + se
Again, y • 1 + e . Yw
In this method the solution is obtained using only the basic definitions
with reference to a three-phase diagram of the soil mass under consideration.
This method always allows the student to have an insight into the problem. or, 1.9 - (2.65 + 0.318) (1.0)
However, in some cases the solution becomes a little complicated and more
1+ e
time-consuming than method I. or, 1 + e = 1.56, or, e • 0.56
After going through the worked out examples, quite a few of which The expression ofyd may also be used.
illustrate the use of both of these methods, one should be able to realise as to G·yw
which method of solution suits better to a particular type of problem. It may Yd= ,
be pointed out that, the methods may also be used in conjunction with one
another. 1.696 = (2.65) (1)
or,
Problem 1.1. A soil sample has a unit weight of 1.9 gm/cc and a water 1+ e '
content of 12%. If the specific gravity of solids be 2.65, determine the dry or, 1.696 + 1.696e = 2.65
density, degree of saturation, void ratio and porosity of the soil. e- 0.954 .. 056
or,
1.696 .
10 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Weight-Volume Relationships 11

From (i), 0.318 = 0.568 = 56.8%

s .. -0.56 Void ratio,
Vv Q.212 = O
56
- e = vs - 0.377 .
n .. _e_ = 0.56 .. 0.36 = 36%
1 + e 1 + 0.56 . n = V., = 0·212 x 100% = 36%
Porosity,
Answer. Dry density = 1.696 gm/cc, void ratio = 0.56 v 0.589
Degree of saturation = 56.8%, Porosity = 36% Dry density, ws =
Yd = - 1 = 1.697 gm/cc
--
Method II: v 0.589
Let us consider a specimen of the given soil in which the mass of solid Problem la,t..-.-An undisturbed specimen of soil bas a volume of 300
grains = 1gm. The three-phase diagram of the soil is shown in Fig. 1.3.
cc and weighs 498 gm. After drying in oven at 105•c for 24 hours, its weight
ww ww reduced to 456 gm. Determine the void ratio, porosity, degree of saturation
Now, and water content. Assume G = 2.70.
W • 1 =
""- Ww
or, Ww = ws
0.12gm Solution : Method I : ·

Total mass of the sample, W = Ww + Wd = 1.12 gm

Given =IV, W, wtb G R quired I n, s, w :[e. I .
ws ws 1
After drying in oven, the water present m the soil evaporates and the sod
becomes completely dry.
Volume of solids, v = - = - .. = 0.377 cc
s Ys Gyw (2.65) (1) Now, weight of the moist sample, w = 498gm
Volume of water, v = ww
- -
0.12
-- .. 0.12 cc
And, weight of the dry sample, wd = 456gm.
w 'iw 1 .. Weight of water evaporated, W..,= w- wd 498-456 = 42gm.
v = yw = l.lZ
Ww 42
Total volume of soil, 1.9 .. 0.589 cc Water content, w • - = - • 0.0921 .. 9.21%
wd 456
:. Volume of air, Va -= V - (Vs + Vw) • 0.092 CC Gyw
Dry density,
:. Volume of voids, vv "' va + vw "' 0.12 + 0.092 .. 0.212 cc Yd=
Vw 0.12 wd 456 . 52 ;
Degree of saturation, S = =--X 100% "'56.6% But Yd =V = 300 = L gm cc
vv 0.212
Gyw
.. 1.52
+e
Air 0 or, 1
Vw or, 1.52 (1 +e)= (2.7) (1)
1.52e + 1.52 = 2.7
(0 ·12ccl or, e = 0.78
v w
(0·589ccl Void ratio = 0.78
(1·12gml e
Vs Ws Again, porosity n - -- .. 0.78 .. 0.438 • 43.8%
( 0·377cc) (1gml 1+ e 1 + 0.78
wG
From eqn. (1.12), wG=se, or, s•­
ot

Fig.l.3.
12 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Weight-VolumeRelationships 13

s = (0.0921) (2.7) .. 0.319 = 31.9%

Problem if,
A saturated soil sample, weighing 178gm, ha a volume
or, of 96 cc. Ifthe specific gravity of soil solids be 2.67, determine the void ratio,
0.78
water content and unit weight of the soil.
Method II : With reference to the three-phase diagram shown in Fig. 1.4,
Weightofwater, Ww • 498 - 456 = 42gm
Solution: Given :lw; V, G, s I:;. Required :le. If, y
Unit weight of the soil,
ww w 178
Volume of water, Vw"'- = 42cc Ysat = V '" % = 1.854 gm/cc
Yw
G+e
Volume of solids, But, Ysat • T+e' Yw
456 2.67 + ,1 x e) (l.O) = 1.8S4
(2.7) (1) = 168.89 cc ( 1+e
Tota.l volume, V=300cc or, 1.854 + 1.854e = 2.67 + e
Volume of voids, Vv = V- Vs or, 0.854e - 0.816

vv = 300 - 168.89 = 131.11 cc or, e = 0.955

or,

e = Vv • 131.11
vs 168.89 = 0.78 A a· = s.e = (1)(0.955) '" 0 358 .. 35 8%

n = =
1 1
= 0.437 = 43.7% g :ble .%:ly sal :..a pie .a i1a•i:.,:m< of28
sample was ·in ven and the weight of the dry soil pat was found to be
cc. The
Vw 42 48.86 gm. Determine the void ratio, moisture content, saturated density and
s = Vv • 131.11 = 0.32 = 32% dry density of the soil mass. Given G = 2.68.
. Solution: Given: P,
Ws, (;, s I:;.
Required: !e.
w, Ysat> Yd I
w 42
W= ws
= 456 "' 0.0921 = 9.21% A schematic representation of the given soil is shown in Fig. 1.5.
Here, total volume V 28 cc
48.86 8
Volume of dry soil, Vs - 2.68 cc = 1 .23 cc
Vv (131·11cc) Air
Assuming that there was no change in void ratio during oven drying,
Vw (42cc) volume of water evaporated, Vw • V - Vs = (28 - 18.23) cc 9.77 cc ·r·
V I 300ccl W l498gml Void ratio,

Vs
- : = 0.536

Fig . 1.4
14 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Weiglu-Volume Relationships

Weight of water, Ww = Vw ·Yw • (9.77)(1.0) wd 2:s

• 9.77gm VJ =
V = "' 1.788 gm/cc
165
w. ............ 9.77 G + e
Moisture content, w '"' = 0.2 .. 20% But, Ysat • ·Yw
ws = -- 48.86
'Dtal weight of the soil, 2:127 = G + e ·1
1+e
W = w.... + Ws = (9.77 + 48.86) gm = 58.63 gm
2.127 + 2.127e .. G + e
or,
w 58.63
Saturated density, Ysat = V • • 2.09 gm/cc or, G = 1.127e + 2.127 ...(i)

ws 48.86
Grw
Again, YJ = I:;;
Dry density, YJ = -= ·-- • 1.745 gm/cc
V · 28
1.788 "'
1+e
or, G = 1.788e + 1.788 ...(ii)
From (i) and (ii) we get,
1.788e + 1.788: 1.127e + 2 127
or, 0.661e = 0.339
or, e = 0.51
From (i) we get, G = (1.27)(0.51) + 2.127 = 2:1
Now, MG • se

Fig. 1.5
or, w = "' · ( 1) i /l) " D.189 = 18.9%

Problem V: An undisturbed sample of saturated clay has a vo1ume Metbod II : A three-phase diagram of the given soil is shown in Fig. 1.6.
of 16.5 cc and weighs 35.1 gm. On oven-drying, the weight of the sample Here, wet weight of the sample, W • 35.1 gm
reduces to 29.5 gm. Determine the void ratio, moisture content, dry density Dry weight of the sample, Wd = 29.5 gm
and the specific gravity of solids.
Weight of water, W.;, • W - Wd = (35.1 - 29.5) gm '"' 5.6 gm
Solution : Method I :
Given :f .....---
W, WJ, sJ Required w, yJ, G :!e, Volume of water V,... • Vv • 5.6 CC
Weight of the saturated sample, W = 35.1 gm Total volume V = 16.5 cc
Weight of the dry sample, Wd = 29.5 gm .. Volume of solids, Vs .. V - Vv • (16.5 - 5.6) cc "' 10.9 cc
Vv 56
.. Weight of water evaporated, W,... "' W - Wd = (35.1 - 29.5) gm Void ratio, e • - -·- = 0.51
-5.6gm vs 10.9
51
Now, Y -W - - - } · .. 2 127 gm I cc Moisture content, w w.... -
•- 56
_._ = 0.189 .. 18.9%
sat V 16.5 · ws 29.5
16 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Weight-Volwrre Relotiomhips 17

was 0.54, determine the mo content, dry density, bulk density, degree
of saturation and specific gravity..of solids.
Sol•tioa: Givea :jw, V,Ws,e I Required :ly, Ya w, s, G
1

Total volume V • 185 cc

Total weight, W • 362 gm
Dry weight, Wa • 326 gm
w 362
. . Bulk density, y -V• • 1.96 gm/cc
Fig. 1.6 185

ws 29.5 Wa
326
V• • 1.76 gm/cc
.. V •
Dry density, Ya •
Dry density, 185
Yd = 1.79 gm/cc
165
ws 29.5 Weight of water evaporated, Ww • W - Ws
= 2 70 gm/cr
Unit weight of solids, Ys "' vs = --
10.9 . .. (362 - 326) gm ... 36 gm
Ww 36
Spect"f"tcgravt·t y of sol"1d s, G = Ys 2 70 = 2.70 Moisture content, w .. ws .. 326 ... 0.11 = 11%
=
-·
Yw 1·0
Problem The initial void ratio of an inorganic clay is found to be Now,
0.65, while the specific gravity of solids is 2.68. Determine the dry density
and saturated density of the soil. Also determine its bulk density and moisture G·1
content, if the soil is 50% saturated. 176 ... 1 + 0.54
·
Solution: Given: le, G,s j Required : I Yd, Ysat, y, w or, G .. (1.76) (1.54) = 2.71
Saturated density of the soil, y531 = G + e ·Yw Again, wG • se,
1 + e'
2 5 or, s - wG - (O.ll) <1·71) - 0.55 - 55%
e 0.54
•( ·:S++0 ) (1) • 2.02gm/cc
Proble A sample of silty clay has a vo d ratio of 0.8. The soil is
Dry density, 2 68 1
Yd ,• Gy.,; • ( . ) ( ) = (62 gm/cc allowed to absorb water and its saturated density was found to be 1.92gm/cc.
1+e 1 + 0.65 Determine the water content of the saturated sample.
When the soil is SO% saturated, its bulk density Solution : Method I :
=
• G + se , _ 2.68 + (0.5) (0.65) ( ) 182 1 It is assumed that the void ratio of the soil did not change due to
1
y 1 + e • Yw 1 + 0.65 · gm cc absorption of water.
The saturated density is given by,
G
Moisture content at 50% saturation,
% Ysat • T+e ·Yw
w .. se • (0.5) (0.65) • 0_ 12 • 12 ·
. G /' 268
P blem J.(f. The volume and weight of a partially saturated clay G + 0.8 ( 1) • 1.92
sample a.re 185 cc and 362 gm respectively. After drying in an oven at 105"C 1 + 0.8
for 24/...o,uts, its weight reduced to 326 gm. Ifthe natural v<Jid ratio of the soil or, G • (1.92) (1.8) - 0.8 • 2.656
1 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Weight-Volume Relationships 19
Now, using the relation l1.G = se, we, get,
1+ w
se (1) (0.8)
w = G = 2.656 = 0.30 2.25w - 1.92
or, 4.32w • 1 + w
:. Required water content= 30% w .. 0.30 = 30%
or,
Method II : Fig. 1.7 shows the three-phase diagram of the given soil.
Note :Try to solve the problem assuming the volume of solids to be unity.
Let the weight c,f solids be unity. Let w be the moisture content of the
Problem The bulk density and dry density of a partially saturated
saturated soil ,
soil are 1.9 gm/cc and 1.80 gm/cc respectively. The specific gravity of sol.ids
w is 2.68. Determine the void ratio, moisture content and degree of saturation
Now, • = 1-\-' , or , Ww = w ·Ws = w ·1 "" w gm
s
of the soil.
Volume ofwater, Vw = wee Solution:

Now, void ratio e = 0.8 We have, Y d - 1 + 1._

v w
v .. 0.8 Here, Yd = 1.80 gm/cc, y = 1.95 gm/cc
s
Vv V.., w 1.80 ...
1+ w
or, vs = 0.8 = 0.8 = 0.8 = 1.25w cc
or, 1 + w - 1.95/1.80 .. 1.0833
Total volume of the soil,
or, w = 0.0833 - 8.33%
v- vs + v.., Gy..,
= 1.25w + w = 2.25w cc Again, we have, Yd""

1.80 - (2.68) (1)

1+ e

or, 2.68 149

l+e•1.8o=.
or, e = 0.49
Now, l1.G = se

or, s .. l1.G - (0.0833) (2.68) ., 0.456 - 45.6%

0.49
Problem 1 The density of a partially saturated soil was found to be
Fig . 1.7 1.88 gm/cc. If oisture content and void ratio of the soil be 24.8% and
0.76 respectively, determine the specific gravity of solids, and the degree of
Total weight of the soil, W • W.., + Wd = (1 + w) gm saturation.
w 1+ w Solution:
Ysat • V .. 2.25w
G + se
But , Ysat • 1.92 gm/cc We have
y "" 1 + e ·y.., ...(i)
l1.G = se ...(ii)
 Weight-Volume Relationships 21
20 Problems in Soil Meclumics and Foundation Engineering
39758
397.58 gm of dry soil is obtained from cc
Substituting for se in eqn (i), we get, 1.605
G + wG = 247.71 cc of moist soil
y • 1 + e . Yw
.. Volume of moist soil to be used = 247.71 cc.
G(1 + w)
Now, bulk density y • Yd (1 + w)
or, y • 1 + e . Yw
• (1.605) (1 + 0.105) • 1.773 gm/cc
1.
88 • G(l1 +
+ 0.248) (l)
0.76
Total weight of moist soil required = y x V
G • (1.88) (1.76) • 2.65 • (1.773) (247.71) gm = 439.19 gm
or, (ii) Weight of water present in this soil
1.248
Problem t.JJ( A given soil mass bas a moisture content oflO.S% and .. (439.19 - 397.58) gm = 41.61 gm
a void ratio of 0.67. The specific gravity of soil solids is 2.68. It is required Weight of water fmally required • 59.64gm
to construct three cylindrical test specimens of diameter 3.75 em and height
:. Weight of water to be added = (59.64 - 41.61) gm
7.5 em from this soil mass. Each specimen should have a moisture content of
15% and a dry density of 1.6 gm/cc. Determine: = 18.03 gm
(i) the quantity of the given soil to be used for this purpose Volume of water to be added = 18.03 cc
(ii) quantity of water to be mixed with it Ans: 439.19 gm of given soil is to be taken and 18.03 cc of water is
Solution : (i) Volume of each specimen • rr.? h to be added to it.

.. :7t (3.75!2)2 (7.5) cc

'"" 82.83 cc EXERCISE!
Total volume of three specimens, V .. (3) (82.83) = 248.49 cc p. A soil sample has a porosity of 35%. The soil is 75% saturated and
the specific gravity of solids is 2.68. Determine its void ratio, dry density,
bulk density and moisture content.
Weightofdrysoilrequired, wd- v X Yd [··· Yd- ]
[Ans: e • 0.54, yd ... 1.74 gm/cc, y • 2.0 gm/cc, w • '15% 1
.. (248.49) (1.6) 1.2. The mass specific gravity of a soil is 1.95, while the specific
- 397.58gm gravity of soil solids is 2.7. If the moisture content of the soil be 22%
determine the following : '
Moisture .content of finished specimens, w • 15%
(i) Void ratio (ii) porosity {iii) degree of saturation (iv) dry density (v)
saturated density.
But,
[Ans : (i) 0.69 (ii) 41% (iii) 86% (iv) 1.597 gm/cc (v) 2.00 gm/cc 1
Weight of water in the specimens, Ww '"" (0.15) (397.58) The saturated and dry densities of a soil are 1.93 gm/cc and 1.47
gm/cc respectively. Determine the porosity and the specific gravity of the
• 59.64gm solid gra9ts. [Ans : n = 45.9%, G = 2 72 1
Now, dry density of the given soil mass, 1.\il( A partially saturated soil sample has a natural moisture content of
17% and a bulk density of2.05 gm/cc. If the specific gravity of soil solids be
Gyw (2.68) (1) .. 1.605 gm/cc
Yd = • 1 + 0.67 2.66, detennine the void ratio, degree of satUration and dry density of the soil.
What will be the bulk density of the soil if it is :
i.e., 1.605 gm of dry soil is obtained from 1 cc of moist soil (i) Fully saturated

'
j •

--------------------------
22 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Weight-Volume Relationships
23
(ii) 6D% saturated ?
[Ans: Part 1 : e = 0.52, s = 87%, Yd = 1.75 gm/cc Part 2: (i) 2.09 gm/cc 1.12.. .In pr blem 1.11, what will be the water content and bulk derisity
f (ii) 1.95 gm/cc ) of the sod tf, wtthout undergoing any change in the void ratio, the soil
V. An undisturbed soil sample has a volume of 50 cc and weighs 96.5 becomes:
(i) Fully saturated
gm. On oven-drying, the weight reduces to 83.2 gm. Determine the water
content, void ratio and degree of saturation ofthe soil. Given, G = 2.65. (ii) 80% saturated [Ans : (i) 22%; 2.04 gm/cc, (ii) 17.7%, 1.97gm/cc)
(Ans: w = 16%, e = 0.59, s = 72%)

i The bulk density and dry density of a soil are 1.95 gm/cc and 1.58
gm/ r spectively. Assuming G5 = 2.68, determine the porosity, water
content and degree of saturation of the soil.
1.13. A 4 m bigb embankment, with a top width of 5 m and side slopes
of 1 : 1: bas _to be constructed by compacting soil from a nearby b ;>rrow pit.
The umt wetght and natural moisture content of the soil are 1.8 tfin3 and 8%
respectively. Detennine the volume of earth to be excavated from the borrow
[Ans : n = 41%, w = 23%, s = 89.2% ] pit and the quantity of water to be added to it for every km of finished
1.7. A cylindrical sample of saturated clay, 7.6 em high and 3.8 em in embankment, if the required dry density and moisture content of the
diameter, weighs 149.6 gm. The sample was dried in an oven at 105"C for 24 embankment soil be 1.82 gm/cc and 18% respectively. Given, G = 2.70.
hours, and its weight reduced by 16.9 gm. Determine the dry density, void [Ans: Vol. of excavation= 39304 m 3 ; Vol. of water= 6552 m 3]
ratio, moisture content and specific gravity of solids.
(Ans: yd = 1.54 gm/cc, e = 0.74, w = 12.7%, G = 2.68)
1.8. The moisture contett and bulk density of a partially saturated silt
sample were 18% and 19.6 kN}m3 respectively. The sample was kept in an
oven at 105" C for 15 minutes, -resulting in a partial evaporation of the pore
water. The bulk density of the sample reduced to 18.3 kN/m 3. Assuming the
void ratio to remain unchanged, determine the final water content of the
sample. What would have been its bulk density if the sample was kept in the
oven for 24 hours? [Ans : 10%, 16.6 kN/m 3]
1.9. An embankment was constructed with a clayey soil at a moisture
content of 12%. Just after construction, the degree of saturation of the soil
was found to be 55%. The soil absorbed water during the monsoon and its
degree of saturation increased t<l90%. Determine the water content of the soil
at this stage. What will be the degree of saturation if the moisture content
reduces to 5% in the dry season? Given, G = 2.68. [Ans : 19.6%, 22.9%)
1.10. The natural moisture content of a soil mass is 11%, while its void
ratio is 0.63. Assuming the void ratio to remain unchanged, determine the
quantity of water to be added to 1m3 of this soil in order to double its moisture
content Given, specific gravity of solids= 2.72. [Ans: 183.3 kg]
1.11. The in-situ density of .a soil mass is to be determined by the
core-cutter method. The height and diameter of the core are 13em and 10 em
respectively. The core, when full of soil, weighs 3155 gm, while the self-
weight of the empty core is 1250 gm. The natural moisture content and the
specific gravity of solids are 12% and 2.66 respectively. Determine the
bulk density, dry density and void ratio of the soil.
[Ans : y= 1.87 gm/cc, yd = 1.67gm/cc, e = 0.59)
 Index Properties and Soil Classification

wl =empty weight of pycnometer.

Wz = weight of pycnometer and dry soil.
W3 =weight of pycnometer, soil and water.
w4 = weight of pycnometer filled with water.
2 Now, weight of soil solids = W2 - W1
and, weight of an equal volume of water = (W4 - W1) -(W3 -Wz)
INDEX PROPERTIES AND SOIL G =
w4:._ - wl - w3 + Wz
...(2.1)
Wz- wl
CLASSIFICATION ::... .::... ..=.
2.3 Particle Size Distribution: This is determined in the laboratory by the
2.1 Introduction: Various physical and engineering properties with the mechanical analysis, which consists of:
help of which a soil can be properly identified and classified are called the (a) Dry mechanical analysis or sieve analysis: In this method the
index properties. Such properties can be broadly divided into the following sample is sieved through a set of sieves of gradually diminishing opening
two categories: sizes. The percent finer corresponding to each sieve size is determined and
(a) Soil grain properties: These are the properties pertaining to the results are plotted on a semilog graph paper to obtain the particle size
individual solid grains and remain unaffected by the state in which a particular distribution curve. However, this method is applicable only to the coarser
soil exists in nature. The most important soil grain properties are the specific fractions of soils and not to the silt and clay frictions as sieves having open
gravity and the particle size distribution. sizes less than 0.075 mm are practically impossible to manufacture.
(b) Soil aggregate properties: These properties control the behaviour (b) Wet mechanical analysis or hydrometer analysis: The percentage
of the soil in actual field. The most important aggragate properties are: of finer fractions (i.e., silt and clay) in a soil can be analysed indirectly using
(i) for cohesionless soils: the relative density a hydrometer. The method is based on Stokes' law which states that the
(ii) for cohesive soils: the consistency, which depends on the moisture tem1inal velocity of a falling sphere in a liquid is given by
content and which can be measured by either the Atterberg limits or the Ys - Yw D. 2
unconfined compressive strength. v .. 181-l ...(2.2)
2.2 Specific Gravity: The specific gravity of a soil can be determined by where, Ys and Yw are the unit weights of the sphere and the liquid respectively
a pycnometer (i.e., a specific gravity bottle of500 ml capacity). Fig. 2.1 gives
a schematic representation of the process. Let, D = diameter of the sphere
f.!= absolute viscosity of the liquid
Fig. 2.2 shows the sketch of a hydrometer. After immersing the
hydrometer in the measuring cylinder containing the soil-water suspension,
readings are taken at I, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30, 60, 120, and 1440 minutes. Let r 1
be the reading ofhydrometer at timet. The particle size and the corresponding
value of percent finer are obtained from the following equations:

D ...(2.3)
W1 w4
( Emp·ty Bot) (Bot.•OrySoil) (Bot.•Soii•Waterl ( Bot. • Water)
 26 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Index Properties and Soil Classification

Ys V analysis, then the percent finer, N , of the particle sizeD mm, with respect
and, N= - y ·, w'Yw (rl +em- rw) X 100% ...(2.4)
Ys w s to the total quantity of sample, is given by,
where, D - particle size in mm I WS
...(2.7)
N •Nx -
Ys = unit weight iof soil solids = Gs ·Yw w
y.., "' unit weight of distilled water at the room temperature
t = time interval in sec 995
r1 = reading of hydrometer in suspension at time t 1000

J.l = viscosity of water at room temperature in gm-sec /cm 2

Zr = distance from the surface of suspension to the centre of gravity W.L.Level
of hydrometer bulb at timet, which can be determined from : Immersion
Initial W.L.-
Zr = H1 + i(lz - :h) em ...(2.5)

where, vh = volume of hydrometer in cc

A = area of cross-section of measuring cylinder in cm 2
H1 = distance between the surface of suspension and the neck of
bulb, in em
h = length of the bulb in em
The distance H1 may be measured by a scale. However, a better
proposition is to determine H 1 from the following equation:
(rd + 1) - r1
HI = X L ...(2.6)
rJ
Fig. 2.2
where, rd = difference between the maximum and minimum calibration
marks on the stem of hydrometer 2.3.1 Particle Size Distribution Curve: Fig. 2.3 shows typical particle size
distribution curves for various types of soils. Curves A, B and C represent a
L = length ofcalibration (=length of stem)
uniform soil, a well graded soil and a gap graded soil respectively.
In eqn. (2.4),
With reference to the particle size distribution curve of a given soil, the
N = percent finer.
following two factors are helpful for defining the gradation of the soil:
V = Volume of suspension in ·cc (i) Uniformity Co-efficient:
Ws = weight of dry soil taken in gm
...(2.8)
r w = re_ading of hydrometer in distilled water at room temperature
Cm = meniscus correction (ii) Co-efficient of Curvature:
If Ws be the weight of dry soil passing through the 75 J.l sieve during
sieve analysis, which is subsequ<:ntly used for hydrometer analysis, and if ...(2.9)
W1 be the total weight of sample taken for combined dry and wet mechanical
28. Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Index Properties and Soil ClassifiCation 29

,....r.- 100
/ A
90 Yd = in-situ dry density of the soil.
A) I vrl 80 On the basis of the relative density, coarse-grained soils are classified as loose,
I ,.. / medium or dense as follows:

....v 1/
(.,
ll
60
70
t
a:: If 0 s Rv s j , the soil is loose
so z UJ
1 2
40 u.. < R v:s:3, theso ilJSm
. ed"
®/ ......
I 30 3 1um
/1 .I v 0

2
....... ©v j
20
10
3< Rv :s: 1,the soil is dense.
lA' 0 2. . Atterberg Limits: If the water content of a thick soil-water mixture
0·001 0·002 0·005 0·01 0·02 0-05 0·1 0·2 05 0·81 I 2 5 8 10 is gradually reduced, the mixture passes from a liquid state to a plastic state,
then to a semi-solid state and finally to a solid state. The water contents
PARTICLE SIZE Imm} -
corresponding to the transition from onestate to another are called Attetberg
Fig. 2.3 limits or consistency limits. These limits are determined by arbitrary but
where, D 10 , D30 and Doo represent the particle sizes in mm, corresponding standardised tests.
to 10%, 30% and 60% finer respectively. In order to. classify fine-grained soils on the basis of their consistency
When Cu < 5, the soil is uniform limits, the following indices are used:
Cu = 5 to 15, the soil is medium graded. (i) Plasticity Index, IP • w1 - wp -..(2.12)
Cu > 15, the soil is well graded. I
uidity Index, ...(2.13)
Again, for a well graded soil, the value of Cc should lie between 1 and
3.
Wt- W11 Wt- W11
2.4. Relative Density: It is a measure of the degree of compactness of ll (iii) Consistency Index, lc • I • (2.14)
•••
P w1- wp
cohesionless soil in the state in which it exists in the field. It is defmed as,
emax - e where, Wt, wp and w,. stand for the liquid limit, plastic limit and the
Rv • - --- ...(2.10) natural water content of the soil.
emax - emin
(iv) Flow Index (/j): It is defined as the slope of thew vs.log 10 N curve
where, emax = void ratio of the soil in its loosest state obtained from the liquid limit test.
emin = void ratio at the densest state
i.e., ...(2.15)
e =
natural void ratio in the field.
The relative density of a soil may also be determined from: where, N1 and Nz are the number of blows corresponding to the water
R _ Ydmax. Yd - Ydmin contents w1 and ·
_ ..(2.11)
D - ' Yd Ydmax - Ydmin I • •..(2.16)
(v) Toughness index, / 1 • {
where, ydmax = maximum dry density of the soil f
Ydmin = minimum dry density of the soil (vi) Activity Number, A • Plasticity Index
...(2.17)
Percent finer then 0.002 mm
Soils can be classified according to v•rious indices, as follows:
l
t
30 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Index Properties and Soil Classification
31

(a) Classifzcation according to the plasticity index.·.

In order to detennine the shrinkage limit, a sample of soil having a high
- moisture content is filled up in a mould of known volume. The mould
Plasticity Index Degree of Plasticity Type of Soil containing the sample is then kept in the oven at 105"C for 24 hours. After
taking it out from the oven, the weight of the dry soil pat is taken and its
0 Non - plastic Sand volume is measured by the mercury displacement method.
Fig. 2.4(a) and 2.4(c) represent the schematic diagrams of the initial and
<7 Low plastic Silt final states of the sample while Fig. 2.4(b) represents that corresponding to
7- 17 Medium plastic Silty clay or
clayey silt
> 17 Highly plastic Clay
(b) Classification according to the liquidity index: A soil for which Air
the liquiditJ index is -ve (i.e., wn < wp) is in either semi-solid or solid state.
The soil is very stiff if 11 = 0 (i.e., wn = wp) and very soft if 11 = 1(i.e. wn =
Wt) Soils having It> 1are in the liquid state. For most soils, however, J1lies
1
between 0 and 1. Accordingly, the soils are classified as follows:
•
It Consistency
a) Initial State b l At S.L . c) Dry state
0.0-0.25 Stiff
Fig.2.4
0.25-0.50 Medium to soft the shrinkage limit. With reference to these figures, the shrinkage limit can
0.50-0.75 Soft be determined by the following two methods:
Method 1: When G is unknown :
0.75- 1.00 Very soft Let Vo and Vd be the initial and final volumes of the sample and Wo and Wd
- (c) Classification according to the activity number: The activity be its corresponding weights. By definition, the volume of the soil at
number of a soil represents the tendency of a soil to swell or shrink due to shrinkage limit is equal to its final volume. Let Ww be the weight of water at
absorption or evaporation of water. The classification is as follows: this stage. The shrinkage limit is then given by,
ww
Activity Number Type of Soil w$ -- wd
< 0.75 Inactive At the initial stage, weight of water = W0 - WJo
0.75 - 1.25 Normal Weight of water evaporated upto shrinkage limit= (V0 - Vd) Yw

>1.25 Active ·· Ww = (Wo - WJ) - <Vo - VJ) Yw

(Wo - WJ) - <Vo - Vd) Yw
2.5.1 Determination of Shrinlcage Limit : The shrinkage limit of a soil is
ws = wd ...(218)
defmed as the water content below which a reduction in the water content Method II: When G is known:
does not result in a decrease in the total volume of the soil. This is the Let Vs • volume of solids
minimum water content at which a soil can still be saturated.
32 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Tndex Properties and Soil Classification 33

But, 0
0

o-
;;.(\

V.,·yw- Wor IG
w.,
v,·yw 1
or, w$ ----- ...(2.19)
W11 G

or, ...(2.20)

l.,. Classifkadoa Rued oa Particle Size: Soils are classified as clay, IOOIL- -- L- --
B o 10 20 30 t.O 50
silt, sand and gravd on the basis of their particle sizes. IS:1498 - 1970
recommends the foll<M'ing classification: % OF SILT
Soil Type Particle size (mm) I Fig.2 .S
Clay <0.002

Silt 0.002 to 0.075 the soil is then detennined according to the name of the segment in which the
intersection point lies.
Sand: 2.7. Plasticity Chart: This chart is useful for identifying and classifying
(i) Fine Sllnd 0.075 to 0.425 fine-grained soils. In this chart the ordinate and abscissa re resent the val es
(ii) Medium sand 0.425 to 2.0 of plasticity index and liquid limit respectively. A straight hue called A-hne,
(iii) Coarse sand 2.0 to 4.75 represented by the equation IP = 0.73 (wL -20), is drawn and the area under
Gravel 4.75 to80 the chart is divided into a number of segments. On the chart any fine-grained
soil can be represented by a single point if its consistency limits are known.
2.6.1. TexlurtU CIIISsijiallion System: Any soil, in its natural state, The segment in which this point lies determines the name of the soil.
consists of particles of various sizes. Onthe basis of the percentages of particle
Fig. 2.6 shows a plasticity chart. The meaning of the symbols used in the
sizes, and following certain definite principles, broad classification of such
chart are as follows:
mixed soil is possible.
M : Silty soils.
Fig. 2.5 shows the triangular classification chart of the Mississippi River
C : Clayey soils.
Commission, USA It essentially consists of an equilateral triangle ABC. The
0 : organic soils.
percentages of sand,silt and clay (ranging from 0% to 100%)are plotted along
L : Low plastiCity
thesidesAB, BCand CArespectively. The area of the triangle is divided into
I : Med ium or intermediate plasticity
a number of segments and each segm-ent is given a name. In order to find out
H : High plasticity
the group to which a given soil belongs, three lines are required to be drawn
from the appropriate points on the three sides along the directions shown by Main groups of fmc-grained soils are
the c:rrows. These three lines intersect at a single point. The nomenclature of ML, Ml, MH -Silty soils

---------- ----
34 Problems in Soil Mecluznics and Foundation Engineering
Index Properties and Soil Classi{ eation 35

I.S. Sieve · Diameter Weight % Cumu- %

riO

v 4.75mm
of Grains
(mm)
4.75
Retained
(gm)
9.36
Retained

1.87
lative%
Retained

1.87
Finer

98.13
X
40 2.40mm 2.40 53.75 10.75 12.62 87.38
"0
c: 1.2omm 1.20 78.10 15.62 28.24 71.76
30
..>._- 29
1=-=--= - (l
--- y .. 600 J.l 0.600 83.22 16.64 44.88 55.12
:.., 2') - : MH I OH 425 J.l 0:425 85.79 17.16 62.04 37.96
_g
c,_ I vV I

I
300 J.l 0.300 76.82 15.36 77.40 22.60

4
): M
I 150 J.l 0.150 . 67.02 13.40 90.80 9.20
VMLIOL
10 20 30 40 50 54 60 70 80 90 100 75 f.l 0.075 33.88 6.78 97.58 2.42
Liquid Limit (%l-- The particle size distribution curve is shown in Fig .2.1:
Fig .2.6 (ii) The required percentages obtained from the curve are as follows:
CL, Cl, CH ---+Clayey soils Gravel: 1.87%=1.9%
OL,OI,OH -+Organic soils.
Coarse sand : 98.1% -92% = 6.1%
Medium sand: 92%-38% =54%
EXAMPLES Fine sand:
rFine
38%-2.4%
_Medium_ (oar ,_ = 35.6%

sample weighing 500 gm are given below:

Problem .{ The results of a sieve analysis performed on a dry soil Silt: 2.42%,.;.2.4% 100 1

:T
Sand Sand Suoo -
I. S. s;eve 4.75 2.40 1.20 600J.L 425 J.l 300 J.l- 150 J.l. 75"'" I -
mm mm mm
I
I b--:::
Wt. of soil retained 9.36 53.75 78.10 83.22 85.79 76.82 67.02 33.88
(gm)
I
I
,I
I r
I
I I
I
J
I
I
I I Y'o
....
(i) Plot the particle size distribution curve of the soil. I I
...

l
I
c:
(ii) Find out the percentage of gravel, coarse sand, medium sand, fine I
;;
--
u..
' 0.
sand and silt present in the soil.
·- - - - --
'
II
(iii) Determine the uniformity co-efficient and the co-efficient of
curvature. Hence comment on the type of soil. 20
Solution: (i) The computations itecessary for plotting the particle size I / 35·6
distribution curve are shown below: 10 _j_
1.4-r: .,..- . - ·-
OoOI 0·02 0·04 0.06 0-1 0-2 - Q,J, 0·6
f- -I-
I 2
0
 Parttcle Size ( mm)-
Fig . 2.7

----------------------- --- --- Jl)l

 - -
"-; T
· :-- ·- _ .. __ _
II

36 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Index Properties and Soil Classification 37
/

Problem 2.i. 500 gm of dry soil sample was used in a sieve analysis.
178.85 gm of sbii passed through the 75 11 sieve and was <'ollccted in the steel
pan, out of which 50 gm was taken and a l ·litre suspension was made by
D = V (1800)(9·123 x
2·67 - 0·9971
w- 6)
X
t
adding distilled water and dispersing agent to it in a measuring cylinder
l)..<iY.!!!K!-IDJliD_et_ 9L6.15C!J.l. The volume of the hydrometer was 50 cc, the
height of bulb 15.5 em and the Ie,ng!h of calibration on its stem 9.7 em. The or, D = 0·0991 ...(i)
minimum and maximum markson tts stemWcre99o 040rcspectively.
A hydrometer test was then perfom1ed at the room temperature of 25"C and Using eqn. (2.5),
the following readings were recorded:

Elapsed time (min) 1 z, = HI + 1(

2 "-v
A ")
2 4 8 15 30 60
2
Here, A = 41t (6·15)2 = 29·706 em
2
I
Hydrometer reading 1024 1023 1020 1017 1013 1010 1006 1001
1
When the hydrometer was immersed iri distilled water containing the Z, = HI + 2 (15·5 - 50129·706)
same quantity of dispersing agent as that prtsent in the suspensi on, the reading or, Z, = H1 + 6·908 ...(ii)
was found to be 999.5. At 25"C, the unit weight of water is 0.9971 gm/cc and
its viscosity is 8.95 millipoises. The specific gravity of soil solids is 2.67. The Using eqn. (2.6),
meniscus correction may be taken as 0.5. (rd + 1) - r 1
Find out the diameter of particles settled corresponding to each ---- xL
hydrometer reading and the respective % finer v alues. Neglect volumetric rd
expansion due to temperature change. Here, rd '"' 1·040 - 0·99 = 0·05,
Sol u tion: The temperature co·rrection n.n d 1lhc d isp ersi llg agent L = 9.7 em,
correction need not be appliedbere.
The diameter and corresponding % finer may be det rmined using eqn.
1 + 0·05 - rl)
Hl = ( 0·05 . (9·7) 194(1·05 - r 1 ) ...(iii)
(2.3) through (2.7). However, as repetitive c.akulations are involved , it will
be advantageous to reduce these equations to simplified forms by substituting Again, % finer on 50 gm of soil
the values of the factors which remain constant. Ys
V
Using eqn. (2.3) N = ·-·yc(ri +em- r..,) X 100
D,. y 1800 2·67
Ys - Yw Wsi
1000
Ys- Yw or, N = 2 .67 _ 0. x 5() x 0·9971 (ri + 0·0005 - 0·9995) x 100
9971
8.95 _ x Hr<3 ') or, N = 3182·8 (r 1 - 0.999) ...(iv)
Here
t = 8.95 millipoises = ----- ff-- gm--:;,:c/cm- % finer on 500 gm of soil taken initially
91 . .2
9.12:1 X -6 nl- -st c/' ern 178·85
50 0 =
I
10 N .. N X 0·3577 N ...(v)
As G = 2.67, Ys;: 2.67 gm/cc.
At 2s·c, Yw = 0.9971gm/cc. Eqn. (i) through (v) may now be used for the computations. The results
are tabulated below.
38 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Index Properties and Soil Classification

,
Time Hydro- Ht = Zr= D = N= N = .. Total weight of unit volume of suspension,
meter ]95 X Ht + ·. 3182.8 0.3577 W = Ws + W.., = 0.0599 + 0.9778 = 1.0377 gm .
reading (1.05- 6.908 0.0991% . X (Yl--, xN
t .. Density of the suspension= 1.0377 gm/cc ..,1.038 gm/cc.
rt) 0.999)
Therefore, .reading of the hydrometer = 1038.'
(sec) (em) (em) (mm) (%) (%)
ProblemV. A sample of dry soil (Gs = 2.68)weighing 125 gm is
30 1.024 5.044 11.952 0.0625 79.57 28.46 uniformly dispersed in water to fonn a llitre suspension at a temperature of
60 1.023 5.238 12.146 0.0446 76.39 27.32 28·c. ·
\(j}Determine the unit weight of the suspension immediately after its
120 1.020 5.820 12.728 0.0323 66.84 23;91
prcvaratiou.
240 1.017 6.402 13.310 0.0233 57.29 20.49 tc of the suspension was removed from a depth of 20 em beneath
480 1.013 7.178 14.086 0.1697 44.56 15.94 the top surface after the suspension was allowed to settle for 2.5 min.The dry
weight of the sample in tlie suspension drawn was found to be 0.398 gm.
900 1.010 7.760 14.668 0.0126 35.01 12.52 Dctennine a single point on the partide size distribution curve corresponding
1800 1.006 8.536 15.444 0.0092 22.28 7.97 to this observation. Given, at 2s·c, viscosity of water= 8.36 millipoises and
3600 1.001 9.506 16.414 0.0067 6.37 2.28 unit weigbtofwater = 0.9963 gm/cc

Solution: . (i) Volume of solids in the suspension= - = 46.64 cc.

Problem Distilled water was added to 60 gm of dry soil to prepare
a suspension of 1 litre. What will be the reading of a hydrometer in the Considering unit weight of suspension,
suspension at t = 0 sec, if the hydrometer could be immersed at that time?
Assume, density of water= 1gm/cc and specific gravity of solids= 2.70. 46.64
Volume of solids present = 1000 = 0.0466 cc
Solution: At t = 0 sec, the solid grains have not started to settle. The
suspension, therefore, is homogeneous, having constant density at any point Volume of water present = 1 -0.0466 = 0.9534 cc
in it. Weight of 0.466 c.c of solids = (0.0466)(2.68) = 0.1249 gm
As G = 2.70, Ys = 2.70 gm/cc. Weight of0.9534 cc of water at 28°C = (0.9534) (0.9963) = 0.9499 gm.
Total volume ofsolids in the suspension Total weight of 1cc of suspension
60 = 0.1249 + 0.9499 = 1.0748 gm.
- 2·70 = 22.22 cc. Therefore, unit weight of suspension = 1.0748 gm/cc.
. . Volume of solids m unit volume of suspension, (ii) We have, from Stokes' law,
22·22
vs - .
1000 = 0.0222 cc. V = Ys- Yw .rJ-
Volume of water in unit volume of suspension, 18 JA.

v... = 1-0.0222 = 0.9778 cc. or, v= V Ys-18JA.

Yw
x rv
Weight of solids in unit volume of sUspension,
Let D be the diameter of the particles settled to a depth of 20 em at t =
Ws = (0.0222) (270) = 0.0599 gm. 2.5 min. with a unifonn velocity v.
Weight of water in unit volume of suspension, z
v=- -;a 20 0.133 em/sec
w... = (0.9778) (1) = 0.977 gm. t

= (60)
(2.5)
40 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Index Properties and Soil Classification 41

36 •3
1..1. = 8.36 m1'11 1. pm.ses .. 8. x 10- - 8.522 x 10-6
_ gm-sec Iem'-) 55
981
Ys ., 2.68 gm/tX', Yw = 0.9963 gm/cc so
D = V (18) (8.522 x 10-6) x "0.133 em
0

.....

2.68 - 0.9963
.c:
c:
45
:_-
WL= 43%
----- - - - - "' -
.C..IJ. I
... 3.48 x 10-3 em .. 0.035 mm
0 II
Again, at time t = 0, weight of solids present in 1 cc of suspension = w
'- 40
.

0.1249 gm. ..c:l...

CJ
l
Weight of solids present in lO cc of suspension = 1.249 gm. 3: I'.
35 20 25 30 40 50 60
At time t = 2.5 min., weight of solids present in 10 c,c of suspension =
0.398gm
nf. • 0.398 00 3 30
10
7o = No. of Blows -
249
x 1 = 1.86%
fmer 1.
Fig. 2.8
Hence the co-ordinates of the required point on the particle size
As the plasticity index is greater than 17%, the soil is highly plastic in
distribution curve are: nature.
D=0.035 mm As the toughness index is less than 1, the soil is friable at liquid limit.
N=31.86% Problem 2 aboratory tests on a soil sample yielded the following
The results of a liquid linUttest are given below : results:
Liquid limit = 54%
No. of blows 48 38 29 20 14 Plastic limit =25 %
Water content(%) 32.1 35.9 40.7 46.1 52.8 Natural moisture content = 29%
%finer than 0.002 mm = 18%
(a) Determine the liquid limit of the soil.
(b) If the plastic limit of the soil be 23%, find out the plasticity index, (a) Determine the liquidity index of the soil and comment on its
flow index and toughness index. Hence comment on the nature of the soil. cons isIeney.
(b) Find out the activity number and comment on th e nature oftht soil.
Solution: (a) From the given data, a curve between the watercontent
(c) Classify the soil with the help of a plasticity chart.
and the number of blows is plotted on a semi-log graph paper. Fig. 2.8 shows
this w vs. log10 N curve. The wattr content corresponding to 25 blows, as Solution: (a) Liquidity index, It = w" - w
P
obtained from the curve, is 43%. Hence the liquid limit of the soil is 43%. Wt- wp
(b) Plasticity index, lp = w 1 - wp = 43%- 23% = 20% 29 - 25
= 54 - 25 = 0.138
.d I 52.8 - 32.1 m.
Flow m ex, I = Iogw 48/14 - .. 38.68 70
As 0 <It< 0.25, the soil is in the plastic state and is stiff.
I 20 I
Toughness index, I,= -= • 0.52. (b) Activity number, A = Vc
38.68 0o < 0. 02 mm
' 42 Problems in Soil Mechanics andFoundation Engineering Index Properties and Soil Classification

54- 25 W,... e1
or, 1.611
A
18
= w =-
ws . --
2.67
As A> 1.25, the soil is an active soil.
j But, atLL, w= 60% =0.6.
(c) The plasticity chart is given in Fig. 2.6. The point corresponding to
w 1 =54% and /P = 29 is marked in the figure asP. As this point lies in the el 1.602
. .. 0.6 , or, e1 .. (0.6) (2.67)
segment marked Clf/the soil belongs to the CH group. ·. 2 67
/
Problem : The Atterberg limits of a given soil are,LL = 60%, PL Similarly, at SL, e5 = (0.25)(2.67) = 0.668
= 45% and SL = 25%. The specific gravity of soil solids is 2.67. A sample of Change in volume per unit of original volume,
this soil at liquid limit has a volume of 20 cc. What will be its final volume
if the sample is brought to its shrinkage limit? l\V .. e1 - es = 1.602 - 0.668 = 0.359
V 1 + e1 1 + 1.602 ·
Solution: The three-phase diagrams of the sample at its liquid limit
and shrinkage limit are shown in Fig. 2.9(a) and (b) respectively. £\ v::; 0.359 v = (0.359) (20) ::; 7.18 cc
Let e 1 and e5 be the void ratio of the soil at LL and SL respectively. Let Hence, final volume at SL =
20 - 7.18
the volume of solids be 1 cc. "' 12.82 cc
Problem 2. ¥·/ The consistency limits of a soil sample are:
v. LL =52%,PL = 35%,SL = 17%
If a specimen of this soil shrinks from a volume 10 cc at liquid limit to 6.1 cc
at plastic limit, determine the specific gravity of solids.
Solution: Let e1 andes be the void ratio corresponding to the liquid
limit and plastic limit.
Let volume of solids be 1 cc.
. . At liquid limit, volume of water = e1 cc
Weight of water = e1 gm
At L.L At S. L Weight of solids = Vs ·Gyw ":' 1 ·G · 1 = G cc
I Void ratio= ell !Void ratio=esl w..,
(a) (b) w =- .. e 1
W[

Fig. 2.9 w= 52%= 0.52

But at liquid limit,
v,, el .
We have, .e = V , or, V., = e · V5 .. G s 0.52 , or, e1 = 0.52 G
s
At liquid limit, Similarly we obtain, e5 = 0.17 G
:. Volume of water present = e1 cc Now, change in volume per unit of original volume,

Weight of this water = e1 x 1 = e1 gm AV el-es 0.52G-0.17G 0.35G

V'"' "' · 1 + 0.52G 1 + 0.52G
Weight t'f wlids = Vs · Gy.... = (1) (2.67) = 2.67 gm
But, v .. 10 -106.1 • 0.39
l\V
44 Problems in Soil Meclumics and Foundation Engineering Index Properties and Soil Classification 45

0.35 G = 0.39 Here, vd =volume of dry soil pat= 13.97 cc.

1 + 0.52G wd =weight of dry soil pat = 26.20·gm
G = 2.65
or.
J
Problem 2.9:An oven dried pat of clay weighs 26.20 gm and displaces
G=2.7.

190gm of mercury when fully immersed in it. If the specific gravity of solids .. (13.97) (1) - _1 = 0 163
Ws 26.20 2.7 ·
be 2.7, determine the shrinkage limit of the soil.
Solution: (i) Solution from first principles: Hence, Sh r· tka e limit = 16.3%
Fig. 2.10 showsthe schematic diagram of the dry soil pat.
Problem 2. • A sample of coarse sand was found to have void ratios of
0.87 and 0.52 ii its loosest and densest states respectively. The in-situ density
WHg 190 and water content of the sand were 1.95 gm/cc and 23%. Detennine the degree
Volume of the dry pat = YHg - 13.6 = 13.97 cc of saturation and relative density of the sand in U1e field. Given, G = 2.66.
Unit weight of solids, Ys = G Yw = (2.7) (LO) = 2.7 gm/cc Solution: We have,
G + se G + wG G(1 + w)
Volume of solids, Vs = 26.20/2.7 = 9.7 cc
y = 1 + e .Yw = 1 + e .Yw = 1 + e . Yw
:. Volume of voids, Vv = 13.97 - 9.7 .. 4.27 cc
According to the given field conditions
When the soil is at shrinkage limit, this volume of 4.27 cc wiH be just y = 1.95 gm/cc, w = 0.23, G = 2.66
filled up with water. ·
Weight of this water = 4.27 gm 1.95 = 2.66 (1 + 0.23) (1)
Moisture c.ontent at that tage, 1+ e
ww 4.27 or, e = 0.678.
w = ws - 26.20 - 0.163 = 16.30% Degree of saturation, s ..
wG
·- = (2.66) 0.902 = 90.2%
e 0.678
.. Shrinkage limit = 16.3%
Again, using eqn. 2.10.
em x - e
RD = -----
emax - emin
Here, emax = 0.87, emin = 0.52, e = 0.678.

RD = Q.87 - 0.678 = 05
0.87 - 0.52 .. )
1 2
As -<R <- the S<iil is a medium saad.
3 D 3'
Problem 2.11. Th e. composition or a giwn Sf•!l is as follows:
Fig. 2.10 Sand= 32%, Silt= 39%, Clay= 29%.
Draw a triangular classification chart and dassjfy th e soil..
(ii)Solution using eqn. (2.19):
The shrinkage limit is given by, Solution: The triaugular classifk--ation chart is given in Fig. 2.5.
ln onk.r tli classify the soil, proceed as follows:
1 . .

(i) Ou the sideAB of the chart, w!Jich represents the per centage of sand,
G
choose the point corresponding to 32%. Draw a straight line from that point

J
'I
------ ti
 46 /
Problems in Soil Mechanics and F oundatwn Engineering Index Properties and Soil Classification 47

in the direction of the arrow (i.e.; parallel to the side AC representing the
4.75 2.40 1.20 600 425 300 150 75
M& .· . .·
ntm 0110 n1n1 ll ll ll ll ll
(ii) Similarly on the side BC, locate the point corresponding to 39% and
draw another straight line making it parallel to BA. These two lines intersect Wt. o[Soil 6.85 50.45 67.10 72.31 52.51 51.27 84.01 58.15
each other at P. · Retained (gm)
(i.ii) Ifno a t ird iineis drawn from the appropriate point (29%) on the
clay stde, maktng tt parallel to AB, it will pass through P. drometer analys :
The point P then represents the given soil in the triangular classification
chart. The point lies in the sector marked 'clay silt'. Helice the given soil is T1me (min) 1 1 2 4 8 15 30 60 120
classified as a day silt. 2
ll 'drometer 1024 1023 1021 1019 1016 1013 1008 1005 1001
Reading
EXERCISE2
During the hydrometer test, 50 gm of soil retained on the stee pan was
2.1 The followuig data were obtained from a specific gravity test
performed in the laboratory: mixed with distilled water and dispersing agent to form a suspension of 1200
cc in a measuring cylinder having a diameter of 6.2 em. The hydrometer had
Weight of empty pycnometer = 201.25gm a volume of 50 cc. The length of its bulb and the calibration on the stem were
Weight of pycnometer and dry soil . = 298.76 gm 16 em and 10 em respectively. The range of calibrations was from 995 to
Weight of pycnometer, soil and wjl(er = 758.ngm 1035.·When immersed in distilled water containing dispersing agent, the
hydrometer read 998.5. Meniscus correction may Qe taken as 0.4; The specific
Weight of pycnometer full ofwater = 698_.15 gm
gravity of solids was 2.69. The viscosity and unit weight of water at the room
Determine the specific gravity of the soil. [Atis. 2.654] temperature of 28"C were re pectively 8.36 millipoise a d 0.9963 gni/cc.
2.2 The results of a sieve analysis are given below: Plot the particle size distribution curve and determine the percentage of
. gravel, sand, silt and clay.
J.S. Sieve 4.75 2.40 1.20 600 425 300 212 150 75 Z.4 Draw a rough sketch of the particle size distribution curve of a·sand
mm mm mm 1-4 J.L 1-4 J.l. J.l. sample having the following properties:
J.l.
Wt, ofSoil 32.34 41.60 47.29 58.14 71.23 74.99 46.24 58.14 38.17 Effective size (D10) = 0.17 mm
Retained (gm) Unifonnity co-efficient = 5.5

The total weight of dry soil taken was 500 gm.

Co-efficient of curvature = 1.2.
(a) Plot the particle size distribution curve. A 100 gm of dry soil was mixed with water at 4°C to fonn a 1000 cc
(b) Detemtine the per ntage of gravel, coarse sand, medium sand, fine suspension. If G = 2.72, determine the initial unit weight of the suspension.
sand and fme fractions in the soil. To what depth with the particles having effective diameter of 0.05 mm settle
(c) Determine the co-efficient of curvature and the uniformity co- after 5 minutes? What will be the time required by a 5 micron particle to settle
efficient. through 10 em? The viscosity of water at 4°C may be assumed as 0.85 x 10-3
· (d) Comment on the type of soil. poise.
2.3 c?mbined mechanical analysis was carried out on a. dry soil 2.6 The results of a liquid limit test are given below:
sample wetghmg 500 gm. The following are the results:
· (a) Sieve analysis: o. ofblows 11 15 23 30 53
46
Water contenl (%) 53.9 50.6 48.1 46.0 43.3
41.0
48 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

Draw the tlow curve and detennine tbe liquid limitand flow index of the soil.
(Ans: 47%, 18.9%)
2.7 The Atterberg limits of a given soil are:
LL = 68%, PL = 37%, SL = 22%
If the natural moisturecontent of this soil at the site be 42%, then determine:
(i) ,Plasticity index (ii) Consistancy index (iii) Liquidity index.
Comment on the nature of the soil on the basis of these indices.
(Ans. (i) 31%(ii) 0.839 (iii) 0.161]
3
2.8 A single liquid limi$ test was pertonned with Casagrande's liquid
limit device on a soil sample with knowti. Atterberg limits. The number of
blows required to close the groove was recorded as 53. The corresponding
CAPILLARITY AND PERMEABILITY
moisture content of the sample was found to be 28%. If the liquid limit and 3.1 Capillarity: · The interconnected pore spaces in.a soil. mass may be
plastic limit of the soil be 74% and 41% respectively, determine its toughness assumed to fonri innumerable capillary tubes. At any gtven stte, the natural
index. (Ans. 0.23] ground water table normally exists at a cer in depth bel the ground level.
The weight and volume of a fully saturated soil sample were 55.4 Due to surface tension, water gradually nses from thts level through the
gm and 29.2 c.c respectively. After drying in an oven for 24 hours, its weight capillary tubes. This causes the soil above the ground watef table . to be
and volume reduced to 39.8 gm and 21.1 cc respectively. Find out the partially or even fully saturated.
shrinkage limit of the soil. (Ans.18.8%] In Fig. 3.1, he represents the maximum height of capillary rise of water
2.10 If the dry density and unit weight of solids of a soil be 1.68 gm/cc in a capillary tube of diameter d. The upper meniscus of water is concave
and 2.65 gm/cc re.spcctively, determine its shrinkage limit. [Ans. 21.8 %] upwards and makes an angle a with the vertical (if the tube is perfectly cl an
2.11 A cylindrical soil sample of 7.5cm height and 3.75 em diameter and wet, a= 0). The surface tension, T9 , alsoactS in this direction. The vertical
has been prepared at the shrinkage limit. If the sample is now allowed to component of Ts is responsible for balancing the self-weight of the water
absorb water so that its water content reaches the liquid limit, what will be its column.
volume? Given LL = 62%, PL = 34%, SL = 21%, G = 2.68. rrdl ·
[Ans. 48.67cc] Now, volume of capillary water"' 4.he
2.12 A cylindrical mould of10cm intemal diameter and 11.7cmheight
weighs 1894 gm. The mould was filled up with dry soil, first at its loosest
Weight of capillary water
state and then at the densest state, and was found to weigh 3273 gm and 3538
gm respecti ve.J y. Ifthe natural soil existing at the field be submerged below Again, vertical component of the surface tension force
the gtounu wakr table and has a water content of 23%, detennin e the relative
density ofthe soil and comment on its state of compactness. Given, G = 2.65. • T9 • rui . cos a
· {Ans. 54.75%1
2.13 Th e Atterberglimits of a given soH are as follows:
xJl
4 .h.c • Yw = Ts • -- -
Jl.U. • cos a

=
LL =41%,PL 29%,SL = 18%. 4 T cos a
9
Dr r-.v a plasticity ch:H t and classify the soil. or he= d ...(3.1)
2.14 Draw <l triangular classification chari and dassify rb soil having ·Yw
8
the following composition: At 4•c, T9 = 75.6 dynes/em = 15.6 x 10- kN/cm
Sand = 43%. Silt= 31%, Clay =; 26%. 3 . 3
and, y.., "' 1 gm/e<.' = 9.807 kN/m • 9.807 x 10 kN/cre
50 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Capillarity and Permeability 51

/
------ -----
he

he
-== - -= = -_-::-:...-:..: :::-
- --- -------
- ---- - -4
H

Fig.3.J
Assuming the tube to be perfectly clean and wet, cos a= coso· = 1

.. h • (4) (75.6 X 10-S) ( 1)

c (9.8()7 X 10-6) .d Fig.3.2
h • 0.3084 em 3.3 Total, Elfective and Neutral tresses : When an external load is
or, ...(3.2)
c d applied on a saturated soil mass, the pressure is immediately transferred to
The value of he may also be determined from: the pore water. At this point, the soil skeleton does not share any load. But
c with passage of time, the pore water gradually escapes due to the pore
It - ...(3.3) water pressur induCed and a part of the external stress is transferred to the
c edw· solid grains. 1The total stress o _is therefore divided into the following
where, e = void ratio components:
d 10 = particle size corresponding to 10% finer (i) Effective stress or intergranular pressure, o'
C= empirical constant, the value of which depends on the shape (ii) Pore water pressure or neutral stress, u.
and surface impurities of the grains and lies between 0 or, o=o'+u ...(3.4)
0.5 cm2 . · .
3.4 Distribution of Vertical Stress in Various Soil-water Systems
3.2 Pressure Due to Capillary Water: The capillary water rises against
(i) Free water : In free water, the hydrostatic pressure distribution is
gravity and is held by the surface tension. Therefore, the capillary water exerts
linear. At any depth z below the water level, the vertical pressure is given by,
a tensile force on the soil. However, the free water exerts a pressure due to
its own self weight, which is always compressive. ...(3.5)
The distribution of vertical pressure in a soil saturated upto a height ltc The pressure distribution diagram is shown in Fig. 3.3.
due to capillary Wl\ter is shown in Fig. 3.2. (ii) soil: In a dry soil mass, the distribution of vertical stress is similar to a
hyc:Jrostatic pressure distribution. At any depth z, the pressure is given by,
o' ... yz

-------- -- --------------
 - -----
Clzpi/larity and Permeability 53
52 Problems in Soil Meclumics and Foundation Engineering

r ------
-
---
--
----------
-
-- ----- -
- ------
-...--
----
-----------
- -
----- ·-
---
-
-

-l -
Hw

-
H

------ -----------
:::=- t r: ::_

-
-----------
----
---
tH

--- --------

Fig.3.3

where, y = effective unit weight of soil Submerged il ?ore Water iii Totul stress iii) Effect'lve
Soil Pressure Stress
Fig. 3.4 illustrates the pressure distribution diagram.

r
Fig.3.S

• H (Ysat - Yw)
or, a' = Ysub. H ...(3.8)
H (iv) Saturated soil with capillary water : In Fig. 3.6, the soil mass is
saturated upto a height he above the water level, due to capillary rise of water.
The total stresses, pore water pressures and the effective stresses at various
levels are worked out below:

Fig'. 3.4 -r·

he

t
(iii) Submerged soil: Fig. 3.5 shows a soil mass submerged in water with
free water standing upto a height Hw- If H be the height of the soil; the total
pressure a ltl1e bottom of it.is given by,
CJ '"Ysub·H + Yw (Hw +H) h
or, u = (Ysui:o + Yw) H + YwHw
Qr,
Pore water pressure,
CJ Ysat • H + YwHw
u = Yw (H + H,..)
...(3.6)
...(3.7)
L -J.rsubth+hcl+ rwh
. . Effective stress o' .. .a - u Distribution of
Effective Stress
Fig. 3.6
54 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Capillarity and Permeability 55
(a) Total stresses:
OA = 0
OB ,. Ysat • he

Oc = Ysat (h + he)
(b) Pore water pressures:
UA '"' -he Yw
liB .. 0 X X
llc = Yw he
(c) Effective stresses: ial No Flow (b) Upward Flow · (c) Downward Flow
a' A • OA - UA • 0 - (-hey...,) • he Yw
o'B - OB - UB - Ysat he - 0 '"' Ysat. he Fig. 3.7
o'c = Oc - Uc = Ysat (h + he) - Yw he At any depth z below the top of the soil mass (i.e., sec. X- X)
= Ysat ·h + (Ysat - Yw) he 0z • Ysub • Z + Yw ( Z + h2)
or, o'C • Ysat • It + Ysub ·he ...(3.9) and, Uz = Yw (z + /'2,)
... Ysub • j, + Yw ·h + Ysub ·he
or, o'c = Ysub (h + he) + Yw h ...(3.10) "' Ysub • Z + y.;, (z + hz) - Yw (z + /'2,)
Pore Pressure in Seepage Water: The shear strength of a soil is or, 0'z .. Ysub • z ...(3.11)
governed by the effective stress. When no flow of water takes place through
a soil, the effective stress at a given point remains constant. However, seepage Thus, at any depth z, the effective stress depends only on the submerged
density of the soil.
of water causes the effective stress to change, and affects the stability of any
structure built over the soil mass. Case II: Downward flow :This condition occurs when the water level in
The effect of seepage of water on the effective stress can be analysed C1 is at a higher level than that in C2 (Fig. 3.7 c). At the section X-X,
with the following laboratory experiment. Oz "" Ysub ·Z + Yw (z + /'2,)
Two containers C1 and C2 are interconnected through a U-tube. The and Uz • Yw (z + l z - h)
container C1 contains a soil mass of height h1 with free water standing to a
height 1'2, above it. The container C2 is filled up with water and may be raised
or lowered as and when required. The water levels in both c1 and c2 are
maintained at constant levels with !he help of inlet and outlet pipes.
Case 1 : When noflow of water takes place: This condition occurs when h •
• Ysub • Z + Yw • - Z
the water levels in both containers are at the same level, as shown in Fig. I z
3.7(a). or, o'z • Ysub ·z + Yw i z ...(3.12)
where, i = hydraulic gradient = !!:.
z
56 Problems in Soil Mechanics am/Foundation Engineering Capillarity and Permeability 57

A comparison between equations (3.11) and (3.12) clearly shows that a where, k = constant of proportionality, termed as the co-efficient of per-
downward flow causes the effective stress to increase. meability of soil.
Case III: Upward flow :This c.ondition occurs when the water level in C2 \he co-efficient of penneability is a measure of the resistance of the soil
is at a higher level than that in C1 (Fig. 3.7 b). against flow of watu through its pores. -- ·
:: , ----:-::--:-::-:----:··--------
At the section X- X, From eqn. (3.15) we have, when i = 1, then k = v.
Oz = Ysub ·Z + Yw (z + hz) Thus, the co-efficient of permeability of a soil is defined as the average
velocity of 11ow which will occur under unit hydraulic gradient. It has the
Uz = Yw (z + 1'2 + h)
units of velocity, i.e., em/sec, or, m/day, etc.
o'z = Ysub·z - - Ywh Table 3.1 presents typical values of k for various soils :
h Table 3.1
.. Ysub • Z - Yw • •Z

or, ...(3.13) TweofSoil k(cm/sec)

o'z =Ysub·z-y..,iz
Thus an upward flow of water causes the effective stress to decrease. Gravd 1 to 102
3.6 Quicksand Condition : Eqn. (3.13) suggests that the reduction in Coarse and medium sand w-3 to 1
effective stress at any depth z due to upward flow ofwater depends on the
existing hydraulic gradient, i. If at any site, the hydraulic gradient reaches a Fine sand, loose silt w-5 10-3
to
certain critical value (i.e., i = ic), the seepage pressure may become equal to
the pressure due to the self-weight of the soil. In such cases, the effective Dense silt, clayey silt w-6 to w-5
stress will be zero. In other words, the solid grains will not carry any load any
niore, and the entire load is transmitted to the pore watet. The entire soil mass Silty clay, clay w-9 to w-6
will then behave as if it were a liquid, and any external load placed on the soil
will settle immediately. At this stage the soil loses its shear strength and does Eqn. (3.15) may also be written as
not have any bearing power. Such a condition is known as the quicksand
q= kiA ...(3.16)
condition. The corresponding hydraulic gradient is caiJed the crjtical
.y- where, q = unit discharge, i.e., the quantity of water flo\Ving through a cross-
sectional area A in unit time.
. • /From eqn. (3.13) we get,
3.8. Allen Hazen's Formula: AJien Hazen found experimentally that for
0 "" Ysub • Z - Yw ·ic ·Z loose filter sands,

..sub Y- ..
(G - 1)
or, ic • Ywi'Yw ...(3.17)

Yw 1+ e where, k = co-efficient of penneability in em/sec

or, G
- 1 ...(3.14)
ic - -1 + e C =a constant, being app,:oximately equal to 100 cm- 1 sec- 1
3.7. Darcy's Law: This Jaw states that, the velocity of flow of water D1o =Particle size corresponding to 10% finer, in em.
througna soil mass is proportional to the hydraulic gradient. 3.9. Laboratory Determination of k: The co-efficient of penneability
i.e., v oc i of a soil can be detenninrJ in the laboratory using penneameters, wb;cb arc
of the following two types:
01, v - ki ...(3.15)
(a) Constanl bead pernteamde!
(b)Falling head pcnm·ameter
58 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Capillarity and Permeability 59

h
Here, i ..
L

--- ----,..__., - Q
t
k !!:_A
= . L.

"
Overflow tdh or, k=
hAt
lling head permeameter: In this case, a stand-pipe containing
...(3.18)

water is attached to the top of the soil mass. As water percolates through the
soil from top to lbe bottom, the water level in the standpipe gradually fal s
down. Instead of measuring the discharge quantity, the fall of water level tn
h the stand-pipe over a certain time interval tis measured.
Let, L =· length of the soil sample
A = cross-sectional area of the sample
a = cross-sectional area of the stand-pipe
Jz 1 = bead of water causing flow at time t1
hz = head of water causing flow at time t2
Let, in any small interval of time dt; the change in bead is given by -dh
(the negative sign indicates that the bead decreases).
Measuring Hence, the quantity of water flowing in time dt .. - dh . a
Cylinder dh
And, the discharge per unit time, q "" - dt ·a
(a} Constant Head Test !bl Falling Head Test
But, we have from Darcy's law, q = k iA
Fig.3.8 dh
kiA - dt ·a
The test arrangements for these two types of permeameters are shown in
Fig. 3.8 (a) and (b) respectively. . h dh
k.L.A=-dl.a
iM:"' Constant head permeameter: In this type of permeameters,
arrangements are made to keep the water levels at the top and bottom of the Ak dt = ..:.. dh ...(3.19)
or, aL II
soil sample constant. Water flowing through the soil from top to bottom is
collected in a graduated glass cylinder and its volume is measured. Integrating between proper limits, we get,
Let. Q = quantity of discharge in time't 12 h2

L = length of the sample f dt =- f I

II= difference in bead of water at top and bottom. tl hl

Now, discharge per unit time, qaQ

or,
t
We have from Darcy's law, q • kiA
60 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering 61
Capillarily and Permeability

aL h1 q. loge (Ria)
or, k =-.log.,- ...(3.20) k= ? 2
...(3.22}
At n ( W - h)
where, h = - radius of test well
where, tl
2
t = tz - t 1
The constant bead permeameter is suitable for coarse-grained soils while R = radius of influence
the falling head permeameter is suitable for fine-grained ones. -The value of R may be determined from
3.10. Field Determination of k : In the tield, the co-efficient of R = 3000 s v'k m
permeability of a stratified or heterogeneous deposit can be detem1ined by
either pumping-out tests or pumping-in -tests. The pumping-out tests for where, s = drawdown in the test well, m
unconfined as well as confined aquifers are described below: k = co-e[ficient of penneability, m/sec.
(a) Unconfined aquifer: Fig. 3.9 illustratesa test well fully penetrating
an uneonfine.d aquifer. As water is pumped out from the well, water percolates Observaf1on
from all sides into it. When the discharge q equals the ra-te of percolation, the Well
water level in the well becomes ste.ady. ®
Consider a point P on the drawdown eurve at a radial distance r from the
GL
centre of the well. The hydraulic gradient at this point is given by,
. dy GWT
I= d¥
I
Again, if h be the head of water at P then the rate of radial flow of water I
through a cylinder of radius r and height h is given by, I
dy I
= H
q = kiA k.-d . 2nxy I
or, - '( h2
d¥ 2nk
--.ydy
I
X q I
II
J ,,.y _ dy
Integrating between proper limits,
X
2nk .
q h
I
1
.. Fig. 3.9 .
where, r 1 and r2 represent the radial distances of two observation wells
and h1 and h2 represent the height of water levels in them . (b) Confmed aquifer: Fig. 3.10 illustrates a test well fully penetrating
') ') into a confined aquifer of thickness z.
log
rz 2nk
= ---
Wi -
. ----
hi)
From Darcy'-s law, q • kiA
e rl q 2
or, q = k. dx. n:x z
or ,_ ...(3.21)
dx 2nkzd
- = X q
y
Alternatively, when observation wells a1e not used,
I ln egrating, we get,
62 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
l
,,
Capillarity andPermeability

thickness of the layers white kl> kz,......, k11 be their co-efficients of

permeability.
63

2'JtkZ
or, loge (r2/r 1) = --q(l!z - h1)

k = q. loge (rzlrt)

-
1
or, ...(3.23) l.tl
2 1t k z (hz - ht)
(ktl
k = ql Ria
Alternative! y, ...(3.24)
2 1t k z (l!z - ht) (k2l
y z
Obser\Ufion
Observation f ltJ

J
Well Well
0 CD '' f/q .-..-v.- GL "n
-
---- J Piezometric surface
f,
S2
- ,- ,I
.....
............. 1
I

lvl
--- -.- --:..::::=-, .... -
/ J,....-JP(x,y)
I II
Fig.3.11

The difference in water levels on the left and right band side of the deposit
,... is h.This head difference causes a horizontal flow of water. Since at any depth
H:l' 1- I
"FT

below G.L. the bead difference is constant and equals h, the hydraulic
gradient i (= h!L) is the same for each and every layer.
h2 --t 1-- IH Let ql> q2 ,......,qn be the discharge through the individual layers and q be
l
1'
/ the total discharge through the entire deposit.
--1 1:: I
, I
I
,::
I

z I
-t
h1

l
h
,_
1 :: q • ql + qz + ······· + qn
:=!
=! t ,-
i I or q • k1 i Zt + i Zz + .....+ kn i Zn ...(i)
X
! r1-. rJ.- Again, if kh be the equivalent co-efficient of permeability of the entire deposit
.,.r-L r2 ---+---- R -------- ' of thickness z in the direction of Oow, then
...(ii)
Fig .3.10

3.11 PenneabUity of Stratified Deposits: Natural soil deposits generally From (i) and (ii) we get,
are not homogeneous, but consist of a number of layers. The thickness and kh i Z '"' k1 i Zt + kz i Zz + .......... + kn i Zn
the co-efficient of penneability of the layers may vary to a large extent. In n
such cases, it is required to compute the equivalent co-efficient of Ik;z;
permeability of the entire soil deposit. or, kt Zt + Zz + ......... + kn Zn - i- 1 ...(3.25)
kh- z1 + .q + ....... + Zn n
3.11.1. Equivalent permeabilily parallel to the bedding planes: Fig. 3.11 shows a stratified soil
deposit consisting of n layers. Let z1, z2,......., Zn be the IZ;
j -1
 r,

64 Problems in Soil Meclumics and Foundation Engineering

Capillarity and Permeability
3.11.2. Equivalent permeability perpendicular to the bedding planes :
For flow in vertical direction (Fig. 3.12), the discharge velocities in each layer EXAMPLES
must be the same. Problen The natural ground water table at a site is located at a
depth of 2 m below the ground level. Laboratory tests reveal that the void
Using Darcy's law ratio of the soil is 0.85 while the grain size corresponding to 10% finer is 0.05
mm. Determine the depth of the zone of saturation below G.L. Assume,
k1 i1 = kz iz "" = k, i, = v = kv
...(iii) i C =0.3 em .
2
Now, total head loss =head loss in layer 1 + bead loss in layer 2 + ....+ Solution. The height of capillary rise of water is given by,
head loss in layer n ...(iv)
But, we have, h = -c-
c e. Dw
h
= head loss h .. tz C • 0.3 em2
l or,
z, Here,
:. From eqn. (iv), e • 0.85
i Z ,. i1 Zt + iz Zz + .......i,Z 11 D10 • 0.05 mm = 0.005 ern.

Substituting fori1, iz, ..... , i,from (iii), we get, he .. (O.S5 ( .00 5) = 70.59 em = 0.706 m.
v v . v v
k,., . z = kt . Zt + kz . Zz + ......... + k,. . z, Hence, the depth of saturation below G.L.
=_;.o - o.706 = 1.294 m.
or,
Z Zt Z2 z,
kv = k1 + k2 . + ;....... + k, Problem A capillary glass tube of 0.1 mm internal diameter is
immersed vertically in a beaker full of water. Assuming the tube to be
perfectly clean and wet, determine the height of capillary rise of water in the
z tube when the room temperature is 2ffC. Given, at 20°C, unit weight of
or, kv = ---- ---- = ...(3.26) wate.r = 0.9980 gm/cc and surface tension= 72.8 dynes/em .
z1 Zz Z11 11 Z·
kt . + . k2 + ........ + k, _: Solution : When a c.apillary tube is perfectly clean and wet, the upper
i -1 k;
meniscus of water in the tube is tangential (i.e., a= <f). The height of c.apillary
rise is then given by,
4Ts

T
h .. --
c 'fwdg
.
Here, Ts .. 72.8 dynes/em, Yw - 0.998C gm/cc,
Zt ( kJ)
iJ +"' d = 0.1 mm = 0.01 em, g = 981 em/sec
2

z
Z2 i2 t"' ( k2) (4) (72.8)
he • (0.998) (0.01) (981) em • 29·74 em.
."

ZJ jJ "' ( kjl Problem evoid ratio of a given soil A is twice that of anoth r

l
soil B, while the effective size of particles of soil A is one-third that of soil B.
The height of capillary rise of water in soil A on a certain day is found to be
Zn in
t"' 40 em. Determine the corresponding height of capillary rise in soil B.

Fig.. J J 4

---------------------- - A
66 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering CapillariJy and Permeability 67
c
Solution: We have, he • -- h = _c_
= o.s· (assuming c "' 0.5 cm2 )
e.DlO
ce . D10 (0.85) (0.014)
LethA and hB be the heights of capillary rise in soil A and B respectively. = 42.0 em = 0.42 m.
Also, let eA and eB be the respective void ratios and DA and DB be the
respective effective sizes. Hence the sand will be saturated upto 0.42 m above the water table. The
remaining portion of the sand above this level will be dry.
From the question,
For the sand layer,
eB 1 . DB .
- = - and D·. = 3. G + e 2.65 + 0.85 . 3
= T+e·Yw
eA 2· .... Ysat • 1 + 0.85 (1.0) • 1.89 t/m
c · .
Now , -· -x -= -.- = (112) (3) • 1.5 G Yw (2.65) (1.0) I 3
c Ya = ... 1 + 0.85 "" 143. t m
ItA 40 As the clay layer is submerged below water, it is saturated.
.. . hB = A.S ... 1.5 = 26.67 em.
We have, w G = s e,
Problem v.{ At a site the subsoil consists of a 8 m thick layer of dry e .. w G • (0.22) (2.75) = 0.
sand (G = 2.6'( ·= 0.85, D 10 = 0.14 mm) which is underlain by a 6 m thick s 1 '
605
clay layer (G = 2.75, w = 22%) below which there exists a thick layer of
hardpan. The water table is located at a depth of 6 m below the ground level. 2.75 + 0.605 3

Plot the distribution of total, neutral and effective stresses. Ysat • 1 + 0 605 (1) • 2.09 t/m
. .
Solution: The soil profile is presented in Fig. 3.13 (a). At A (z = 0), the total, neutral and effective stresses are all equal to zero.
At B (z = 5.58 m), total stress, cr = (1.43) (5.58) • 7.98 t/m2
neutral stress, u = -he .Yw

.. - (0.42) (1) "" - 0.42 t/m2

effective stress, cr' = cr - u
B .. 7.98 - (- 0.42)
---- (
2
r.n D = 8.40 t/m •

At C (z = 6.0 m), cr • (1.43)(5.58) + (1.89)(0.42) • 8.77 t/m 2

l!m
u- 0 '
cr' • cr - u • cr = 8.77t/m2
AtD (z = 8.0 m), cr • (1.43) (5.58) + (1.89) (2.42) .. 12.55 t/m 2
• a) Soil Profile b) Pore c) Total d) Effective
Pressure Stress Stress u • (2.0) (1.0) "' 2.0 t/m2
Fig .3.13
cr' • 12.55 - 2.0 .. 10.55 tlin 2
Height of capillaty rise in the sand layer, AtE (z = 14.0 m),
(J - (1.43)(5.58) + (1.89) (2.42) + (209)(6.0)

- 25.09 t/m2
 Capillarity and Permeability

68 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

At a depth of 15 m below G.L.:

u .. (2.0 + 6.0) (1.0) • 8.0 tim-

? total stress a = (1.81) (2) + (1.87) (1.5) + (2.03) (5.5)
+ (1.33) (4) + (1.90) (2) = 26.71 t/m 2
a' .. 25.09 - 8.0 = 17.09 t/m 2
The distribution of total, neutral and effective stresses are shown in Fig. pore water pressure = (15 - 2 - 1.5) (1.0) "' 11.5 t/m 2
3.13 (b), (c) and ('9-respectively. effective str = (26.71 - 11.5) = 15.21 t/m2
Problem For the soil profile shown in Fig. 3.14, detennine the Problem 1.6( The void ratio of a sand sample at the loosest and densest
total stress, pore water pressure and intergranular pressure at a depth of 15 m possible states are found to be 0.55 and 0.98 respectively. If the specific
below the ground level. gravity of soil solids be 2.67, determine the corresponding values of the
critical hydraulic gradient.
I

-f _n·2m_ ---
2m Silty Sand (G =2·6 , e =0·6, s = 35%) Solution: The critical hydraulic gradient is given by,
. G- 1
_'_1.!.:..6Q.o L-- -- 'i
lc = T+e' Y<O
7m Clay(G=2·70,e=0·65) :
15m -, l, _ At the densest state, ic .. 2.67 - 1 (1)
1 + 0.55
= 1.08

j 4 Peat(G=2·25,e=2·8)
At the loosest state,
2.67 - 1
1 1 + 0.98 (1) = 0.84
J4st- and IG= 6 = 8 ---- II Problem :t-J_,/ It is required to excavate a long trench in a sand deposit
upto a depth ofi.S m below G.L. The sides of the trench should be 'vertical
l
V)J7177777>7>>>>7)J/777/)77>7777 and are to be supported by steel sheet piles driven upto 1.5 m below the bottom
Rock of the trench. The ground water table is at 1m below G.L. In order to have a
Fig. 3.14
dry working area, water accumulated in the trench will be continuously
pumped out. If the sand has a void ratio of 0.72 and the specific gravity of :
Solution:
Bulk density of silty sand (s = 35%)
solids be 2.66, check whether a quick sand condition is likely to occur. If so,
what remedial measures would you suggest? l
Solution. Fig. 3.15 illustrates the given site conditions. It is evident
• 2.68 + (0. %(0.60) (l.O) ... 1.81 t/m3 that there will be an upward flow of water through the soil mass MNDB. The
1+ . differential head which causes this flow is,
Bulk density of clay above G.W.T. . (s = 60%)
It= 2.5 m
• 2.70 + (0.60)(0.65) (l.O(- 1.81 t/m3 Again, thickness of the soil mass through which this flow occurs is,
1 + 0.65 L =MB =ND = 1.5m.
Saturated density of clay below G.W.T. I
25
I Hydraulic gradient, i=!!..-
L 1.5 =167
.
_ 2.70 + 0.65 {l) • 203 t/ma
1 + 0.65 i = G - 1 ... 2.66 - 1 ..
Critical hydraulic gradient, 0 965
Satunted density of peat •,.2.25 + 28 (1) • 1.33 ;;m3 c 1+ e 1 + 0.72 ·
1 + 28
• 266 + 0.85 (1) • 1.90 t/m3
Slturakd density of sand Hence, quick sand condition will occur.
1 + 0.85
70 Problems in Soil Meclulnics and Foundation Engineering Capillarity and Permeability 71

The following remedial measures can be recommended :

whert\ i = hydraulic gradient= !!._
(i) The depth of embedment of sheet piles below the bottom of the trench L
should be increased. This will increase the thickness of soil layer through
Here, h = differential head of water causing flow
which water percolates, and hence will reduce the hydraulic gradient.
Let x be the required depth of sheet piles below the bottom of the trench, = 1.6 - 1.0 = 0.6 m
which gives a factor of safety of 1.5 against quick sand condition. L • length of soil mass through which flow takes place
h 2.5 = 2.0 m.
...(i)
'·r=-;- .I 0.6 03
.. ..
2.0 .
Now, F.S. 1.5,
Again, we have, q = 0.03 cc/sec
2 4 2 2
or l ic
= 1.5 0.196.55 = 0.643 ...(ii) and, A = 0.28 m - 0.28 x 10 cm = 2800 cm
-
k 0.03
From (i) and (ii) we have, = (0.3) (2800) em/sec
25 (0.03)(60)(60)(24)
x - 0.643, or, x = 3.89 m = (0.3) (2800) (100) m/day
(ii) Alternatively, water table at the site may be lowered by any suitable = 0.0308 m/day.
dewatering method. This will reduce the differential head and hence the
hydraulic gradient wm be reduced.
Supply
A .c t _J_
Sheet Piles

T
2·6m
T
0·6 m Overflow

1
l_ Fig. 3.16

Problem 3. A sample of coarse sand is tested in a constant head

Fi,.3.15 permeameter. -the sample is 20 em high and has a diameter of 8 em. Water
Problem !n the experimental set-up shown in Fig. 3.1&, if the area flows through the soil under a constant head of m for 15minutes. The mass
of discharged water was found to be 1.2 kg. Determine the coefficient of
of cross-section of the soil sample be 0.28 m2, and the quantity of water
permeability of the soil.
flowing through it be 0.03 cc/sec, determine the co-efficient of permeability
in m/day. Solution: We have, for a constant head permeability test,
Solution: From Darcy's law, q = k iA, k- _!L ;.
k • QL
or hAt
iA
72 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Capillarity and Permeability

Now, mass of discharged water = 1.2 kg = 1200 gm. A = (n:/4) (9.8)2 em 2

Volume of discharged water, Q = 1200 cc. L .. 15 em, t -= 12 min • (12) x (60) "' 720 sec.
Time of flow, t = 15 min.= (15) (60) = 900 sec.
lz1 = 60 em, 1'2 '"' 45 em
Head pfwater, lz = 1m= 100 em. 2
k • (n:/4)(0.75) (15) .lo 60
2
Area uf cross-section of sample, A ""' n: x 82 • 50.26 em (n:/4) (9.8)2 (720) 45
4
Length of flow path, L = 20cm. • 3.51 x 10-5 em/sec
(1200) (20) (3.51 X 10-5) (86400)
k = ( OO) (S0.26) (900) = 0.0053 em/sec. - m/day = 0.03 m/day.
100
Problem 3.10/ A cylindrical mould of diameter 7.5 em contains a 15 (ii) Let h be the head at the end of another 20 minutes.
em long sampWof fine sand. When water flows through the soil under 2
constant head at a rate of 58 cc/min., the loss of head between two points 8 3.51 X 10-5 .. (n:/4) (0.75) (15) .lo 45
em apart is found to be 121 em. Determine the co-efficient of permeability (n:/4) (9.8)2 (20) (60) 8e h
of the soil. 45
Solution: Area of cross-section of the sample,
or, l h- 0.479

A - (n:/4) (7.5)2 • 44.18 em2 or, • e0.479 • 1.615

Hydraulic gradient, z·r - 8.. 1.51

. lz 121
or, lz • 1.45 • 27.86 em
Unit discharge, q • 58 cc/min • 29/30 cc/sec 615
We have, from Darcy's law (iii) Lett be the time required for the head to "!rop from 45 em to 10 em.
aL ht
q = kiA, or, k- !L Now, t • A k . loge 1'2
iA
29 (n:/4)(0.75) 2 (15) 45
k = )30) (l.S 1) (44.18) ... 0.0145 em/sec. 2 5
(n:/4)(9.8) (3.51 x 10- ) . loge 10
Problem W A falling head permeability test was carried out on a
= 3764.65 sec.
15em long sample of silty clay. The diameter of the sample and the stand-pipe
were 9.8 em and 0.75 em respectively. The water level in the stand-pipe was • 1 lir. 2 min. 45 sel .
observed to fall from 60 em to 45 em in 12 minutes. Determine: Problem A well is fully penetrated into a 16m thick layer of
/
fl) the co-efficient of permeability of the soil in m/day sand which is underlain by a rock layer. Water is pumped out of the well at a
(ji) height of water level in the stand-pipe after another 20 minutes. constant rate of 450000 litres/hour. The water level in two observation wells
(iii) time required for the water level to drop to 10 em. situated at 15 m and 30m from the test well are found to be at 3.7 m and 2.6
m respectively below the ground level. Determine the co-efficient of
• S(.;.tion: (i) For a falling .head permeability test, we have,
permeability of the soil.
aL lz1
Solution: For an unconfmed aquifer, the co-efficient of permeability
k • At. loge
is givea by:
2 2
Here, a - (n:/4) (0.75) em
 74 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering 75
Capillarity and Permeability

k ..
Q. loge (r2/r1) (1857.6) [loge (20/8)]
:.::: ::::..::.._...:....::. !C:... k "' = 38.70 m/day
(h - hi) 2 2
3t: TC ( (14.53) - (14.04) J
Here, Q = 450000
litre/hour (ii) The radius of influence is given by,
(450000) (1000) I R .. 3000 sv'k
• (60)(60) cc sec= 125000 cc/sec. k = 38.70 m/day
Here,
r1 .. 15 m = 1500 em 38.70
.. -- m/sec = 4.48 x 10-4 ni./sec
r2 = 30 m = 3000 em 86400
h1 = (16 - 3.7) m "' 12.3 m = 1230 em R = (3000) (2.54) Y 4.48 · x 10-4 m = 161.29 m
1'2, = (16 - 2.6) m = 13.4 m = 1340 em (iii) The effective size can be determined from Allen Hazen's formula:
(125000)(1oge(3000/1500)] k =C. DYo
·· k = · = 0.098 em/sec
[ ( 1340)2 - (1230)2 ]
or, D10 .. Vk!C
Problem 3. 3 A pumping-out test was carried out in the field in order -1 -1
to determine th erage co-efficient of permeability of a 18 m thick sand Assuming C • 100 em sec
Ia yer. The groun water table was located at a depth of2.2 m below the ground
level. A steady state was reached when the discharge from the well was 21.5 ... J 4.48 x 10-4 = 2.12 x 10-3 em
lit/sec. At this stage, the drawdown in the test weiJ was 2.54 m, while the Dw = V 100
drawdowns in two observation wells situated at 8 m and 20 m from the test = 0.0212 mm
well were found to be 1.76 m and 1.27m respectively. Determine: Problem 3. The subsoil at a site consists of a fine sand la e lying
(i) co-efficient of permeability of the sand layer in m/day. in between a clay layer at top and a silt layer at bottom. The co-efficient of
(ii) radius of influence of the test well permeability of the sand is 100 times that of clay and 20 times that of s!lt,
(iii) effective size of the sand. while the thickness of the sand layer is one-tenth that of clay and one th1rd
that of silt. Find out the equivalent co-efficient of permeability of the deposit
Solution: (i) We have, in directions parallel and perpendicular to the bedding planes, in tenns of the
co-efficient of permeability of the clay layer.
Here, Q = 21.5 lit/sec Solution: Let k be the co-efficient of pemteability of the clay layer.
{21.5) (1000) (86400) m3/day = 1857.6 m 3/day co-efficient of permeability of sand = 100 k
= 106
and, co-efficient of permeability of silt = 100 k = 5k
r1 = 8 m, r2 • 20 m. 20
Height of the water table above the base of the well, Again, let z be the thickness of the sand layer.
H = (18 - 2.2) m = 15.8 m Thickness of clay layer • 10 z
Drawdown in the observation wells, s1 = 1.76 m, s2 = 1.27 m and, thickness of silt layer "' 3 z.
.. Height of water in the observation wells, Equivalent co-efficient of permeability parallel to the bedding planes,
h1 • H - sl = (15.8 - 1.76) m .. 14.04 m k1 z1 + k2 z2 + k3 ZJ (k) (10 z) + (100 k) (z) + (5 k) (3 z)
kh '"' zl + z2 + ZJ 10 z + z + 3 z
h2 ., H - s2 = (15.8 - 1.27) m • 14.53 m

-- ·------------ ------ -- ---- ---- ·---------------------------------- -----

76 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

10 + 100 + 15 k "' 125 k - 8 93 k Capillarity and Permeability 77

10 + 1 + 3 . 14 .
4
Equivalent co-efficient of penneability perpendicular to the bedding planes ,
Ik;z;
z1 + z2 + z3 10 z + z + 3z kh
i-1
"' ---,-4--
.=
Zt z2 z3
-+-+- l: Z;
kl lvz k3 i-1
10 + 1 + 3 14 k 1400 (8) (3 X 10-4 ) + (1) (2.5 X 10-8).+ {6) (8 X 10-3) + (10) (7.2 X 10-2 )
1 3 k = 1000 + 1 + 60 = 1061 k = 1.319 k (8 + 1 + 6 + 10)
10
+ + 5 100
= 0.0308 em/sec
Problem 3lfo Fig.3.17 shows a soil profile at a given site. Determine : Equivalent co-efficient of penneability in the vertical direction .
(i) Average co-efficient of penneability of the deposit. 4
(ii) Equivalent co-efficient of penneability of the deposit in the horizontal l; Z;
and vertkal directions. k = i.:.!_
v 4 Z·
I_!..

8m
1 Silty Sand
-t.
i-1 k;
8+1+6+10
( k=3x10 cm/sl
l 8
--- +
3 X 10-4
1 + 6
2.5 X 10-S 8 X 10-3
10
+ -----=-
7.2 X 10-2
Clay ( k =2·5 x 10-s c m/s J
1 Fine Sand = 6.24 x 10-7 em/sec
6m ( k = 8 x 1o-J c m Is

10m
t Coarse Sand EXERCISE3

l (k = 7·2 X 1 o-2 cm /s
>;;> > >; ) > > > > > > > >; > > > > > > > > > ;>>
3.1 Detennine the height of capillary rise of water above tbe ground
water table in a homogeneous bed of sand having an effective size of 0.12
mm. The moisture content of the soil below the2 ground water table was found
Fig. 3.17
=
to be 25%. Take, G 2.67 and C 0.5 cm •= [Ans: 62.5 cni]
3.2 A perfectly clean and wet capillary tube of 0.1 mm radius is
Solution: (i) Average co-efficient of penneability of the deposit,
immersed in a container full of water.The room temperature is 3<fC and the
kt + lvz + k3 + k4 water level in the tube is found to rise to a height of 14.54 em. If the unit
4 weight of water at 3<fC be 0.996 gm/cc, detennine the surface tension at
30°C. [Ans :71.03 dynes/em]
3 X 10-4 + 2.5 X 10-8 + 8 X 10-3 + 7.2 X 10-2
4 3.3 A dry capillary tube of 0.3 mm diameter was immersed in distilled
water at C. Tbe upper meniscus of the water column in the tube was found
= 2 10-2 Clll /SeC = 0.02 em/seC.
X to \>e indined at 3<fC to the vertical. Find out the height of the water column.
(ii) Equivalent co-efficient of penneability in the horizontal direction, Given, at C. unit weight of water = l gm/cc and surface tension of water =
75.6 dynes/em. [Ans : 8.9 em)
3.4 The subsoil at a site consists of a 2 m thick layer of clay which is
underlain by a deep sand layer. The 04 ral ground water table is at 3m below
78 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundatwn Engineering Capillarity and Permeability 79

G.L. The unit weight of clay is 1.8 t/m while that of sand above and below 3.10 In a constant bead permeability test, water is allowed to pass
3
water table are 1.75 t/m and 1.92 t/m respectively. Find out the total and through a cylindrical soil sample, 15 em high and 10 em in diameter, under
effective stresses at a depth of 5 m below the ground level. a constant bead of 1 m. The water flowing out of the sample is collected in a
[Ans: 9.19 t!m 2 , 7.19 t!m2 ] glass cylinder of 1200 cc capacity. It is observed that the cylinder just starts
3.5 Plot the distribution of total, neutral and effective stress for the soil to overflow after 1 hr. 13 min. and 51 sec. Find out the co-efficient of
profile shown in Fig. 3.18. penneability. (Ans: 5.17 xJ0-4 em/sec]
ms«» G.L 3.11 A specimen of a coarse-grained soil was subjected to a constant
·r Stratum I head permeability test. The sample was compacted in a cylindrical mould

i -=--
1-7 t/m3) having a height of9.5cm and an internal volume of987 cc. Under a constant
Sm (l
- ---;-S':f I,Klry head of 50 em, 756.6 cc of water passed through the soil in 10 minutes .
-1!;;--- Determine the co-efficient of permeability and the effective size of the soil.
(Ans : 0.012 em/sec, 0.11 mm]
1 ...,.... G.W.T
Stratum II ... 3.12 How many litres of water will flow through a cylindrical soil
3m (l=1-85t/m3)
L sample of 8 em diameter and 12 em height in a day under a constant bead of
1
3m
Stratum III
65 em, if the co-efficient of penneability of the soil be 0.01 mm/sec ?
[Ans : 23.5 litres]
(l"=1·80 t/m3)
t
J r;; > ;7 ; ? 7 ; > ) ;; ) 7 ; ;; 7 ; ,. r 7 777
3.13 In a falling bead penneability test, the water level in the stand-pipe
dropped from 40 em to 20 em in 1hour. The diameter of the sample and the
Rock
stand-pipe were 8 em and 0.5 em respectively, while the height of the sample
Fig. 3.18 was 9.5 em. Find out the co-efficient of permeability of the soil.
3.6 A sand sample is 50% saturated and has a bulk density of 1.75 t/m 3. (Ans : 7.15 X 10-6 em/sec}
The specific gravity of solids is 2.65. Determine the critical hydraulic 3.14 A falling bead test was perfonned on a soil specimen having a
gradient. (Ans :0.96] diameter of 10 em and a height of 12 em. The stand-pipe bad a diameter of
3.7 How will the critical hydraulic gradient of the soil in Prob. 3.6 1.2 em and the Wttter level in it dropped from 55 em to 41 em in 2 hours.
change, if the soil is compacted to increase its bulk density by 10%, without Detennine the time required for the water level in the stand-pipe to come
any change in its water content? (Ans: Increases by 13.8%] down to 20 em. Also determine the height of water level in the stand-pipe
3.8 At a site the subsoil consists of a deep layer of medium sand. It is after a period of 24 hours from the beginning of the test
required to excavate a trench upto 3 m below the ground level. The water (Ans :6 hours and 48.5 minutes; 3.53 em]
table lies at depth of 1.5below G.L..In order to have a dry working area, sheet 3.15 A pumping-out test was carried out in an 18 m thick layer of
piles are driven along the sides of the trench upto a depth of 5 m below G.L. pervious soil which is underlain by an impermeable shale. The water table
and water accumulated in the ·trench is pumped out as the excavation was located at 1m below the ground level. A steady state was reached when
progresses. Determine the factor of safety against the occurrence of quick the discharge from the well was 9 cu.m/min. The corresponding water levels
sand condition. Given, e = 0.8, G = 2.7. (Ans: 1.24} J in two observati9n wells situated at 4 m and 8m from the pumping well were
found to be 2m and 0.5 m respectively below the initial ground water table.
3.9 The void ratio of a soil is 0.76, while its co-efficient of permeability
is 1.2 x 10-4 em/sec. If, keeping all other factors constant, the soil is
compacted so as to reduce the void ratio to 0.60, what will be the co-efficient
t Compute the co-efficient of permeability of the deposit. (Ans :0.07 em/sec)
3.16 In order to compute the co-efficient of permeability of a
non-homogeneous deposit, a pumping out test was conducted by fully
of permeability of the soil? ( Hints : k oc ,! /1 + e ] penetrating a well of 20 em diameter into a 50 m thick unconfmed aquifer.
(Ans: 6.5 x 10-5cm/sec] When the drawdown in the pumping well reached 4.2 m a steady discharge
3
of 300 m /hr was obtained from it. The drawdown in an observation well at
80 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

a distance of30 m from the pumping well was found to be 1.1m. If the initial
ground water table was at 1.5 m below G.L., compute : ·
(i) the field co-efficient of penneability of the soil
(ii) the radius of influence. {Ans: (i) 5.3 X 10-2 em/sec (ii) 290m]
3.17 A pumping well of 20 em diameter penetrates fully into a confined
aquifer of 25m thickness. A steady discharge of26.5 lit/sec is obtained from
the well under a drawdown of 3.2 m. Assuming a radius of influence of 300
m, find out the co-efficient of permeability of the soil in m/day.
4
[Ans: 33.31 m/day]
3.18 A pumping well of 25 em diameter was fully penetrated into a 20
m thick bed of sand which lies between two clay layers of negligible
SEEPAGE AND FLOWNETS
permeability. Laboratory tests revealed that the sand had a co-efficient of
4.1 Introduction : When a water-retaining struct*e (e.g., an earth or
permeability of 0.03 em/sec. A steady state was reached when the drawdown
rockfill dam, a concrete dam or weir, sheet-pile cut-off wall etc.) is
in the test well was 4.3 m and the corresponding discharge was 121itres/sec.
constructed to maintain a differential head of water, seepage through the
Estimate the drawdown in an observation well sunk at a distance of 20
structure itself and/or the foundation soil takes pla_c,te. The quantity of water
m from the pumping well. [Ans : 1.51 m]
3.19 A stratified soil deposit consists of four layers. The thickness of whic flows from the upstream to the downstream side, tenned as the seepag(i
the second, third and fourth layers are equal to half, one-third and one-fourth, loss, ts of paramoun! importance in designing such a structure. Moreover, the
percolating water exerts a pressure on the soil, whiQb.is called the seepage
respectively, the thickness of the top layer, while their coo.efficients of
pressure. In impermeable structures (viz., a concrete dam) the seepage of
permeability are respectively twice, thrice and four times that of the top layer.
water results in a vertical uplift pressure on the base of the dam. When the
Find out:
seepage water reaches the downstream side, soil particles may be lifted up
(i) average co-efficient of permeability of the deposit
resulting in a 'piping' failure. The stability of the side slopes of an earth dam
(ii) equivalent co-efficient ofpenneability of the deposit
may be substantially reduced due to seepage of water.
(a) parallel to (b) perpendicular to, the bedding planes.
(Ans (i) 2.5 k (ii) (a) 1.92 k (b) 1.46 k, kbeing the co-efficient of All of these problems can . be analysed graphically by constructing
permeability of the first layer] flow-nets.
4.2. Equation of Continuity: Laplace's equation of continuity, as
applicable to two-dimensional flow problems, is given below:
2 2
kx +k ...(4.1)
al- Y .. o
a;
Where, k., and ky are the co-efficients of permeability in the x and y
directions respectively.
For an isotropic soil, kx = ky. Therefore,
• a2h i'-h
- -aO ..(4.2)
al- ay2
Eqn. (4.2) is satisfied by the potential function cj> (x,y) and the stream
function ..p (x, y). The propertieS of these functions are as follows:

-- ------ ---------------- ---------- -;

82 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Seepage and Flownets
83

and, vv =-
X
x - (Jx ,

ay'
Vy
Vy ==
ay
-
ax
} ...(4.3)

The potential function cj> can be represented by a family of curves, each

1. AB is the equipotential line having the maximum piezometric head

2.

3.
( h = ht)·
EF
is the equipotential line having the minimum piezometric head
(h = 1 ]. ).
BCDE { i.e., the surface of the sheet pile ) is the shortest flow line.
.

having a particular constant value of cj> . These curves are called the 4. GH (i.e., the imperious boundary) is the longest flow line.
equipotential lines. Similarly, the stream function '\jJ may be represented by a Once the boundary conditions are identified, the flownet can be drawn
number of curves, known as the stream lines or the flow lines. A stream li 1e by trial and error. The process is tedious and each line has to be drawn, erased
represents the path along which a waterpartide flows. An equipotential line and redrawn a number of times . .
IS a cffrVe at any poml .of whfc:i{tb{ptezometncb eaa is constant. If can be
4.5. ses of a _Flow net: A flownet enables one to determine the following:
proved that the product of the gradients of.the cj> function and the '\jJ function
(1) Quantuy of seepage: Fig. 4.2 shows a portion of a flownet. Let
equals 1. Thus, an equipotential line should always intersect a stream line
llqi and llqz be the quantity of seepage in unit time through two c.onsecutive
orthogonally.
flow channels. Let bt and /1 be the width and length respectively of the flow
The combination of stream lines and flow lines in the proper flow domain
element ABCD, and M be the bead drop between two consecutive
is called a flownet.
equipotential lines.
· Properties of a Flownet: A flownet has the following properties: From - barcy's law we have,
t,Y."" All flow lines and equipotential lines are smooth curves. q • kiA
Z. A flow line and an equipotential line should intersect each other
orthogonally.
$. No two flow lines can intersect each other.
\4( No two equipotential lines can intersect each other.
4./ Construction of a Flownet : In ord r to construct a flownet, the
ndary conditions, i.e., the location of the two extreme flow lines and the
two extreme equipotential lines, have to be identified first. For example, Fig.
4.1 shows a flownet for a sheet-pile wall. Here the boundary conditions are:

EL3
Fig.4 .2

Considering unit thickness ofthe soil mass, cross-sectional area of the

H element ABCD "!" b1 x 1 .. b .
G 1
Impervious
Fig. 4.1
 Seepage and Flownets 85
84 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
n (h1 - h2 )
Hydraulic gradient, or, hw = Ill - , Nd ...(4.5)

1111 bl For example, in Fig. 4.1, the piezometric head at Pis,

/1ql = k . -" bl = k X /1/1 X
11
b2
It
h.., = "1 - 4 (1! 61 - h2)
= ht - 0.67 (hl - 112)
Similarly, The uplift pressure. at any point below the base of a concrete dam is given
11q2 =kxMx
12 by,
The discharge quantity through all flow channels will be equal if,
Pu =h.., Yw ...(4.6)
b1 b2 b11
xit gradient : When the percolating water eomes out of the soil
at the downstream end, it applies a seepage pressure on the soil which is given
However, if the elements are made orthogonally squared (i.e., b = I), by
then, 11q 1 • !1q2 "' ......... • 11qn = k x llh ...(4.7)
IfN1be the number of flow channels present in the flownetthen the total
quantity of seepage is given by,
whae , ie is the exit gradient =
a
q -k Nf 11h
il X X

Again , if H be the initial difference of bead and Nd be the number of

ij' and a is the average dimension of the. last element of a flow channel.
Piping may occur if the exit gradient becomes greater than the critical
equal bead drops, then, hydraulic gradient. The factor of safety against piping is given by,
ie
Fs = -:- ...(4.8)
lc

Nf In order to determine the maximum exit gradient for a given t1ow

q•kxHx­ ...(4.4)
Nd problem, the last flow element of the flow channel adjacent to the strueture
As the flow elements are bound by curved lines, it is not possible to draw is to be considered, as the value of 'a' is the minimum for that particular
clement. In Fig. 4.1, this flow element is marked by hatch lines.
them as true squares. However, the average length and breadth of a particular
flow element should be equal to each other such that an inner circle touching 4Flownet in Anisotropic Soils: From eqn. (4.1),
an fou es of the element can be drawn. ")

)Hydrostatic pressure: The hydrostatic pressure at any point within kX ah") + ky

the soil mass is given by,
ax-
U .. h.., Yw or, 1 rrh a21t
kyl( ax 2 + al = o.
where, h.., = piezometric head at the point under consideration.
In order to find out the piezometric head at a point, locate the flow line Let, Ykylkx. x !"' x' ...(4.9)
on which the given point lies and count the total number of head drops in the 1 a h i1z 2
flownet as well as the number of head drops occurred upto the given point.
The piezometric head at the given point is then obtained from, fs/ kx . a:l- = ax' 2
h..,•h1 -nM or,
ilh
--+-=0 a 2h ...(4.10)
ax' 2 al
86 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Seepage and Flownets 87

In order to draw the tlownet for anisotropic soils, a transfonned section b kt

bas to be drawn first by multiplying all horizontal dimensions by kylk" , V -= vz ·
but keeping the vertical dimensions unaltered. An orthogonally squared If k1 > k2 , the tlow channels will getbroadened, while if 1 < k2, th y
tlownet is then drawn as usual for the transfonned section. The structure, will get shortened. In other words, when a flow channel carrymg a certam .
alongwith the flownet, is then retransformed by multiplying all horizontal discharge enters a less pem1eable soil, it requires a greater area to carry the
dimensions by V kxfky . The final flownet will consist of rectangular same discharge. However, when it enters a more permeable soil, a smaller
elet . . · area is sufficient.
These conditions are illustrated in Fig. 4.4 (a) and (b) respectively.
'tiV ultiple Permeability Conditions : When the tlow lines pass from
one soil to another having a differt nt permeability, they deviate from the
interface of the two soils and this deviation is similar to the refraction oflight I
rays. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.3. I

,EL2 EL3 El4

1
I
@ I
I
I
I

I I
I
I
I
'@
I
I
FL1
I
FL2 I a) When k1 > k2
I Fig.4.4
I
I
I FL2 Tnc!lnfined Flow : Phreatic Line : When an impermeable s c re
I
I (e.g., a sheet pile or a concrete weir) retains water, all the boundary condtttons
1
El 1
I
I
EL2 I
@ are known . Such a flow is known as the contined flow or pressure flow.
However, when the structure itself is pervious (e.g., an earth dam) the upper
I
/El3 E L4 boundary or the uppermost flow line is unknown. Such a flow is termed as
an unc.onfined flow or a gravity flow, and this upper boundary is called the
Fig.4.3
phreatic line.
The portion of the flow-net lying in layer 1 is first drawn in the usual In order to obtain the phreatic line, the basic parabola has to bedrawn
manner with square flow elements. When the flow lines as well as first and then the necessary corrections at the entry and exit points have to be
equipotential lines enter layer 2, they undergo deviations according to the
made.
following equation:
4.8.1. Construction of the Basic Parabola : In Fig. 4.5, ABCD is the
k1 tan 1 cross-section of an earth dam. In order to draw the basic parabola, proceed as
...(4.11) follows:
tan kz "'
Consequently, the flow elements inlayer 2are not squares any more, but (i) Measure the horizontal projection L of the wetted portion, ED, f
become rectangles, and their width-to-height ratios are given by, the upstream face.
88 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineeri g Seepage and Flownets 89

(ii) Locate the point P such that EP = 0.3 L. The point P is the tirst
point of the basic parabola .
(iii) With P as centre and PC radius draw an arc to intersect the
extended water surface at F. t
(iv) From F draw FG l. DC. The line FG is the directrix of the ba sic
parabola, while Cis the focus.
(v) Locate the mid-point Q of CG.
(vi) Let G be the origin, GF the Y -axis and GD the X-axis.
(vii) Choose any point H on CD, such that GH = x 1 . With Cas centre
and x1 radius, draw an arc to intersect the vertical line through Hat R. The
dl
< I -+
d
:rume
30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180°

point R(x 1, y 1) is another point on the basic parabola . f3 ---

(viii) In a similar ma1mer, locate several other points viz., (x2 , y 2 ) , Fig.4 .6
(x3, Y3), ........, etc. Join these points with a smooth curve to get the ba sic
parabola . After lot'.8ting N, the necessary correction should be made by band .
In Fig. 4.6, the value of ihe slope angle f3 ranges from 30" to 180•. It
should be noted that for ordinary earth dams, f3 < 90". However, if the dam
is provided with a toe drain or a horizontal filter to arrest the seepage water,

the valu e of f3 may be as high as 180·. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.7 below:
t

Toe Drain Drainage Blanket

Fig. 4.5
Fig . 4.7
4.8.2 Corrections at Entry and Exit Points : ED is an equipotential line
and the phreatic line is a flow line. These two should meet each other at right It should also be noted that for an earth dam having a toe drain, chimney
angles. This necessitates the correction at the entry point, which should be drain or horizontal drainage blanket, the beginning point of that drain on filter,
drawn by hand. and not the bottom comer of downstream fa ce, should be taken into account
while plotting the basic parabola.
The ph rea tic 1inc should meet the down stream face BC ta ngentiaJJ y. Tb is
necessitates the correction at the exit point. The basic parabola intersects BC
atM. But the phreatic liite should meet BC at N. Let CN = a and NM = Aa, EXAMPLES
The magnitude of Aa/(a + Aa) depends on the slope angle, ,S of the
Problem A homogeneous earth dam, 30m high , bas a free board
downstream face. Its value may be obtained from Fig. 4.6.
of 1.5 m . A flownet was constructed and the following results were noted:
No. of potential drops = 12
No. of tlow channels = 3
90 Problems in Soil Meclwnics and Foundation Engin_eering
Seepage and Flownets 91
The dam has a 18 m long horizontal tilter at its downstream end.
Calculate the seepage loss across the dam per day if the width of the dam be
4
200 m and the co-eftident of permeability of the soil be 3.55 x 10· em/sec.
Solution: Using eqn. (4.4), the quantity of seepage loss across unit
width of the dam is,

Nr 4m
q = k.H. Nd
I

Here, k = 3.55 X 10-4 em /sec

(3.55

N1 = 3, Nd = 12
X 10--4) (86400)
100
m /day = 0.3067m /day

As the downstream end is provided with a long horizont.1l filter, the

downstream side should be dry.
r4-m

.. H = 30 - 1.5 = 28.5 m 6m

q • (0.3067) 28.5) (3) = 2_ 185 m3/-

1
Total quantit ofsee age loss per day across the entire width of the dam
= (2.185)(200) = 437 m . Impervious Layer
Proble A single row of sheet piles is driven upto a depth of 4 Fig.4.8
m in a bed of clea1i sand having a co-efficient ofpenneability of0.002 em/sec.
An impem1eable leyer of very stiff clay exists at a depth of 10m below the Problem With reference to Fig. 4.8, determine the following:
G.L. The sheet pile wall has to retain water upto 4 m above G.L. The height (i) The piezometric heads at the points A, B, C, D and£.
of water level ou the downstream side is 0.5 m. Construct the flownet and (ii) The exit gradient
determine quantity of seepage loss considering unit width of the sheet piles. (iii) Factor of sakty against piping. Given, G = 2.67, e = 0.95.
Solution :The tlownet is given in Fig. 4.8. Solution:
Using eqn. (4.4), (i) Initial piezometric head at the ground level on upstream side = 4 m.
Au Head dif{erence 4 - 0.5 • 0.2917 m
q=kH·.Nf ea rop = =
Nd H dd l.l.n No. of head drops 12

2 86400) m/day Now, number of head drops upto the pointA =3

Here, k = 0.002 em/sec = (0.00 ) ( 1.728 m/day
100 :. Head loss at A = (3)(0.2917) = 0.875 m.
H = 4 - 0.5 = 3.5 m Residual head at A = Initial head -head loss
= 4-0.875 = 3.125 m. '·
Nf • 7, Nd = 12
Similarly, the piezometric head at B,C and Dare computed.
(1.728)12(3.5) (7) = 353 m3/day Piezometric head at B • 4 - (5) (0.2917) = 2.542 m.
q =
at C = 4 - (10) (0.2917) = 1.083 m
92 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engine ring
Seepage and Flownets 93
at D = 4 - (10) (0.2917) = 1.083 m
The point E lies in between the 5th and 6th flow lines . Hence, the k = 6.5 X 10-5 Ctn/sec
piezometric bead atE should be obtained by linear interpolation .
(6.5 X 10-5) (86400) m /d ay • 0 05616 m /d ay
7 8 100 .
Average no. of bead drop at E = + = 7.5
2 H =18m
Piezometric bead at E = 4 - (7.5) (0.2917) = 1.812 m .
Using eqn (4.4),
(ii) In order to find out the exit grad.ient, the smallest flow element near
the downstream end (i.e., the one adja ent to the sheet pile well, marked with q = (0.0561 (18) (4) = 0.311 m3/day
batch lines) is to be considered . Average length of this element= 1.1 m .
Proble A concrete weir of 15 m length has to retain water upto
!ih
.. Ex1.tgra d1'ent, te
.
= - =
0.2917
= 0·265 5 m above G.L. The cross-section of the weir is shown in Fig. 4.10. The
1 = 0.015
foundation soil consists of a 12.5 thick stratum of sand having k
(iii) The critical hydraulic gradient is given by;
em/sec. In order to reduce the seepage loss, a 5 m deep vertical sheet pile cut
. G - 1 2.67 - 1 = 0. off wall is placed at the bottom of the upstream face of the weir. Draw a
856
'c = I;-;= 1 + 0.95 tlownet and determine the quantity of seepage loss that will occur in one day,
if the width of the weir be 55 m. Also determine the factor of safety against
. . . ic 0.856
:. Factor of safety aga1nst p1pmg = T; = .
0 265
= 3·23 piping if the soil has G = 2.65 and e = 1.08.
Solution : The tlownet is given in Fig. 4.10. the number of flow
Problem 4.4.,r/Construct the flownet and detennine the quantity of channels is found to be 5, while the number of head drops ::: 16.
seepage loss ii J/day for the concrete weir shown in Fig . 4.9. Given , k =
6.5 X 10·5 Clll/SeC. k .. 0.015 em/sec • (0.0 1S) (86400) m/day .;. 12.96 m/day
100
H=Sm
44m
q = (12.96) (5) (5) .. 20.25 m3/day
16

Fig.4.9

Solution: Fig. 4.9 shows the flownet. From the figure we get,
No. of flow channels, Nr = 4.
No. of head drops, Fig.4.10
94 Problems in Soil Mechanics tind Foundation Engineering 95
Seepage and Flownels

This is the quantity of seepage loss across unit width of the weir.
Considering the entire width of 55 m (on a plane perpendicular to that of the
=
paper), total quantity of seepage loss per day= (20.25)(55) 1113.75 m .
3

Again, the average length of the smallest flow element adjacent to the
weir= 1.2m.
5
Exit gradient 0.26
(16) (1.2)
Critical hydraulic gradient,
i .. G - 1 = 2.65 - 1 = 0.79
c 1+ e 1 + 1.08
.,ety agam
. . Factor of saL . st p1.pm
. g = 0.79 3 04
= .
26
Problem A concrete weir of 52.5 m length is founded at a depth
of 2m in a deposit of fine sand for which the c,o-efficient of permeability in
the horizontal and vertkal directions are 1.5 x 10-3 em/sec and 6.7 x 10-4
em/sec respectively. The sand is underlain by a rock layer at a depth of 37m Transformed Section
below G.L. The bigb, flood level on the upstream side is 18 m and the Fig. 4.11 (a)
downstream side bas a free standing water table upto 1.5 m above G.L. Draw
the flownet and determine the quantity of seepage l<>ss across unit width of
the weir. 52·5m
Solution: As the c,o-efficients of permeability of the soil in the
horizontal and vertical directions are different, the cross-section of the weir
should be transformed before constructing the flownet. All vertical
dimensions of the transformed section will remain unchanged. But all
horizontal dimensions should be multiplied by a c,onstant factor C, where,

C • ...;J, /k • 4
/6.7 X 10-4 Q 66S
"v' " V 1.5 x w-3 - .
Length of the weir in the transformed section
= (0.668) (52.5) • 35.07 m ... 35 m.
Fig. 4.11 (a) shows the trariSfonned section. The flownet is drawn in the
usual manner.
In order to obtain the true tlownet, the transformed sectioh, along with
the flownet already drawn, will have to be retransformed in such a way that Origional Section
all vertical dimensions wm remain unchanged but all horizontal dimensions Fig. 4.11 (b)
will be d,ivided by a constant factor of0.668.
dekrmined. These grid points should then be located on the retransfonned
In order to retransform the tlownet, the location of all grid points (i.e., section. Joining these pointsin the appropriate order will give the true tlownet
the intersection between flow lines and equipotential lines) should be in which all flow elements will be rectangular. ·
 Seepage and Flownets 97
96 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

phreatic iine. The remaining portion of the basic parabola is shown with a
Fig. 4.11 (b) shows the retransfom1ed section and the true tlownet. The
hrokcn line. ·
discharge quantity is given by,
Nt
q=kH·-=
Nd 1
4
k., = 6.7 x 10- em/sec = 0.579 m/day

Now, kh = 1.5 X 10-3 em/sec 1.296 m /day

30 m
H = 18 - 1.5 = 16.5 m

q
Nt = 4.6 , Nd = 10

= ¥'(1.296) <o.s79) (16.5) (4.6)/(10) J

3
= 6.57 m /day
It rna y be noted here that, if we are to find out only the discharge quantity,
the true tlownet for the retransformed section is not required to be drawn, as
-----t
Fig. 4.12
the flownet for the transformed section can serve the purpose. However, for
the determination of exit gradient, hydrostatic pressure heads, uplift pressures hdllem fi.V A L. 4 m higb earth ctl!nl has a top width Of 28m and a
etc., the actual tlownet has to be drawn. fn r iward of ¥'m. Tlw upstream and dowHstream faces nave equal slope
Problemy: The cross-section of an earth dam is shown in Fig. 4.12. augks of 30·. The dam is ·placed on an impervious found11tiou. The co-
Draw the phreatic line. ·• , (··:cit•.r.l \Jl pem1ea biiity cC'be ma1eriz1l oftb: d;nn i.;> 0.3 mmlmin. Draw tlte
l1t''-'!lt't and determine the- quantity of seepage loss across unit width of tlte
Solution: Horizontal projection£ of the wetted portion oftbe upstream
Jam.
face = 27 m. Hence the first point P of the basic parabola is given by, EP =
0.3L = (0.3)(27) = 8.1 m. With P as ce tre and PC radius, draw an arc CM Solutien : The h: nom width (}f th'.' ' ::r,;. is giv·n by,
to mtersect the extension of the water surface line atM. Draw MN .L DC.MN B "' 2S · 2 (.;:.1/t..n 30') "" 130 m.
is the directrix of the basic parabola. The mid point Q of CN is another point The cross-section of the. dam is shown in Fig. 4.13.
in the basic parabola. Locate the points Y1, Y2 , Y3 , ...... , such that they are
equidistant from the directrix and the focus. Join P, Yl> Y2, Y3, ...... , and Q
to obtain the basic parabola.
f-28m-i
In order to make the correction at the entry point, draw a smooth curve
from E to meet the basic parabola tangentially. For the correction at exit, the
1 v

location of the outcrop point is required. Referring to Fig. 4.6, for slope angle
= 45• , t:.aA = 0.34.
a+ ua r
I
By measurement, a + !!.a • 19m.
!!.a • (0.34) (19) • 6.46 m.
The distancecc' is laid off such that, CC'= 6.46 m. c' is the true8utcrop
point. Draw another smooth curve to meet tangentially the basic-parabola at Fig. :iJ3

one end and the downstream face at c'. The curve EC' is then:·the required
98 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Seepage and Flownets 99
The basic parabola and the phreatic line are drawn in the usual manner
and the flownet is sketched. From Fig. 4.13 we obtain, Seepage loss across the entire dam
N1 = 3.2 "" (39.168) (175) = 6854.4 m 3/day.
Nd = 17 Problem ; Fig. 4.15 shows the cross-section of an earth dam
Again, H = 44 - 4 = 40 m. consisting of toe filter at the downstream end. Draw the tlow-net and
_ O I . = (0.3) (60) (24) dett:m1ine the quantity of seepage loss per day across unit width of the darn.
k 3 The dam is founded on an impervious base and the material of the dam has a
and,
- . mm mm = 0.432 m /day. co-efficiel.lt of permeability of 3.28 x 10-3 em/sec. Explain the procedure of
1000
Using eqn. (4.4), the quantity. of seepage loss across unit width, obtaining the flownet.
Solution : Fig. 4.15 shows the given cross-section, alongwith the
- (0.432) (40) (3.2) 3 25 3/d
q - 17 = . m ay. flownet. The procedure is briefly explained below:
Problem V" A 20m high dam has a op width of 8 m, a bottom idtb (a) Locating the phreatic line:
(i) Locate the point Din the usual mam1er (ED= 0.3L = 0.3 x 37 = 11.1
of 90 m and a free board of 3 in. The dam IS made of coarse sand havmg a
co-efficient of permeability of0.01 em/sec. A 22.5 m long horizontal drainage m).
blanket is placed near the downstream end of the dam. Draw the flownet and (ii) The bottom left hand comer of the toe is .taken as the focus of t11e
determine the quantity of seepage loss if the width of the dam be 175 m. basic parabola.
Solution: The flownet is shown in Fig. 4.14. (iii) Draw the directrix and locate the point Q of the basic parabola.
(iv) Locate a number of points which are equidistant from the directrix
and the focus.
(v) Join these points with a smooth curve to obtain the basic parabola.
(vi) Make the necessary corrections at the entry and the exit points.

t-22·5m
90m ---------l--i
Fig. 4.14

Using eqn. (4.4), the quantity of seepa ge loss for unit width.,
N
q • kH · _J_
NJ Fig. 4.15

Here, k = 0.01 em/sec = 8.64 m/day. (b) Construction oftheflownet:

H - 20 - 3 • 17 m. (i) Draw a vertical line on the right hand side of the downstream face.
N1 = 4, Nd = 15 Divide the vertical distance between the water level and the outcrop
point into any number of equal parts of the length A H.
(S.64 ) ( 1?) (4) • 39.168 m3/day. (ii) Draw horizontal lines from each of these points and locate their
q- 15 points of intersection with the phreatic line.
100 Problems in Soil MechanicS{lnd Foun4ati()n Engin.'ering Seepage and Flownets 101

(iii) Draw m;mberof equipotential line froni each of these inters ection Solution : The co-efticient of perm ability of the material oftbe dam
points . Tl:is will etisure that the beaddt(JpS are equal. .. is 10 times that of the foundatimi soiL Hence the flownet in the earth dam is
(iv) Draw the flow lines. Adjust the flow lines and equipotential lines first .. onsttut ted as if it were placed ort an impervious foundation. It can be
agaitt and again until theflowitefbecomes orthogonally squared. seen trom Fig. 4.16 that the second tlow line hits the intert'ace between the
Using eqn. (4.4), dam and the foundation soil.

q = kH. :N:.L. Now come·down to the foundation soil ati.d colilplete the tlownet. Tbe
second flow line aswell as alrtbeeqitipotential lines willenter the foundation
Na soil and will undergo a deviation at the interface. In the soil stratum, the flow-
3 net is drawn as ort!Jogonally squared, as usual. However, as the k-value ·cif ihe
Here, k = 3.28 x 10- C'in /scc ==_ 2.834 m/day.
soil is only 1/lOthofthat of the material of the dam, each tlow channel in the
·n. = 23 m. soH stratum carries a discharge equal to 1/lOth of the discharge carried by a
llow chattnel in the dam. Consequently, the tlow channels in the soil are
marked as 2.1, 2.2 eft.
From the figure we get, ·
q = (2.834) 3t(2.3) = Zl. Z m3 /day.
total number of tlow channels, N1 = 2.25
Probl em 4.1).. · A JO m high arth da1ri ha ying a top width of 20 m , a number of head drops, Nd = 10.
1>)'1,·,:;; ' vidtt fifl40 m an d a fr e h:>a rd 0f 3 ''' ;" f:)" -:Jed on a 60 m tlJi.::k k for dam-material = ·o.003 em/sec 2.592 m/day.
< { ;.! ;·· ry·_i ous 0n · \.\,h !c'· :::., Hl(h rla_.in b)r Hn ... \pt i:Ine·ahle ;a ·h . !"he
co- ·ffki<:H :; •)f p::rme;l b ility of ;)!:: ;_::; g tedal of the dam and .the found a tiou H = 30 - 3 = 27 m.
soil arc O.O<J3 nn/se:c- ;:;Jl d 0.0003 ctil/s•:e re'>prnivelv , Draw the flownet a.nd . (2.592) (27) (2.25) 3
detem1ine the qu ntity of seepage loss. in m r/day. ' . · . = 15.75 m /day.
q "" 10
.Problem ·Fig. 4.17 shows the cross-section of an earth dam
founded on a pervious stratum of 60 m thickness. The co-efficient of
.t pwneability of the material of the dam is 1.6 x 10-4 em/sec while that of the
3
l(mndation soil is 1.6 x 10- em/sec. Draw the ftownet and detennhte the
3
3rn quantity of seepage loss in m /day ..·
Solution : Here the foundation soil is 10 times more penneable than
27m the material of the dam. Hence more emphasis will be given on seepage
through this soil. .
Draw a trial tlownet in thr. foundation soil neglecting the earth dam.
Extend all equipotential lines from the foundation soil into the dam. These
lines should deviate from the interface, but this should be done only by hand
and eqn. (4.11) need not be considered. Now draw the flow lines in the dam
section and try to make the flow net' orthogonally squared. This may
necess_itate certain readjustments, especially tor the last tlow line in the dam,
whkh should enter into the foundation soil. All previously drawn tlow lines
in the foundation soil may have to be lowered. The final flownet is shown in
Fig. 4.17.

t
.
I

'
102 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Seepage and Flownets 103

},_ 55 m -----+---,-- 35m

Fig. 4.18
Fig.4.17
which the average length in the direction of flow is 3 times (since k 2 !k1 = 3)
As the co-efficient of penneability of the dam material is 1/10th of that
of foundation soil, a flow channel in the dam is equivalent to 1!10th of a flow tlw average width. In order to cope with this condition, the trial phreatic line
channel in the foundation soil. Consequently, the flow channels in the dam Jrawn in zone II may have to be either raised or lowered and the flownet
are marked as 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3. No. of full flow channels in the soil stratum should be completed by trial and error.
Using cqn. (4.4),
= 2.5. Hence, N1 = 0.3 + 2.5 = 2.8.
Nd = 8. , H • 36 m
3
k for foundation soil = 1.6 x 10- em/sec= 1.382 m/day.
= 2.5, Nd = 6, H = 37m.
.. q = (1.382) 6) (2.8) .. 17.41 m3/day. Now, N1
k for zone I= 0.001 em/sec. = 0.864 m/day.
Problem 4.1VFig. 4.18 shows the cross-section of a zoned earth dam
q- (0.864) (37) (2.5) - 13.32 m 3/day.
consisting of two zones. Zone I adjacent to the upstream face has k = 0.001 6
em/sec while zone II adjacent to the downstream face has k = 0.003 em/sec.
3 It mily be noted that the methods employed in Problem 4.11 through 4.13,
Draw the flownet and determine the quantity of seepage loss in m /day.
howt ver crude they may seem to be, will yield results which are within
Solution: The material of zone II is 3 times more permeable than that "'10% of the results obtained by a more accurate and vigorous solution.
of zone I. Draw the phreatic line in zone I arbitrarily. From the interface
between the two zones, the phreatic line should deviate downwards, as water
can flow more easily in zone II. Draw this deviated phreatic line arbitrarily. EXERCISE4
Now draw a vertical line and divide it into any number of equal parts of 4.1 On a waterfront, a sheet pile wall of 8 m height is .embedded into
length MI. From each of these poir.ts draw horizontal Jines to intersect the the soil upto 6 m below G.L. The free board is 1 m while water on the
phreatic line. All these intersection points are springing points of the downstream side stands upto 2m above G.L. The foundation soil consists of
equipotential lines. In zone I, draw the flownet as orthogonally squared. Each a 15 m thick sand stratum (k = 0.009 em/sec) which is underlain by an
tlow I ine enters zone llafter undergoing a deviation at the interface. However, impervious layer. Draw the fiownet and detemtine the quantity of seepage
tbe flow elements in zone II will not be squares but rectangles, for each of loss anoss a 1 m wide section of the sheet pile.

· ·---------------------------------------- ---------
104 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Seepage and Flownets 105

4.2 Fig. 4.19 shows the cross-section of a concrete weir. The 4.5 Draw the phreatic Hnes for the dam sections shown in Fig; 4;2l(a)
foundation soil has a co-efficient of peimeability of 1.25 x 10-3 em/sec, a void through (d) :
ratio of 0.88 and a specific gravity of solids 2.65.
(i) Sketch the flownet
(ii) Determine the. quantity of seepage loss in m 3/day
(iii) Find out the factor of safety against piping.

Drainage
----r:...-.}:..: . ... (a) (b)
Blanket

Chimney

4m
1
"{j:i'f:>: i;:. {{ {' }{;;? .,.,._... Drain

,'" =i·Sm T' 0-Sm

Fig.4.19 (c) (d)
4.3 (a) If a sheet pile cut-off wall of 3 in depth is introduced in the Fig. 4.21
upstream end of the weir shown in Fig. 4.19, determine the percent reduction 4.6 Sketch the tlownets and detennine the quantity of seepage loss
in the quantity ofseepage loss. across unit width of the earth dams shown in Fig. 4.22 (a) through (c). All the
(b) If in addition to this, another sheet pile of 2 m depth is placed at dams are founded on impervious soils. Take k = 0.002 em/sec.
the downstream end, how win the seepage quantity change? .
4.4 Fig. 4.20 shows the cross section of a concrete weir founded in an
· -p t- ..L,_, 3m --120m f-
anis op c _so ] mass. The co efficient o ermeability in the hor ontal and
vertical duect10ns are respectively 5 x 10 mm/sec and 1.25 x 10 mm/sec.
3
Sketch the flownetand determine the quantity of seepage loss in m /hr. 2
..,L--.t 3m f- ,l BOrn t ,l 100m ------------------------------1
(a) ----1 +- - (b)

9·2m + :::: i i rol

L
t=10·8m 16 mi j 1 180m t- 60m=i
( ()
Fig.4.20 Fig. 4.22
106 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

4.7 Construct the flownet for the zone earth dam shown in Fig. 4.23.
Hence compute the total quantity of seepage loss if the width of the reservoir
be 125m. ·

5
STRESS DISTRIBUTION
.I. Introduction: The application of an external load on a soil mass
rr. sults in an additional vertical stress (i.e., in addition to the existing
overburden pressure) at any point in the soil. The magnitude of this stress
Fig. 4.23 'kcreases with increasing depth and increasing radial distance from the line
of action of the load .
4.8 An earth dam having an overall height of 18 m, a top width of 10
The stress conditions in a soil mass due to external loads can be analysed
m and a free board of 1.5 m is founded on layer of dean sand having a co-
hy the theory of elasticity, assuming the soil to be a perfectly elastic material
efficient of pem1 ability of 0.01 em/sec. A rock layer exists at a depth of 45
whkh obeys Hooke's law of proportionality between stress and strain.
m below the ground level. The earth-fill in the dam has a co-efficient of
permeability of 0.002 em/sec. Draw the flow net and detennine the quantity 5.2 Overburden Pressure: The overburden pressure at any point in a soil
of seepage loss in m 3/day. mass is defined as the initial vertical stress due. to the self weight of the soil
mass, and can be obtained from
4.9 Solve Problem 4.8 assuming that the co-efficient of permeability
of the material of the dam and the foundation soil are 15m/day and 5 m/day a=o = Yz ...(5.1)
respectively.
whne, y = unit weight of the soil
z = depth below ground level.
3.3 Stress Increment: The stress increment, l'laz, at any point may be
drfim d as the increase in vertical stress due to the application of external load
on tht soil mess.
The total stress, az , at any point z, after the application of an external
load, is given by,
a. = a. -+ Aa.
6,. ... 0 ...
...(5.2)
.5.4. Boussinesq's Equation: Boussinesq's method of determinat. ion of
stress increment due to an extemalload is based on the assumptions that the
soil mass is elastic, homogeneous, isotropic and semi-infinite while the
external load is con{·entrated at a point and is applied on the ground surface.
With reference to Fig. 5.1, at a depth z below the ground level and at a
radial distance r from the line of action of the load Q, the. vertical stress l'laz
is given by
108 Problems in Soil M echanics andFoundation Engin eering Stress .Distribution · 109

Qr2
Cllld .!lar = KB·y ...(5.8)

X .S. Westergaard's F,quation: Westergaard assumed th e soil not to be

homogeneous but consisting of a nutnber of closely spaced h orizontal sheets
of infinite rigidity but negligible thickness which restrain the soil from
undergoing any lateral sirain. According to Westergaard,
Q v<t- 21l)/(2-:- zll>
11 ...(5.9)
az = 2rt J . [(1 .,. 2i,t)/(2- 21l) + (r/z)2] 312
'
\R
\ whar, ll =?oiss0n 's ratio of the soil.
\
r = [x2 + y2 \ If for a givensoil, ll = 0 , eqn. (5.9) redl!.ces to
\
R = Jr2+z2 \
...(5.10)
= Jx2 + y2 +z2

p :-,, ,.·;.. 2: 1- Dig r-s if:!J. 1\: ctll_{ d :. ·11ds. is Jn·app·:·c:dn t ::- rn<:tb t.:d in \Vli i-;
Fig. 5.1 • it is assum::d ·lll;,l th· r:·ftt:,ct of an externa l load is Jisp<.cr::cd ;L!l'.g straight lint:>
3 inclined at 2V . : lH. .
·
11
a = 3 Q . cos fl ...(5.3) \\'ith -rcfc:n.?ll('.t. to .Fig. 5.2, to-h1i (\ d rtpJ L i -:\c n: : grotrn d :lrF:o::·:!:," Q
z 2n: R2 q IJL. . . .
At a deptb z, this load is distributed over an i!rea (L + z) (B + z). Hence,
3Q [ 1 j-5 /2 ...(5.4) s.trc.>.ss intensity at this lev.el,
Or',
= zn:J. 1 +( r . qBL ...(5.11)
(L +Z).(B + Z)

. Q
or, !l a= = KB. 2 ...(5.5)
z
where, K 8
··[I+ 1 J']512
is called Boussinesq's influence factor and is given by,
Ks =
...(5.6)

The tangential stress !l Trz and the radial tress !l ar at the same point are
given by

...(5.7)

Fig.S.2
110 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Stress Distribution
(r r 111

1 -jl
having the shape of a bulb, are obtained. These are called isobars. The zone

li ·
5.7. Isobar: If the vertic.al stress intensities at yarious points in a soil mass ...(5.15)
(3) Determine the radii of the circles from n
due to an external load are computed, and the points having equal stress
intensities are joine.d by a smooth curve, a number of stress contours, each

in the soil mass bounded by an isobar is called a pressure bulb. An infinite +

number of isobars can bt drawn. The zone contained by the isobar where, n = total number of circles to be drawn
corresponding to a stress intensity \'Jhich is equal to 10% of the applied stress ni = number of the circle whose radius is required
is taken to be the zone within which appreciable effects of the applied stress
may os£ur. This zone is termed as the zone of influence. ri = radius of that circle.
Stress due to a Uniformly L aded Circular Area: From (4) Draw all the concentric circles.
Boussinesq's equation it can be proved that the stress intensity at a depth z (5) Determine the deflection angle of the radial !ines from:
below the centre of a circular area of radius a, which carries a uniformly 360.
distributed load q, is given by, () =-

t - .(;)')'a}
...(5.16)
m
...(5.12) wlu re, m = tota.l number of radial lines to be. drawn .
A a, • (6) Draw the radial lines with the deflection angles thus calculated.
With the help of the Newmark's chart (Fig. 5.15) the stress intensity at
5.9. Newmark's Chart: The stress intensity at any point due to .a
any point due to a unifonrJy loaded area of any given shape can be determined
uniformly loaded area of any shape can be determined with the help of
as follows:
Newmark's influence chart. It consists of a series of concentric circles of
(i) Adopt a drawing scale such that the depth at which the stress intensity
various radii and a series of radial lines drawn at regular angular intervals.
Th total area of the chart is thus divided into · a number of elements. The is required is represented by the numerical value of z on the basis of which
Nt wmark's chart is drawn.
elements may have different size.s, but each of them, when loaded with a given
·(ii) Draw the plan of the loaded area on a tracing paper with this drawing
stress intensity, will give rise to the same vertical stress at a given point.
scale. Locate the point P below which the stress is required.
In order to prepare the chart, proceed as follows: (iii) Place the tracing paper on the chart in such a way that the point P
(1) Select the number of elements in which the chart should be divided, and on tbc tracing paper coincides with the centre of the circles.
determine the influence value for each element (iv) Count the number of elements covered, fully or partly, by the plan
For example, if 10 concentric circles and 20 radial lines are drawn, the uf the area.
number of elements= (20) (10) = 200. When any one of these 200 elements (v) Calculate 11 Oz as:
is loaded, the stress intensity .at a depth z is given by,
11az • q[(i
1)N 1 + (i112)·N2 + (i113)N3 ]
...(5.17)
a = 11 az - ...!1._ • 1 - ...(5.13) wh, rc, N 1 '"' number of elements fully covered.
ze 200 200
N2 ... number of elements half covered.
where, = 0.005 11 Oz

or, Oz
e
a = radius of the outermost circle
11 az N ;1 = influence factor
=stress 3
...(5.14) = 1/no. of elements of the chart.
at a
depth • !.10. Stress Due to Vertical Linear Load: The load resulting from a long
zdue
to the n
entire u
loaded m
area. b
e
r

o
f

e
l
e
m
e
n
t
s

o
f

w
h
i
c
h

o
n
e
-
t
h
i
r
d

i
s

c
o
v
e
r
e
d

.
(2) Select an arbitrary value of z (say, z = 5 em). but narrow wall, or a railway track, is an example of a vertical linear load

j
 -- -

112 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engi neering /

Stress Distribution 113
(Fig. 5.3 a). The vertical stress a.t a d pth z and at aradial dis a n.cc of r frnm
the line of action of such a load of intens it qt/m, is given by ,
?"
,;..L ---- 2 B ----A

Aa," •("+q}z')' .•?!It'

. 2
rr
l+(;)" ]¥ 1
...(5.18)

z
y
.... ........

rx
z .... z'
I
\
\
\
\!J
X
z
". .
+oG .l -L·
',,oc;/<,
........
P1x zl 5.13. Embankment Loading:
Fig. 5.4
Stresses in subsoils due to embankment
? ,2) loadings can be computed using eqn. (5.20).
!
-r -4 I Let it be required to compute the maximum vertical stress intensity at a
z z depth z below an embankment having a top width 2b, a base width 2(a+ b)
and a maximum intensity q t/m. The solution can be obtained in the following
l i n e o. L one! steps:
1. The embankment is divided into two equal parts as shown in Fig. 5.5.
ds unilormly di.lributed Two symmetrical trapezoidal loadings are obtained .

...(5.19)

- ! il
loadings.
':r: :1 : ;, i·,: ':i;:. ;i:.::·l ; :rl2t.:: ,J :;', ;} ; :: : ·".:·
Fo: th :: td ;: ( guhtt. : - l.sho\ .'n in Fig. 5.4} ?1,
.P (y:-- ·) ·h hY :
q y
. ..(5.20)
· a.-1 -· -r 2f"!.c
2.n n

Fig.S.S
 - - ------

114 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

Stress Distribution 115
2. The trapezoid ABCDE is extended to fonn AFD by adding an
imaginary triangular load BFC. / EXAMPLES
3. Stress intensity at the point P (lying below the centre of the Problem \51. A concentrated load of 40 kN is applied vertically on a
embanknu·.nt\ due tc the triangular loads AFD and BFC are obtained. The horizontal ground surface. Detennine the vertical stress intensities at the
difference between these two gives the stress intensity due to half the embank- following points:
ment. Hence for the entire embankment this intensity has to be doubled. (i) At a depth of 2 m below the point of application of the load.
5.14. Influence Line for Vertical Stress Intensity: The combined stress (ii) At a depth of 1 m and at a radial distance of 3 m from the line of
intensity at any point due to a system of external loads can be determined action of the load.
usmg the concept of influence line diagrams. The method of drawing an (iii) At a depth of 3 m and at a radial distance of 1 m from the line of
influence line is explained below: · action of the load.
J. Consider a unit load applied on the ground surface at 0. Solution: We have from eqn. (5.4),
2. Consider a horizontal plane MN at a depth zbelow G.L.
J. Using Boussinesq 's equation determ me the vertical stress intensities 3Q [ 1 ]5/2
at various points on MN due to the unit load. do, - z.J 1 + ( )'
4. Choose a vector scale and lay offthe corresponding ordinates at the
n:spectivt· points to represent the computed stresses. (i) Here, Q - 40 kN, z .. 2m and r - 0
5. Join these ordinates with a smooth curve. This is the influence line. .. rlz = 0
Hence eqn (5.4) gives
3Q (3) (40) 2
aoz,. btl- (bt)(22) = 4.77 kN/m
(ii) In this case, Q = 40 kN, z = 1m, r =3m
512
3 1
Oz • ( )(40) ' [ ] • 0.06 kN/m 2
2 2
. (21t)(1 ) 1 + (3/1)
(iii) Here, Q = 40 kN , z = 3m, r = 1 m
2
. a Oz •
(
3) (40) [ 1 ]S/ .. 1.63 kN/m2
2
-1 <21t> (3> t + (113 >2
z . Proble s:l/ A rectangular foot 2 m x 3 m in size, has to carry a
Pig. 5.6 umfonnly distributed load of 100 kN/m . Plot the distribution of vertical
stress intensity on a horizontal plane at a depth of 2 m below the base of
Applying Maxwell's reciprocal theorem, the stress at any point due to an footing by:
external load can now be obtained as follows: (i) Boussinesq 's method.
(i) For any given load P acting at 0 the stress intensity at any point X is (ii) 2 : 1dispersion method.
obtained by multiplying the ordinate of the influence line at X by the load P.
I Solution: (i) Boussinesq's method. The uniformly distributed load
(ii) For any given load P acting at X, the stress intensity below 0 is carried by the footing is to be considered as a concentrated load acting through
obtained by multiplying the ordinate of the influence line at X by the load the centre of gravity of the footing.
P.
I '

Q = qBL = (100) (2) (3) = 600 kN.

---------------------- ------ ---J

 - -- ---- -

Stress Distribution
116 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

Using eqn. (5.4), the stress intensity at a depth of 2 m and at a radial I

distance r from the line of action of Q is given by: I Q = 600kN
I

flo=3-Q-· [ 1 ]5/2 ! l l i{ll t l :1QOkN/m 2

z 2rr.J 1 + (rid
512 512 _.- BOUSSINESQ's
... (3) (600) . [ 1 ] - (71 6?) [ i ] 2:1 DISPERSION METHOD
2 2
(2) (3.14) (2 ) 1 + (;) - . - 1 + (rid
METHOD

A number of points are chosen on the given plane. and the stress intensity at
1
--
each point is calculated. These are tabulated below:

r?.adial distance
r
(m)
r/z
[1 + 1
(rlz)2
r Stress intensity
6. Oz
(kN!nl)
0 0 1.0 71.62
± 1.0 ± 0.5 0.572 40.97 Fig.5.7
:t: 2.0 :t: 1.0 0.177 12.68
± 3.0 ± 1.5 0.052 . 3.72 (iii) Evidently, the pressure distribution given by Boussinesq's method
is more logical and s d be used in ordin. ary field problems. ·
± 4.0 ± 20 0.018 1.28
Problem /A concentrated vertical load of 200 t is applied on the
:t: 5.0 ± 2.5 0.007 0.50 surface of a semi-infinite soil mass. Plot the distribution of vertical stress
intensity on a vertical plane situated at a distance of (i) 3 m (ii) 5 m, from the
(ii) 2:1 dispersion method: Using eqn. (5.11),
line of action of the load.
6. 0 =
qB L = (100) (2) (3) = 30 kN/mz, Solution: In Fig. 5.8, let P be the point of application ofthe load. Let
(L + z)(B + z)
z (2 +2) (3 + 2) Y1Y1 and Y2 Y2 be the given planes, located at radial distances of 3 m and 5
The distribution of stress intensities on the given plane, as obtained from m respectively from P.
Boussinesq's equation and 2: 1 method, are shown in Fig. 5.7.
Using eqn. (5.4), the stress intensity at a depth z and radial distance r
The following differences between the two stress distribution diagrams from the line of action of a 200 t load is,
are to be noted :
(i) The maximum stress intensity obtained from Boussinesq's equation 512
is 71.62 kN/m 2 , which is nearly 2.4 times the maximum stress intensity given (3) (200) [ 1 ] 95.49 [ 1 ] Sl?
by 2 : 1 method. 0
6. z = (2rt) (J) 1 + (rlzi = T 1 + (rlzf ...(i)
(ii) In Boussinesq's method, the maximum stress intensity occurs
directly below the point of application of the load. The stress intensity
decreases rapidly with increasing radial distance, but except at an infinite The stress intensities at various points or the planes?' Y1 and Yz Yz may
distance, it never becomes zero. Whereas, the stress intensity given by 2 : 1 now be computed from eqn. (i). The results are shown in the following table.
method remains constant over a radial di!;tance of 2.5 m on either side of the
centre line of the loaded area, and sud.denJy becomes non-existent beyond
that limiL
118 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation F:ngineering Stress Distribution 119

No. of Depth PlaneY 1 Y1 Plane Y2 Y2 consists of a 6 m thick day layer which is undcrlaiu by a layn of dense sand.
point (m)
rlz
., rh
? Plot the distributions of:
I!:. Oz (tim-) I!:. az (tim-) (i) Overburden pressun
(ii) stress increment due to footing loads
1 0.5 6.0 0.046 lO.OO 0.004
(iii) gross stress intensity
2 1.0 3.0 0.302 5.00 0.028 on a horizontal plane through the middle of the day layn . Th< propl rties of
2.0 0.759 3.33 0.083 th e clay are as follows:
3 1.5
2.50 O.l68 G = 2.70, e = 0.55, w = 0 •:·1
4 2.0 1.5 1.254
Assume the footings to be founded at the ground kv1 ; .
5 2.5 1.2 1.643 2.00 0.273
Solution : (i) Overburden pressure: Using l'qu . ( 5 , :!::· ,;\ nbLrdt'll
6 3.0 1.0 1.875 1.67 0.380 prcssun' at the middk of the clay layer (i.e.,;: = 6 '2 =- .· . ' :-,, given by, 0-
7 4.0 0.75 1.955 1.25 0.568
., = y z
.

8 5.0 0.60 1.770 1.00 0.685

(2.70) (Ul!
0.50 1.518 1.20 0.285 Now,
9 6.0 1 + 0.5:
10 8.0 0.375 1.073 1.60 0.062 CJz = (1 .74) (3.0) = 5.22 I
0

The intensity of this pressure over the h• 'i:ontal plane XY through the
The pressure distribution diagrams are shown in Fig. 5.8. middle of clay is constant.
(ii) In order to determine the stress inu•'FH'III dtH: to f<w ing loads at
various points of .XX, cqn . (5.4) can bt USl'd . Tht l•lmputcd strcss:·s are shown
he low:
No. Vertical ;rress intensiry due to :
-,- t\o:
''·
jt.az -
of
P1 (lOOt) P2 (150 t) p_, (J2, 1 1)
Cl, .,
point +too- +
r rh l\az 1 r r/z l\az 2 r rlz 3
+1\0z
2 2 2 ' .I
)
) (m) j (1Im ) (tim ) (I'••') (r.m·)

I -2 -D.67 2.12 -6 -2.00 0.14 -9.5 -3. 171 0.02 2.28 1 '2 +s - 7.sr
0·685 2 -I -0.33 4.08 -5 -1.67 0.29 -8.5 -2./B 0.03 4.40 5 ·:: ! I a.6.!
ttm2 3 0 0 531 -4 _._.,3 0.62 -7.5 -2.50 0.04 5.97 5 . :· t: 19
4 I 0.33 4.08 -:-3 -l.OO 1.41 -6.5 -2.1'.' 0.08 5.57 L2 1(),7\,L

5 2 0.67 2.12 -2 -0.67 3.17 -5.5 -PH 0.16 5.45 I 5.2 2 !0.67
6 3 1.00 0.94 -1 -0.33 6.11 -4.5 -i.5(1 1 0.33 7.38 5.2.: 12.ti0
7 4 1.33 0.41 0 0 7.96 -3.5 -1.17 0.74 9.11 5.2.: 1433
8 5 1.67 0.19 I 0.33 6.11 -2.5 -OX\ 1 1.72 8.02 5.2'2. tJ.24
'" ·· Fig. 5.8 9 6 2.00 0.09 2 0.67 3.17 -1.5 -{)50 f 3.64 7.76 5.2 l2.98
Problem 5 The footings of three adjacent columns of a building lie 10 7 2.33 0.05 3 1.00 1.41 -D.5 -D.l 7 5 .93 739 5.22 12.61
on the same aight iine and carry gross loads of 100 t, 150 t and 120 t 11 7.5 2 .50 0.04 3.5 1.17 0.93 0 0 ! o .37
I
7.3· 5.22 12.56
respectively. The centre-to-centre distance between the first anj second 12 8.5 2.83 0.02 4.5 1.50 0.'!2 1 0.3' I 4 .Q2
i
5.3fi 15.22 10.58
footing is 4 m while that between the second and the third is 3.5 m. The subsoil 13 9.5 3.17 O.Dl 5.5 1.83 0.20 2 l
0.<<' 2 .5 2 .7.1 .1L,5.22 7.95
 - - - -

120 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Stress Distribution 121

j 100 t l150t !120t A oz = .;_(3-'-) 1-'-) -=- [1 + 1

...:...<
(:bt) (2.5)2 _t ls /2 0.0764
S/2
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9·5 10·5-11- -5.... ..,.., 2
(1 + 0.16 ?)
(2.5)

A 't = (3) (1) (r) [. 1 .. 0.0306 r

and,
S/2
_JL-..Ll ._l _l.. ._l ._J _.. } ..l ._l_l.o. . . . ;l. ._J I 5 ·22 t I m2 rz (2rr) (2.5)3 1+ _L2 (t + 0.16?)
(2.5)
X Overburden Stress X
The computed values of A Oz and A 't.a at various points on the given
horizontal plane are shown below:
No. r (m) Aoz A 'trz No. r (m) Aoz A'trz

X X (t!m2 (t/ttt) (tlttt) (t!Trf)

Stress Increment 1. 0 0.0764 0 8. :t4.0 0.0032 :t 0.0051
2. :t 0.25 0.0745 :t 0.0075 9. :t 5.0 0.0014 :t 0.0027
3. :t 0.50 0.0693 :t 0.0139 10. :t6.0 0.0006 :t:0.0015
4. :t 1.0 0.0527 :t 0.0211 11. :t 7.0 0.0003 :t 0.0009
5. :t 1.5 0.0354 :t 0.0213 12. :t8.0 0.0002 :t0.0006
6. :t 2.0 0.0222 :t 0.0178 13. :t9.0 0.0001 ±0.0004
X 7. :t 3.0 0.0082 ±0.0099
Gross Stress Intensity The distribution of A Oz and A "trz are shown in Fig. 5.10.
(Vector scale ·:1cm=10t/m2}
1t
Fig.S.9
(iii) Total stress. The total stress at any point is the sum of the over-burden -s -4 -3 -2 -r.s -1 -o.s o o.s r r-s 2 J 4 5
pressure and the stress increment due tofooting loads. These are tabulated in
the last column of the above table.
The distribution of overburden pressure, stress increment and gross stress
intensity are shown in Fig. 5.9. .
ProblemDraw the influence lines for the vertical and shear stress
intensities at a depth of 2.5 m below the ground level due to a unit vertical
concentrated loads applied on the ground surface.
Solution: We have from eqns. (5.6) and (5.7),
Influence I ine for vertical stress

Ao • --
3Q [ l .]S/2
z 'btl- 1 + (r/z)2
3
Q ,. [ .
A"t •--
1 ]S/2
and
rz in.; l + (r/z)2
Here, Q = 1t, z= 2.5 m Inttuence line for shear stress
(scale : 1cm=0·03t/m2)
Fig. 5.10
122 oblems: in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Stress Distribution

Problem sf..
Using the influence line plotted in Fig. 5.10 plot the Problem It is proposed to construct a strip footing of 1.5 m width
to carry a load of 12 t per metre run. The footing is to be placed at the ground
distribution of vertical stress intensity on a horizontal plane through the
level over a homogeneous deposit of sand having the following properties:
middle of a 5 m thick clay layer due to the loading scheme shown in Fig. 5.11.
G = 2.65, e = 0.65, s = 10%
Solution: At any point on the given plane, the combined stress Determine the vertical stress intensity at a depth of 3m below the centre line
intensity can be obtained by summing up the stress intensities due to the of the footing, before and after its construction.
individual loads, which, in tum , may be determined by the process explained
Solution: The bulk density of the sand,
in Art. 5.14.
The following table sbows the computed values. v = G + se . = 2.68 + (0.10) (0.65) (l.O) = 1.66 t/m3
· 1 + e Yw 1 + 0.65
Vertical stress intensity du e to :-
Before the construction of the footing, stress intensity at a depth of 3 m
P1 (50 1) Pz (80 I) P3 (6.5 I) below the centre line of the footing is given by,
Disl. Dist. Ordi- IJ.o,, Dist .
from
Ordi- IJ. Oz2 DisI. Ordi- IJ, Oz3 0;:0 = y z
nate of nate of nate of l: IJ.uz
the JW IW IW 2
origin - (1.66) (3.0) "' 4.98 t/m .
2 2 2 2 2
(tim ) ( ) (1Im (1Im 2 (1Im (1I )
(m) (m) 1Im (m) ) ) (m) (1Im ) ) m Stress increment at the same level due to the construction of the footing
0 -2 0.0222 1.110 -5 0.0014 0.112 -9 0.0001 0.006
may be determined using eqn. (5.19).
1.23
l -1 0.0527 2.635 -4 0.0032 0.256 -8 0.0002 0.013 2 .91
<. 0 0.0764 3.720 -3 0.0082 0.656 -7 0.0003 0.019 4.40
!:J. Oz "' [a + sin a cos (a + 2 )]
l't
3 1 O.C527 2.635 -2 0.0222 1.776 -6 0.0006 0.039 4.45
4 ',•;, 0.0222 l.llO -1 0.0527 4.216
Th e maximum stress intensity will occur directly below the centre line
-5 0.0014 0.091 5.42
5 3 0.0082 0.410 0 0.0764 6.112 of the strip load. With reference to Fig. 5.3 (b).
-4 0.0032 0.208 6.73
6 4 0.0032 0.160 1 0.0527 4 .216 -3 0.0082 0.533 4.91 1 0 5
7 5 0.00.14 0.070
a = tan- ( ·
; ) = 0.245 rad.
2 0.0222 1.776 -2 0.0222 1.433 3.29
8 6 0.0006 0.030 3 0.0032 0.656 -1 0.0.327 3.426 4.11 and = 0
9 7 0.0003 0.015 4 0.0032 0.256 0 0.0764 4.996 5.24
10 8 0.0002 0.010 5 0.0014 0.112 12
1 0.0527 3.426 3.55 [ 0.245 + sin (0.245) cos (0.245)]

•
11 9 0.0001 0.005 6 0.0006 0.048 2 0.0222 1.443 1.50 l't
2
= 1.83 t/m
The distribution of vertical stress intensity is shown in Fig . 5.11. Hence, total stress intensity after the construction of the footing,
5 6 7 8

i.
i

2 3 4
2
i 50 t J BOt t/m
Oz • OZo + !:J. Oz
4.98 + 1.83 • 6.81

Fig . 5.11

4.qJ
j
Scale : 1cm = 3t/m2
 Problem Two long boundary
walls of small width run parallel to
each other at a nee of 3 m apart. The
self-weights of the walls are 25 and 15
kN/m. Plot the distribution of vertical
stress intensity due to the walls on a
horizontal plane 3 m below the
ground level.
Solution: The point of
application of the 25 kN/ntlinear load
is chosen as the origin. The ground
surface serves as the Y-axis while tile
vertical .axis through the origin is the
Z-axis. MN is the plane under
consideration.
124 Probiems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
125
Stress Discribulion
Using eqn. (5.18), the vertical stress intensity due to a line load q is given
by: Problem 3.9. A long flexible strip footing of 2.5 m width having a
2 smooth c,1se, is subje.cted to a uniformly distributed load of 80 kN/m run.
.::\ o. = _2!!_ . [ 1 ] Detennine the vertical stress intensities at a depth of 2m below:
JT.Z 1 + (r/z)2 (i) centre line of the footing
The stress intensities at various points on the plane are computed and are (ii) side face of the footing
presented below in a tabular form: (iii) a line parallel to the centre line of the footing at a distance of 3m
from it.
No. Dist. Stress due to 25 kN/m Stress due to 15 k.N!M Total Solutfun: The cross-section of the given footing is presented in Fig.
from load load stress 5.12. The locations ;; which the stresses are to be. determined are represented
origin
r (m) rlz 0:1 r(m) rlz L\oz 2
Oz1 +
Oz2 - by the t".;fnisA, Band C respective.ly.

(kN!m2) (k.N!m2) (kN!m2)

1. -2 -2 -0.67 2.53 -5 -1.67 0.22 2.75
2. -1 -1 -0.33 4.31 -4 -1.33 0.42 4.73
3. 0 0 0 5.31 -3 --1.00 0.79 6.10
4. 1 1 0.33 4.31 -2 -0.67 1.52 5.83
5. 2 2 0.67 2.53 -1 -0.33 2.56 5.09
6. 3 3 1.00 1.33 0 0 3.18 4.51
7. 4 4 1.33 0.69 1 0.33 2.56 3.25
8. 5 5 1.67 0.37 2 0.67 1.52 1.89

The distribution of vertical stress is shown in Fig. 5.12.

25kN/m 15kN/m
Scale ::1:50
Fig. 5.13

(i) Point A: By measurement,

a .. 64° "" 1.117 radian
f) = - 32• = - 0.558 radian
using eqtl. (5.19),

M N /'10-' \.,. ?:f !l.ll7 + sin(U17) cos{1.117 + 2(-0.558)}]

"y4.; n; !:..

1
Fig. 5.12
"' 51.33 kN/m w .
(ii)PointB: Here, a= 51.5" = 0.899 radian.
f3 , o·
 l
126 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engil"eering Stress Distribution 127

FC BC
11 Oz (B) = [ 0.899 + sin (0.899) cos (0.899 + 0)] Now,
BE AE'

= 23.96 kN /m .
2
or, FC = BE· BC = (5.4) (2.5) = 4 .5 t/m.
AE 3
(iii) Point C: a "' 26" .. 0.454 radian.
FD = FC +BE= 4.5 + 5.4 = 9.9t/m.
.. 36.5" = 0.637 radian.
Using eqn. (5.20), stress intensity due to triangular loading is given by ,
-8-;0t" [ 0.454 + sin(0.454) cos (0.454 + 2 ,x 0.637)]
.. 11 oz (C) =

= 9.81 kN/m
2
11 oz .. ( ·a - sin 2 }
For 11 AFD, q = 9.9 t/m, a "' 61• • 1.065 rad ., = 0
Problem 5.10. An embankment of trapezoidal cross-section is to be
y = 2b, i.e., y/b = 2.
constructed by compacting a soil at its OMC (16%) and the corresponding
Ydmax (1.55 tim\ The top and bottom widths of the embankment should be 2
11 o_. • (2 x 1.065 - 0) • 3.36 t/m • .
1
10m and 22m respectively while its height should be 3m. The foundation
soil consists of a 24m thick Ia yer of soft cia y. Detennine the maximum stress For 11 BFC, q = 4.5 tim, a = 28.5" • 0.497 rad., j3 = 0
intensity at the middle of the clay layer due to embankment loading.
y/b - 2
Solution: Bulk density of the compacted soil, 2
11 Oz • (2 x 0.497 - 0) = 0.71 t/m
y • Yt! ( 1 + w) 2

• 1.55 (1 + 0.16) .. 1.80 t/m . 3 :. Net vertical stress intensity at the middle of clay layer,
2
Hence, the max mum surch«ge intensity of the trapezoidal loading = 11 Oz = 11 Oz - 11 Oz
z
• 3.36 - 0.71 • 2.65 t/m •
1
(1.80)(3.0) = 5.4 t/m .
Problem Draw a Newmark's influence chart on the basis of
Fig. 5.14 shows the embankment cross-sectionABCD£. Tbe imaginary Boussinesq's equation, for an influence factor of0.005.
triangle BFC is added to complete the triangle AFD.
Solution: Detennine the total number of divisions in the proposed

841l F chart on the basis of tbe given influence factor.

1 1
N ----- 200
11 0.005
\
I
I
I
If 10 concentric circles of appropriate radii are drawn, the area under the
\ 1 chart will be divided into 10 parts. Itwill then be further divided into smaller
\ I
\ l segments by drawing a number of radial lines. Evidently, the number of radial
o'
•
I
28·5 lines to be drawn = 20.
\ I
\I
@lp Tbe a ng1e bet. ween two consecutiV . e ra dJ" aII"mes = 360" .. 18"
20
Lin ar scalt: 1:75, Vector scale: 1cm = 0 · 2ttm2 Now, using eqn. (5.12), the vertical stress at a depth z below the centre
of a circular area of radius r, carrying a unifonnly distributed load q is given
Fig.5.14
by:
I

-------------------- ------ --.J

128 Problems in Soil .Mechanics and Foundation Engin eering
Stress Distribmion 129
' 1 13/2 ]
A az .. q I - J
[ l1 + (rid J

or,

1
or,
?
1 + (rlz)-
f A Oz \ -2/3
?
or, 1 + (rlzt
I\ 1 - -j
q )
----------------
r "\ / f I!, Oz ) --2/.3
or, -= Vll--- -
z ', q

FN dif.krent values of A az Iq (ranging from 0.00 to 1.00 at the rate

of 0.10) the correspcnding v<i lues of r/ z can be dctennined from eqn. (5.21).
Consequently , the va lue of r ca u be obtained if z is known. Wbik drawing
the chart, we will arbitrarily take z = 2.5 em. Tne computations are given
below in a tabular form:

Circle A a.
No. I q
I r/z ! z
I (em) r No.
Circle A Oz
_q_ c----l-{cm)
rlz l--; I---
(c-'
1
0 to; t i 0.000 2.5
(em)
0.0( - 6
'
0.6 ! 0.918: 2.5 , 2.30 I
I ! '
!

.
'

A 8
1 1 o.1 o.21o 1 2.s i '') 0''8 7 0.7 LllO: 2.5 2.78 ! 2·5cm Influence value = 0·005
! 2.5 ! 1.00 8 0•8 !i i
2 I 0.2 0.401 : 1 '{Q8 ; ? .. 5 3 ...4 .i i
< ·-'·
- . I

I
10 LOi 0::• lI 25' I o:l:
i
Problem_5 Using the Newmark's chart prepared in Problem 5.11,

0.9 !;(
3 o.3 o.s1s 1 2.5 uo 9 I ·- }(}.9 I 2.5 l
4.77
. . Fig. 5.15
 determine the vertical stress intensity at a depth of 2 m below the point A of

; t:
the raft footing shown in Fig. 5.16. The uniformly distributed load on the raft
is 8.5 t/m2 .
I
·

;_L :: ' : .!.. . ··- · L---- ......t _j Solution: In Problem 5.11 the Newmark's chart was prepared for z =
2.5 em. In order to use this chart for the computation ofvertic.al stress intensity
! at a depth of 2m below any loaded area, the plan of the area is to be drawn
in such a scale that a distance of 2.5 em in the drawing may represent an actual
N ine concentric circles arc drawn with the radii shown .in the table. /\_ distance of 2 m.
number of radial lines are then drawn from the centre at eQua l deflection
angles of 1SO. ··
The resulting Newm<tr k's chart is shown in Fig. 5.15
 Stress Distribuc: J,, 131
130 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

(i) Boussinesq's method

(ii) Westergaard's method, assuming f.l = 0
(Ans. (i) 1.058 t/m 2 (ii) 0.681 t/m2 ]
5.2 A 2m x 2m square fqoting carries a gross load of 550 kN. The
footing is founded at a depth of 1 5 m below G.L. The subsoil consists of a 2
m thick layer of sand having a unit weight of 18 kN/m 3 • The sand layer is
underlain by a 4m thicklayerofsoftclay having a unitweightof17.2 kN/m 3.
Compute the maximum vertical stress at the middle of the clay layer before
and after the construction of the footing. Use Boussinesq's e uation. ')
. [Ans. 70.4 kN/m ; 80.9 kN/m-]
5.3 A vertical concentrated load of 100 tis applied at the ground level
a
over a 6 m thick day stratum which is underlain by deep sand stratum. Plot
the distribution of vertical stress intensity on a horizontal plane at the middle
of the clay layer by:
Fig. 5.16
(i) Boussinesq 's method.

2
Henc.c, the required linear scale is, · :n = 1 :80.
(ii) Westergaard's method.
(iii) 2 : 1dispersion method.
Given, Poisson's ratio, f.l = 0.
The plan of the given raft footing is drawn on a tracing paper to a scale
5.4 Plot the distribution of vertical stress.intensity on a vertical plane
of 1:80. The point A, which is the point of intersection of the two diagonals,
due to a vertical concentrated load of750 kN applied on the ground surface
is located. The tracing paper is then held on the Newmark's chart in such a
at a lateral distance of 3 m from the given plane.
way that the point A coincides with the centre·of the chart. During such
superpositioning, the orientation of. P !.. - im at !:. 5. Draw the isobars for25% and 10%stress intensities due to a footing
In Fig. 5.15, the - enarea is drawn with broken lines. The of 2;5 m x 2.5 m, carrying a uniformly distributed load of 10 t!m 2 . Use
number ofelements of Newmark's chart covered by the plan area is now Boussinesq's method.
counted. 5.6 A building is supported by a raft footing of 15 m x 18m plan area.
n = no. of elements fully covered by the area ;,. 39 The gross load of the building, including the self weight of the raft, is 40500
1 kN. Plot the variation of vertical stress intensities with depth (z) below the
n = no. of elements 112 of which is covered by the area = 15
2 gmund level, taking 0.5 m s z s 5.0 m, at equal intervals of0.5 m. Use
n - no. of elements 113 of which is covered by the area '"' 4 2 : 1dispersion method.
3
The str s intensity at a depth of 2m below A is then given by, 5.7 Two adjacent footings of building, placed at a centre-to-centre
distance of 4.5 m, have to carry gross loads of 750 kN each. Using
· lJ. Oz ,. if X n X q Boussinesq 's theory, plot the distribution of vertical stress intensity at a depth
.. (0.005) (39 + 15/2 + 4/3) (8.5) of 3 m below the base of the footings.
= 2.03 t/m2 5.8 Three consecutive footings of a building are carrying gross load
• of 80 t, 120 t and 110 t respectively. The centre-to-centre distance between
the first and second footing is 3.0 m, while that between the second and third
EXERCISES footing is 4.0 m. All ·the footings are founded at 1.5m below G.L. Determine
the maximum vertical stress intensity due to the footing loads at a depth of
5;1 A vertical concentrated load of 50 t is applied on the ground 3.5 m beiow G.L. [ Ans.15.06 t/m 2 J
surface. Compute the vertical stress intensity at a point 3 m below the ground
level and 2m away from the line of action of the load by:
132 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

. 5.9 (a) Draw the influence line for the vertical stress intensity at a depth
of 2.0 m below the point of application of a unit load.
(b) Solve Problem 8 using the influence line thus drawn.
5.10 A strip footing of 2m width carries a uniform load of 8 t/m 2 The
footing is placed on the ground level over a homogeneous deposit of clay
having the following p;:operties : ·
6
G;:: 2.72, e;:: 0.78, w;:: 12%.
Determine the initial and final overburden pressure at a depth of 3 m
below the centre of the footing. [ Ans. 5.49 t!m 2 ; 7.11 t/m2 ] CONSOLIDATION
5.11 Two long boundary walls run parallel to each other at -a
6.1 Introduction: (When an extemal static load is applied on a saturated
centre-to-centre distance of 1.5 m apart. The width and height of the first wall
soil mass, an excess pore water pressure is developed. As water is
are 250 mm and 2000 mm respectively, while those of the second are
respectively 125 mm and 3000 mm. Plot the distribution of vertical stress incompressible for the low stress ranges commonly encountered in
foundation problems, this pore water now tries to escape from the void spaces.
intensity due to the walls on a horizontal plane, 2 m below G.L. The walls
Such expulsion of water results in a decrease in the void ratio and, conse"
have negligible depth of foundation and are made of brick masonry having a
quently, a reduction in the volume of the soil mass. This process is known as
unit weight of 1920 kg!m 3 .
consolidation.1
5.12 Fig. 5.16. shows the ----f20m f-- Consolid/tion is essentially a time-dependent process. In coarse-grained
cross-section of an earth dam. The
unit3 weight of the earth-fill is 1.85 /
t/m . Determine the maximum
---r
2m.
soils having high co-efficient of permeability the pore water escapes very
rapidly. The time-dependent volume change of the soil mass therefore
stress intensity at a depth of 5 m _-/-- occurs only in less permeable fine-grained soils like clay and silt: '
below the base of the dam. l l 6.2 Definitions: The fo1lowing terms are frequently used to express, the
compressibility characteristics of soils:
5.13 Draw a Newmark's 1 95m .,
influence chart, on the basis of (i) Co-efficient of compressibility (av): It is defined as the change in
Boussinesq's equation, for an Fig. 5.17 void ratio per unit change in pressure.
influence factor of 0.00556. 3m i.e., =lle eo-e ...(6.1)
av=- = --
5.14 The plan of a raft llp cr--

1
ao
footing supporting a
' where, eo and e are the void ratios of a soil under the initial and final
' vertical stresses a0 and o respectively.
in Fig. 5.18. The raft carries a
12m (ii) Co-efficient of volume change or volume compressibility (m ): It
multistoried building is shown ''
u.d.J. of 15 t/m 2 • Using the
Newmark's chart given in Fig. , is defined as the change in volume of a soil mass perunitofitsoriginal v lume
'
5.14, determine the vertical

stress intensity at a depth_of 3

"
,/ "" '

'
l due to unit change in pressure.

i.e.,
ll.V 1
...(6.2)
m below point A.
3m mv -V 'lla
--r Fig. 6.1 shows a soil mass having an initial void ratio e0 . If the volume
3m - ·-12m --...J{ 3rr; r- ' of solids be unity, then volume of voids is given by, .
vv = eo . vs ... eo . 1 = eo
:. Total volume, Vo = Vv + Vs
 Fig. 5.18
1(
 -

Consolidation 135
134 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundmion Engineering

AC
1 + e0
=
"'BC
If the void ratio now decreases toe due to increase in pressure, then
But, AC = e0 - e = e
vl = 1 + e. and BC = log10p - logwPo
or, change in volume v = v0 - V1
- 1 + e0 - (1 + e) -:-- ..::eo:. ---:--e = e . ••• (6.4)
log 10 p - log10Po logwPf 1Pt5
= e0 - e The value offipression index may also be determined from the
= e. following empirical formulae:
For normally consolidated clays (sensitivity s 4 ),
Cc = 0.009 (w 1 - 10) ...(6.5a)
For remoulded clays, ...(6.5b)
where, w1 = liquid limit(%)

1·0 I
Rec ompressjon 'r -.,
r 0.'3 r
Fig.6.1
From eqn. (6.2) we get, -
Ql

0 0·8
e 1 a::
m = ---·- 0·7
r,
v 1 + eo cr '0
·->
0
e 1
or, m = -·--- 0·6
v cr 1 + eo Cc =tan
av 0·5
or, m - ...(6.3) 0·2 0 ·3 0 ·4 0·5 0·7 I
v 1+ eo 0 ·1 2 3 4 5 678,10
2
The unit ofboth av and mv is cm !kg. log1oP -
(iii) Compression index (CJ: It is defined as th gr dient ofthe virgin Fig.6.2
I
compression curve drawn from the results of a consolidation test performed
on a soil. 6.3 Terzaghi's Theory of One-dimensional Consolidation: The process
of consolidation is closely related to the expulsion of pore water and
Fig. 6.2 illustrates an e vs. log p curve.
dissipation of pore pressure. Terzilghi, in his theory of one-dimensional
By definition, Cc "' gradient of AB consolidation, investigated the relationship between the rate of change of.
- tan e excess pore pressure and the degree of consolidation, and deduced the
following differential equation:
136 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Consolidation 137

(i) Estimating the probable consolidation settlement of a proposed

...(6.6) structure to be constructed on this soil.
(ii) To determine the time-rate of settlement. _
where, u stand for the excess pore pressure at a depth z The sample is placed in an oedometer between two porous stones and
t stands for the time elapsed after the application of the load. arrangements are made to keep the sample saturated throughout the test. The
Cv = Co-efficient of consolid tion, which is defined as: loading intensities are generally ap iied in the following order:
0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 8.0 and 16.0 kg/Cm 2 .
...(6.7) The vertical defom1ations of the sample under each loading intensity are
measured with the help of a dial gauge. The readings are taken at elapsed
where, = co-efficient of permeability, em/sec times of:
Yw = unit weight of water, gm/cc 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30, 60, 120, 240 and 1440 minutes.
2 From the results of the test, the following three curves are drawn:
mv = coefficient of volume change, cm /gm
2 (i) e vs. logwp curve, to determine the value of Cc
The unit of C v is cm /sec.
(ii) Dial reading vs. log 1o t curve } . ,
I d' _r: to determme the value of Cv
Equation (6.6) is a second order differential equation, the solution of ...) o·
(l11 1a rea mg vs. v t curve
which may be obtained in the form,
In order to plot the . e vs. logwp curve, the void ratio of the sample at
...(6.8) the end of each load increment bas to be determined from the corresponding
where, U = degree of consolidation. dial reading. This can be done by either of the following methods.
c
·t (a) Height of solids method: After the completion of the test, the
Tv = Time factor = T ...(6.9) sample is taken out from the oedometer, dried in oven and its dry weight
h wd is determined.
where, t = time required for U% consolidation, sec
wd wd
h .. maximum length of drainage path, t..m. Now, volume of solids, V = - • --
s Ys Gyw
In case of double drainage condition (i.e.,when a clay layer of thickness
and, height of solids in the sample,
H lies bet.veen two penneablc layers at top and bottom) the maximum length
of drainage path II = H/2, whereas in case of single-drainage condition (i.e., vs wd
h =- = ...(6.12)
when the clay lies between a permeable and an impermeable layer), h =H. s A GywA
The time factor Tv is a dimensionless quantity, the value of which
depends on the degree of consolidation taken place at a given time, and not
where, A = cross-sectional area of the sample.
on the propertie:s of the soil. Terzaghi suggest d the following equations for Let e be the void ratio corresponding to a height h of the sample.
the determination of Tv : Vv V - Vs A· h - A ·hs
e=-•---=-
Vs Vs
For 0 < U<53%, ...(6.10)
Tv • (1 0f or, ...(_6.13)
for 53%< U< 100%, Tv ,. 1.781 - 0.9331og (100 - U) ' ...(6.11
6.4 Laboratory Consolidation Test: { In order to determine the compres- Thus if the value of h is known at any time during the . test, the
sibility characteristics of a clay deposit, laboratory consolidation tests are to corresponding void ratio can be determined. The value of h may be obtained
be performed on representative samples of the clay collected from the site. A from:
knowledge of such characteristics is required for: h=H-R·C
 138 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Consolidation 139
where, H = initial height of sample.
R "' dial reading. or, ...(6.14)
C = dial gauge constant
Thus, knowing the values of ei and h, lhe change in void ratio at any
(b) change in void ratio method: With reference to Fig. 6.3, let,
vi = initial volume of the sample.
..
given instant can be determined if tile corr ponding value of A his known .
6.5 Determination of Cv : For a· given soil, the value of Cv is not constant
Vz = volume of the sample at the end of compression but depends on the magnitude of the applied stress. In order to determine the
under a loading intensity p degree of consolidation of clay layer under an external load, it is required to
determine the initial and al pressures ( a2 and o2 + Ao2 respectively) on the
I!V = change in volume • Vi - Vz
soil. If,for example, the initial and fmal v.ressure before and after the application
2 2
of external load be 1kg!cm and 2kgJ'cm , then the value ofCvmustbe obtained
,.p-om this particular range of loading in the consolidation test.
· The value of Cv may be determined from either of the following methods:
2
(Tv )w X h
(a) Square root of time fitting method: C.., • ...(6.15)
t90
(Tv)so x h2
(b) Logarithm of time fitting method; Cv • ..:_:.:.=.::. ...(6.16)
tso
6.6 Computation of Settlement: The total settlement, S, of a footing is
given by,
S = S; + Sc + Ss ...(6.17)

Fig. 6.3 where, S; "' immediate settlement

Sc .. primary consolidation settlement
Now Vi = hi ·A and V2 = l z ·A
Ss -= secondary consolidation settlement.
!!V hiA - llzA h1 - hz
V• h1A ht
The secondary consolidation settlement is of importance only in c.ase of
highly organic soils and peats.
If ei and e2 be the void ratio corresponding to volume V1 and V2 , 6.6.1 Immediate Settlement: The immediate settlement due to a vertical
concentrated load Qat a depth z and radial distance r is given by,
then, vl .. vv + vs .. el vs + vs 2
• Vs (l + e1) . .. _Q_ [ (1 + ll); 2 (1 - 1-' ) ]

Similarly, V2 • Vs (1 + e2 )
S, 2 1tE (? + z2) 312 + ((J + ?) 112 ...(6.18)
The immediate settlement due to a uniformly loaded area is given by,
AV .. Vs(1 + ei)- Vs(1 + ez) = Vs(el - ez)
(1 - 1-12)
l:!.h AV Vs ( e 1 - e2 ) S; '"' q B. E .11 ....(6.19)
Therefore,
h "" V "" Vs (1 + e1) where, q • intensity of contact pressure
l:!.h Ae B • least lateral dimension of loaded area
or,
h"' 1 + ei 1-1 - Poisson's ratio of soil
E .. modulus of elasticity of soil
140 Problems in Soil Mechanics ant! Foundation Engineering
Consolidation 141
11 = Influence factor, the value of which depends on:
6.6.2. Consolidation Settlement: Fig. 6.1 represents a soil sample
(i) Type of the footing (i.e.,whether it is rigid or flexible) subjected to an initial stress Po .Let e0 be the void ratio of the soil. Due to a
(ii) Shape of the footing
stress increment Ap, the void ratio reduces to e . The charge in void ratio,
(iii) The location of the point below which settlement is required (i.e.,
the centre, comer or any other point of the footing) Ae .._ .(.0 - e
(iv) Length to breadth ratio of the footing. Again, let Ho and H1 be the initial and final thicknesses of the soil mass.
The value of J1may be obtained from Table 6.1, while Table 6.2 gives M1 .. H 0 - H1
the elastic properties of various soils.
Now, by definition,
Table 6.1 : Influence factors of various footings AY 1
m = ·-
Shope of Influence factor v v !J.p
loaded area Flexible footings Rigid footings For a laterally confmed soil, area of cross-section A is constant.
Centre Corner Average AY Ml.A AH

Square 1.12 0.56 0.95 0.82

V • H0 .A .. H0
AH 1
Circular 1.00 0.64 0.85 0.79 mv=n,·-;;:- ·
Rectangular: 0 p
LIB= 1.5 1.36 0.68 1.20 1.06 r Mi • mv ·Ho · Ap ...(6.20)
LIB= 2.0 1.52 0.76 1.30 1.20
=
The change in thickness of the soil mass, and hence the consolidation
LIB= 2.5 2.10 1.05 1.83 1.70 settlement, can be determined from eqn. (6.20).
LIB= 5.0 2.54 1.27 2.20 2.10 Again, by definition.
LIB= 10.0 3.38 1.69 2.% 3.40 C Ae
c "' logtOPtiPo
Table 6.2 : Elastic properties of various soils
or, A e • Cc ·Iog10 P1
- ·V
Type of soil Properties of Voidraao Po
soil are, Assuming unit volume of solids, the initial and final volume of the soil
0.41 to 0.50 0.5! to 0.60 0.61 to0.70
1. Coarse sand 41(") 43 40 38 Y0 '"' 1 + e0 , and V1 = 1 + e,
(J4:: 0.15) E(k.t'IT/m2) 45200 39300 32400
AV • 1 + ep - (1 + e0) = e0 - e .. Ae
2. Medium 41(") 2 40 38 35 or, AY Ae
sand (J4 0.2) E(kN/m )
= 45200 39300 32400
Yo .. i + e0
3. Finr. sand 41r> 38 36 32 Ml AV
(J4:: 0.25) E(kN/m 2) 36600 27600 23500 But

4. Sandy silt 41(") 36 34

-
30 Cc ·log10 Pt iPo
=
(lA 0.30 to E(kN/m 2) 13800 11700 10000 Hesu:e,
1 + e0
...(6.21)
0.35)
142 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering 143
Consolidation

Cc Po + l!lp 2
10 --=----=-
or, Ml = H0 . ---.log ...(6.21) Po .. 2kg/cm
1 + eo Po 2
l!lp = 1.5 kg/cm
In eqn. (6.21) Po and Pl represent the average initial and final pressure
acting over the thickness H0 of the soil. While computing the probable (0.234) [ 2 + 1.5 )
Sc = (300) ·( ) · log 1o em
consolidation settlement of a clay stratum, generally it is assumed that, the 1 + O.Si 2
average stresses are those acting at the midcheight of the · clay stratum. = 9.37 em
However, this assumption is not correct because, as we have seen in chapter
5, the s ess intensity due to an external load does not vary linearly with depth. Problem 6. .Z: A 3 m thick saturated clay layer is overlain by a 4 m
thick sand lajer and is underlain by rock. The unit weight of the sand and clay
Ifthe·thtckness of the clay stratum is substantially high, this leads to erroneous
1m 1.72 t/m and 1.85 t/m3 respectively. The clay has a liquid limit of 53%
results.
nnd a void ratio of0.65. A concentrated load of200 tis applied on the ground
In order to determine accurately the probable consolidation settlement
surran . Compute the probable consolidation settlement of the clay,
of a clay layer of finite thickness, the following steps should be followed.
(i) Divide the given clay layer into a number of sub-layers of small (i) considering the entire clay layer
(ii) dividing the clay layer into three sub-layers of equal thickness.
thickness.
(ii) Determine the effective overburden presssure and stress increment Solution: Compression index of clay,
at the mid-height of each sub-layer. Cc = 0.009 (w 1 - 10)
. (iii) Compute the consolidation settlement of each sub-layer using
either eqn. (6.20) or eqn. (6.21). - 0.009 (53 - 10) - 0.387.
iv) The probable settlement of the clay stratum is then obtained by H =3m = 300cm
summmg up the settlements of all sub-layers, i.e.,
e0 .. 0.65

...(6.22) (i) Initial overburden pressure at mid-depth of clay layer,

2 ' 2
Po = (4.0) (1.72) + (3.0/2) (1.85) = 9.65 t/m = 0.965 kg/em
EXAMPLES From Boussinesq's eqn., the maximum stress intensity at the middle of
Problem V,
A nonnally consolidated clay stratum o[ 3 m thickness day layer,
has two permeable layers at its top and bottom. The liquid limit and the initial llp = (3) ( 200 ) = 3.16 t/m2 "' 0.316 kg/cm
2
void ratio of the clay are 36% and 0.82 respectively, while the initial 2
(2) (3.14) (4 + 1.5 )
overburden pressure at the middl of clay layer is :i kg/crn 2 . Due to the
construction of a new building this pressure increases by 1.5 kg!cm 2 . ... (300) (0.387) . 0.965 + 0.316 • 8 66
Sc (1 + 0.65) loglO 0.965 · em
Compute the probable consolidation settlement of the building.
Solution: Using eqn. (6.21), consolidation settlement of the building, (ii) In this case the clay layer is divided into three sub-layers of thickness
I m each, as shown in Fig. (6.4).
Cc Po + tvJ
Sc = H ·--- · Iog 10 --- The consolidation settlement 9f each sub-layer is estimated below:
1 + eo Po 10
Sub-layer I: Depth of the middle of layer 1 below G.L = 4.0 + i = 4.5 m
Again, using eqn. (6.5a)
_
2
Cc = 0.009 (w 1 - 10) POl = (4) (1.72) + (0.5) (1.85) = 7.805 t/m 2 = 0.781 kg/cm
= 0.009 (36 - 10) = 0.234
t-.p = (3) < 200) "" 4.71 t/m2 = 0.471 kg/cm
2
H = 3m = 300 em 1 2
(2) (3.i4) (4.5)
eo = 0.82
l' •• L
144 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering < 'onsolidation 145

200 t l,robleQL..6d:A 3 m thick layer of silty clay is sandwitched between

two layers of dense sand. The effective overburden pressure at the centre of
the silly clay layer is 2 kg/em 2 . However, due
')
to the construction of a raft
foundation, this pressure increasest() 4 kg/em .
Laboratory consolidation test was performed on a 2.5 em thick sample
2 2
Sand of the silty day. Under applied stresses of 2 kg/em and 4 kg/cm the
mmpressions of the sample were found to be 0.26 em and 0.38 em
( (=1·72 t/m3l
4m rcspt ctively. Compute the probable consolidation settlement of the raft.
Solution : Using eqn. (6.20),
Sc = mv ·Ho . !l.p
whne, Ho = initial thickness

m _jj O.L U.i Pj Sub-layer = 2.5 em for the soil sample and 300 em for the soil in-situ.
1l
1 I
3m i.J£2.2 • .lLA.PL Sub-layer !l.p = change in effective pressure
1m
L II 4-2 = 2kg/ cm-.
')

l /m
L
u o..J
JFJ/ }Y>)) ?> 7117 1 > > 7 7?1> >>
Rock
Hl..L Sub-Layer
III
1 1 > >>>>>>7>>>>>>>>
mv = co-efficient of volume change for the pressure range of

h•r tht laboratory test:

')
2 kg/em- to 4 kg!cm-

Initial thickness of the sample

')

= 2.5 em
2
Fig.6.4
Thickness under a pressure of 2 kg/cm = 2.5 -0.26 = 2.24 em.
s _ (100) (0.387) ·losto 0.781 + 0.471 .. 4_ 81 em. Thickness under a pressure of 4 kg/cm
2
= 2.5-0.38 = 2.12 em.
cl 1 + 0.65 0.781
Change in thickness when the pressure
Sub-layer II: Depth of middle = 5.5 m. increases from 2 kg/cm 2 to 4 kg/cm
2
= 2.24-2.12 = 0.12 em.
2
Pm. .. (4) (1.72) + (1.5) (1.85) • 9.655 t/m2 • 0.965 kg/em • From eqn. (6.20)
0.12 - (m) (2.5) (2.0)
(3)(200) 2
flJJ2 • 3.157 t/m"'" = 0.316 kg/em 2
(2) (3.14) (5.5)2 or, mv = 0.024 em /kg.
(100) (0.387) 0.965 + 0.316 Again, using eqn. (6.20), the consolidation settlement of the silty clay
Sc2 "' 1 + 0.65 loglO 0.965 , • 2.89 em l; yn,
Sub-layer III : Depth of middle = 6.5 m sc = (0.024) (300) (2)
2 2
Pro .. (4) (1.72) + (2.5) (1.85) • 11.5 t/m "' 1.15 kg/cm = 14.4 em
l,mblem, · Due to the construction of a new structure the average
(3) (200) • 226 em
vnlical pressure at the centre of a 2.5 m thick clay layer increases from 1
llp3 .. (2) (3.14) (6.5)2 2 2
k /nn to 2 kg/cm . A laboratory consolidation test was performed on a 2
2
:. Total estimated settlement .. 4.81 + 2.89 + 2.26 nn thick undisturbed sample of the clay. Under applied stresses of 1kg!cm
2
= 9.96cm. 11nd 2 kg!cm the equilibrium thicknesses of the sample were found to be 1.76
nn 1111d 1.63 em respectively. On removing the stress completely,_ the thick-
 ( 'onsolidation
146 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

Required consolidation settlement of the clay layer in the field

ness increased to 1.88 em. The final moisture content and the specific gravity
Sc = m,H0 !l.a
of solids of the sample were found to be 29% and 2.71 respectively. Compute
the probable consolidation settlement of the structure. == (0.08) (250) (2 - 1) = 20 em .
Solution: Let e and H be the final void ratio and thickness of the I knee, the required settlement of the structure = 20 em
1 1
sample. Pr·ohlem /In a laboratory consolidation test, the void ratio of the
ef == w G == (0.29) (2.71) 0.786 sam pi reduced from 0.85 to 0.73 as the pressure was increased from 1to 2
Then,
s (1) kg /em-: If the co-efficient of penneability of the soil be 3.3 x 10-4 em/sec,
!ili /:}.e dt' If rmt nt :
Again, H == 1 + e ( i) co-efficit nt of volume change
1 1 (ii) co-efficient of consolidation.

!ili = change in thickness due a given stress Solution : Using eqn. (6.2),
wher e,
!l.e = corresponding change in void ratio. m !l.e 1
and,
!ili ----·
or, 6.e == ( 1 + e ) · - line, e0 0.85, v 1 + eo !l.p
1 =
Ht
ef == 0.786, and H1 == 1.88 em. !l.e = 0.85 - 0.73 = 0.12
Here,
2
6.H !l.p = 2 - 1 1 kg/cm =
(1 + 0.786)

or,
!l.e

Ae 0.95 !ili
(1.8B)
...(i)
.. m =
v
(0.12)
(1 + 0.85)
1
=
0065
•
2
em /kg

a
?
== 2.0 kg/ em- , 6.H = 1.88 - 1.63 = 0.25 em
Attn in, using eqn. (6.7),
when
k
6.e = (0.95) (0.25) "' 0.238 C,=--
2 mv Yw
Hence, void ratio at a = 2.0 kg /em = e1 - !l.e
lim·, m, "' 0.065 cm 2 /kg
'"' 0.786 - 0.238 = 0.548.
• 0.065 10-3 cm 2 /gm
1.0 kg / cm 2 , 6.H = 1.88 - 1.76 = 0.12 em
X
Again, when a
M (0.95) (0.12) • 0.114 6.5 X 10-5 cm2 /gm
4
Hence, void ratio at
2
a = 1.0 kg/cm = 0.786 - 0.114 /c • 3.3 X 10- Cm /SeC.

= 0.672. y.., • 1 gm /cc.

Let m, be the average value of the co-efficient of volume change in the
2
c .. 3.3 x w-4 2
pressure range of 1.0 to 2.0 kg/cm . v X = 5.07 em /sec.
We have from eqn. (6.2), , (6.5 10-5 ) (1)
. l'l'ohl_ · A 6 m thick clay layer is drained at both top and bottom.
Ae 1 flu· ·o dlK t nt of consolidation of the soil is 5 x 10·4 cm2/sec. Determine
1 + e0 fl.a th(' ltnu· n·quin·d for 50% consolidation ofthe layer due to an external load.
(0.672 - 0.548) 1 2 Solution : Using eqn . (6.9),
( . _ l.O) '"' 0.08 em /kg.
(1 + 0.548) 20
 -

148 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Consolidation 149

c.,. t 7
h .. ( .5 i:OO) • 375 em
T., = -" -
-
T.,·h
2
(0.197) (375)2
t = min
or, t= - Cv 0.0246
cv
2 2 1126143.3 d
60 x 24 ays
For 50% consolidation, Jt ( u ) Jt ( 50 )
Tv = 4 100 ,. 4 100 = 0·197·
• 782 days ., 2 years 1month and 22 days.
H 600
For double drainage c.ondition, h- 2- 2 = 300cm . Problem •../In a laboratory consolidation test, a 2.5 em thick sample
of day reached 60% consolidation in 17 minutes under double drainage
and, C, = 5 X 10-4 cm 2 /SeC. nmdition. Determine the time required for 60% consolidation of a layer of
2 this soil in the field under the following conditions:
1 = < 0·197) (3 ) sec = 3.546 x 107 sec (i) when a 3 m thick layer of the given soil is sandwitched between
5 x 10- two sand layers.
7 (ii) when a 5 m thick layer of the soil is overlain by a sand layer and
3.546 X 10 d 410 d 1111<krlain by a deep layer of intact shale.
86400 ays "' ays.
Solution: Using eqn. (6.11), the time factor for 60% consolidation
Pro le A raft footing is to be constructed on 7.5 thick clay Tv "' 1.781 - 0.933 log10 (100 - 60)
layer which hes-between two sand layers. In order to predict the time rate of
settlement of the building, a 2.5 em thick undisturbed sample of the soil was = 0.286
tested in the laboratory under double drainage condition. The sample was Again, using eqn. (6.9)
found to have undergone 50% consolidation in 12.5 minutes. Determine the C.,· t Tv ·h2
time required for 50% settlement of the building. T,, = - -, or, Cv = --
Solution: We have from eqn. (6.9), h2 I

,_
Tv=-- ?-, or, Cv = T ·h2
Cv X t v
In lht· laboratory test,
I
t = 17 min.
h = 2.5/2 • 1.25 em
In the laboratory test,
Tv = time factor for 50% consolidation • 0.197 c .. (0.286) (1.25)2 2
v (l?) • 0.0263 em /min
t = 12.5 min.
(i) Here the soil layer is Jrained at both top and bottom
25
h = H = .. 1.25 em .. (3) (100) 150
2 2 H
(2) = em
2
c = <0·197) (1.25) = 0.0246 cm2 /min. (0.286) (150)
2
244800 .
v (12.5) 1 •
0 0263
. .. mm = 170 days
In case of the actual building,
(ii) In this case the soil layer is drained at top only
Tv .. 0.197
H = 5 m .. SOOcm
 Consolidation
150 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

2 n: uz
t = (0.286)
. (500)
/ = 2718631 mm. = 1888 days = 5.17 years. 40000 = 0.0974.
0
026
Problem The consolidation settlement of a new structure founded
on a 5 m thick layer is estimated as 6.5 em. The structure was found to have
or,
u = v (40000) (0.0974)
3.14
35.22%
settled by 1.6 em in 6 months after the completion of construction. If the day If x he the amount of settlement, then
layer is underlain by rock and overlain by a layer of coarse sand , dttennine:
(i) the timt' required for 50% consolidation to occur U = _£X 100
(ii) the amount of settlement which will take place in the next six 6.5
months. or, x = 6is:/ = (6.5){ ·22) = 2.29 em
Solution : Degree of consolidation occurred in the first six months

= !: X 100% = 24.62%
Problem disturbed samples were collected from a 3 m thick
clay stratum which lies between two sand strata. A laboratory consolidation
kst was performed on a 2.5 em thick sample of the clay. During the test, water
Time factor for U = 24.62%
was allowed to drain out only through the top of the sample. The time required
2
Tv = (n:/4) (24.62/100) = 0.048. for 50% consolidation was found to be 35 minutes. Detemtine the time
n quin d for 60% and 90% consolidation in the field.
As single drainage condition is prevailing, h = 5 m.
Solution : As the sample was tested under single drainage condition;
Using eqn. (6.9),
It= H = 2.5 em
C = (0.048) (52) = 6 67 x 10-3 m 2/day. Again, for U =50%, we have Tv= 0.197.
v (6) (30) .
Using eqn. (6.9),
(i) For 50% consolidation, time factor, T,= 0.197.
Using eqn. (6.9), (0.197) (2.5)2 0 2 .
C v '"'
( S) = 0. 35 em /mm.
3
= (0.197) (52) = 738.4 days Now, for 60% consolidation, Tvfll .. 1.781 - 0.933 log 10 (100- 60)
t 6.67 X 10-3
= 2 years and 8.4 days.
= 0.286
For a double drainage condition,
(ii) Let U be the degree of consolidation that will take plaee in the next
six months, i.e. at the end of 1year sinee the completion of construction. We H 3
have already found that the time required for 50% consolidation is 2 years
h • 2 = 2m = 150 em.

and 8.4 days. Thus, degree of consolidation occurred in 1 year must be less
than 50%.
The corresponding time factor may be determined using eqn. (6.10),
n: uz (0.286) (150}2
Tv -= (n:/4) (U/100p (0.035)
40000
Again, using eqn. (6.9), 183857 min
3 • 127.7 days ... 128 days
Tv "" (6.67 X 10- ) (365} = 0.09 .
(52) 74 For 90% consolidation, Tvw = 1.781 - 0.933 log 10 (100- 90)
= 0.848.
152 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Conso/idmion 153

at 2m below the ground level. The unit weight of sand above and below water
3
table are 1.90 and 2.10 t!m . The properties of the clay are as follows:
Initial void ratio = 0.72
2
(O.S48) ( 150) = 545143 min specific gravity of solids = 2.71,
0.035
liquid limit= 42%
= 378 days.
1.:o-efficient of consolidation= 2.2 x w-3 cm2/sec.
Problem 6.11. A flexible footing of 2 m x 2m size carries a total load
of 490 kN, inclusive of its self-weight The footing rests on a sand layer having Dctennine:
2 (i) Probable settlement of the raft.
a modulus of elasticity of 40000 kN/m and a Poisson's ratio of0.38. Estimate
the probable settlement below the centre and below any one comer of the (ii) The time required to undergo a settlement of 5 em.
footing; Solution : (i) The soil proftle is shown in Fig. 6.5. The clay layer is
Solution: We have, from eqn. (6.19), divided into three sub-layers of thickness 2m each. The settlement of each
r uh-layer may now be computed using eqn. (6.21),
(1 - f.l2)
Si = qB E If. Cc Pt
Mf = Ho . 1 + eo . logto Po.
Here, q = intensity of loading
(490) 2
The computation of settlement for the first sub-layer is shown below :
= (Z) (Z) = 122.5 kN/m cc = (0.009) (42 - 10) = 0.288
B =2m eo = o.n
2
f.l ,. 0.38, E = 40000 kN/m Ho = 2m = 200 em.
The influence = J0.56
factor
J (corner) 1may be obtained from table 6.1,
Depth of middle of the sub-layer below G.L. = 8 + 2/2 = 9 m
1
/!(centre) = 1.12. ll 13·6m t
Raft
,1,_2...-.[@---lt
Immediate settlement below the centre,
2 (i=1·90 t 1m3J
s (122.5)(2) (1 - - 0.38 ) . (1.12) 1
i(centre) • (40000)
6m Il' = 2·10 t/mll
• 0.59cm Sand
Immediate settlement below the corner

S; (comer) •
(0.59) (0.56)
(1.12 ) • 0.295 em.
j Clay
6m I eo= 0·72,G = 2·71,
Problem 6.12. A 6 m thick clay stratum is overlain by a 8 m thick
stratum of coarse sand and is underlain by an impermeable shale. A raft
footing, supporting the columns of a building, is to be founded .at a depth of
>> l
J V; > ;;1 ;> ;;; J
WL=42°1o Cv=2·2x10- 3 cnf/secl
;;> >; >? > > > ;;> > > J > ;J >) > ;>>?

1.2 m below ground level. The size of the raft is 8.5 m x 13.6 m, and it i Impervious Shale
2
loaded uniformly with a stress intensity of9.2 t!m • The water table is located
Fig.6.5
 154 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Consolidation 155

Initial effective overburden stress at a depth of 9 m below G.L.

= 0.317
= stress due to sand above water table + stress due
As single drainage condition prevails at site,
to sand below water table + stress due to clay
h = H = 6 m = 600 em.
•• Po = Y h1 + Ysub I !], + Yclay h3.
Using eqn. (6.9),
Here, unit weights of sand are :
T,.II2
y = 1.9 t/m 3 t =
3 Cv
and, Ysat = 21 t/m
3
0 317 6002
Ysub = Ysat - Yw = 2.1 - 1 1.1 t/m < · )( 3 ) = 51872727 sec
(2.2 X 10- )
G+e = 6(]0 days
Again, Yclay = · Yw
Problem 1(3. The construction of a multistoreyed building started in
(2.71 + 0.72) . ( ). I 3 January 1989 and was completed in June 1990. The total consolidation
(1 + 0.72) 1 20
· t m settlement of the building was estimated to be 8 em. The average settlement
Po = (1.9) (2) - (1.1) (8 - 2) + (2.0 - 1.0) (1) of the building was measured in December 1991 and was found to be 2.2 em.
Compute the probable settlement of the building in January 2001.
2 2
= 11.4 tlm • 1.14 kg/cm Solution : Let Cv be the co-efficient of consolidation of the soil in the
Again, depth of middle of this sub-layer below the base of footing appropriate pressure range, and H be the effective length of drainage path.
= 9-1.5 = 7.5 m. Time elapsed from June 1990 to December 1991 = 1.5 years
Using the 2 : 1dispersion method, Degree of consolidation occurred in 1.5 years.
_ qBL (9.2) (8.5) (13.6) u = (2.2/8\100)% = 27.5%
!J.p - (B + z) (L + z) (8.5 + 7.5) (13.6 + 7.5)
= 3.15 t/m
2
= 0.315 kg/cm 2 Tv '"' (Jt/4) (27.5/100)2 = 0.059

2
P1 = Po + ll.p '"' 1.14 + 0.315 = 1.455 kg/cm But, T ,. Cv ·t
Mf (200) . (0.288) ( 1.455 )
v Hz
= ( + . ) · loglO 1.14 .. 3.55 em. C,, Tv 0.059
1 0 72 or, - ...
Similarly, settlements of the second and third sub-layers are found to be Hz t 1.5
2.54 em and 1.86 em respectively. Hence, the total settlement of the raft c
= (3.55 + 2.54 + 1.86) Cm or, -i"" 0.039 ...(i)
H
= 7.95 em.
Again, time elapsed from June 1990 to January 2001 = 10.5 years.
(ii) The degree of consolidation corresponding to a settlement of 5 em,
Let U be the corresponding degree of consolidation.
u .. ( 5 )(lOO ) = 62 89()7.

l
70 Assuming U >53%, Tv= 1.781-0.933 Jogw (100- U)
(7.95) .
Using eqn. (6.11), the corresponding time factor is, Tv • cHv t [ cv
But, = (0.039) (10.5) ·.· H2 = 0.039
2
Tv • 1.781 - 0.933 loglO (100 - 62.89)
- 0.4095.
 156 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Ctmso/idation 157

1.781 - 0.933 Iog 10 (100 - U) = 0.4095 !J.e

ur, Mf•H·--
lo ( _ (1.781 - 0.4095) 1 + e0
or, U) =
glO 100 (0.933) 1.47
• (2) (100) (0.095) = 8.44 em
Taking antilog of both sides we get, (1 + 1.25)
100- u = 29.51 (iii) In the pressure range of2 to 4 kglem .
2

or, =
u 100-29.51 70.49% = !J.e
m .. ---·-
1
.. Amount of consolidation settlement in January 2001 " 1+e0 !J.p
= (8) (70.49) - 5 64 (0.095) 1 2
(100) · em. (1 + 1.25 ) · (2) .. 0.021 em /kg.
Problem .14/A 2m thick layer of saturated clay lies in between two k
c .. - -
penneable ll!Y The clay bas the following properties: Using eqn. (6.7),
v mvYw
liquid limit = 45%
7
CO-efficient Of permeability = 2.8 X 10-7 em/sec Here, k .. 2.8 x 10- cm/sec.
2
initial void ratio = 1.25 mv • 0.021 cm /kg
The initial effective overburden pressure at the middk of the clay layer Yw = 1gm/cc "' 1 x
3
10-
2
is 2 kglem
new building., and is likely to: increase to 4 kglem2 due to the construction of a
Determine
(2.8 x w-1>
(i) the final void ratio of the clay. Cv•
(0.021 X 10-3) =o.0133 em2s;ec
(ii) settlement of the proposed building.
(iii) time required for 50% consolidation. For 50% consolidation, we have, Tv= 0.197.
Solution: (i) Compression index, Cc = (0.009) (45 -10) = 0.315. Using eqn. (6.9), 2
But, by definition, T.,. (0.197) (200/2)2
h

cc- -Po+
ll.e
t = c::- = (0.0133)
sec.
---
!J.p ., 1.71 days.
logto ---
Po Problem 6.15. A laboratory consolidation te.st was performed on a 2
Po+ !J.P em thick sample of a silty clay, and the following results were obtained :
or, !J.e • Cclog 10 :.....::_
Po P Final dial gauge Pressure Final dial gauge
!J.e • (0.315) log10 {(2 + 2)/(2) } (lc g/cm )
2
reading (mm) (kg/cm2) reading (mm)

- 0.095 0 5.590 2.00 3.964

:. Final void ratio = eo - !J.e 0.25 5.234 4.00 3.515
= 1.25 - 0.095 - 1.155 0.50 4.960 8.00 2.785
(ii) Let Mfbe the consolidation settlement of the clay layer. 1.00 4.604 0 5;224
Mf ll.e The final moisture content of the sample after swelling was found to be
11'"'1+eo 32.5%. The specific gravity of solids = 2.70.
 158 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Consolidation 159
(i) Plot thee vs. logp
curve.
(ii) Detennine the compression index and the co-eftlcient of volume Note that, in column 5 of the above table, the final void ratio fter e
change of the soil. withdrawal of the load bas been entered frrst (ef = 0.87 )- The vmd rat.JOs
corresponding to the previous loadings were then determmed by subtractmg
Solution: In order to plot the e vs. logp curve, the final void ratios
at the end of each pressure increment are to be determined. from it the appropriate values of tJ.e from col. 4. .
For example, equilibrium void ratio correspondmg to 8 kg/em 2
The. final void ratio of the sample at the end of swelling
., ef _ tJ.e • 0.878 - 0.233 = 0.645,
wG (0.325) (2.70)
e = -s- = (1) = 0.878. and that corresponding to 4 kg/cm 2
The thickness of the sample at this stage, = 0.645 - (-0.070) = 0.715
H = H0 - !ili The co-efficient of compressibility, av , and the co-efficient of volume
change m are then computed for each pressure range, and are shown in col.
= 2.0 - (0.5590 - 0.5224) em i
6 and r ;,ectively. The computed values of Cc are _given in col. 8.
= 1.9634 Clll. The values of tJ.e (in ordinary scale) and tJ.p (m Jog scale) have beeri
Now, we have, plotted along the Y and X-axis resp c ively on _a s mi-log graph paper, to
obtain thee vs. log 10 p curve. Tb1s 1s shown m F1g. 6.6
!ili tJ.e
H = 1+ e
or, !le = H(l
w + e) O·CJO
"""9.......
Substituting the final values of e and H, we get,
0·85 r--..
1"'-r---
tJ.e = !ili . (1 t9 3 78). = 0.9565 !ili ...(i)
The change in void ratio, and hence the final void ratio after each load t 0 ·80
:
increment, are now detennined by putting the corresponding values of !lH in
eqn. (i). The computed values are shown below in a tabular form :
0
-;:. 0·75
.a..
l""'
Pressure Pressure i11crease "C
r-..
range 'ncre-
ment
111
thickness
Change
illl'Oid
ratio
Equili-
brium
void
av (- !;) m.
av )
Cc ·c; 0 70
> ['-..,
6p tJI Ae ratio
- 1 +eo [- logw 1/ po)]
0·6 s I'
(kg/cm2 ) (kglcm2)
r-
(em) (cm21kg) (cm2/kg)
0 ·60
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) 01 0·2 0 J 0·4 O ·S I J 2 I, 5 6 7 8 CJ 10
(7) (8)
0 to 0.25 +0.25 -0.0356 -0.034 0.879 0.136 0.072 - log 10 p---
0.25 to0.50 +0.25 ..{).0274 ..{).026 0.863 0.104 0.055 0.086
0.50 to 1.00 Fig. 6.6
+050 -0.0356 -0.034 0.829 0.068 0.036 0.113
1.00 to 2.00 +1.00 -0.0640 -0.061 0.768 0.061 0.019 0.203
Problem 6.16. A raft footing is to be founded in a 3m thick layer of
2.00 to 4.00 +2 .00 ..{).0549 -0.053 0.715
day which is underlain by a highly penneable sand laye . The i it al _ over
0.027 0.014 0.176
4.00 to 8.00 +4.00 ..{).0730
burden pressure at the centre of the clay layer is 2.0 kgkm and th1s Js hk ly
..{).070 0.645 O.Ql5 0.008 0.199 to increase to 4.0 kg!cm 2 due to tbe construction of the raft. A 2.5 em _thick
8.00 to 0 -8.00 +0.2439 +0.233 0.878 - sample of this soil is tested in a consolidometer under double dramage
 Consolidation 161
160 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
2000 Ro
coudit!on. The following data we e obtained when the pressure on the sample
was increased from 2 to 4 kg/em - :
1900 Rc
Time Dial reading Time Dial reading
(min) (Divisions) (min) (Divisions) b-.
1800
0 1972 16.00 1727
1700 ',
-"'-" R
0.25 1921 36.00 1642
Q p'-;
1.00 1870 64.00 1555
1600 '
2.25 1848 100.00 1491 '\ "- ,....._
4.00 1813 144.00 1449 1500
9.00 1769
1400
Rgo ............... ..._
The dial gauge constant is, 1 division= 0.002 min .
(a) Determine the co-efficient of consolidation of the soil by the square 1300 I
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
root of time fitting method.
fig.6.7
(b) Estimate the time required for 50% and 90% consolidation to occur
in the field. From Fig. 6.7, ..fi90 = 11.6
Solution: (a) The procedure for obtaining the value of C" by the square r 90 = 134.56 min
root of time fitting method is explained below : 2
Tv (90) ·11
I. The values of the square roots of various time intervals at which the
dial readings were taken are plotted along theX-axis while the corresponding
Now, cv = 19()

dial readings are plotted along theY-axis of an ordinary graph paper. Here, Tv(90),. 0.848, h = 2.5/2 = 1.25-:E
2. A number of points, each representing a certain dial reading and the 2
c = < 125
corresponding value of ..fi are obtained. A smooth curve is drawn through (O.S48) · > ... 1.64 x 10-4 cm2/sec
them. (134.56) (60)
v
(b) The time required for 50% and 90% consolidation to occur in the field
3. The straight portion of the curve is projected to intersect the Y-axis
at Rc. This is taken as the initial reading. may be obtained using eqn. (6.9).
l2 2
4. A point Pis arbitrarily chosen on the curve.
tso • Tv(SO) 1 .. (0.197) ( 300j • 1.081 x 108 sec
5. From P, a horizontal line PQ is drawn to intersect the Y-axis at Q. Cv 1.64 X 10
Let,PQ =a. - 1251 days .. 3 years 5 months and 6 days.
6. The point R is chosen on projected PQ , such that, PR = 0.15a.
7. Ro and R are joined. The line R0 is then projected to intersect the ·
Tv (90) x h2 .. (0.848)(300(. 4.654 x 108 sec
190
• Cv 1.64 X 10-4
curve atS.
The dial reading corresponding to S represents 90% consolidation . Let ... 5386 days • 14 years 9 months and 6 days.
190 be the corresponding time required.
162 Problems in Soil Mecluznics and F01mdation Engineering
Consolidation 163

EXERClSE6 6.7. Estimate the immediate settlement below the centre of a

2
Estimate the consolidation settlement of a 2 m thick clay layer 15m x 25m flexible raft footing carrying a gross pressure of 12 t/m • The
which is overlain by a layer of sand and underlain by a deep layer of intact raft rests on a sand stratum having a modulus of elasticity of 4080 t/m 2 and a
shale, if the construction of a new footing increases the average over-burden Poisson's ratio of0.25. The influence factors are as follows:
2
pressure by 50%. The initial overburden pressure was 2 kglcm . Given, when LIB = 1.5, It = 1.36
?
co-efficient of volume cllange = 0.023 em-!kg. [4.6 em I when LIB = 2.0, It = 1.52 [5.84 em]
6.2. An 8 m thick clay stratum lies between a 10m thick sand stratum 6.8. A footing is to be constructed in a homogeneous bed of clay having
3
at top and a rock layer at bottom. The unit weight of sand is 1.75 t/m .The an overall thickness of 3m. The clay layer is underlain by rock and overlain
clay stratum bas the following properties: by a sand layer. If the co-efticient of consolidation of clay be 9.5 x 10·4
2
L.L. = 42%, w = 28.5%, G = 272 cm /sec, lind out the time required for 90% consolidation. [930days J
A raft footing of 15m x 15m area and carrying a unifonnly distributed 6.9. The total consolidation settlement of a building founded on a 5 m
load of20 t/m 2 is proposed to be constructed at the site. Determine the prob- thick silty clay layer, drained at both ends, is estimated to be 6.8 em. The
able consolidation settlement of the footing. The clay layer should be divided building is found to have undergone a settlement of 2.5 em in 3 months. The
into four sub"layers of equal t ickness and the stress increments may be initial void ratio and the co-efticient of penneability of tHe soil are 0.88 and
7
computed by 2 : 1dispersion method. 1.2 x 10- em/sec respectively. Determine the co-efficient of compressibility
6.3. A 3m x 3 m square footing, carrying a gross load of 125 t, has of the soil. [0.265 cm2/kg]
been constructed over a 5 m thick sand layer which is underlain tirst by a 6 6.10. A building is to be supported by a raft footing laid in a 3m thick
m thick layer of soft clay and then a layer ofimpermeable shale. Compute the bed of clay, which li between two permeable layers. A 2.5 em thick sample
consolidation settlement of the footing by considering the clay layer (i) as a of the soil is found to have undergone 50% consolidation in 3 minutes under
whole (ii) divided into three layers of equal thickness. Given, double drainage condition. Determine the time required for 90% consoli-
unit weight of sand = 1.8 gm/cc dation oftbe building. [129.1 days)
compression index of clay = 0.42 6.11. In a laboratory consolidation test, a 2 em thick clay specimen
water content of clay = 32% reached 50% consolidation in 12 minutes. The sample was drained at both
specific gravity of clay particles= 2.7 [(i) 3.6 em (ii) 4.29 em] top and bottom. A 2m thick layer of this soil lies below a sand layer and above
6.4. During a laboratory consolidation test, the void ratio of a soil an impenneable layer of very stiff clay. Find out the degree of consolidation
sample decreased from 1.2 to 1.05 when the pressure on it lnc.reased from 2 of the clay layers which will take place in1 year. [27.5%)
to 4 kg!em 2 • Determine the co-efticient of compressibility and the co-efticient 6.12. An isolated footing of 2 m x 2 m plan area is constructed over a
of volume change ef the soil. Will these values remain the same if pressure saturated sandy clay stratum of 5 m thickness. The soil bas the following
2 2
increases from 4 to 8kglem2 • [0.075 cm !kg; 0.034 cm /kg] properties.
2
6.5. A consolidation test was performed on a sample of saturated clay E = 30600 kN/m , I'= 0.36, Cc = 0.3, w:: 35%, G = 2.69.
in the laboratory. The liquid limit and the initial void ratio of the soil were Estimate the probable settlement of the footing if it carries a gross load
48% and 0.96respectively. What will be the final void ratio of the soil if the of225 kN. (12.57 em}
. 2 2
pressure is increased from 0.25 kg/em to 1.0 kg/em ? [0.72] 6.13. A 5 m thick layer of nonnally consolidated clay supports a newly
6.6. Sample of a silty clay was subjected to a laboratory oedometer test. constructed building. The weight of sand overlying the clay layer is 660
2
Under a vertical pressure of2 kglcm 2 the equilibrium void ratio was found to gm/cm while the new construction increases the stress at the middle of the
2
be 1.05. On increasing the pressure to 3 kglem , the fmal equilibrium void clay layer by 450 gm/t--m 2 • Compute the probable consolidation settlement of
ratio reduced to 0.93. If the co-efficient of permeability of the soil be 1.2 x the building. Given,
2
1o-7 em/sec, determine the co-efticient of consolidation in m /day. LL = 39%, G = 2.7, w = 45%. [4.39 em)
[1.77 x 10-2 m 2/day)
164 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

6.14. The total consolidation settlement of a day layer due to an

imposed load is estfmated to be 8.5 em. A settlement of 2 em took place in
15 days. Determine the time required for 50% and 90% consolidation.
· (68 days; 292 days]

6.15. The results

Pressure (kg!cm
2
)
of a consolidation test are shown below :
0 0.25 0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0 8.0
7
Final dial reading 2658 2699 2744 2804 2889 2966 3047
COMPACTION
The sample had an initial height of 2 em and an initial mass of 112.04
gm. After the completion ofthe test the oven-dried sample was found to weigh 7.1 Introduction: Construction of structures on weak soils (e.g., soft ciay,
81.39 gm. The specific gravity of solids was 2.71 and the dial gauge constant loose sand, etc) sometimes requires "stabilisation" of the soil mass, i.e., an
was: 1divn. = 0.02 mm. artificial improvement of its engineerhtg properties.
(a) Determine the equilibrium void ratio of the sample after each load There are various methods of soil stabilisation, the most common one
increment. being the mechanical stabilisation, and the simplest technique of mechanical
(b) Determine the values of co-efficient of compressibility and co- stabilisation is compaction.
efficient ·or volume change for various pressure ranges. A soil mass can be compacted b) -either a dynamic process or a static
6.16. An undisturbed sample of saturated clay, collected from a depth one. In the dynamic method the soil is comlJiicted by repeated applications of
of 5 m below G.L., was subjected to a laboratory consolidation test. The initial a dead load, while in the static method compaction is done by a steadily
diameter and thickness of the sample were 7.5 em and 2 em respectively. The increasing static load. Generally, the dynamic metb<XI gives better results in
mass of the sample in the wet and dry states were 175.2 gm and 138.8 gm coarse-grained soils and the static compaction is suitable for less permeable
respectively. The final compressions under various pressures are shown fine-grained soils.
below: 7.Z Moisture-density Relationships: While compacting a soil in the field,
Pressure 0.25 0.50 1.00 2.00 4.00 8.00 16.00 it is always desirable to compact the soil in such a way that its dry density is
(kglent) maximum. If a given soil is compacted under a specified compactive effort,
its dry density will be the maximum at a certain moisture content, known as
Final compres- 0.001 0.003 0.008 0.0168 0.0484 0.0901 0.1160 the optimum moisture content. Hence, before compacting a soil in the field,
sum (em) its optimum moisture content and the corresponding dry density must be
determined in the laboratory. The test employed for this purpose is called
Plot the e vs log10 p curve and check whether the soil is over- Standard Proctor Test.
consolidated. If so, determine the preconsolidation pressure. Given, G = 2.67.
.. '· 7.3 Standard Proctor Test: In this test, samples of the given soil are
prepared at various moisture contents and are compacted in lcylindrical
mould, 127.3 mm high and having an internal diameter of 100 mm. The
sample is compacted in three layers of equal height, each layer being
subjected to 25 blows of a compaction rammer having a self-weight of 2600
gm and a height of free fall of 310 mm.
Samples are compacted in the mould at increasing moisture contents.
After each t t, weight of the sample compacted is determined and its bulk
and dry densities are computed.
A curve is then plotted to show the variation of dry density with moisture
content (Fig. 7.1). The curve is usually parabolic in shape. Initially the dry
 166 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering 167
Compaction

At any given moisture content, the dry density of a soil in the fully
2·0 I I
AASHO Te st saturated condition can be derived as follows:
1
1·9 1- -- Gyw
'-'

E
I Procter
Cl r )..- Standard
Test
and wG .. se
1·7 For a fully saturated soil, s = 1, :. w G .. e
VI
c: Gyw
Yd .. 1 + wG ... (7.1)
1·6
'-
From eqn (7.1) it is evident that, for a given soil, an increase in moisture
1·5 content will always result in a decrease in yd· Hence the zero air voids line is

5
/
10
l : 15 20
· "' 25
always a steadily descencling line.

Wnter Content(%) 2·0

Fig.7.1
1·9 I
..... : \ ' ·+ Zero air voids line
density increases with increasing moisture content, until a certain peak value ).. 1\.. ( 100% Saturo!i-on line l
-.....
is reached. Further increase in moisture content results in a decrease in the E 1·8
Cl
dry density. The moisture content represented by the p.oak of the curve is the
optimum moisture content (OMC) and the corresponding dry density is the .l :' 1·7
VI
maximum dry density of the soil under that particular compactive effort c:
For heavier field compaction, the moisture-density relationship can be cu
Cl I
v
1·6
investigated by the modified AASHO test The test procedure is similar to >.....-
that of Proctor test except that a heavier rammer (weight= 4900 gm, free fall Cl /
= 450 mm)'is used and the soil is compacted in Slayers. 1·5
Under heavier compaction, the moisture-density curve (Fig.7.1) is shifted / I

upwards and simultaneously moves to the left, resulting in a lower OMC but 1·4
a greaterydmax· . 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
I

7.4 Zero Air Voids Line: Compaction is achieved by the expulsion of air Water Content(%)
,• from the voids. However, as the external load acts for a very short time, it is
nearly impossible to drive out all the air from the voids. Thus, during Fig. 7.2
:
compaction, a soil is not fully saturated. If the remaining air could be driven
out, its void ratio would have been reduced and consequently, its dry density 7.5 California Bearing Ratio (CBR): The California bearing ratio test is
would have increased. The zero air voids line (Fig.7.2) is a theoretical curve of immense importance in the field of highway engineering. The CBR value
which represents the relationship between water content and dry density of of a soil or a paving material is a measure of its strength agains1 probable I
the soil when it is 100% saturated. rutting failure due to moving wheel loads. ·
I
The California bearing ratio is defined as the ratio of the force per unit
area required to drive a cylindrical plunger of 50 mm diameter at.the rate of

)I
1 ---------- ---- ------------ ------ ------
168 Probiems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Compaction 169
IOQOr----,-----.-·--.-----,------,
1.25 mm/min into a soil mass to that required to drive the same plunger at the
same rate into a standard sample of crushed stone.
- 800 -----r------r----- ---- --
0'1
Thus, CBR = Test load x 100% ... (7.2)
Standard load
600 ---- ----- ---- =t====
0'1
The test is performed by first compacting the given soil in the AASHO c:
::::J
mould at the specified compactive effort as stated in Art. 7.3. The sample is
0.. 400 1------+ ---+ ,.---f-----+ -------- 1
compacted upto a height of 127 mm at the particular moisture content and c:
0
density at which the CBR value is required. The plunger is then driven into
"'0
the soil under a steadily increasing static load. The settlement of the plunger g 2oo r--- -1 --+- - ---1 ---- i
is measured with the help of a dial gauge while the corresponding load is -' Corrected 2·5 mm
obtained from the proving ring. From the results a load-settlement curve is 0
P netration
plotted and the test loads for 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penetration are determined. o o' 2·5 s-o 7·5 10·0 12·5
The values of unit standard loads con-esponding to these two penetrations are Penetration ( mm J
70 kg!cm 2 and 105 kg!cm 2 respectively. Therefore, the CBR-values at 2.5 Shift of origin
mm and 5.0 mm penetrations can be determined.
Fig. 7.3
Generally, the CBR value at 2.5 mm penetration should be greater than
that at 5.0 mm penetration. In that case, the former value is accepted as the
CBR value for design purposes.
If the CBR value corresponding to 5 mm penetration exceeds that for 2.5 EXAMPLES
mm penetration, the test should be repeated; However, if identical results are Problem 7.1. The results of a laboratory Proctor test are shown below- :
obtained once again, the CBR value for 5 mm penetration should be used.
7.5.1 Correction tc, the curve: The load-penetration curve should always No. of Test 1 2 3 4 5 6
be convex upwards (curve A in Fig.7.3). However, due to surface Wt. of mould and soil (kg.) 3.526 3.711 3.797 3.906 3.924 3.882
irregularities, the initial portion of the curve is sometimes concave upwards
(curve B in Fig. 7.3). The curve then must be corrected in the following Water content(%) 8.33 10.40 12.23 16.20 17.92 20.39
manner:
(i) The straight portion of curve B is projected backwards to meet the The mould is 12.7 em high and has an internal diameter of 10 em. The
X-axis at 0'. weight of the empty mould is 1.89 kg.
(ii) The origin 0 is shifted to 0'. (i) Plot the moisture content vs. dry density curve and determine the
(iii) Subsequently, all penetrations are measured from the new origin 0'. optimum moisture content and the maximum dry density.
Thus, the points corresponding to 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penetration (ii) Plot the zero air void curve and the 10% air void curve.
should be shifted towards the right by an amount equal to the shift of Given, G = 2.68.
origin. Solution: Volume of the mould= (lt/4) (12.7) (102 ) cc
In order to simulate the worst possible field conditions, the CBR test is = 997 cc
sometimes performed on scaked samples. After compacting the sample in the
mould , the sample is kept submerged in water for a period of 4 days, after In the first test, weight of soil = 3.526 - 1.89
which the sample becomes almost saturated. The CBR test is then performed 1.636 kg w 1636 gm
on this soaked sample.
. 1636
Bulk density, y • V -
= 1.64 gm/cc,
997
 1 --
1
170 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Compaction 171 :
1 2·2 '" , I l
and, dry density, Yd • • + :. .. 1.515 gm/cc. v Zero air voids
1 33 """ .... &,
!&......... 'Q. /
.. ,..-.--z+-------t--;
'
The dry density Yds of the soil corresponding to the zero air void condition 2·0 1---l------4-....:::.._oc-"E>-.....
may be obtained from eqn. (7.1). '· -;:; 10'% air voids _..... '..... .::: r-- "Q..
I ----
• G Yw .. (2.68) (1.0) _ E 1-S f-- -1- -- - I' ....,., ..... .... -o..
YJs 1+ wG 1 + (0.0833)(2.68) - 2·19 gm/cc O"l 'td max= 1- 762 1 : -
J
Again, when the soil has 10% air void, its degree of saturation is 90%. ·;;:;"' gm/cc._ ---------#'----
IliIf
--+•--

• w G • (0.0833) (2.68) • Cl 1·4

0 248 I
·· e s (0.9) · 1.0 M C = 15·2 %
1·2 l_...L .J._ I.l..,_ ._

- (2.68) (1.0) - 2.147 gm/cc 4 5 10 IS 20 22

yd90 1 + 0.248
Water Content(%)
Similarly, the dry densities corresponding to the actual Proctor test, the i
Fig. 7.4
.zero air void condition, and the 10% air void condition are computed for the
remaining five tests. Table 7.1 shows the results in a tabular form. Problem 7.Y,The optimum moisture content of a soil is 16.5% and its
maximum dry density is 1.57 gm/cc. The specific gravity of solids is 2.65. fi
Table 7.1 Determine:
No. of test 1 2
(i) the degree of saturation and percentage of air voids of the soil atOMC.
3 4 5 6
..1
Wt. of mould and soil (kg.) 3.526 3.711 3.797 3.906 3.924 3.882
Solution: (i) When the sotJ is at OMC, ithas a moisture content of 16.5%
Water content(%) 8.33 10.40 12.23 16.20 17.92 20.39 and a dry density of 1.57 gm/cc.
Wt. of soil (gm) 1636 1821 1907 2016 2034 1992 Gyw
Now, we have, Yd·
Bulk density (gm/cc) 1.641 1.826 1.913 2.022 2.040 1.998
Dry density, Yd (gm/cc) 1.515 1.654 1.705 1.740 1.730 1.660 1.57 .. (2.65) (1.0)

Dry density for zero air 2.190 2.096 2.018 1.869 1.810 1.733
void, Yds (gm/cc) 2.65 1688
or, 1+e 1.57 = .
Dry density for 10% air 2.147 2.046 1.964 1.808 1.747 1.667 =
void, Y90 (gm/cc) or, e - 0.688
. wG
Agam,se • wG, or, s'"'-
The compaction curve is shown in Fig. 7.4. From the curve we find, e

optimum moisture content = 15.2%

= (0.165) (2.65) .. 0 635 = 63.5%
.. s (0.688) .
and maximum dry density= 1.76 gm/cc Hence, the required degree of saturation is 63.5% and the percentage of
II The zero air void line and the 10% air void line also are shown in Fig. air void is (100 --63.5)% = 36.5%
7.4. (ii) At zero air void the soil is fully saturated, i.e., s = 1.
172 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation £ngineering Compaction 173

e = w G = (0.165) (2.65) = 0.437 existing soil is less than its OMC. Hence, a certain amount of water is to be
s 1 added to the soil prior to compaction.
(2.65) (1.0) 3
Now, Yd = 1.66 gm/cc = 1.66 t/m
Yd = (1 + 0.437) - 1.844 gm/cc max

Therefore, the theoretical dry density at OMC for zero air void = 1.844
wd
gm/cc.
But,yd = V' or, wd .. Yd· v
Problem . · During the construction of an embankment, the density Thus, for every 100 m3 of finished embankment, the weight of dry soil
attained by field compaction was investigated by the sand jar method. A test required is,
pit was excavated in the newly compacted soil and was fiHed up by pouring Wd = YJmvc ·V = (1.66) (100) t 166t.
sand. The following were the observations :
Weight of soil excavated from pit= 2883 gm And the weight of water is,
Weight of sand required to fill the pit= 2356 gm
Ww = w. Wd [··· w }
Bulk density of sand = 1.52 gm/cc
Moisture content of embankment soil = 16% = (0.225) (166) - 37.35 t.
Detennine the dry density of the compacted soil. 3
The bulk density of the e isting soil is 1.78t/m and its moisture content
is9%.
Solution: The volume of sand required to fill up the pit, .. Dry density of the existing soil, YJ = _.1_
v = w "' 2356 - 1550 cc. . 1 +W
y 1.52
Volume of the pit = 1550 cc. or,
But, weight of the soil exc.avated from the pit = 2883 gm The volume of soil, Vbo to be obtained from borrow area in order to obtain
2883 166 t of dry soil is,
:. In-situ bulk density of the soil, y .. = 1.86 gm/cc
1550
And, in-situ dry density oftbe soil, vb - yw;J; - 1.633
166
= 101.65 m
3

_.1_ 1.86
_/"J = 1 + w • 1 + 0.16 ,. 1.66 gm/cc. Weight of water available from this soil,

ProblemVIt is require<i to construct an embankment by compacting a soil wwb - wd. wb .. (166) (0.09) - 14.94 t
excavated from nearby borrow :ucas. The optimum moisture content and the
.. Quantity of water to be added= (37.35 -14.94) t
corresponding dry density of this soil were determined in the laboratory and
were found to be 22.5% and 1.66 gm/cc respectively. However, the natural Volume of water to be added• ;eig. t o wa:er
moisture content and bulk density of the soil were 9% and 1.78 gm/cc ens1 yo wa er
respectiv 1y. But, density of water, Yw • 1gm/cc
Find out the quantity of soil to be excavated and the quantity of water to
be added to it, for every 100 m3 of finished t>mbankment. • 10-6 t/cc
Solution: The embankment should be constructed by compacting the soil 6
- (1000) (10- ) t/lit
obtained from borrow area at the optimum moisture content and the
corresponding maximum dry density. But the natural moisture content of the .. 10-3 t/lit
 174 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Compaction 175

:. Volume of water to be added = = 22410 litre. 2543

(10-) ( 1z3) < ) cc - 943.89 cc
3 (30)
Thus, 101.65 m of soil is to be excavated from the borrow pit and 22410
litre of water is to be added to it. In the loosest state,
.
Problem · An embankment was constructed by compacting a soil at a bul k d (3363.6 - 2100) -a 1.339 gm/cc
ens1ty • ( . )
moisture content of 15.5% and a dry density of 1.72 gm/cc. If the specific 943 89
gravity of soil solids be 2.68, detennine the void ratio and degree of saturation _1_ (1.339)
of the embankment soil. dry density, Ydmin = 1 + w • (1 + O.ll) • 1.206 gm/cc.
In the densest state,
Gy..,
Solution: We have, YJ • --
1+ e Ic
bulk density • (3857.4 - 2100) •1862 gmc
Here, 943.89
YJ • 1.72gm/cc, G = 2.68
862
dry density, yd • (1. ) = 1.677 gm/cc
1.72 - (2.68) (1.0) max (1 + 0.11)
1+ e In-situ bulk density of the soil = 1.81 gm/cc and its natural moisture
or, 1 +e 2.68 content = 7%
1.72- (1.61) -
.. In-situ dry density, Yd • ( + 0.0 )
or, e • 0.558. 1 7
wG - 1.505 gm/cc
Again, se • w G, or s • -
e Yd.,.. YJ - YduUD
Relative density, Rn • --. x 100%
(2.68) Yd Ydmax - Yd.mn
(0.558) . - 0.744 - 74.4%
(1.677) (1.505 - 1.206) (100)%
The required degree of saturation is 74.4%; .. (1.505) . (1.677 - 1.206) v
.. 70.74%
Problem 7.6. In order to determine the relative density of a sand sample, its
natural moisture content and bulk density were determined in the field and
Problem ?..,/ It is required to construct an embankment having a total
were found to be 7% and 1.61 gm/cc respectively. Samples of this soil were
volume off40oo cu .m. The required soil is to be collected from borrow pits.
then compacted in a Proctor's mould of 1/30 eft capacity, at the loosest and
It was found that the existing soil has a moisture content of 14%, void ratio
the densest states. The following data were obtained:
of 0.63 and specific gravity of solids of 2.68. Laboratory tests indicate that
Weight of empty mould= 2100 gm the OMC and maximum dry density of the soil are 19.5% and 1.72 gm/cc
respectively. The soil is to be carried from the borrow pit to the construction
Weight of mould +soil in the loosest state= 3363.6 gm
site by trucks having average net carrying capadty of 5.5 t. Detemtine the '
J
Weight of mould +soil in the densest state= 3857.4 gm total number of trips the trucks have to make for constructing the entire
Moisture content of the sample used in tests = 11% embankment. Also find out the quantity of water to be added to the borrowed
soil before compaction. i
Determine the relative density of the sand and comment on its type.
Solution: r
Solution: Volume of the mould"" _!_eft Gyw !
30 In-situ dry density of the soil, yJ "'
 176 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Compaction 177
(2.68) (1.0)
Solution: When the rock present in the fill is compacted to the densest
1.64gm/cc
(1 + 0.63) state, its dry unit weight is given by,
= 1.64 t/m 3 G Yw (2.56) (1.0) _
:. In-situ bulk density, y = Yd (1 + w) =- (1.64) (1 + 0.14) = 1.87 t/m3 Ydmax • I;;• 1 + 0.73 - 1.48 gm/cc.
3
Now, in 1m of borrowed soil, quantity of dry soil present is 1.64 t, and For the soil, yd...,, • 1.63 gm/cc.
quantity of water present= (0.14)(1.64)[·.· Ww = w. Wd]
Let us now consider 1 gm of the given fill. According to the question,
.. 0.23 t the weight of rock and soil present in the fill are 0.8 gm and 0.2 gm
While constructing the embankment, this soil bas to be compacted at a resp ively.
0·8 0 54
moisture content of 19.5% and at a dry density of 1.72 t/m 3. .
3 Now. volume of0.8 gm of rock = --cc = . cc.
For 1 m of fmished embankment, dry soil required"' 1.72 t, 1.48
and waterrequired • (0.195)(1.72) t and, volume of 0.2 gm of dry soil = = 0.123 cc.
1 3
... 0.335 t.
:. For the entire embankment of 64000 m3 Total volume of 1 gm of fill ,. 0.54 + 0.123 = 0.663 cc.
dry weight
quantity of dry soil required= (1.72) (64000) = 1,10,080 t Dry unit weight of the fill
volume
and, quantity of water required= (0.335) (64000) = 21,440 t
1
As the in-situ dry density of existing soil is 1.64 t/m 3, every cubic metre "' -- = 1.508 gm/cc.
0.663
of excavation will produce 1.64 t of dry soil.
Problem 7.9. The results of a laboratory CBR test are shown below :
1
:. Total volume of excavation required to be made= · :0..67,122 m 3
No . of test I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Gross weight of this soil = (1.87) (67,122) t = 1,25,518 t Penetration 0 0.5 1.0 1.S 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5
125
• (mm)
.·. No. of. tn·ps ·to be rna de = = 22,812.·5 .... 2"-.',822 Load (kg) 0 19.8 52.S 93.7 1321 171.9 207.0 288.8 3222 401.7 431.8 458.3
518
• .
55
Weight of water obtained from 67!122 m 3 oftorrowed soil
Determine the CBR value of the soil. Given, unit standard loads for 2.5
= (67,122) (0.23) t = 15,438 t 2
mm and 5.0 mm penetrations are 70 and 105 kg/crn respectively.
. -weight of water finally required= 21,440 t
Solution: Fig. 7.5 shows the load vs. penetration curve. As the curve is
:. Quantity of water to be added before compaction initially concave upwards, an initial zero correction is required.
= (21,440 -15,438) t = 6,002 t. The straight portion of the curve is projected backwards to intersect the
X-axis at o', which then becomes the new origin. Consequently, all points on
Problem 7.8. The rock content in a fill is 80% by dry weight. The rock can the penetration ax s are shifted to the nght by an equal amount
be compacted to a minimum void ratio ofO. 73. The maximum dry unit weight From Fig. 7.5 we obtain,
to which the soil fraction can be compacted is 1.63 gm/cc. What is the
test load for corrected 2.5 mm penetration "' 200 kg.
maximum dry density to which the fill can be compacted ? Given, specific
gravity of the rock = 2.56. and, . test load for corrected 5.0 mm penetration= 332 kg.

Area of CBR plunger

 178 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering Compaction 179

:. Unit test load for 25 mm penetration .. ; • 10.19 kg/cm2 (i) Plot the water content vs. dry density relationship and determine the
1 5
optimum moisture content and the corresponding maximum dry density of
and, unit test load for 5.0 mm penetration. .., 16 91 kg/cm2 the soii.
19.635 . (ii) If the specific gravity of soil solids be 2.70, plot the zero air void line.
[Ans. OMC = 17.6%, YJmax = 1.74 gm/cc]
·. CBR value for 2.5 mm penetration .. 10·19 x 100% _ 14.6%
70 7.2. The results of a standard Proctor test are shown below.
1 1
CBR value for 5.0 mm penetration= x 100% = 16.1% Water Content (%) 7.8 11.6 14.9 17.7 20.1 22.5
:
0
Thu_s, CBR value for 5,0 mm penetration is greater than that for 2.5 mm Wt. of soil and mould (gm) 3263.4 3523.28 3734.8 3852.9 3832.7 3765.1.
penetratlon. Therefore, the CBR test bas to be repeated and if similar results
are obtained once again, then the CBR value of 16.1% should be accepted. The height and internal diameter of the mould are 12.6 em and 10.1 em
respectively. The empty mould weighs 1950 gm. Plot the compaction curve
500 and determine the optimum moisture content and the corresponding dry and
bulk densities ofthe soil.

400 v-- Also plot the zero air void line and the 80% saturation line.
=
:!.::
t:l'l --- (I
Given, specific gravity of solids 2.69. [Ans: OMC = 17%, YJ =-1.6 gm/cc,
y = 1.87 gm/cc]
7.3. The in-situ <lensity of a soil mass is being determined by the ore
._ 300
Gl
----; I I
cutter method. The height and internal diameter of the core are 12.7 em and

J11/ I'
I
IC"'
c:;, I
10 em respectively and its weight, when empty, is 1847 gm. When the core
a. 200 is filled with soil, it weighs 3674 gm. If the specific gravity of solids be 2.67

v
c and the degree of saturation of the soil be 63%, determine the in-situ dry
0
I density of the soil. The in-situ void ratio of the soil is found to be 0.85.[Ans.
-g 100 I
I I
I
0
-I t t
1.526 gm/cc]
7.4. An embankment of trapezoidal cross-section is to be constructed for
10-() 12-5
5·0 7·5 a 2 km long highway. The embankment should have a height of 2.2 m and a
Penetration ( m m) top width of 10 m. The sides of the embankment are to be sloped at 2 H : 1
V. The soil obtained from the borrow area is tested in the laboratory and is
Fig. 7.5
found to have the following properties :
Natural moisture content 12%
In-situ bulk density .. 1.8t/m 3
EXERCISE? Optimum moisture content "' 19%
7.1. The following are the results of a Proctor compaction test performed
on a soil sample. Dry density at OMC 1.65 t/m 3
· Determine tlie quantity of soil to be excavated and the quantity of water
Water Content(%) 9.2 12.7 15 5 18.3 20.2
to tie added to it before constructing the embankment. [Ans: 65055 m3 ; 7318
m 3J
Bulk Density (gm/cc) 1.524 1.749 1.949 2.049 2.019 7.5. Detennine the magnitudes of compactive effort imparted to a soil
during:
(i) Standard Proctor Test
180 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

(ii) Modified AASHO Test.

[Hints: Compactive - effort = Wt. of rammer x height of fall x no. of
blows/layer x no. of layers]
7.6. The specific gravity of solids of a soil is 2.65. Detennine the quantity
of dry soil and water required to compact the soil in it Proctor mould having
D = 10 em and H = 12.7 em, at a void ratio of0.6 and--at a moisture content
8
of 20%. (Ans: 1652 gm; 330 cc]
7.7. Three identical triaxial test samples of 7.5 em height and 3.75 em
diameter are to be prepared at a moisture content of 15% and a dry density of SHEAR STRENGTH
1.48 gm/cc. Determine the total quantity of oven dried soil and volume of
water required for the purpose . (Ans: 367.8gm, 55.2 cc) 8.1 Introduction: When an external load is applied on a soil mass,
7.8. Determine the CBR value of a given soil from the following data shearing stresses are induced in it. If the shear stress developed on any plane -I
obtained from a laboratory CBR test : in the soil exceeds a certain limiting value, failure of the soil occurs. The
maximum shear stress which a given soil can withstand is called its shear
Load (kg) 0 19..8 50.1 81..8 120.0 170.1 421.7 605.9 699.3 662.8 strength.
Penetration 0 0.5 1.0 u 2.0 2.5 s.o 7.5 10.0 12.5 The far.tors governing the shear strength of a soil are :
(mm) i) internal friction, i.e., the resistance due to particle interlocking
< )
(ii) cohesion, i.e., the resistance due to the internal structur.Jl bond
Plot the load-penetration curve and determine the CBR value of the soil. which tends to bold the particles together.
According to Coulomb's law, the shear strength, 't, of a soil is given by: !I
Comment on the test results. (Ans. 23.7%]
't = c + o tan cp ...(8.1)
where, o = normal stress acting on the soil
c = cohesion
cp = angle of internal friction
The factors c and cp are called the shear parameters of a soil.
When expressed graphically, eqn. (8.1) can be represented by a straight I
line called the failure envelope. The general fonn of failure envelope for a
cohesionless, a cohesive and a c- q, soil are shown in Fig. 8.1 (a), (b) and (c)

'' · respectively.
T T
·

t
T . ;- L,..---
-- t
\I

c
l.. _
a-
c
..)....
cr
!
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 8.1

j------ -------------- i
182 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Shear Strength 183

The shear parameters of any soil depend not only on the nature of the soil 8.3 Pole: The concept of the pole, or the origin of the planes, is very useful
but lso on such factors like moisture content and loading conditions. At very in such problems where the locations of the principal planes are not known.
low mois re content a cohesive soilma y develop a certain amount of internal Consider the soil element subjected to a system of external stresses as
friction. Likewise at high moisture contents a cobesionless soil may show the shown in Fig. 8.3. It is required to determine the normal and shear stresses
signs of having an apparent cohesion. acting on the planeAA, inclined at an angle a to the horizontal. .
Considering the free body diagram of the element it can be proved that
8.2 Mohr's circle of stress: This is a graphical representation of the stress
the element can be in equilibrium only if, l:xy = l:yx.
condition& in a soil mass which enables one to find out the stresses developed
on any plane within the soil due to an external loading system. The procedure for drawing the Mohr Circle and locating the pole are as
In a stressed material, a plane which is subjected to only a normal stress, follows:
but no shear stress, is called a principal plane. Through any point in the (i) Choose the co-ordinate axes and select a vector scale.
material, two such planes exist. These planes are called the major and the (ii) Locate the points A and B such that they represent the stresses on
minor principal planes, and are orthogonal to each other. If the principal the horizontal and vertical boundaries respectively, of the element
stresses, a1 and a3, are known, the norma stress a and shear stress 1: on a (iii) Join AB. It intersects the a-axis at C.
plane inclined at an angle e to the major principal plane is given by' (iv) With Cas centre and CA = CB as radius, draw the Mohr circle.
a1 + a3 a1 - a3 (v) The point A represents the stress conditions on the horizontal
a = + cos29 plane. Jl'rom A, draw a straight line parallel to this plane. It intersects the
2 2 ...(8.2 circumference at P. Again, if from B a line is drawn parallel to the vertical
al - a3
)
and, 1: = sin29 ...(8.3) plane (since the point B represents the stresses acting on this plane), it will
2 intersect the circle at the same point P. This is the pole of Mohr's circle.
Equations (8.2) and (8.3) can be represented by a Mohr Circle, as
illustrated in Fig. 8.2. The co-ordinates of any point on the circumference of T
the circle give the stress conditions on a particular plane represented by that
point
+T

cr-1

cr,
r
Oj• Major Principal Fig.8.2
Stress
-3• Minor Principal
st s s ..,.... _

_, I
 Fig.8.3

(vi) From the pole P draw a line parallel to the plane on

which the stresses are required. This line intersects the circle at Q.
The co-ordinates of Q give the normal and shear stresses on the
given plane AA.
Thus, the pole may be defmed as a particular point on the
Mohr's circle such that, if a line is drawn from this point making
it parallel to any given
184 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Shear Strength 185

plane within the soil mass, then, the co-ordinates of the point of intersection such that coulomb's equation is satisfied as the point Plies on the failure
of this line with the circle will represent the stresses acting on that plane. envelope. In order to determine the location of this plane, join PA and PC.
8.3.1 Sign convention: The following sign conventions are normallv Now, LPCB LPAC + LAPC
followed for plotting the stress co-ordinates :
As AC =PC, LAPC = LPAC • a
Normal stress: Compressive stresses are taken as positive and tensile
stresses as negative. LPCB = a + a = 2 a.
However, soils can with stand only compression and Again, since DF II OB, LPGF = LPCB • 2a
not tension. Hence the normal stress on any plane of a In PDG , LPGF "' LPDG + LDPG
soil element which is in static equilibrium is always
positive. or, 2a = cjl + 90° [·.· PG J. DE, :. LDPG = 90"]
Sllnu strt>ss: The sign of a shear stress is determined on the basis of or, a = 45" + cjl /2 ...(8.4)
the direction of its moment about any arbitrary point In Fig. 8.4, the plane BB, drawn at (45• + Q> /2) to the major principal
inside the soil mass. If the moment acts in the anti- plane, represents the failure plane.
clockwise direction, the shear stress is positive, whereas It can be proved that, at failure the relationship between the two principal
if it acts in the clockwise direction, the shear stress is stresses is given by,
negative.
o1 o3 tan 2 (45" + cjl 12) + 2c'tan (45" + cjl /2) ...(8.5)
8.3.2 Location of the failure plane : Fig. 8.4 represents a soil sample
subjected to-a major principal stress o1 and a minor principal stress o3. As or, o1 = o3 Nq, + 2cYNq, ...(8.6)
the sample is on the verge of failure, the Mohr circle has touched the failure 2
envelope at P. Evidently, the pole of the Mohr circle is at A. where, Nq, = flow value .. tan (45" + cjl/2) ...(8.7)
The highest point on the circumference of the Mohr circle is the crown 8.4 Determination ofShearStrengtb: The following tests are employed
R. The lineAR is inclined to the o-axis at 45". The corresponding plane in for the evaluation of the shear strength of a soil :
the soil is MN, which is the plane subjected to the maximum shear stress, A. Laboratory tests :
'tmax· However, thepotential failure plane in the soil is not MN, but theplane 1. Direct Shear Test
represented by the point P, because the stress co-ordinates given by P are 2. Triaxial Compression Test
'3. Unconfined Compression Test.
B. Field Test:
1. Vane Shear Test
For a detailed description of the test procedures, the reader is referred to
any standard text book of Soil Mechanics .Only the essential points regarding
the computation of shear strength will be highlighted here.
8.4.1 Dil'ect ShPar Test: In this test, soil samples compacted at known
densities and moi::ture contents in a shear box of 6 em x 6 em size, which can
F be split into two h lvcs, is sheared by applying a gradually increasing lateral
load. Three identical samples of a .5oil are tested under different vertical
compressive stresses and the corresponding shear stresses at failure are
determined. A graph is then plotted between normal stress and shear tress.
Results of each test are represented by a single point. Three points obtained
from the three tests are joined by a straight line which is the failure envelope
for the given soil. The siope of this line gives the angle of internal friction,
Fig.s while the intercept from the 't-axis gives the vaiue of cohesion of the soil.
186 Problems m Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Shear Strength 187

8.4.1 Triaxial Compression Test: In this test, cylindrical soil specimens VI ± !l V

of 3.8 em diameter and 7.6 em height, enclosed in an impermeable rubber ...(8.10)
Ac • LI - AL
membrane, are placed inside the triaxial cell. An all-round cell pressure, 03,
where, VI = initial volume of the specimen
is applied on the sample. Simultaneously, a gradually increasing vertical
stress is applied until either the sample fails, or its axial strain exceeds 20%. A V - change in volume due to drainage.
Stress vs. strain curves are plotted to determine the normal stress at failure. L1 • initial length of the specimen
This stress is called the deviator stress, ad. The major principal stress, o1, is !l L .. change in length of the specimen
obtained from the following relation (refer Fig. 8.5): 8.4.3 Unconfined Compression Test: This is a special case of triaxial test in
....(8.8) which o3 = 0. We have, from eqn. (8.5)
2
C7j= 3+ 01 = 03 tan (45° + cj> /2) + 2c tan (45° + cj> /2)
As a3 = 0, for an unconfined compression test,
oi = 2c tan (45° + cj> /2) ...(8.11)
A number of tests on identical specimens will give the same value of
cr3
aI. Thus, only one equation is available while two unknowns, viz., c and cj> ,
are involved. Hence, eqn. (8.11) cannot be solved without having a prior
knowledge of any one of the unknowns.
Due to this reason, the unconfined com-
pression test is employed to determine
the shear parameters of purely cohesive
[a) [b) [c l soils only. For such soils, cj> • 0°, and Torque p
hence, Head
Fig. 8.5
01 = 2 c tan 45° = 2 c
Three samples of a soil are tested under different cell pressures. From the The vertical stress oi at failure, Torque Rod
results, three Mohr circles are constructed, and a common tangent is drawn known as the unconfined compressive..
to them. This is the failure envelope. strength and denoted by %> is obtained
The normal stress at any point during the test is determined by dividing by dividing the normal load at failure by Vanes
the normal load obtained from the reading of the proving ring by the the corrected area, as given by eqn. (8.9)
cross-sectional area of the sample. Due to the bulging of the sample during
Thus,
shear, the cross-sectional area should be modified using the following
equation:
Ac = Ao/(1 - E) ...(8.9) or, ...(8.12)
where, Ac '"' corrected area 8.4.4 Vane Shear Test: This is a field

where,
Ao • initial area
E • axial strain = AL/L
A L • axial compression
L • initial length
In the drained triaxial tests, the volume of the sample may change during
test used for the direct determination of
the shear strength of a soil. Generally
this test is conducted in soft clay situated
at a1Jmt denth, sampl"es of W1lich are
diffiC t to obtain.
--tz Vanes

The apparatus consists offour metal

!-o
the test due to expulsion or absorption of water. In that case, the corrected
blade called vanes, mounted on a steel
area should be detennined from :
rod, as shown in Fig. 8.6. The device is
pushed slowly upto the desired depth Fig. 8.6
188 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Shear Strength
and is rotated at a uniform speed by applying a torque through the torque rod. 01 - 03
The amount of torque applied is recorded on a dial fitted to the rod. Failure and, 't .. sin 29
occurs when the vane can be rotated without any further increase in the torque. 2 2
2
For a cohesive soil, cp = 0. Hen e coulomb's equation reduces to: Here, o = 2 kg/cm and 03 • 1.1 kg/cm
I 1
s -c
The given plane is inclined at 30° to the major principal stress. But the
Thus, for a cohesive soil, the shear strength is equal to its cohesion. In a vane
direction of major principal stress is perpendicular to the major principal
-
shear test, the cohesion, and hence the shear stren th can be determined from:
..
)c = T ...(8.13)
plane. Hence the angle of inclination between the given plane and the maJor
principal plane is,

where,
( nu( +
T ·;;. torque applied(= P.a)
l- ,,
e .. 90° - 3o· - 60°
01 •
(2 + 1.1) + (2 - l.l) . COS (2 X 600)
2 2
H • height of the vane
1.55 + (0.45) (c08 120")
D "' diameter of the vane.
1.55 + (8.45)(-112)
8.! Sensitivity: When the shear stresses developed in a soil exceeds its
2
.shear strength, the soil fails by shear and loses its strength. However, if the 1.325 kg/cm
soil is left in that state for some time, it regains some of its original strength. (2 - 1.1) . (2
and 't = Stn X 60°)
The sensitivity of a soil is a measure of its capability of regaining strength
after a disturbance has been caused in the soil. It is expressed as,
2
.,
• (0.45) (sin 120") .. 0.39 kg/em-
S shear strength in the undisturbed state 8 14
t "" shear strength in the remoulded state ...( · )
On the basis of the settSitivity, clayey soils are divided in the following
categories:
0·75
Sensitivity Nature of clay 2
l33Kg!cm --{
1 Insensitive 0·50 0(1·33,0·39)
1-2 Low sensitive
2-4 Medium sensitive
4-8 Sensitive 0·25
8-16 Extra sensitive
> 16 Quick clay 0
2·5 cr
(Kg/cm 2 1
EXAMPLES
Problem s.Y. A soil sample is subjected to a major principal stress of 2
kg/cm 2 anif'a minor principal stress of 1.1 kg/cm 2 . Determine the nonnal and
shear stre.;ses acting on a plane inclined at 30° to the major principal stress. Fig.8:7
s lution: (a) Analytical metlwd: The normal stress, o and the shear
(b) Graphical method: The graphical solution is shown in Fig 8.7. The
stress, 't on any plane inclined at a to the major principal plane is given by :
procedure is stated below:
01 + 03 °1 - 03 2 2
0 = 2 + 2 cos 29 (i) The Mohr circle is drawn with o 1 = 2.0 kg/cm and o3 = 1.1 kg /cm
190 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Eng ineering Shear Strength 191

(ii) From the centre C of this circle, CD is drawn at an angle of 120° TlkN /m2)
( = 2 9) to the a-axis. This line intersects the circle at D. ·
Alternatively, from the pointA corresponding to 03, a straight line AD is
15 t
drawn at an angle of 60° (-= 9) to the a-axis. AD also intersects the circle at
the same point D. 10
tr=16·5kN /m
(iii) The co-ordinates of D give the normal and shear stresses acting on
5
the given plane. From Fig. 8.7 we obtain, i ---------- -- p
2 T =3·6 kNf m2 Q
a = 1.33 kg/cm
and -r "' 0.39 kg/cm2
-5
Problem 8/- The stresses acting on a soil element are shown in Fig. 8.8 (a).
10kN/m
2 -10
B 10kN/m2
-15

(b)
X X (a)
Fig:8.8 (b)

6. From P, PQ II XX is drawn to intersect the circle at Q.

Fig. 8.8 (a) The solutions to the three given questions are now obtained as follows :
(i) The points of intersection, RandS, between the circle and the a-axis
(i) Detennine the magnitude and direction of the principal stresses.
give the principal stresses. Here,
(ii) Find out the stresses acting on the plane XX.
o1 • 48kN/m 2
(iii) If the soil has a cohesion of 5 kN/m 2 and an angle of internal friction
of 25°, find out whether a shear failure is likely to occur along the plane XX. 2
and a3 • 16.2 kN/m
Solution:The graphical solution of the problem is presented in Fig . 8.8 In order to locate the directions of the principal planes, the points R and
(b). The procedure is as follows:
S are joined to the pole P. Through any point Z in the soil element, Z -1 II PS
1. Two orthogonal co-ordinate axes and an appropriate vector scale and Z- 311 PR are drawn.
(1 em = 5 kN/m 2 ) are chosen . The planes Z - 1 and Z - 3 give the directions of the major and minor
principal planes respectively. .
2. The points M (20, -10) and N (40, 10) are chosen to represent the
· (ii) The stresses onXX are given by the co-ordinates ofQ. From the figure
stresses on the planesAB and BC respectively.
we obtain.
3. M and N are joined and the mid-point 0 of MN is located .
axx = 16.5 kN/m 2 and -rxx = 3.6 kN/m 2
4. With 0 as centre and MN as diameter, the Mohr circle is drawn.
(iii) The normal stress on XX is 16.6.kN/m 2 • From coulomb's equation,
5. The pointMrepresents the stresses on the planeAB. FromM, a straight the shear strength of a soil is given by,
line MP is drawn parallel to AB, to intersect the circle at P.Pis the pole.
s '"' c + a tan'

I
 192 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering 193
Shear Strength
Here, c = 5 kN/m2 , o = 16.6 kN/m 2, cj> "' 25"
(ii) From A (representing the stress conditions on the plane be) draw AP
·• s = 5 + (16.6) (tan 25") II be, to intersect the circle at P. This is the pole of the Mohr circle.
2 Alternatively, if from B, BP II ba is drawn, it also will intersect the circle at
• 12.74 kN/m > 3.6 kN/m 2
As 't < s, failure along XX is not possible. P.
(iii) FromP, draw PQ II XX . It intersects the circle at Q. The co-ordinates
ro lem &.J/'t'he stresses acting on an element of elastic soil mass·are shown
of Q give the stresses on the plane .XX. From the figure we obtain,
111 F1g. 8.9 '(a). Determine the nonnal and shear stresses on the plane XX.
2
oxx = 2.35 t/m
')

and 'txx = 0.95 t/m-

Problem 8_,4-;The stre.ss conditions on a soil element are sh0wn in Fig. 8.10
(a). r
(i) Find out graphically the stresses on the plane AA.
(ii) Draw a free body diagram of the soil element and show these stresses.
(iii) Prove that the free body is in equilibrium.

(a)
A 55kN/m2
Fig. 8.9 (a) p
40kN/m2
Solution: Fig. 8.9 (b) shows the graphical solution. The solution is 8·67
obtained in tht following steps: kN/m2
(i) Lo_c te the points.A (2, 0) and B (5, 0) which represent the principal r <;
s resses actmg on the soli element. With AB as diameter, draw the Mohr's
Circle.
{C)
20
55kNtm2
10

cr
0 10 20 30 70 80 ( kNtm2)
B
0 2 5 -10
0·95 (b)
_t_
-1

-2
2·35 -.!J P
Fig. 8.10

Solution: (i) The graphical solution of the probl em is shown in Fig. 8.10
-T( Kg/cm2J . (b), from which we get,
I b) 2
o = 55 kN/ m
Fig. 8.9 (b)
194 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Sftear Strengi!J 195
2
't - 8.67 kN/m
G+e
Now, Ysat· • T+e• Yw
(ii) The fr e body diagram of the soil element pqr, bou ded by t e
vertical plane, the horizontal plane and the given plane AA, JS shown m
- 2.68 + 0.654 (1.0)
Fig. 8.10 (c). 1 + 0.654 .·
. (iii) The free body will be in equilibrium ifthe sum of the components . 3
of all forces acting on it along any two orthogonal axes separately be_ zero. = 2.02 gm/cc • 2.02 t/m
(i) The normal streSs on the given plan .
Let, pq = lunit,
o • Yd ·Z1 + Ysub • z2
Pr = 2!1_ = -1 .. 2 units
-
·· sin 30" 1.5 · • (1.62) (2) + (1.02) (3) ... 6.3 t/m2
and, qr .. 2!1_ - _L__ • V3 • 1.732 units Shear strength of the soil at this plane,
tan 30" l!v'3 .. S•C+Otant
Considering unit thickness of the element,
• 0 + (6.3} (tan 35") • 4.41 t/m2
IFx .. (- 40)(1) - (8.67)(cos 301(2) + (55) (cos 60") (2)
(ii)ln this case the entire soil mass is submerged.
- - 40 - 15 + 55 - 0. . .·· . . . . 2
l:y • ("'- 60) (1.732) + (8.67) (sin 30") (2) + (55) (sin 60") (2) · o • Ysub. z • {1.02) (5) • 5.1 tim
- - 103.92 + 8.67 + 95.25 - 0.
Hence the free body is in equilibrium.
Problem if,'Tbe subsoil at a site consists of a 10m thick homogeneous layer
of dense sand having the following prope ies :
YJ • 1.62 gm/cc, G • 2.68, 35" +• 30
The natural ground water table lies at 2m below the ground surface.
20.88
(i) Determine the shear strength of the soil along a horiz;ontal plane
through the middle of sand layer.
Draw the failure enveJope and determine the apparent angle of shearing
(ii) Ifduring monsoon, the water table rise& to the ground ·levet, how will resistance ancf cohesion of the soil.
the shear strength along the same plane change ? .
Solution:The cross-sectional area of the shear box= 6 x 6 = 36 cm2•
Assume that the soil is dry above water table.
The normal and shear stresses are fust obtained using the relation,
Solution: The horizontal plane under consideration is at a depth of 5 m load
below the G.L. stress• --
area .
These are shown in a tabular form below :
We have,

(2.68) (1.0) - 1.62 Normal load (kg)

or, IV 20 30
1+ e
or, e • 0.654 Shear force (kg) 9.90 15.41 20.88
Normal stress (kglcm 2 0.28 0.56 0.83
)
Shear stress (kglcm 2 0.275 0.428
) 0.580
 Shear Strength 197
196 Problems i11Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

be the radius which must be perpendicular to OQ, since OQ is a tangentto

In Fig. 8.11 the nonnal and shear stresses are plotted along the horizontal the circle.
and vertical axes respective!y. Three points thus obtained are then joined by
a straight line. This is the failure envelope for the given soil. Thus, in order to locate lhe centre of Mohr circle, draw QC 1. OQ. QC
The intercept of the failure envelope on the 't-axis represents the apparent meets the cr-axis at C, which then, is the centre of Mohr circle.
cohesion, which is found to be 0.12 kg/cm 2 • The apparent angle of shearing (v) With Cas centre and CQ as radius, draw the Mohr circle. It intersects
resistance is given by the angle of obliquity of the failure envelope to the the cr-axis at A and B, which, then, represent the minor principal stress cr3 and
horizontal, and is found to be 28.5". the major principal stress cr 1respectively.
From Fig. 8.12, we obtain, cr3 = 1.08 kg/cm2 , cr 1 = 2.47 kg/cm2 •
N
E
u (vi) Draw a horizontal line PQ through Q. It intersects the circle at P.
0·6 This is the pole of the Mohr circle.
1--'
(vii) Join PA and PB. These two lines are parallel to the directions of the
0·4 planes on which cr3 and cr1, respectively, act. From the figure we obtain,
CIJ
'-
+-
Vl LPAB '"' 32.5" and LPBA "' 57.5"
'a- 0·2 Hence the minor and the major principal planes are inclined to the
CIJ
C=0-12kg/cm2 horizontal at 32.5" and 57.5" respectively. The orientation of the planes are
shown in Fig. 8.12 (b).
0 0·2 0·4 0-6 0·8 1-Q
Normol Stress,a- ( Kg/cm2)
Fig. 8.11 Major
Principal
Problem 8,y/A direct shear test was perfonned on a sample of dry sand.
Plane
Under a nfutnal stress of 1.5 kg!cm2, failure occurred when the shear stress
reached 0.65 kg/cm2 . Draw the Mohr circle and the failure envelope. Hence Failure
N
Plane
determine the orientation of the principal planes and the magnitude of the
principal stresses.
Solution: The construction is shown in Fig 8.12. The procedure is as
-E
u
Cl
1·2

0·8
Minor
follows: Principal
+-
.Pto.ne
(i) Choose two orthogonal co-ordinate axes and a suitable vector scale. Vl
'- 0-4
The scale chosen in this problem is: 1 em = 0.4 kg!cm 2. a
(b)

(ii) Locate the point Q corresponding to cr = 1.5 kg/cm 2 and 't •

CIJ
..c
Vl
o -- -L-- 8 ---
0.65 kg/ (.,'111 2 . 0J 1·2 1·6 2·0 2·4 C7j 2·8
(iii) Since the soil is a dry sand, it should not have any apparent cohesion Normal Stress IKg/cm2J
and the failure envelope should pass through the origin. Join the origin 0 and (a)
the point Q. OQ is the failure envelope.
Fig. 8.12
(iv) The point Q represents the stresses on the failure plane. But in a
direct shear test, the failure lane is alwa s horizontal. Now, the point Q must Problem Three identical specimens of a partially saturated clay were
Je on the Mohr circle and at this point the circle "must touch the failure subjected to an unconsolidated undrained triaxial test and the following
envelope . If Q can be joined to the centre of the circle the resulting line will results were obtained:
198 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Shear Strength .

ample No. Cell Pressur-e (kg/an1 Deviators (kglcm1 OJ • o3N+ + 2c VN;

. . 2 2
1. 0.5 0.80 In case of the first sample, o3 • 0.5 kg/em and OJ • 1.30 kg/em
2. 1.0 0.97 Substituting in eqn. (8.6) we get,
3. 1.5 1.13 0.5 N+ + 2 c ..f"ili = 1.3 ....(i)

Determine the shear parameters of the soil (i) graphically (ii) analytically. where N+ = tan2 (45" + cp/2)
Solution: In a triaxial test the cell pressure acts as the minor principal Similarly, for the second and third samples, the following equations are
stress, while the major principal stress is the sum of the cellpressure and the obtained:
deviator strf'.ss at failure, The values of o3 and oJ are shown below: N+ + 2 cfili = 1.97 ....(ii)
2
Sample No. 03 (kglan ) Od (kglan2) o1(kg!an2) and, l.SN+ + 2c..f"ili = 2.63 ...(iii)
1. 0.5 0.80 1.30 subtracting (i) from (ii) we obtain,
2. 1.0 0.97 1.97 N+ N+ • 1.34
0.67, 0.5or,
3. 1.5 1.17 2.67 or, (45" tan1
+ cjl/2) • 1.34
(i) Graphical solution : Three Mohr circles are constructed and a or, tan (45" + cjl/2) = 1.157
common tangent is drawn through them (Fig. 8.13). The shear parameters are 45" + cjl/2 - 49.2"
or,
found to be:
or, cjl/2 = 4.2"
c = 0.27 kg/cm 2 or, cjl .. 8.4"
cjl = 8.5"
Substituting for cjl in eqn. (i),
r {0.5) (1.34) + (2 c) (1.157) - 1.3
or, c • 0.27 kg/cm 2
Check : Substituting the values of c and cjl in eqn. (iii), we get,
L.H.S. = (1.5) (1.34) + ( ) (0.27) (1.157)
= 2.63 = RH.S.
Proble sample of dry coarse sand is tested in the laboratory. triaxial
2
apparatus in the undrained eondition. Under a cell pressure of2 kg!cm , the
2
sample failed when the deyiator stress reached 4.38 kg!cm •
(i) Determine the shear parameters of the soil.
(iy At what deviator stress will the soil fail if the cell pressure be 3
Normal Stress (Kg/cm2)
kg/em ?
2 2
Solution: Here, o3= 2 kg!cm ,OJ= 4.38 kg!cm •
Fig. 8.J3 2
.. o1 • 03 + o,l • 2 + 4.38 • 6.38 kg/cm .
(ii)Analytical solution: From eqn. (8.6) we have,
 •

200 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Shear Strength 201

With o3 = 2 kg/cm 2 and a 1 = 6.38 kg/cm 2 , a Mohr circle is drawn (Fig. Sample No . C'.ell pressu;·e Deviator stress2at Pore pressure at
failure (kg!cm failure (kg!cm2)
8.14). (kg!cm1 )
Since the sample is made of coarse sand and since it is in the dry state, 1. 1.0 2.02 0.41,
no apparent cohesion will develop and the failure envelope passes through
the origin.
In order to locate the failure envelope, draw a tangent to the Mohr circle
2.
3.
1.5
2.0
. 2.18

2.37
0.62
i

0.70
from the origin. By measurement, the angle of obliquity of this line is 31".
Hence, the shear parameters are:
·c=0,41=31" Detennine the shear parameters of the soil considering
(i) total stresses (ii) effective stressess.
(ii) We have , from eqn; (8.6),
Solution: The values of cell pressures and deviator stresses given in the
(Jl = OJ N<I> + 2 dl'l;; problem are the total stress values. The corresponding effective stresses may
Asc • 0, :. o1 = OJNq, be obtained from the relation :
a' • a - u
or, o1 • o3 tan2 (45" + q,/2) ...(i)
The major and minor principal stresses, considering the total stress
N analysis as well as effective stress analysis, are tabulated below :

-'-'
E
0\
4

Sample 03 Od 2 01 u 0'3 0'1

Ill
3 (kglcm ) (•03+0d) (kglcm2 )
CIll
No . (kglc,m2) (• 03-u) (• 01- u)
....
ll
(kglcm
2
(kglcm
2
......
1.1) 2 (kg!em,
L..
a
Cll 1. l.O 2.02 3.02 0.41 0.59 2.59
.c:. 1 .
1.1)
2. l.S 2.18 3.68 0.62 0.88· 3.
3. 2.0 2.37 4.37 0.70 1.30 3.67
0 2 8
Normal Stress (Kg/cm2) Total stress analysis: Three Mohr circles are drawn using the three sets
of values of o1 and OJ· In Fig. 8.15, these circles are shown by firm lines. A
Fig. 8.14
common tangent is drawn through them, which is the failure envelope for
Here, OJ= 3 kg!cm2 , q, = 31" total stress analysis. From the figure we2 obtain.
2
.. o1 • (3)[tan(45" + 31"12)f 9.37kg/cm c = 0.75 kg!cm and q, = 7.5 •
Deviator stress, OJ "" 01 - OJ Effective stress analysis: In this case the Mohr circles are drawn with the
2 three sets of values of o1' and OJ'· In Fig. 8.15 the effective stress circles are
= 9.37-3 = 6.37 kg/em
represented by broken lines.The values of the corresponding shear strength
parameters are, ·
Problem S efollowing results were obtained from a laboratory triaxial 2
c' • 0.65 kg/cm and 41' = 13"
test with arrangements for pore pressure measurements:
 202 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Shear Strength 203

Now, .OJ - a1 - a3
2
;.,. 6.05 - 2.5 .. 3.55 kg/cm
i 2
Hence the required deviator stress at failure is 3.55 kglcm .
(ii) Let the required cell pressure be x kglcm 2 •
.
.....
.1::
Vl
al =ad+ a3'
'-
d or, al = L68 +X ...(ii)
"'
ti Substituting for a1 and a3 in eqn. (i), we get
c = 0·75
-+ ------ 1.68 + x = 2.117x + 0.757
or, 1.117x = 0.923
or, x ... 0.83
2
:. The required cell pressure is 0.83 kg!cm •
Fie. us Problem 8.Al e following are the results of a set of drained triaxial tests
Problem 8./ne shear strength parameters of a given soil are, c = 0.26 · performed btltiir e identical specimens of38 mm diameter and 76 mm height:
kglcm 2 a;{ A- 21". Undrained triaxial tests are to be carried out on I·

specimens of this soil. Determine :

Sample No.
'&e11 pressure .Deviator load Change in Axial
' . <9 deviator stress at which failure will occur if the cell pressure be 2.5 \ (kN/m2) at failure Volume
(cc)
Deformation
(mm)
kg/em. · (kN)
(ii) the cell pressure during the test, if the sample fails when the deviator 1. so 0.0711 -0.9 .9'1
stress reaches 1.68 kglcm 2. .
2. ioo 0. 59 -1.3 70
Solution:
(i) We have from eqn. (8.6). 3. 150 0.0956 -1.6 91

al • a3 N+ + 2 c:¥N;
2 Determine the shear parameters of the soil.
For the given soil, c = 0.26 kglcm and+ • 21"
Solution: The deviator loaJs at failure corresponding to each cell
:. N+ •· tan2 (45• + +12) • tan2 (45• + 21./2) • 2.117. pressure aregiven. In order to determine the corresponding deviator stresses,
these loads are to be divided by the corrected area of tbe sample, which can
and • v'2.117 • 1.455
be obtained from
Hence, eqn. (8.6) reduces to :
v1 :t: a v
al • 2.117 a3 + (2) (0.26) (1.455)
A" • L1 - IlL
or; al • 2117 a3 + 0.757 ....(i) Here, V1 • Initial volume of the specimen
2
When a • 2.5 kg/cm • (n/4) (3.82 ) (7.6) cc
a1 • (2117)(25) + 0.757 • 86.19cc
• 6.05 kg/em? L1 • 7.6 em
204 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Shear Strength 205
For the first sample, 1:1 V = - 0.9 cc and 1:1 L = 5.1 em
Problem 8unconfined compression test was performed on an
86·19 0 ·9 "' 12.03 cm2 = 12.03 x 10-4 m2 undisturbed sample of normally consolidated clay, having a diameter of 3.75
•.
Ac = 7.6-0.51
-
em and 7.5 em high. Failure occurred under a vertical compressive load of
0.0711 4 '"' 59.10 kN/m2 116.3 kg. The axial defom1ation recorded at failure was 0.9 em. A remoulded
12.03 X 10- sample of the same soil failed under a compressive load of 68.2 kg, and the
conresponding axial compression was 1.15 em.
2
and, o1 = o3 + OJ = 50 + 59.10 = 109.10 kN/m Determine the unconfined compressive strength and cohesion of the soil
The major principal stresses for two other samples are computed in a similar in the undisturbed as well as remoulded state.
manner. The results are tabulated below : Also determine the sensitivity of the soil and hence classify it
accordingly.
Sample C13 FJ av aL Ac C1d C1l Solution: (a) Undisturbed state:
No. (kN) (cc) (em) (cm2) ) )
Initial area of cross-section of the sample,
1 50 0.0711 -0.9 5.1 12.03 59.10 109.10 2 2
Ao = (:rt/4) (3 75) = 11.04 cm
2 100 0.0859 -1.3 7.0 12.36 69.50 169.50
Ax1.a I stram ra I' Iure,
. at L E = !!LL = 07..5.9 ·- - 0.12
3 150 0.0956 -1.6 9.1 12.65 75.61 225.61
Ao
Corrected area, Ac =
Three Mohr circles are constructed and their common tangent is drawn. 1- E
This is the failure envelope of the soil (Fig. 8.16). 11.04 .2
By measurement _ _ = 12.55 em
c 25 kN/m 2 , q> =we3.8obtain,
= • 1 0 12

Normal stress at failure • !i - 9.27 kg/cm

2

:. Unconfined compressive strength,% '"' 9.27 kg/cm 2

9 27
and, cohes1·on c = % = T . .. 4.64 kg/cm 2
2
(b) Remoulded state :"
1
€ .. :, = 0.153

11.04 = 13.03 cm2

1 - 0.153
0 100 150 200 250 68.2 2
.. % _ .. 5.23 kg/em
1731 "i2 ern <r33 <>"j 2 Oi3 1303
Normal Stress (Kg/cm2J qu 5.23 kg/ 2
or, c = T .. = 2•62 em
Fig. 8.16
SCllS.ltJ.V.tty = -'-str;::.e::.:t""'lg"-'-
th=--"'.ii;::.t th::.:ec_u::..:r::.:td;.c:i::.:stu..,:c::_;rbe;_:_:d;.c:s:..:.ta::..t.:..e
strength m the rernoulded state
 II

:I
206 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Shear Strength 207 .I

• 9.V • 1.77 torque head at failure was 417.5 kg-em. The vane was then rotated very
5.23 rapidly in order to completely remould the soil. It was found that the
remoulded soil can be sheared by applying a torque of 283.2 kg-em.
As the value of sensitivity lies between 1and 2, the soil is cJassified as
a low sensitive soil. Detennine the shear strength of the soil in the undisturbed andremoulded /
states and its sensitivity. ...,.,........ "' - ...
Problem 8.\4.:)a1(CU triaxial test, a soil sample was consolidated at a cell
pressure nf 2"-fg/em 2 and a back pressure of 1kg/em\ for 24 hours. Oil the Solution: We know that, !"
next day, the cell pressure was increased to 3 kg/em . This resulted in the s- ....;::.._
2 . .
development of a pore pressure of 0.08 kg/em . The axial stress was then
gradually increased to 4.5 kgiem 2 ; which resulted in a failure of the soil. The
2
red (H
2 +. D6)
pore pressure recorded at failure was 0.5 kglem • Detenniile Skempton 'spore
pressure parametersA and B. Here,H = 11.25 em andD = 7.5 em,
T
Solution: We have s - ---=----=----...,......-
2
(1C) (7.5 ) (11.25/2 + 1.516)
Au = B (A o:3 + A (A OJ - A 03)), where A and Bare
Skempton's pore pressure or, s - _.;:T
parameters. 1113.67
ht the first case, A o3 • 3 - 2 • 1 kg/c2 • A OJ .. 0
In the undisturbed state, T= 417.5kg-em
417.5 2
.. 0.08 • 1f(1 + A (0 - 1)} s • 1113.67 • 0.37 kg/em
or, B (1 - A) • 0.08 ...(i)
In the remoulded state, 1= 283.2 kg-ern,_
In the second case,
2 . . . 3.2 2
AoJ • 4.5 - 1 • 3.5kg/em, Ao3 • 0 s • 1113.67 • 0·25 kg/em ·
0.50 - 0.08 • B [0 + A (3.5 - 0)} . . . . . 0.37. 148
Se • .
or, 0.42 • 3.5AB ...(ii) nstttvtty - 0.
25
Dividing (i) by (ii), we get,
1 -A 0.08 EXERCISES
3.5A • 0.42 . 8.1. The nonnal stresses actil on two orthogonal planes of a soil
1 sample are 250 kN/m 2 and 110 kN/m .Find out the norinal and shear stresses
or, A • 0.67 .: on a plane inclined at 60 • to the direction of the major principal stress.
2 2
· or, 1 -A • 0.67A, or, A • 0.6 [Ans. o = 215 kN/m , 't = 60.6 kN/m ]
Substituting this value for A in (i), we obtain 8.2. The stress conditions on a soil element are shown in Fig. 8.17.
.

or, j . B (1 - 0.6) • 0.08

B • O.OS • 0.2
0.4
.

Problem 16 A vane shear test was carried out in the field to detenriine the
I
Detennine:
(i) The orientation and magnitude of the principal stresses. ·
(ii) The stresses acting on the horizontal and the verticat planes.
(Ans. (i) o1 = 2. 76 kglem 2 at 98S with horizontal; o3 = 0.83 kglem at 8.5"
2
2 2
shearing strength of a deep-seated layer of soft clay. The varte was 11.25 em with horizontal (ii) oH • 0.77 kg/cm , 'tH • - 0.3 kg/<:m ;
2
high and 7.5 em across the blades. The equivalent torque recorded at the ov = 2.72 kglem 2 , 'tv= 0.3 kglem ]

I·'
l
208 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Shear Strength 209

1Kg/cm2 8.5. In problem 8.4, if the water table rises from a great depth to the
ground surface so that the soil becomes fully saturated and its natural moisture
content increases to 19%, how will the shear strength on the given plane
2
change ? [Ans. Reduced by 0.85 t/m ]
8.6. The stress conditions on an infinitely small soil element are shown
in Fig. 8.19. Find out the magnitude and direction of the principal stresses.
?
[Ans: o1 = 1.68 kg/em- at 12" to the horizontal
o3 = 0.47 kg/cm 2 at 102" to the horizontal]

Fig. 8.17

8.3. Fig. 8.18 illustrates the stress conditions on a soil element

(i) Determine the normal and shear stresses on the plane X-X.
(ii) Draw a free body diagram of the element bounded by plane X-X
and show these stresses.

J. X
Fig. 8.19
2·5ttm2 8.7. The results of a direct shear test perfonned on a soil sample in a
z.St/m2 shear box of 6 em x 6 em size are given below:
X
Normal load (kg.) 30 40 so 60
4ttm2 Shear force at failure (kg.) 19.5 26.3 32.4 39.9
Fig. 8.18
Plot the failure envelope for the soil and determine its shear parameters.
(iii) Prove that the free body is in equilibrium.
2
[Ans: (i) o = 3.63 kglem 2 , 't = 0.65 kg/em J [Ans. c = 0, cp = 33"]
2
8.4. The subsoil at a site consists of a 5 m thick stratum of a cohesionless 8.8. A given soil bas a unit cohesion of 2 t/m and an angle of internal
2
soilwhich is underlain by a rock layer. A surcharge of 5 t/m is placed on the friction of 28". Samples of the soil were tested in the laboratory in a triaxial
ground level. The properties of the soil are as follows: apparatus under the undrained condition. Determine :

G = 2.68, e = 0.7, w = 6%, cp = 30 • (i) Deviator stress at failure when the cell pressure is 1.5 kg/cm 2 .
Determine the shear strength of the soil on a horizontal plane at a depth (ii) The applied cell pressure, if the sample fails under a total vertical
2 2 2
2 pressure of 5.09 kg/em . [Ans. (i) 3.32 kg/cm , (ii) 2.5 kg/cm ]
of 2 m below the G.L. [Ans : 4.82 t/m ]
8.9. A set of triaxial tests were perfomted on three samples of a soil.
The cell pressures and the deviator stresses at failure are given below:
 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Shear Strength 211
210

2 . 2 8.13. A set of triaxial tests were perfonned on three samples of a

Sample. No. Cell Pr . (kN/m ) Deviator stress (kN/m )
fine-grained soil. The height and diameter of each sample were 75 rom and
1 200 690 37.5 mm respectively. The following are the results:
2 300 855

3 400 1030 Sample No. Cell Pr. Deviator load Axial

2
Deformation
) (kglem (kg) (em)
1.45 29.5 0.98
Plot Mohr's circles of stress and detennine the apparent cohesion and
2
angle of internal friction. [Ans. c = 112 kN/m cp
, = 27 o] 2 2.70 37.9 1.13
8.10. A dire.ct shear test was perfom1ed in a 6 em x 6 em shear box on 3 ? 42.8 1.16
a sample of dry, cohesionless soil. Under a nonnal load of 40 kg, failure
occurred when the shearing force reached 26.65 kg. Plot the Mohr strength
envelope and detennine the angle of shearing resistance of the soil. Detennine Detennine the missing value of cell pressure in test no 3.
graphically the magnitude and direction of the principal stresses
2
at failure. 8.14. The following result-. were obtained from a set of consolidated
[Ans. cp = 36°; o3 = 0.64 kg/cm 2 at 27° to H, o1 = 2.47 kg/cm at 117° to H) undrained tests with arrangements for pore pressure measurements:
8.11. Two triaxial tests were performed on samples of a moist soil in
an undrained condition . The all-r_ound cell pressures during these two tests Test N o . 1 2 3
were 2.5 kg/cm 2 and 4.0 kg/crn 2 and the samples failed under deviator stresses 2
of 4.85 kg/cm 2 and 6.70 kg/cm 2 respectively. Detennine tbe apparent Cell P r. (kg/em ) l.O 2.0 3.0
cohesion and the apparent angle of shearing resistance of the soil (i) 2
Deviator Stress (kg!crn ) 1.31 1.62 1.89
analytically (ii) graphically.
Do you expect to obtain the same values of the shear parameters if the Pore pressure (kg!cm 2 ) 0.18 0.42 0.86
samples were tested in a drained condition ? Explain your answer 2 with
reasons.' [Ans. c = 0.59 kg/cm , cp = 22.4"]
Detenniue the shear parameters of the soil, considering (i) total stress
8.12. Laboratory triaxial tests were perfomted on three soil samples of (ii) Effective stress.
3.8 em diameter and 7.6 crn height. The following results were obtained:
[Ans. (i) c = OA6 kg!em2 ,cp = 6.5"
Sample No. Cell Pr. Deviator load Change in Axial (ii) c' = 0.42 kg/cm2 , cp' = 9.8")
2 volume(cc) Deformation
(kg/cm ) at failure 8.15/ An unconfined compression test was perfonued on a silty clay
(kg) (em) sampl of 4 em diameter and 8 em height. The sample failed under a
45 1.1 0.92 compre'ssive load of 23 kg and the defonnation recorded at failure was 1.42
1 0.5
em. A triaxial test was performed on an identical sample of the same soil. The
1.5 1.15 2
2 1.0 52 all round cell pressure was 1 kg/em and the sample failed under a deviator
load of a 39.5 kg. The axial deformation recorded at failure was 1.18em. Find
3 / 2.0 79.5 1.7 1.22
out. t.he apparent values of shear parameters (i) graphically and gi) analyti-
cally. · [Ans c = 0.70 kg/em , cp = 4.5 "]
Plot Mohr's circles and detennine the apparent vatues of2 shear para- 8.16. A 21.5 em long cylindrical soil sample having a diameter of 10
meters of the soil. =
[Ans. c 1kg/cm , cp 18.7"] = em was subject to an increasing vertical compressive load. Failure occurred
212 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

when the load reached 151 kg, and the corresponding axial deformation was
2 em. The sample was made of clay and had the following properties :
G = 2.67, e = 0.69, w = 26% 9
Determine the snear parameters of the soil
[Aits. q, = 0 °, c = 0.77 kg/cm 2 ]
8.17. An unconfined compression test was performed on a cylindrical
EARTH PRESSURE
soil sample having a diilmeterof37.5 mm and a height of75 mm. The sample 9.1. Introduction: It is often required to maintain a difference in the
failed at a vertical compressive load of 23.5 kg. The axial strain recorded at elevation level of the ground on the left and right hand sides of a vertical
failure was 1.16 em and the failure plane was observed to be inclined at 53° section. Such situations call for the construction of an earth-retaining
to the horizontal Determine the apparent shear parameters of the soil. structure, e.g., a retaining wall or a sheet-pile wall. The earth retained by such
[Ans. c = 0.68 kg!em 2 , q, - 16°] a structure exerts a lateral thrust which is of paramount importance in the
design of the retaining structure.
8.18. A triaxial test was performed on a sample of dry sand having an
apparent cj>-value of36 o. Initially, a chamber pressure of5 kg/em 2 was applied Depending on the conditions prevailing at the site, the lateral earth
and the deviator stress was gradually increased to 3 kg/em 2• Keeping this pressure may be divided into the following three categories:
deviator stress unchanged, the cell pressure was then gradually reduced. At (i) Earth pressure at rest.
what value of cell pressure the sample will fail?
(ii) Active earth pressure.
[Ans. 1.05 kg/cm 2 ]
(iii) Passive earth pressure.
8.19. Determine the minimum lateral pressure required2 to prevent 9.Z. Earth Pressure at Rest: Fig. 9.1 (a) shows a retaining wall, embedded
failure of a soil subjected to a total vertical stress of 10 kg!em • The shear
parameters of the soil are given as : c 0.3 kglem 2 , q, 17.5 o.
= = below the ground level upto a depth D, and retaining earth upto a height H.
If the wall is perfectly rigid, no lateral movement of the wall can occur. And
[Ans. 4.94 kg/cm 2 ] hence, no defonnation of the soil can take place .The lateral pressure exerted
8.ZO. A laboratory vane shear test was performed in an undisturbed by the soil is then c.alled the earth pressure at rest.
sample of soft clay. The diameter and height of the vane were 6.3 mm and
11.3 mm respectively . The sample failed under an applied torque of 110 gm
em. The sample was then completely disturbed by rotating the vane rapidly.
The remoulded soil failed under a torque of ' 45 gm-em. Determine the
undrained shear strength of the soil in the undisturbed and remoulded states
and compute its sensitivity. [Ans. 0.55 and 0.22 kg/em 2 respectively; 2.5]
8.Zl. If a field vane shear test is performed on the soil mentioned in
above problem, with a vane of 11.3em height and 7.5 em diameter, determine
the torques required to fail the soil in the undisturbed and remoulded states.
[Ans. 670.6 kg-em; 268.2 kg-em]

(a)
I bl

Fig. 9.1
214 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Earth Pressure 215

The conjugate relationship between the lateral earth pressure and the 4. On any vertical plane in the soil adjacent to the wall a conjugate
vertical overburden pressure is given by: relationship exists between the lateral earth pressure and the vertical
overburden pressure.
oh = Ko ·ov, or oh = K 0 ·y z ...(9.1)
This theory was later extended by other investigators to take into account
where Ko = co-efficient of earth pressure at rest. cohesive backfills and walls with battered backface.
The equation governing the relationship between the major and minor
y = unit weight of soil
principal stresses, acting on a soil element, is given by,
z .. depth aJ: which lateral pressure is measured. OJ = 03 N 4> + Z<:_ m; ...
(9.3)
The value of Ko depends on the properties of the soil and its stress history,
and is given by: where,N41 (45• + cj>/2)
cj> =angle of internal friction
...(9.2)
c = cohesion.
where, 1.1. =Poisson's ratio of the soil. Let us consider an infinitesimally small soil element at a depth Z below
9.3. Active and Passive Earth Pressures: In reality, a retaining wall is not the ground level, adjacent to a retaining wall, as shown in Fig. 9.2.
rigid, but flexible, i.e., it is free to rotate about its base. In Fig. 9.1(a), let
Po and Po' be the at-rest lateral thrusts acting on the back and front faces of
the wall respectively. Due to the difference in elevation levels, P 0 > P0 '.
Hence, a flexible wall will yield away from the bac fill. The soil wedge ABC Clayey Sand
will then tend to slide down along the potential sliding surface BC. This = 1-85 tfm3
condition is illustrated in Fig. 9.1 (b). The frictional resistance FR against such ¢... 24°
movement will act upward along BC. Its horizontal componentFH will act in
C=1tJm2
the opposite direction to that of Po. Thus the net pressure on the wall will
decrease. Such a state is called the active state of plastic equilibrium, and the
lateral pressure is called the active earth pressure. Dense Sand
Simultaneously, the soil wedgeDEF in front of the wall gets compressed. ¥ =1·95tfm3
The frictional resistance FR' in this case acts along ED and its horizontal ¢:::36°
componentFH' acts in the same direction as that of Po'· Hence the net pressure Fig.9.2
on the wall increases. Such a state is called the passive state of plastic
equilibrium and the lateral pressure is called the passive earth pressure. ov ;::: vertical overburden pressure on the element
The active and passive earth pressures are usually computed by either of oh = .lateral earth pressure on the element
the two classical earth pressure theories, viz., Rankine's and Coulomb's
theory. According to the fourth assumption stated above, a conjugate relation-
ship exists between ov and oh . The relationship is similar to the one
9.4. Rankine's Earth Pressure Theory: This theory is based on the
fol1owing assumptions: expressed by eqn. (9.3). However, the exact form of the equation depends on
1. The soil is homogeneous, semi-infinite, dry and cohesionless. the prevailing conditions, i.e., whether the backfill is in an active state or in
a passive state.
2. The back of the wall is perfectly smooth and vertical.
3. Deformation of the wall is sufficient to create a state of plastic (i)Active state :
equilibrium. In this case, o1 = ov, and o3 = oh.
But, Ov- yz

-.
216 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Earth Pressure 217

and, oh = active pressure intensity = Pa·

. . Eqn. (9.3) gives,
yz=pa·N,+2c
:E._ 2c
or,
...(9.4)
Pa = N,- 14--....,._ pAl
(ii) Passive state : ') t
{
Here, a1 = ah and a3 = av
But, av .. y z
r;:-' 7("',.
\
tv

1 ........_-
Ht3

and, ah = passiv e pressure intensity = Pp -J KalH }-

.. Eqn. (9.3) gives, (a) lbl
Pp = yzN+ + 2c ...(9.5) Fig. 9.3

9.4.1. Computation of Earth Pressure Using Rankine's Theory : Fig. 9.3 (b) shows the distribution of active pressure intensity. The
(A) Active Earth Pressure: magnitude cf resultant thrust per unit length of wall may be obtained by
multiplying the average pressure intensity by the height of the wan.
(a) Cohesionless soils:
For a cohesionless soil, c = 0. . . 0 + KayH 1
Average pressure mtens1ty, pav '"' • 2 Ka yH
.. Eqn (9.4) reduces to 2
vz yz 1 - sin q, 1 1 2
p =..c..• - -yz· :. Resultant thrust, PA =
a N' tan2 (45" + q,/2) - 1 + sin q, Ka yH ·H .. Ka yH
2 2 ...(9.8)
Of, Pa • KaYZ ...(9.6) It is eviaent from eqn. (9.8) that the resultant thrust is given by the area
of the pressure distribution diagram. This thrust acts through the centroid of
w h ere, Ka = co-effiJC.ient of acti.ve ea rtb pressure = 1 - si.n· q, the triangle ABC, i.e., is applied at a height ofH/3 above the base of the wall.
1 + Sill q, ...(9.7)
(ii) Fully Submerged Backfill:
Eqn. (9.6) and (9.7) can be used to compute the active earth pressure for
This condition is shown in Fig. 9.4(a). As the soil is fully submerged, its
various backfill conditions, as discussed below:
effective unit weight is,
(i) Dry or Moist Backfill with Horizontal Ground Surface:
y' • Ysat - Yw
Fig. 9.3 (a) shows a retaining wall supporting a homogeneous - backfill of
dry or moist soil, upto a height H. At any depth z below the top of the wall, the total active pressure is the
f
sum of pressures exerted by the soil and water. According to Pascal's law, a
At any depth z below the top of the wall.
fluid exerts equal pressure in all directions at any given depth.
Pa "'Ka yz I Hence, at a depth z,
At the top of the wan (z = O),Pa = 0 Pa = Kay'z + YwZ ...(9.9)
At the base of the wan (z = H), p a • Ka yH The corresponding pressure distribution diagram is shown in Fig. 9.4 (b)
(iii)Partially Submerged B(lckfill:
(a) Backfill having similar properties above and below water table:
218 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engiqeering
Earth Pressure 219

Eqns. (9.10) and·(9.11) may be used to determine the resultant thrust and
its point of application corresponding to any pressure distribution diagram.

1 t .., ._
H

,j. Kc/H }--¥wH 4

(a) (b)

Fig. 9.4

In Fig. 9.5 (a), the retaining wall has to retain earth upto a height H. The
ground water table is located at a depth h1 below ground level. The active
(a)
pressure intensities are given by:
Above ground water t ble: Pa = Ka yz (0 s z s h 1) Fig. 9.5
Below ground water table: PaKa yh 1 + Ka y'z + Yw z (0 s z s h2 ,
= (b) Backfill having ditierent properties above and below water table:
zbeing measured from G.W.T.)
Fig.9.6 (a) and (b) illustrate this backfill condition and the corresponding
Fig. 9.5 (b) shows the corresponding pressure distribution diagram. The pressure distribution diagram.
resultant active thrust per unit run of the wall is given by the entire area of
this diagram. It is easier to detennine the area by dividing it into a number of
triangle and rectangles. In Fig. 9.5 (b).
PI= !iABD, Pz = areaofBCED Ka1¥1h1 Cf= 11h 1
P3 = !iDEF, P4 - !iDFG. ttH
.. Resultant active thrust,
n

PA = P1 + Pz + P3 + P4 .. L P; ...(9.10)
i-1
The point of application of PA can be determined by taking moments of
individual pressure areas about the base of the wall. Thus,
PA ·Y = PIYt + P2Y2 + P3Y3 + P4y4
,
(a) (b)
n

}: P; ·Y; Fig.9.6
i-1
or, y .. (iv) Backfill with Uniform Surcharge:
n
Fig. 9.7 (a) illustrates a retaining wall supporting a backfiJiloaded with
}: P; a uniform surcharge q. The corresponding pressure distnbution diagram is
i- 1
shown in Fig. 9.7 (b). From the figure it is evident that the effect of the

•
220 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

surcharge is identical to that of an imaginary backf'tll having a heightzs> placed Earth Pressure 221
above G.L., where,

z .. q_ ...(9.12)
s y

Fig.9.8

BC = H (1 + tan 9 tan fi) ...(9.14)

y (iv) Determine the active pressure on this imaginary planeBC, using eqn.
(9.13).
j_ ---'- -----l.
(v) For designing the )Vall, compute the self-weight of the soil wedge

(a)
--tKa.tt }-Ka¥H'
(b)
---f ABC and consider its effect on the stability of the wall separately.

Fig.9.7

(v) Backfill with a Sloping Surface:

The condition is shown in Fig. 9.8 (a). The active earth pressure at any
depth z below the top of the wall acts in a direction parallel to the. surface of
the backfill and is given by:
Pa • KayH

where, A.
• COSp'
cos B - v'cos2 a - cos 2 9 ...(9.13)
K 2 2
a cos fi + V cos fi - cos 4>
(vi) Wall Having an Inclined Backface:
In order to determine the active earth pressure in this case using
Rankine's theory, the following steps should be followed (Ref. Fig. 9.9) Fig.9.9
(i) Draw the wall section and the ground line. (b) Cohesive-frictional Soils:
(ii) Draw a vertical line through the base of the wall to intersect the
ground line at c. From eqn. (9.4), tbe active earth pressure at a depth z is given by,
(iii) Compute the length BC from: v.J....::.-
z 2c
p .. --
a N$ VFT;
222 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Earth Pressure 223
2c
At z = 0, p - - or, Pp = Kpyz
a- VJ4 K = co-efficient of passive earth pressure
where, p
At z = H, p = 'I!!_ 2
a N.p - vN.p. = N.p = tan (45• + cjl/2)
Let He be the depth at which pressure intensity is zero. 1 + sin cjl 1
1 - sin cjl = Ka
yHe 2c yHe 2c
N+ - \f'Ni = 0, or, N.p = N+ Fig. 9.11 (a) and (b) shows a retaining wall subjected to a passive state,
and the corresponding passive pressure distribution diagram.
or, H = 2dFii
...(9.15)
e y

-r ==:=s::-
T HI 3
J_
1--- --->.,. y

L*- ----
11H-¥3t----.....>o.
( H-Hcl Kp'(H --l2ci4--NcpYH

(a)
d e Cohesionless Soil C- <P Soil
L )'H 2c ·I (b) (c)
INcp --t
(a) Fig. 9.11
(b)
Fig. 9.10
(b) Cohesive-frictional Soils:
From eqn. (9.5), we have,
Pp = yzN.p
Fig:9.10 (b) shows the distribution of active pressure. The negative side
of this diagram (i.e., /l abc) indicates the development of tension upto a depth
He. Since soils cannot take tension, cracks will be formed" in this zone. The
depth He is, therefore, called the zone of tension crack. The resultant lateral
thrust is obtained by computing the area of the positive side of the diagram
ll cde).
(B) Passive Earth Pressure:
(a) Cohe.sjonless soils:
For a cohesionless soil, eqn. (9.5) reduces to:
 Pp = yzN+ + 2cVJ4
For tbe retaining wall shown in Fig. 9.11 (a), at z = 0,
Pp = 2c ...fJil'i
at z"" H, Pp = yHN.p +
The corresponding pressure distribution diagram is shown in Fig. 9.11
(c).
 I

224 Eart!J Pressure.

Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
225

In the active state, the wall moves away from the backfill and the failure
wedge ABC tends to move downwards. As it slides down, frictional
A C resistances act upward along the backface of the wall (soil-wall friction) and
the failure plane (soil-to-soil friction). In absence of the frictional force FR ,
1
the active thrustPwould have been acting normally on the backface. But riow
the resultant PA of P and FR is inclined at an angle 6 to the normal on the
1 . .
backface. Due to similar reasons, the soij reaction RA will also be inclined at
an angle q, to the normal on the failure surface.
The same arg'Llments lead us to the conclusion that in a passive state also,
Pp and Rp will be inclined at angles 6 arid q, respectively to the normals on
AB and BC. However, in the ac ve state, the lines of action of PA and RA lie
below the respective normals, whereas in the passive state, the lines of action
B B of PP and RP lie above them.
A number of graphical and analytical methods for the determination of
a) Active State
b) Passive State lateral earth pressure have been proposed on the basis of Coulomb's theory.
Fig. 9.12 • The most important methods are:
Graphical method: (i) Culmanp's method
(ii) Rebhann's construction
9.5. Co lomb's Earth Pressure Theory: Instead of analysing the stresses
on a sod element, Coulomb considered the equilibrium of the failure soil Analytical method: (i) Trial wedge method.
wedge as a whole. The major assumptions in Coulomb's theory are: For detailed descriptions of these methods, the reader may refer to any
(i) The soil is dry, homogeneous and isotropic · standard text-book of Soil Mechanics. However the application of these
(ii) The failure surface formed due to the yieldi g of the wall · 1 methods have been iJlustrated in this chapter by a number of worked-out
surface. ts a p ane problems.
( ii) The failure wedge is a rigid body. Some of the special techniques required to enable us to solve more
(tv) The backface of the wall is rough. complex problems involving external loads, or irregularities in the shape of
(v) The resultant thrust acts on the backface of the wall at one-th' d the waJJ or the ground surface. have also been dealt with.
height and is inclined to the normal on the wall at this point at n
angle b , where, - . EXAMPLES
b = angle of wall friction. Problem 9/A 5 m high rigid retaining wall bas to retain a backfill of dry,
. Based on this theory, the lateral earth pressure can be determined by the cobesionless soil having the foJJowing properties:
:tal and error method. As the location of the actual failure surface is not cp - 30", e • 0.74,0 • 2.68, f.4 .. 0.36.
nown, a.number fpotential failure surfaces are chosen and the lateral earth
pressure ts det rmmed for each of them. The one for which the Ia teral thrust (i) Plot the distribution of lateral earth pressure on the wall.
reac es a certa.m extreme value (minimum for activ e state and maximum for (ii) Detennine the magnitude and point of application of the resultant
passtve state) ts accepted as the true failure surface :md the corr d· thrust
1 t 1 th · · ' espon mg (iii) Compute the percent change in the lateral thrust if tlie water table
a era rust ts accepted as the active or passive th r ust, as the case may be.
rises from a great depth to the top of the backfill.
9.5.1 Wallfriction: The concept of wall friction is illustrated in p1·g 9 12(a)
and (b). · · I
Solution: (i) Bulk density of the dry backfill,

I .·
226 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Earth Pressure
221
Ofw (2.68) (1.0) 3
Yd = "'
1
+ 0_ 74 = 1.54 t/m . Problem 9.2. A retaining wall with a smooth, vertical backface bas to retain
2
As the wall is rigid, the lateral pressure exerted by the backfill is earth a sand backfill upto a height of 4.5 m. A unifonn surcharge of 5 t/m is placed
pressure at rest. . over the backfill. The water table is at 2 m below G.L. The specific gravity
of solids and the void ratio of the backfill are 2.68 and 0.82 respectively. The
Co-efficient of earth pressure at rest, soil above the water table bas a degree of saturation of 10%. The angle of
internal friction of the soil, both above and below water table, is 30".
Ko = 1 I! "' 1 .3 36 = 0.5625
Detennine the magnitude and point of application of the resultant active
At the top of the wall (z = 0), Po = 0 thrust on the wall.
At the base of the wall (z - 5 m), Po - Ko yz Solution: Bulk density of the soil above water table,
G + se
= (0.5625) (1.54) (5.0) y = 1+ e Yw
2
= 4.33 t!m
2.68 + (0.10) (0.82) (1) = 1.517 t/m3
The distribution oflateral earth pressure is shown in Fig. 9.13. 1 + 0.82
(ii) Resultant lateral thrust on the wall (considering unit width), Submerged density of the soil below water table,
G - 1 2.68 - 1 . 3
1 2 Ysub = T""+e""Yw = + 0. 82 (1) = 0.923 t/m
Po= 2,K0 yH 1
Co-efficient of active earth pressure,
2
"' (112) (0.5625) (1.54) (5.0) 1 - sin 30" 1
• 10.83 t perm run Ka .. 1 + sin 30" = 3·
The resultant thrust is applied at a height of 5/3 = 1.67 m above the base 2
oftbewalL Active pressure due to surcharge= Ka q = ( ) (5.0) ,. 1.67 t/m
(iii) Ifthe water table rises to the top of the backfill, the soil will get.fully Active pressure at B due to moist soil above water table
submerged. .

Ysub G - 1
= T+e·Yw • (2.68
1
1)
+ 0.-74 (1) = 0.965 tim
2 = K!!yz • (j) (1.517)(2) = 1.01 t/m
2
•

Active pressure at C due to submerged soil

Resultant thrust
1K
= 2 oYsub
H2 1 H2
+ 2,Yw = Ka Ysub Z • (j) 2
(0.923) (2.5) = 0.77 t/m .

= (112) (5.0)2 [(0.965) (0.5625) + Lateral pressure exerted by water

. . . 2
= • (1 (2.5) = t/m .
• 19.28 t perm run
YwZ ) 2.5
Per cent increase in lateral thrust The pressure distribution diagram is shown in Fig. 9.14.
19.28 - 10.83 The resultant active thrust is equal to the area abcde. For convenie
100%
10.83 X
this area is divided into a number of triangles and rectangles .Considering
= 78%.
4·33
t/m2
-t width of the wall,

Fig. 9.13
i
l.
I

·i t
 Earth Pressure 229
228 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Solution: Co-efficient of active earth pressure,
2
2
A cos (3 - Vcos (3 _:. cos cj>
K0 • COS p 2 2
cos + Vcos (3 - cos cp
2 2

r
2·m ... (cos
10
.) cos 10" - Vcos 10" - cos2 32"

cos 10" + Vcos2 10" - cos

32"
= 0_ 296

t
2·5m
P1
Resultant thrust, PA
1
.. 2 Ka yH
2

- (k)(0.296) (1.82) (5) 2

y
j_
a
= 6.734t/m
This thrust is inclined at 10" to the horizontal (i.e., acts parallel to the
ground surface) and is applied at a height of 5/3 = 1.67 m above the base of
(a) the wall.
Problem 9.4. A retaining wall with a smooth vertical back has to retain a
Fig. 9.14 backfill of cohesionless soil upto a height of 5 m above G.L. The soil has a
void ratio of 0.83 and the specific gravity of soil solids is 2.68. The water
pl - (1.67)(4.5) .. 7.51 t Y1 = 4.5(2 = 2.25 m table is located at a depth of 2m below the top of the backfdl. The soil above

p2 - (k) (1.01) (2) .. 1.01 Y2 = 2.5 + 2!3 = 3.17 m

the water table is 20% saturated. The angle of internal frictionofthe soil above
and below water table are found to be 32" and 28" respectively. Plot the
distribution of active earth pressure on the wall and detennine the magnitude
p3 - (1.01) (2.5) - 2.52 t Y3 = 2.5/2 = 1.25 m and point of application of the resultant thrust.

P4 • (k) (0.77 + 2.5)(2.5) • 4.09 t y 4 = 2.5/3 = 0.83 m Solution: Bulk density of the soil above water table,
G + se
:. Resultant thrust PA,• P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 Y • 1 + e . Yw
• 15;13 t perm run.
The point of application of this thnASt above the base of the wall may be
• 2.68 t 0 ! 0.83) (1) .. 1.55 t/m3
obtained from eqn. (9.11). Submerged density of the r.oil below water table, -
y - (7.51) (2.25) + (1.01) (3.17) + (2.52) (1.25) + (4.09) (0.83) G - 1 2.68 - 1 3
15.13 Ysub • y:;e ·Yw 1"" _ + (1) •
0 83
26.64 17 0.92 t/m
• 15.13 • · 6 m. Active earth pressure above water table:
1 - sin 32"
Problem 9.3/A 5 m high masonry retaining wall has to retain a backflll of Co-efficient of active earth pressure, K01 - + sin 32• • 0.307
1
sandy soil\fving a unit weight of 1.82gm/ cc and an angle ofintemal friction
AtA (z • 0), PA • 0
of 32". The surface of the backfill is inclined at an angle of 10" to the
2
horizontal. Determine the magnitude and point of application of the active AtB (z • 2 m),pB • Ka y Zt • (0.307)(1.55) (2) • 0.95 t/m
1
thrust o n th e w all.
,.---------
230 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Earth Pressure
231
Active pressure below water table: In this case the upper layer (i.e., the
moist soil above water table) should be treated as a uniform surcharge, for Problem U' For the retaining wall shown in Fig. 9.16 (a), plot the
which the intensity q is equal to the self-weight of the layer. distribution of active earth pressure and determine the magnitude and point
.. q = y z1 = (1.55) (2) = 3.10 tim2 of application of the resultant active thrust.
" Now, Ka = 1 - sin 28" = 0.361
. •
•
1 + sm 28
2

At B (z' -= 0}, PB = Ka q = (0.361) (3.10) = 1.12 tim 2 A Loose Sand

2 (1!=1·64t/m3,q,= 2 )
AtC(z' =3m), Pc = K 02 q + K02 Ysubz' + YwZ' B Loose Sand
= 1.12 + (0.361) (0.92) (3) + (1)(3) (¥sat= 1·8 t/m3,4>= 2 tl
= 1.12 + 0.99 + 3
Dense Sand
.. 5.11 tim 2 . (Ysat = 2·05t/m 3,
The pressure distribution diagram is shown in Fig. 9.15 (b) ¢=3tl
Now, P1 = (k) (2) (0.95) = 0.95 tim y 1 ,{. 3 + 2i3 = 3.67 m

P2 = (1.12) (3) = 3..36 tim y2 = 3i2 = 1.5 m

(a)
P3 • (k) (0.99 + 3) (3) • 5.98 tim y3 = 3i3 = 1m
Fig. 9.16
(b)

.. Resultant thrust PA = P1 + Pz + P3
Solution: Active pressures exerted by various strata are as follows:
= 10.29 t per m run.
Stratum 1:
- ... (0.95) (3.67) + (3.36) (1.5) + (5.98) (1)
y
10.29 . K .. 1 - sin 25: = 0.406
= 1.41 m
0
1 1 + sin 25
.. The resultant thrust of 10.29 t perm run is applied at 1.41 m above PA = 0
the base of the wall. 2
PB = K 0 Yt H1 = (0.406) (1.64) (1.0) = 0.67 t/m
A 1

Stratum II: This stratum is fully submerged. While computing the active
7(;8
earth pressure in this region, stratum I is to be treated as a unifonn surcharge
1 of intensity ql> where,
q1 = y 1 H1 = (1.64) (1.0) = 1.64 tim2 •
K _ 1 - sin 22" ... 0.4

l
3m (
t
Now, 0
2 1 + sin 22"
55

Pc ..,; K-a 2 2

2
PB = Ka ql (0.455) (1.64) = 0}5 tim .
2
1·12 3·0tJm2 .ql + Ka y'z Hz + Yw Hz
(a) ,., 0.75 + (0.455) (1.80 - 1.0} (1.2) + (1.0) (l.2)
Fig.9.15 l b)
232 Problems in Soil Mechanic,s and Foundation Engineering Earth Pressure
233
• 0.75 + 0.44 + 1.2 = 2.39 t/m2
Stratum ill: Equivalent surcharge Hence the resultant active thrust of 10.315 t perm run is applied at 1.409
m above the base of the wall.
q2 Y1H1 + Y'2H2
ProblemJ.Y.(' A retaining wall with a smooth vertical backface has to retain
- (1.64) (1.0) + (1.80 - 1.0) (1.2) a backfill of c - q, soil upto 5 m above G.L. The surface of the backfill is
• •,2.60t/m2.
horizontal and it has the following properties:
3 2
K • ): - sin 32" , • 0.307 y "' 1.8 t/m , c "' 1.5 t/m , q, = 12•'-
0
3 1 + sin 32•· Jj}-1>Iot the distribution of active earth pressure on the wall.
· etermine the magnitude and point of application of active thrust
etermine 'the depth of the zone of tension cracks.
Pc • qz + Yw H2
(iv') Detennine the intensity of a fictitious uniform surcharge, which, if
- (0.307) (2.60) + (1.0) (1.2) placed over the backfill, can prevent the formation of tension cracks.
(v) Compute the resultant active thrust after placing the surcharge.
• 0.80 + 1.2 - 2.00 tlm2•
PD • Pc + K, 3y'3H3 + YwH3 Solution: The wall section is shown in Fig. 9.17 (a)
- 200 + (0.307) (205 - 1.0) (23) + (1.0) (2.3)
• 2()()- + 0.74 + 23 = 5.04 t/m2•
The distribution of active earth pressure is shown 111: Fig. 9.16-(b)
Computation of forces and lever arms:
P1 .. (0.5) (1.0) (0.67) = 0.335 t/m y 1 = 3.5 + 10/3 .. 3.83 m
P2 .. (1.2)(0.75) - 0.90 t/m y 2 .. 2.3 + 1.2/2 = 2.90 m
P3 • (0.5) (1.2) (0.44) = 0.264 t/m Y3 "" 2.3 + 1.2/3 "' 2.70 m
2·94m
P4 - (0.5) (1.2) (1.2) • 0.72 t/m y4 • 2.3 + 1.2/3 • 2.70 m
P5 - (2.3).(2.0) .. 4.6 tim Ys - 2.3/2 • 1.15 m
j_g . -c
B
P6 .. (0.5) (2.3) (0.74) • 0.851 t/m Y6 .. 2.3/3 - 0.77 m 3"47t/rn1t--
P1 - (0.5) (2.3) (2.3) = 2645 t/m y 1 = 2.3/3 "' 0.77 m Ia) lb)

.. PA • zn

i -1
P; • 10.315 t/m
For a
Fig. 9.17

c - q, soil, the intensity of active earth pressure at any depth z is

n given by:

2 (P; X Y;)
1 53
Pa .E_
i-1

• •
y = :_n .. 10.315 • 1.409 m N V'J[ ;. •
Here, N+ • tan2 (45• + 12"/2) • tan2 51" "" 1.525
and, . .fNi • 1.235
At the top of the wall (z = 0),
 234 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Earth 235
Pressure
2c (1.5) = _ 2.43 tlm2. 3.7 + (1.8) (5) (2) (1.5) I 2
PA = - m ; "' - (2)1.235 = 1.525 - 1.235 = 59· 1 m

The pressure distribution diagram after placing the surcharge is shown

At the base of the wall (z = 5 m),
in Fig. 9.17 (c). The resultant active thrust in this case is given by,
(1.8) (5) (2) (1.5) = 3 .47 t/m2.
PB = 1.525 - 1.235 PA = (0.5)(5.9X5) = 14.75 t/m, applied at a height of5/3 = 1.67 m above
the base.
The pressure distribution diagram is shown in Fig. 9.17 (b).
The depth of the zone of tension crack is given by, Problem U-A'fetaining wall of 5 m height bas to retain a stratified backfill
as shown in Fig. 9.t8 (a). Find out the magnitude of total active thrust on the
2cVN;
wall and locate its point of application.
He •
y '
Solution: (i) Sandy silt layer:
H c - (2) (1.5)1.(1.235) 2 06 N+ • tan2 (45" + 20"12) .. 2.04
Or'
8 • . m.
The resultant active. thrust is given by the part abc of the pressure
distril,)ution diagram.
m;- 1.438
(2) (1.0) 2
PA = ( ) (2.94) (3.47) = 5.10
2
/ PA • - 1. ... - 1.39 tim .
438
tlm
The point of application of PAis located at 2.94/3 = 0.98 m, above the
base of the wall. v
' PB •
(1.85) (1.9)
2.04
(2) (1.0) 0 33
- 1.438 = . tim .
2

The maximum negative pressure intensity developed at the top of the He = (2) (1.0) (1.438) = 1.55 m
wall=- 2.43 t/m 2 .Evidently, the formation oftension cracks can be prevented 1.85
by placing a surcharge q on the backftll which can neutralise this negative (ii) Loose sand layer:
pressure.
1 - sin 30"
Now, after placing the surcharge q, the vertical stress av at any depth Z Ka2 • 1 + sin 30" = 0.33
is given by, Equivalent surcharge intensity, q 1 = (1.85) (1.9) = 3.51 tjm2
av = q + yz
PB "" Ka ql .. (0.33)(3.51) = 1.17 tlm2 .
- - ...(i) 2

PA- N+ m; Pc = Ka 2 ql + Ka Y2 Hz = 1.17 + (0.33) (1.72) (1.0)

2

At z = 0, PA = Ji; - JN; r = 1.17 + 0.57 = 1.74 tlm2 .

(iii) Dense sand layer:
But the magnitude of q is such that, at z = O,pA:;: 0, 1 - sin 36"
_q -0 Ka3 • 1 + sin 36" = 0.26
.. N+ ¥J.T;- Equivalent surcharge intensity,q 2 = (1.85)(1.9) + (1.72)(1.0) = 5.23 t/m2
or, q = 2c m; • (2) (1.5) (1.235) = 2
3.7 t/m . Pc ,. Ka lJ2 = (0.26) (5.23) = 1.36 t!m2
3

Again, atz .. H, PA - q + yH - _rrr- PD • Ka 3 '12 + Ka 3 YJ H3

-
N+ vN+
- 1.36 + (0.26) (1.88) (1.6)

l
236 f'roblems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Earth Pressure 237
2
= 1.36 + 0.78 • 2.14 t/m
at 10" to the horizontal. The angle of wall friction is 20". Detennine the total
Computation of forces and lever arms: lateral pressure exerted by the backfill, using:
(a)
(b) Culmann's
Rebhann's method
method.

r
1·.9m
Sandy Silt
¥= 1·85 t/m3
c = 1·0 t/m2
Solution: (a) Culmann 's method: Fig. 9.19 illustrates the solution of the
problem by Culmann's method. The procedure is explained below:
(i) The backfaceAB is drawn to a scale of 1 : 100.
cp = 20° (ii) The ground line AC, q, line BC and '\jJ line BX are drawn. Here;
+-- c
Loose Sand
.._=1-72t/m 3 ,¢=30°
'\jJ - 90" - (6 + 0) - 90" - (20" + 8") = 62".
(iii) The points Dl> D2 ,•..,D 8 are chosen on AC at equal intervals of 1
Dense Sand m. BDt, BDz, ..., BD 8 are joined.
(iv) From B, BN .L AC is drawn. Its length is measured and is found to
)' = 1·88tfm3 be 4.06m.
cP= 36°
Alternatively, BN ... BA ·cos (a. - ) = H. cos (a. -. @)
0 cos a.

(a) .. (4.0) cos (10" - 8.) ..

(b) • 4 .06 m
cos 10
Fig.9.18 (v) Considering unit width of the wall, the self-weights of various
wedges are computed. For example,
P1 • (0.5) (0.35) (0.33) • 0.06 t/m, y1 • 2.6 + 0.35/3 = 2.72 m
1
P2 = (1.17) (1.0) • 1.17 t/m, yz • 1.6 + 1.0/2 .. 2.10 m Weight of the wedgeABD1 = W1 • -·AD1 ·BN ·y
2
P3 • (0.5) (1.0) (0.57) .. 0.29 t/m, y 3 = 1.6 + 1.0/3 .. 1.93 m .. (0.5) (1.0) (4.06) (1.78) = 3.61 t perm.
P4 • (1.36) (1.6) • 2.18 t/m, Y4 • 1.6/2 = 0.80 m Weight of the wedge
P5 • (0.5) (1.6) (0.78) .. 0.62 tim, Ys = 1.6/3 .. 0.53 m ABD 2 • W2 = 2W1 • (2) (3.61) = 7.22 t/m.
n Similarly, W3 = 10.83 t/m, W4:: 14.44 t/m, Ws = 18:05 t/m .
P; • 4.32 t/m W6 = 21.66 t/m, W7 = 25.27 t/m, Ws = 28.88 t/m.
i- 1 (vi) Using a vector scale of 1 em = 3.61 t/m, the weights of various
n wedges are plotted along BC, and the points C1, C2 , •••, C8 are
(P; X Y;) obtained.
- i- 1 5.25 1216 (vii) From cl> Ct £1 II BX i& drawn to intersectBDt at Et.
y • n ... 4.32 • · m (viii) Similarly, a number oflines a.,edrawn parallel to the 1p-line BX from
P; the points Cz, C3, ..., Cg, and the corresponding intersection points
i- 1 Ez, £3, ..., Eg with B ,BD:J, ...,BDg respectively are located.
Problem 9.8. A 4 m high retaining wall has a backface inclined at a positive. (ix) The pressure curve is obtained by joining E 1> £2 , .•.,£8 by a smooth
curve.
batterangle of8". Thebackfdl (y • 1.78 t/m ,
3
q, • 30") is inclined upwards
238 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Earth 239
Engineering Pressure

..

_..... -- - ',-.
\
\ '
240 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Earth Pressure 241
(ix) A tangent to this curve JS drawn atE, such that CE denotes the
maximum ordinate of the pressure curve. BE is joined and extended
to intersect the ground line at D. BD is the failure plane.
The magnitude of the resultant active thrust is given by the distance CE,
the length of which is found to be 1.58 em.
.. PA • (1.58) (3.61) • 5.70 t/m.
(b) Rebhann's method: Fig. 9.20 illustrates the solution by Rebhann's
method. The procedure is as follows:
(i) The backface is drawn to a scale of 1 : 100.
(ii) The ground line AC, $-line BC and 1p-line BX are drawn.
(iii) A semi-circle is drawn with BC as diameter.
(iv) From A, AE II BX is drawn to intersectBC at E.
(v) FE l.BC is drawn to intersect the semi-circle at F.
(vi) With Bas centre and BF as radius, an arc FG is drawn. It intersects
BC at G.
(vii) From G, GH II BX is drawn to intersectAC at H .
(viii) With G as centre and GH as radius, an arc HI is drawn to intersect
BC at/.
(ix) HI is joined.
(x) HJ l.BC is drawn.
The total lateral thrust is now given by,
PA • weight of the soil wedge.H/G
1
- • · GI·HJ·y
2
• (0.5) (2.76) (235) (1.78) • 5.77 t/m.
Problem 9.9. A gravity retaining wall with a rough backface having a Fig. 9.21
positive batter angle of 10", has to retain a dry, cohesionless backfill upto 4.5
m above G.L. The properties of the backfill are : (ii) The ground-lineAC, +-line BD and 1p-line BX are drawn.
Here, 'P • 90 - (10. + 15•) • 65.
y • 17 kN/m ,
3
+- 25 (iii) An arbitrary pointE is taken on BD.
The top of the backfill is sloped upwards at 20" to the horizontal. The angle (iv) A semi-circle is drawn with BE as diameter.
ofwaJJ friction may be taken as 15". Determine the total active thrust on the (v) EF II AC is drawn. It intersects AB at F.
wall by Rebhann's construction. (vi) FG II BX is drawn. It intersects BD at G.
(vii) GH l.BD is drawn. It intersects the circle at H.
Solution: This problem cannot be solved by the conventional
Rebhann 's method, as the ground-line and +-line will meet at a great distance (viii) With Bas centre and BH radius, an arc HI is drawn to intersect BD
at/. ·
(·.· fl is nearly equal to+). However , certain modifications over Rebhann's (ix) Flis joined.
method will enable us to solve the problem. The solution is presented in Fig. (x) Alii FI is drawn. AI intersects AD atJ.
9.21, while the procedure is explained below :
(xi) From J, JK II BX is drawn to intersect AC at K.
(i) The backface of the wall, AB, is drawn to a scale of 1 :80. (xii) With J as centre and JK as radius, an arc KL is drawn to intersect
BD atL.
242 Problems in SoU Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Earth Pressure
243
(xiii) KL is joined.
(xiv) From K, KM .L BD is drawn. (i) The backface AB, ground line AC, cj>-line BD and ljJ-line BX are
1 drawn as usual. Here, ljJ = 90" - 10" - 15" = 65".
Now, PA = weight of the soil wedge JKL 2 ·KM ·U ·y (ii) An arbitrary pointE is taken on the cj>-line.
= (0.5) (3.0) (:3.3) (17) = 84.2 kN/m. (iii) EF II BX is drawn to intersect AC at F.
(iv) WithE as centre, au arcFG is drawn to intersect BD at G.
Problem 9.10. Determine the magnitude of the resultant active thrust exerted
(v) FG is joined. ll EFG is the pressure triangle.
by a cohesionless backfill on a 4.0 m high retaining wall having a back face
(vi) FH 1.BD is drawn.
inclined at 10" to the vertical. The top surface of the backfill is inclined to
the horizontal at 25". The unit weight and angle of internal friction of the Now, PA = weight of the wedge EFG
backfill are 1.8 t/m 2 and 25" respectively. The angle of wall friction may be 1
taken as 15". = z·GE·FH·y

Solution: In this case, the .P-line and the ground line are parallel to each = (0.5) (4.28) (3.90) (1.8)
other (since (3 = .p = 25") and will never meet each other. The final soil
wedge may be constructed anywhere on the cj>-line. = 15.02 t/m run.
With refere.nceto Fig. 9.22, the procedure is explained below: Probtem 9.11. It is required to c.onstruct a gravity retaining wall to retain a
sand backfill upto a height of 3.5 m. The wall is required to have a back face
(
which is battered at 10". The surface of the backfill has au upward slope of
8" and carries a uniform surchargf of 1 t/m 2 . The unit weight and angle of
intemal friction of the backfill are 1.80 t/m 3 and 33" respectively. Determine
the total active thrust on the wall.
Solution: As the value of angle of wall friction has not been supplied,
we will assume, 0 = .p • (213) (33") = 22"

The unifonn surcharge placed over the backfill may be replaced by an

equivalent soil layer which will exert the same vertical stress on the backfill.
The height of this equivalent soil layer is,
0
h = _q • ..!:Q_ = 0 56 m
e y 1.80 · ·
The problem can now be solved by Rebhanu's method, with a few
modifications as explained below :
(i) The back face AB, ground line A C, .P-line BC and ljJ-Iine BX are
drawn as usual.
(-ii) From A, a verticallineAA' is drawn and the distanceAA 1 is laid off
from it such that, AA 1 = he = 0.56 m.
(iii) Through A1, A1C2 is drawn parallel to the ground line to intersect
the 4> -line at Cz. AB and A 1C2 are projected backwards to meet at
Az. AzB andAzCz will now be treated as the modified backface and
the ground line respectively.
The problem is then solved by Rebhann's construction in the usual
X
manner. With reference to Fig. 9.23, the resultant active thrust,
Fig , 9.22
 Earth Pressure 245

244 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

A,'

Fig. 9.23

i·
PA "" weight of the wedge FGH • FH ·G/ ·y
\
• (112) (2.73) (2.32) (1.80) • 5.70 t perm run.
Problem 9.12. A retaining wall has to support a homogeneous backfill upto
3.6 m above G.L. A long brick wall, 375 mm thick and 3.5 m bigb, runs
parallel to the retaining wall at a horizontal distance of 2.8 m from tbe top
comer of the back of the wall. Determine the total lateral thrust on the wall,
given,
y • 1.8 t/m3 , c1> .. 30" , c • 0, a = 78" , 13 .. 6" , ll .. 15" .
Solution: Unit weight of brick masonry = 1920 kg!m 3 .
:. Self-weight of the brick wall per metre run
= (0.375) (3.5) (1920) = 2.52 t.
The brick wall acts as a concentrated linear load on the backfill. The
problem can be solved by Culmann's graphical method. The solution is
presented in Fig. 9.24 and the step-by-step procedure is stated below :
 246 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Earth Pressure 247

(i) The backface AB, ground line AC, cj>-line BC and ljJ-line BX are
drawn as usual. Here, ljJ = a - o = 78• - 15• = 63•.
(ii) A number of points, C 1, C2 , ..., Cs are chosen on the ground line and
BC 1 through BC 5 are joined. These points are chosen in such a way
that the line of action of the linear load passes through one of them.
In the present problem, these points are chosen at equal inteiVals of
1.41 Ill.
(iii) Self-weight of the trial failure wedges are now computed.
Alh.t.u d e of.each we d ge, I 1 = AB ·cos (12• - 6.) - H. cos 6•
•
cos 12
= (3.6) (cos 6")/cos 12" = 3.66 m
.·. Self-weight of each wedge= (1/2) (1.41) (3.66) (1.8) = 4.64 t/m .
Vector scale chosen: 1 em= 4.64 t/m.
(iv) Lay-otithe distances BD 1 and BDz from_BC, using the chosen vector
scale, to represent the self-weight ofABC1 andABC2 respectively.
Just after crossing C2 , the linear load comes into action, and has to
be added to the self-weightofABC 2 and all subsequent soil wedges .
From D2 Iay off the distance D2D2 ' to represent the linear load.

i.e., DzD2' = : = 0.54 m.

(v) The distances Dz'D3, D 4 and D4D5 are laid off to represent the
weight of the wedges CzBC3, C3BC4 and C4BCs respectively.
(vi) From Dl> D2 , D2 ', ..., D5 a number of lines are drawn parallel to
ljJ-Iine to intersect BCt. BC2 , ..• , BC 5 at El>Ez,Ez', ...,Es
respective] y.
(vii) The pressure curve is drawn. A tangent to this curve is drawn at
£2 ', which is the farthest point from the cj>-line.
BCz represents the potential failure plane.
By measurement, Ez' D2 ' = 1.37 em.
:. Total lateral thrust= (1.37) (4.64) = 6.36 t/m. 2 = 91.·9kN/m PA 3 =110·1 kN/m F'Ai.= PAs:
Problem 9.13. A 5 m high gravity retaining wall bas to retain a cohesionless 109·1kN/m 95·L.kN/m

backfill (y ,. 19 kN/m 3, cj> '"' 33") upto a heightof5 m. The backface of the
wall has a positive batter angle of 12", and the ground surface has an upward
inclination of 15".The angle of wall friction is 20". Determine the total active
thrust by the trial wedge method.
Solution: Fig. 9.25 (a) shows the section of the wall, drawn to scale.
Fig. 9.25
The ground lineAC and the cj> -line BD are drawn.

/
248 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Earth Pressure 249

Equal distances ACt = CtCz = ... = C4 Cs = 1.5 mare laid off from (v) At E, a tangent XEY is drawn to the curve, making it parallel to
AC. The lines BC1, BC 2 , ••• , BC 5 are joined. These are the trial failure lines. AC. The distance of this tangent from DE gives the maximum
Let W1, W2 , •.. , W5 be the self-weights of the wedges ABC!> CtBCz, ... , value of PA-
C Cs According to the construction, Wt - Wz = ... = Ws = W(say). (vi) FromE, draw EC' .J..AC'. Join BC', which now represents the
Altitude of each wedge = BN = 5.15 m. potential rupture plane.

:. wl
= (1/2) (1.5) (5.15) (19) = 73.4 kN/m. From Fig. 9.25 we get, PA = 113.5 kN/m.
For each wedge, the resultant active thrust acts at an angle b .. 20", to
the normal to the backface of the wall. EXERCISE9
Again, for the failure planes BCl> BC 2 , ..• , BC 5 , the resultant soil re-
9.1.A retaining wall of 4 m height and having a smooth vertical back has
actions R 1> R 2 , ... , R 5 are inclined to the normals on the respective planes at,
to retain a sand backfill having the following properties:
cj> ·=33·. 3
y = 1.85 t/m , cp = 30·. _
Construction of Force Triangles :
Let us consider the firSt trial wedge ABC 1.The forces acting on it are : (i) Detennine the total active thrust exerted by the backfill on the wall.
(ii) Determine the percent change in active thrust, if the water table rises
(i) Self-weight Wt (both magnitude and direction are known). from a great depth to a height of 2 m above the base of the wall.
(ii) Soil reactionR 1 (only the direction is known). [ Ans. (i) 4.93 t/m (ii) Increases by 27.2%]
(iii) Wall reaction PA (this is equal to the resultant active thrust on the 9.2. A 6 m high earth fill is supported by a retaining wall with a smooth
I
2
wall and only its direction is known). vertical backface and carries a surcharge of 30 kN/m . The angle of internal
3
Let us choose a suitable vector scale. A vertical line atb1 is drawn to friction of the fill soil is 30•, while its bulk density is 17.5 kN/m .Plot the
represent W1 in magnitude and direction. From at> a 1c 1 is drawn parallel to distribution of active earth pressure on the wall. Also determine the magnitude
and point of application of the resu: nt thrust.
the direction of PA, whilefromb 1, b 1c 1 is drawn parallel toR 1.They intersect
[ Ans. 165 kN/m, applied at 2.36 m above base]
at cl> and the force triangle a 1b1c1 is closed. OtCt now represents the lateral
9.3. A vertical retaining wall has to retain a horizontal backfill upto a
thrust for the trial failure plane BC1, in magnitude and direction. height of 4 m above G.L. The properties of the backfill are :
Force triangles for all other trial wedges are constructed in a similar c "' 0, 4> = 28", G • 2.68, w • 11%, s = 55%, 1.1 • 0.5
manner. Note that for each wedge,
If the wall is rigidly held in position, what is the magnitude of active
(i) The magnitude ofW and PA change, but their directions .do not.
thrust acting on it? [ Ans. 15.5 t/m ]
(ii) Both magnitude and direction ofR change.
9.4. With reference to Problem 3, determine the percentage changes in
In order to compute the actual value of the resultant thrust and to locate
the corresponding potential failure plane, a pressure curve is drawn as active thrust if the wall moves :
follows: (i) towards the backftll
(ii) away from the backftll
(i) At any height aboveAC, DtDsiiAC is drawn. Assume that, the lateral movement of the wall is sufficient to bring about
(ii) At c1, c2, ..., C5 the lin.es EtCh E 2 C2 , ..., EsCs are drawn a state of plastic equilibrium.
perpendicular toAC. [ Ans. (i) Reduces by 63.9% (ii) Increases by 176.9% ]
(iii) The distances£1D1> EzDz, ..., EsDs are laid off from those normals, 9.5. A masonry retaining wall, 5.5 m high, retains a backfill of cohesion-
to represent PA , PA , .•., PA to the chosen vector scale. less soil, having a horizontal top surface. The soil has an angle of internal
I 2 S
friction of27.5", a void ratio of0.83, and the specific gravity of solids is 2.65.
(iv) The points E1, E2 , •••, E 5 are joined by a smooth curve. This is the
The water table is located at 2.2 m below the top of the wall. Above the water
pressure curve.
table, the average degree of saturation of the soil is 10%. Plot the distribution
 250 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Earth Pressure

of active earth pressure and compute the magnitude and point of application (a) Deterntine the active thrust on the wall if the backfill has a horizontal
of the resultant thrust. [ Ans. 12.56 t/m applied at 1.58 m above the base] top surface. ·,
9.6. A cohesionless backfill, retained by a 5 m high retaining wall with (b) Determine the percent change in the active thrust if, instead of being
a smooth vertical back, is bounded by a horizontal surface. The water table horizontal, the backfill is now sloped upwards at an angle of 15" to the
is at 2m below the top of the wall. Above the water table, the angle of internal horizontal. ( Ans. (a) 39.52 kN/m. (b) Increases by 8.85%]
friction and bulk density of the soil are 18 kN/m 3 and 30" respective! y. Below 9.10. A masonry wall has to retain a cohesive backfill having an
2
the water table, the bulk density increases by 10% while the friction angle unconfined compressive strength of 4 t/m and a bulk density of 1.72 gm/cc.
decreases by 20%. Detennine the resultant active pressure on the wall. The overall height of the wall is 6 m. Determine :
( Ans. 97.9 kN/m] (i) the depth upto which tension cracks will be extended.
9.7. A retaining wall having a smooth vertical back retains a dry, (ii) the magnitude and point of application of the active thrust
cobesionless backfill. State, giving reasons, bow the active earth pressure ( Ans. (i) 2.32 m (ii) 11.63 kN/m at 1.23m above base]
exerted by the backf'tll will change in each of the following cases: 9.11. With reference to Problem 9.10, detennine the minimum intensity
(a) the backfill becomes saturated due to capillary water, while the of a uniform surcharge, which when placed over the backfill, will prevent the
ground water table remains beiQW the base of the wall. formation of tension cracks. [ Ans. 3.08 t/m ]
(b) the ground water table rises above the base, but there is no capillary 9.12. A 5 m high masonry retaining wall with a vertical backface retains
water. 3
a horizontal backftll of dry sand having y = 20 kN/m and 4> = 32". Compute
(c) the given backfill is replaced by a cohesionless soil having: the resultant active thrust on the wall by :
(i) same unit weight but greater angle of internal friction. (i) Rankine's theory
(ii) same angle of internal friction but greater unit weight (ii) Coulomb's theory, using the trial wedge method.
(iii) same unit weight and angle of internal friction, but having a small Which one of the results is more realistic and why?
apparent cohesion.
9.8. Compute the total active thrust and its point of application for the
( Ans. (i) 76.75 kN/m (ii) 79.3 kN/m, assuming b • i]
retaining wall shown in Fig. 9;26. The wall bas a smooth backface. 9.13. An RC.C. retaining wall, having a backface inclined to the vertical
[ Ans. 3.6 t/m, 0.90 m above the base] at 10", bas to retain a horizontal backfill of dry sand upto a height of 5.2 m.
3
The soil bas a unit weight of 17.5 kN/m and an angle of internal friction of
28". The angle of friction between soil and concrete may be taken as 18".
Clayey Sand
Determine the point of application, direction and magnitude of the active
r= 1·85tfm3 thrust Use the trial wedge method.
<1>=24° ( Ans. 98 kN/m, at 18" to the normal on the backface]
C=1tJm2
9.14. Solve Problem 9.13 graphically, using:
(i) Culmann's method.
Dense Sand (ii) Rebhann's construction.
r =-1·95tJm3 9.15. A gravity retaining wall has to retain a 6 m high backftll of dry,
<:/> = 36°
cohesionless soil (y • 19 kN/m 3 , cp = 36") having a surcharge angle of8".
Fig. 9.26 The back of the wall has a positive batter angle of 10". The backfill carries a
linear load of 5 t/m, running parallel to the wall, at a distance of 3m from the
9.9. A smooth vertical retaining wall has to retain a backfill of top of the backface, measured along the ground. Compute the total active
cohesionless soil upto a height of 4 m above G.L. The properties of the backftll thrust on the wall by Culmann's method. Locate the point of application and
are:
direction of this thrust. Assume, b • I cp. [ Ans. 155 kN/m]
252 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

9.16. ompute the total active thrust exerted by the backfl.ll on the Earth Pressure
retaining wall system shown in Fig. 9.27. Locate the position of the potential
rupture surface. q, '"' 25", G - 2.65, e "' 1.05, s • 0
The back of the wall is relatively smooth. Compute the total active earth
pressure exerted by the backfill using any suitable theory.
A few months after construction, the backfill was thoroughly compacted
and consequently, its q, -value increased to 32". However, the top surf ce of
the backfill was depressed by 80 em. Determine the percent change m the
Clean Sand total active earth pressure.
l¥=19kN/m3, 9.20. A 4 m high earth-retaining structure having a smooth vertical
backface retains a backfill having the following properties:
cj> = 33°, ( = 0 )
2
c "' 2 t/m2, q, - 22", y - 1.85 t/m
Plot the distribution of passive pressure on the wall and de rmine the
magnitude and point of application of the total lateral force.
[ Ans. 56.3 t/m ; 1.61 m above the base )
Fig. 9.27

9.17. The backfill placed behind a 5 m high masonry retaining wall

consists of a partially saturated clayey silt, having the following properties:
unit weight = 18.5 kN/m 3
cohesion= 10 kN/m 2
angle of internal friction = 21"
angle ofwall friction= 12"
adhesion between soil and wall = 8 kN/m 2
surcharge angle ofbackfl.ll = 10"
The back of the wall is inclined to the horizontal at 80". Determine the
magnitude and direction of the active thrust by the trial wedge method. Also
determine the depth to which tension cracks will be extended.
[ Ans. 27.5 kN/m run ; 1.57m]
9.18. A retaining wall, 4.5 m high and having a positive batter ang_Je of
15", bas to retain a cohesionless backfill having a unitweightof1.95 t/m and
an angle of internal friction of 31". Using Rebhann's method, determine the
magnitude of lateral thrust on the wall, if the surcharge angle of the backfl.ll
is:
(i) 10" (ii) 25" (iii) 31".
9.19. A 4 m high retaining wall with a vertical backface was CQnstructed
to retain a backfill of loose sand with a horizontal top surface flushed to the
top of the wall. Laboratory investigations revealed that the sand had the
following properties:
 Stability of Slopes 255

and, "t • az sin = yz cos sin ...(10.3)

Failure will occur if the shear stress "t exceeds the shear strength "tf of
the soil. The factor of safety against such failure is given by,

10 X

STABILITY OF SLOPES
y
10.1 Introduction: A slope in a soil mass is encountered when the
elevation of the ground surface gradually changes from a lower level to a
higher one. Such a slope. may be either natura) (in hiJly region) or man-made
(in artificially constructed embankment or excavations). T
The soil mass bounded by a slope bas a tendency to slide down. The Fig. 10.1.
principal factor causing such a sliding failure is the self-weight of the soil.
However, the failure may be aggravated due to seepage of water or seismic F • ...(10.4)
"t
forces. Every man-made slope bas to be properly designed to ascertain the
safety of the slope against sliding failure. [fohesionless soils : We have from Coulomb's equation,
Various methods are available for analysing the stability of slopes. "tf = c + a tan q,
GeneraJly these methods are based on the following assumptions :
1. Any slope stability problem is a two-dime;nsional one. For a cobesionless soil, c = 0,
2. The shear parameters of the soil are constant alonr. any possible slip .. "tf = a tan q,
surface. Substituting in eqn. (10.4)
3. In problems involving seepage of water, the flownet can be F = a tan q,
constructed and the seepage forces c.an be detem1ined. "t
10.2 Stability of Infinite Slopes: In Fig. 10.1, X-X represents an infinite Again , substituting the expressions for a and "t.
slope which is inclined to the horizontal at an angle · On any plane YY 2
(YY II XX) at a depth z below the ground level the soil properties and the E cos (3 ·tan p "'-A
tan«j) /
. .. (10.5)
F = yz costA' sm
• A
p tan p
overburden pressure are constant. Hence, failure may occur along a plane
paraJJel to the slope at some depth. The conditions for such a failure may be When q, = (3, F = 1. Thus a slope in a cohesionless soil is stable tiiJ
analysed by considering the equilibrium of the soil prismABCD ofwidth b. (3 s rovided that no external force is present.
Considering unit thickness, volume of the prism V = z b cos (ii) c - q, soils: In this case, the factor of safety against slope failure
and, weight of the prism, W .. yz b cos isg . by,
Vertical stress on YY due to the self-weight. F = c + o tan q,
"t
az =
w = yz
b cos ...(10.1) c + yz cos2 (3 tan q,
F ...(10.6)
This vertical stress can be resolved into the following two components :
or, s A .
yz cos " sm "'
A
,/
2
a = az cos = yz cos •.. (10.2)
\
Stability of Slopes 257
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

Let He be the critical height of the slope for which F = 1 (i.e, 'tf ., 't)
.. ·.
c
or, He • ---------- ---------
Y cos fi (cos fi tan 4> - sin fi)
c
or, He • ·2 · ...(10.7)
y cos fi (tan 4> - tan fi) 77777}7}}} >777 >>77>J>77J )7!J

Eqn. (10.7) may also be written as:

a) Face b) Toe c) Base
e • cos2 fi (tan fi ·- tan 4>) ...(10.8) Failure Failure Failure
y He
Fig.10.2
or, sn .. cos2 fi (tan fi - tan 4>) ...(10.9)
(atPurely cohesive soils: LetAB repr sent the sl?pe whose stability has
where, sn is a dimensionless quantity known as the stability number and is to be investigated. A trial slip circle AS 1C ts drawn wtth 0 as centre and OA
given by: = OC = R as radius.
S - c_ ...(10.10) 0
n yHe
8 )1--
If a factor of safety Fe is applied to the cohesion such that the mobilised
cohesion at a depth His,
c
-- R
----B----
cm - I
Fe ...(10.11) Q:l
I
Then, S •-- em c ...(10.12) I
yH FeyH I
n

From eqns. (10.10) and (10.12), we get, w t (.6.

c c
yHe • FeyH
-------- C=cRS
or, Fe= H = FH.
Fig. 10.3
Hence, the factor of safety against cohesion, Fe, is the same as the factor Let Wbe the weight of the soil mass AS 1CB acting vertically downwards
of safety with respect to height, FH . through the centre of gravity and c be the unit cohesion of the soil. The
10.3 Stability of Finite Slopes: In case of slopes of limited extent, three self-weigllt tends to cause the sliding while the shear resistance along the
types of failure may occur. These are: face failure, toe failure and base failure plane AS 1C counteracts Jt.
(Fig. 10.2 a, band c respectively). Now, arc length AS 1 C • R ·9
Various methods of analysing the failure of finite slopes are discussed below. where, 9 ,.. LAOC (expressed in radians)
10.4 Swedish Circle Method: In this method, the surface of sliding is
assumed to be an arc of a circle.
258 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering 259
Stability of Slopes

.. Total shear resistance along the plane AS 1 C = R 9 c

0
R estoring moment = shear resistance x lever ann
or MR = R ec x R = w7 e c ...(10.13)
Considering unit thickness of the soil mass,
W=A · l·y=Ay
where, y = unit weight of the soil
A = cross-sectional area of the sector AS 1CB.
The areaA c n be detennined either by using a planimeter or by drawing
the figure to a proper scale on a graph paper and cotmting the number of
divisions of the graph paper covered by the area.
Now, disturbing moment, Md • W ·d
where, d = lever imn of W with respect to 0.
The distance dmay be detennined by dividing the area into an arbitrary
number of segments of small width, and taking momt nts of all these segments
about 0.
Thus, the factor of safety against slope failure,
2
F = MR = cR 9 ...(10.14) Fig. I0.4
MD Wd
C = C ·Ia
A number of trial slip circles are chosen and the factor of safety with
respect to each of them is computed. A curve is then plotted to show the where, c = unit cohesion,
variation of factor of safety with various slip circles {the curve F1 F2 F3 in /
0
= average length of slice
Fig. 10.11). The slip circle corresponding to the minimum factor of safety is (;ii) Lateral thrust from adjacent slices,EL and ER. In simplified analysis
identified from this curve. This is the potential slip surface, and the it is assumed that, EL .. ER . Hence the effects of these two forces are
corresponding factor of safety is the factor of safety against failure of the slope
AB . neglected. · . .
(iv) Soil re.a<:tion R across the arc. According to the laws of fnctton, when
(b) Cohesive frictional soils: With reference to Fig. 10.4, a trial slip the soil is about to slide, R will be inclined to the normal at an angle ·
circleAS 1C is taken and the sector AS 1CB is divided into a number of vertical (v) The vertical stresses, Vr and VR,which are equal and opposite to each
slices, preferably of equal width. The forces acting on each slice are: other and hence ne.ed not be considered.
(i) Self-weight, W, of the slice, acting vertically downwards through the The weight W is resolved into a normal component Nand a tangential
centre of gravity. Considering unit thickness of the slice, component T. For some of the slices Twill enhance the failure, for the oth rs
W • y X b0 X 10 ...(10.15) it will resist the failure. The algebraic sum of the nonnal and tangenttal
where, ba and'ta represent the average height and length of the slice components are obtained from:
L T = L (W sin a) ...(10.17)
respective!y. ·"
and, LN = L (W cos a) ...(10.18)
(ii) The cohesive force, C, acting along the arc in a direction opposing
Now, driving moment, Mn = R IT ...(10.19)
the probable motion of the sliding soil.
260 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Stability of Slopes 261

and, Restoring moment, MR -= R [cIA l + IN tan cj>) (iv) From B, draw BP, making it inclined to the horizontal at az. BP and
AP intersect at P, which is a point on the desired line PQ.
But IAI = totallengthofarcAS 1C • R9
(v) The other pomt Q is located at a depth H below the toe of the slope
MR '"' R ( c R 9 + IN tan cj> ) ...(10.20) and at a horizontal distance of 4.5 H away from it. Locate this point and join
:. Factor of safety, PQ. The centre of the critical slip circle will be located on PQ.

MR R [ c R e + IN tan cj> ] Table 10.1

F • MD • RIT Slope Slope angle( ) Vahtes of angles
/' p • cR 9 + IN tan t (V:H)
or, al az
...(10.21)
V IT
A number of trial slip circles should be considered and the factor of safety 1 :0.58 60" 29" 40"
for each should be determined. The one corresponding to the minimum factor 1 :1 45" 28" 37"
of safety is the critical slip surface. 1 : 1.5 26" 35"
33"48'
10..5 Method of Locating the Centre of the Trial Slip Circle: The number
1:2 26"36' 25" 35"
of trials required to find out the critical slip circle can be minimised by an
empirical method proposed by Fellenius. According to him, the centre of the 1:3 18"24' 25" 35"
critical slip circle is loc-ated on a straight line PQ, which can be obtained as
1:5 11"18' 25" 27"
follows:
(i) Draw the given slope AB and determine the slope angle, ·
10.8 Friction Circle Method: This method is based on the assumption that
(ii) Determine the values of the angles a1 and az (Fig. 10.5) from Table the resultant forceR on the rupture surface is tangential to a circle of radius
10.1.
y .. R sin cj> which is concentric with the trial slip circle. Various steps
(iii) FromA, drawAPat an angle ofa 1 to AIJ. involved are givefrbclow:
1. Draw the given slope to a chosen scale.
2: -5deet -a tr-ial .slip circle of radius R, the centre of which is located at
0 (Fig. 10.6 a)
3. Computer(.. R sin cj>) and draw another circle of radius r, with 0 as
the centre.
TH
4. Now consider the equilibrium of the sliding soil mass under the
following ·forces:
(i) Self-weight W of the sector ABCD.
(ii) The cohesive force C along the plane ADC, the magnitude and
direction of which can be computed as follows:
Let c be the unit cohesion. The arc ADC is divided into a number of
c
small elements. Let c1, 2 , .....,en be the mobilised cohesive forces along
them.
The resultant C of these forces can be determined by drawing a force
polygon.
-t---------'- 4·SH Now, the mobilised unit cohesion, em'• is given by:
Fig. lO.S
 262 Pr blems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Stability of Slopes 263

(i) Draw-a vertical line ab to represent W (Fig. 10.6 (b)).

(ii) From a draw ac, making it parallel to the line of action ofFR •
(iii) From b drop a perpendicular bd on ac. The line bd now represents,
in magnitude and direction, the cohesive force CR required to maintain the
equilibrium of the soil massABCD along the chosen slip circle.
6. Determine the unit cohesion c,.required for stability from :
c
C· =- ...(HL26)
r Le
7. The factor of safety w.r.t. cohesion is now obtained from :
0 \f1 F =
actual cohe iotl = .£. ...(l0. 27)
I
F I
e required cohesion c,
I 8. The factor of safety w.r.t. shear strength can be obtained as follows:
\ (i) Assume a certain factor of safety with respect to the angle of
w internal friction. Let it be Fq,· The mobilised angle of intemal friction is then
_A(
given by:
em tan q,
(a) ...(10.28)
(b) tan q,m .. Fq,
Fig.l0.6
(ii) Draw a new friction circle with 0 as centre and r' as radius, where,
, c r' = R sin q,m ...(10.29)
c =- ...(10.22)
m Fe
(iii) The factor of safety w.r.t. cohesion Fe is then obtained by fonning
where, Fe= factor of safety with respect to cohesion.
anoth r triangle of forces. Compare F c and F cjl· If they are different, go for
The cohesive force is given by a11other trial.
(iv) In this manner, adjust the radius of the circle until Fcjl and Fe
...(10.23) become equal to each other. This value is then accepted as the factor of safety
for shear strength of the soil w.r. t. the given trial slip circle.
But, summing up the moments of all forces about o and equating to zero, 10.9 Taylor's Stability Number: Taylor carried out stability analysis of a
we get,
large itumber of slopes having various heights, slope angles and soil
C ·L 0 • R = C ·Le ·a ...(10.24) properties. On the basis of the results, he proposed a simple method by which
the factor of safety of a given finite slope can be easily detennined with
where, a = perpendicular distance of line of action of C from the centre of
reasonable a curacy. Taylor introduced a dimensionless parameter, called
the slip circle.
Taylor's Stability Number, which is given by,
a ...(10.25) /s,.=F c H ...(10.30)
eY
(iii) The other force is the soil reaction F, which is ssumed to be The value of S, may be obtained from Fig. 10.7.
tangential o the friction circle.
S. Draw the triangle of forces in the following manner :
 265
Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Stability of Slopes
264

0·16

0·14
1 0·15
c: t
Vl
c:
(./)
L..- .: 0·12
Cll
.J:l
a.
.0 E
E
:J z
::1

z 0·10
..>...- :.0
0•10
1 :3
.J:l ......
Vl
..1..:.3.
Vl

0 ·05

0·06 -----lf-----t----+----+---1
'!
0·05 L
1 _j2L-----L3----L-4 --_...JSL---6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
90
Slop/Angle !Degrees)- Oe pth Factor ,nd---
Fig.10.8
Fig.10.7
where, D • Depth of bard stratum below toe
The stability numbers are obtained for factor of safety w.r.t. cohesion, H = Height of slope above toe.
while the factor _ of safety w.r.t. friction, F +is initially taken as unity. Fig. 10.8 consists of a family of curves for various slope angles. Each
curve consists of two parts. The portions drawn with firm lines are applicable
The values of Sn obtained from Fig. 10.7 are applicable for slip circles
passing through the toe. However for slopes made in cohesive soils oflimited to field conditions illustrated in Fig. 10.9 (a), while the portions drawn with
depth and underlain by a bard stratum, the critical slip circle passes below the broken lines are meant for the conditions shown in Fig. 10.9 (b).
The figure also consists of a third set of curves, shown with broken lines,
toe. In such cases, the value of Sn should be obtained from Fig. 10.8. In this
fon·uious values of n, where n represents the distance x of the rupture circle
figure, the depth factor plotted along the x-axis is defined as :
from the toe, as illustrated in Fig. 10.9 (a), and is given by,
D+ H
ntl • H ...(10.31) X
n =-
H
 Stability of Slopes 267
266 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

(a) (b)

Fig. 10.9

EXAMPLES
Problem lod A slope of infinite extent is made in a dense sand layer at y Flow Lines
an angle of 30• to the horizontal. Detennine the factor of safety of the slope
against shear failure if the angle of internal friction of the soil be 36•. Fig.lO.lO
Solution: With reference to Fig. 10.1, XX represents the given slope,
while YY is a plane parallel to it at a depth z. line PQ represents one suet equipotential line, which intersects }Y at P.
Hence, the piezometric head at Pis given by PR.
Vertical stress on ITdue to overburden,
From geometry of the figure, PR = PQ cos
a.:= yz
and, PQ = zcos
where, y = unit weight of the soil 2
2
PR = zcos
Normal st.ress on IT, a = az cos ( = slope angle) ?
Therefore, neutral pressure at P = Yw z cos-
Shear stress on IT, 't = az cos sin 13
Now. total vertical stress at P due to overburden,
Shear strength of the soil on the plane YY,
az = Ysat Z
?
'tf = a tan cj> • az cos- tan cj> • ? ?
Total normal stress at P, a= azcos- = Ysa 1 zcos-
But, factor of saftey agaii:st shear failure,
'tf az c% 2 tan cj> tan cj>
Shear stress at P, 't = az cos sin = Ysat z cos sin
Fs = - = -=----::---:---::- Effective nom1al stress at P = total normal stress- neutral stress
't a2 cos silt tan ') ?
or, a' = Ysat · z cos- - Yw z cos-
= tan 36• = 2
1 258 2
an 30• · · = Z cos (Ysat - Yw) = Ysub Z cos ·
Problem 10
I A slope. indined at 16• to the horiwntal is to be made in
a cohesionless deposit having the following properties :
G = 2.70, e = 0.72, cj> = 35•,
However, the shearing stress is entirely intergratmular.
.. Shear strength of the soil on YY,
Detennine the factor of safety of the slope against shear failure ifwater 2
'tf = a' tau cj> = Ysvb z cos (3 tau cj>
percolates in a direction parallel to the surface of the slope.
.. · Factor of safety against shear f&ilure,
Solution: The given conditions are shown in Fig. 10.10. ·· 2
YYis a plane located at a derth zbelow the slope. As water percolates in Fs = Ysub z cos tan cj> Ysub tan cj>
=
a directio:.1 parallel \0 the slope, all flow lines must be parallel to the slope. =-----,----::- = Ysat tan
Therefore, all equipotential lines should be perpendicular to the slope. The 't Ysat z cos sin
 269
268 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Stability of Slopes

•G + e .. (2.70 + 0.72) (1.0} _ I 3

Now, Ysat 1988
1 + e Yw (1 + 0.72) - . . t m
3
Ysub = 1.988 - 1 = 0.988 tim
F • (0.988) (tan 35") •
s (1.988) (tan 16") 121
·
Problem 10.3 A slope of 35" inclination and 6 m vertical hei ht is to
be made in a purely cohesive soil having a unit weight of 1.85 t/m and a
cohesion of 6 t/m2 . Determine the factor of safety of the slope against sliding
failure.
Solution : The problem will be solved by the Swedish circle method .
The solution is presented in Fig. 10.11 and the procedure is explained below:
(i) The given slope AB is drawn to a scale of 1:200.
(ii) The values of a1 and for :"" 35" are determined from Table
1
10.1 by making linear interpolation between = 33"48 and .. 45". The
following values are obtained :
a1 - 26.2", • 35"
(iii) The point Q, lying at a depth of H = 6 m below A and at a linear
distance of 4.5 H = 27 m from A is located.
(iv) From A and B, two straight Jines AP and BP are drawn such that, 6m
LPAB • 26.2", and LHBP = 35"
AP and BP intersect at P.
(v) PQ is joined. The centre of the critical slip circle should be located
on this line.
(vi) PB is measured and found to be 4. 6 m.On projected PQ, two more
1-------------- 27·Sm
4.6
= 2 • 2.3 m.
, I U I I II

pomts P and P are taken such that, PP • P P Fig.lO.ll

1

PA, P'A and P"A respectively as radius. The factor of safety with respect to moment or each SrICC are determined These are tabulated below :
each circle is determined separately. , Area Weight Lever Mome
Slice Width Average length nt
Fig. 10.11 shows the determination of Fs with respect to the first trial (yxA x 1) arm aboutP
No. aboutP
slip circle, having its centre at P.
(t) (m) (t-m)
The procedure is stated below : (m) (m) (m2)

2.2 4.07 3.7 -15.06

The first 6 slices have a width of 2 m each while the width of the 7th slice is 1 2.0 0+ 2.2 -1.1
2.2m. 2
 271
270 Problems in Soil Mec;hanics and Foundation Engineering Stability of Slopes

Problem 10.4 A 10 m deep cut, with the sides inclined at so· to the
Slice Width Average length Area Weight Lever Moment horizontal · has to be made at a site where the subsoil conditions are as follows:
No. (y X A X 1) arm about P ' 3 2
y (kN!m
about P No. Depth (m) Type of soil ) cp(") c (kN!m )
(m) (m) (m2) (t) (m) (t-m)

0-4 Very soft clay 17.5 0 12

2 2.0 2.4 + 4.0 = 3.1 6.2 11.47 1.7 -19.50 1
2 18.0 0 35
2 4-7 Medium clay
3 2.0 4.0 + 5.3 9.3 17.21 0.3 5.16 19.0 0 68
= 4.65 7- 14 Stiff day
3
2
2.0 14- 00 Rock - - -
4 5.3 + 6.3 11.6 21.46 2.3 49.36 4
= 5.8
2
Compute the factor of safety of the slope with respect to a probable base
5 2.0 6.3 + 5.6 11.9 22.01 4.3 94.64
failure along a slip circle of 13.5 m radius.
=5.95
2 Solution: Fig. 10.12 illustrates the given conditions. The problem can
6 2.0 5.6 + 3.9 9.5 17.58 6.3 110.75 be solved by the Swedish circle method.
= 4.75 CDGE represents the slip circle of radius 13.5. 0 is the centre of this
2
circle. As the slip circle passes through three different layers, the failure
7 2.2 4.29 7.94 8.4 66.70
3.9 +
0
- =1.95

LM = 292.05 t-m
. . Disturbing Moment, MD = 292.05 t-m
Again, restoring moment, MR = c R 2 .0
Here, c = 2.5 t/m2
l'3= 19 kN/m3
R = PA = 9.9m 7m C3=26 kN/Ilf
8 = LAPD = 102S = 1.789 radian
(2.5) (9. ) (1.789) .. 438.35 t-m
MR ""
M
43835
Factor of safety= !!_ = Rock
MD 292.05 = l.SO
In a similar manner, the factor of safety of the slope w.r.t. the two other
' Fig.l0.12

wedge consists of three different zones. Let Wl> Wz and W3 be the weights of
slip circles (having their centres at p' and P") are detennined and are found
the three zones and x 1, x 2 and x3 be the corresponding lever arms about 0.
to be 1.55 and 1.66 respectively. A curve representing the variation of factor
of s fe.ty is then_ plotted. _The minimum factor of safety of the slope, as From B, draw BI .l HF. Zone 1 may now be divided into the triangle
obtaJ ed from thts curve, ts 1.45. The corresponding critical slip circle will BHI and the rectangle BIFE
have Jts centre located at P 0• Weight of fl.BHI • (0.5) (17.5) (3.3) (4.0) kN = 115.5 kN.
272 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering 273
Stability of S lopt•s
Weightofsector BIFE = (17.5) (6.5) (4.0) kN = 455 kN. As the slipcirde passes through three different soil layers, the resisting.
.. W1 .. 115.5 + 455 - 560.5 kN. force consists of the cohesive forces mobilised along. the three segments ot
X .. (115.5)(7.2 - 3.3/3) + (455)(7.2 + 6.5/2) the slip circle. The corrcsp;)nding angles arc shown in the figure.
1 560.5 74
= 9·· m. Therefore, total restoring moment
2
The second zone HFGJ is assumed to be a parallelogram, the centroid of = c
1R
20 + c
1 2 R 2 82 + c3 R 83
which lies at the intersection ofthe diagonals.
W2 = (18) (10.6) (3) • 572.4 kN = R 2 (c 1 0 1 + c2 82 + c3 83)
1t
xz = 7.5 m (by measurement) = (13.52) [(26) (101.5) + (36) (14.2) + (78) (16.2)] 180
'In order to find out W3 and x3, zone Ill is divided into 7 slices. The area, = 14039.69 kN-m.
lever a:nn and moment of each slice about 0 are determined. These are
Factor of safety along the given slip circle
tabulated below :
= 14039.69 = 1.09
Slice idth Average length Area Weight Lever Moment 12906.19
No. (m) (m) (m2) (kN) arm aboutO Problem 10.5 A slope of 1 V: 2 His to be made in a silty cJay having
about 0 (kN- m) an angle of intemal friction of s· and a cohesionof 0.25 kg/cmw. The unit
(m) weight of the soil is 1.85 gm/cc, and the depth of cut is 8 m. Compute the
factor of safety of the slope by the Swedish cirde method.
3.5 4.55 . 96.3 7.6 -731.8
1. 21 (0 + 2.6) = 1.3 Solution: The given slope is shown in Fig. 10.13 (a). The n":e fa
trial slip circle is located by Fellenius' method. !fle sliding we ge t dtvtded
2. 3 1 . 9.45 179.5 4.6 -S25.7 into 7 slices. The first five slices have equal wtdth of 4 m, whtle shce no. 6
2(2.6 +3.7)=3.15 and 7 are 2.8 m wide each. The average length of each slice is measured.
3. 2 3.7 7.4 140.6 2.1 -295.3
4. 3 15.9 302.1 0.4 120.8
(3.7 + 6.9) = 5.3

5. 3 1 19.5 370.5 3.4 1259.7

6. 3 1 .. 15.9 302.1 6.4 1933.4

7. 4 1 9.0 171.0 9.9 1692.9

IM=3153.9
W3 X X3 .. 3153.9kN -m

Now, total disturbing moment - wl Xt + Wz Xz + w3 x3

- (560.5)(9.74) + (572.4) (7.5) + 3153.9
. = 12906.19

Fig . 10.13 (a)

274 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Stability of Slopes 275

In this mamwr, tht nonnal and tangential components for each slice are
determined Tht rt·sults are tabulated below :
Slice No. Width Average Weight N T
(m) length (m) (t) (l) (t)

1 4 2.4 17.76 14.7 -10.1

2 4 6.2 45.88 44.7 -9.9
3 4 8.7 64.38 64.4 0
4 4 10.3 76.22 73.8 19.4
5 4 9.65 71.41 62.3 34.6
6 2.8 8.4 43.51 30.1 31.2
7 2.8 3.6 18.7 10.1 15.9
H
' L W = 337.9t, LN = 255 .4t, L T = 81.1 t
It should ht• noted that, as the width of slices 6.and 7 are 70% of that of
the other slices, tht length of the vertical.lines representing w7 and w6 are
4·5 H 70';'i. of the average length of slice no. 6 and 7 respectively.
The factor of safety of the slope w.r.t. the slip circle under consideration
Fig . 10.13 (b)
may now be determined using eqn. (10.24):
The weight of any slice may now be determined as : F = c R 8 + L N tan tj>
W =width x average length x unit weight of soil s LT
The self-weight is assumed to act along the central vertical line through By measurement, R = 15.8 m,
each slice, and not through its geometrical centre. The normal and tangential (115) 3t
components N and T respectively, of the self-weight are determined by and, e = us· - 180rad. = 2.007 rad.
constructing a triangle of force. An easy method of doing this is explained
here with reference to the slice no. 4. F (2.5) (15.8) (2.007) + (255.4) (tan 5•) "' 1.
s .. 81.1 25
Draw the central vertical line through the middle of the slice (shown with
a broken line). Measure its length. Extend the line and lay-off an equal length In order to locate the critical slip circle, i.e., the slip circle with the
from i.t. This new line now represents the self-weight W4 in magnitude and minimum factor of safety, proceed as follows :
direction. The corresponding vector scale used is (i) Measure. the distance PofJ, Let it beL.
1em = width of slice x unit weight of soil (ii) With Po as centre fonp. a grid consisting of 9 points such that the
length of each side of the grid = L/2.
= (4) (1.85) = 7.4 t/m (iii) Draw trial slip circles taking each of these 9 points in tum as the
In order to construct the force triangle, join the centre of the slip circle centre. Compute the factor of safety of the slope for each slip circle.
to the mid-point of the bottom of slice. Extend this radial line and drop a (iv) Plot the values of Fs thus obtained for each grid point and draw
perpendicular on it from the terminal point of the line representing w4. The contour lines for different values of F5. The slip circle having the minimum
nonnal componentN 4 and tangential component T4 are now detennined from
value of Fs can be detennined from this contour. The corresponding value of
the force triangle. ·
Fs is the factor of safety of the slope.

I
 277
Stability of Slopes
276 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Through the poi 1t of intersection of Wand C, draw a straight line making
it tangent to the friction circle. This line represents the third force F.
.The proc.es.s is illustrated in Fig. 10.13 (h). It is found that the slip circk Choose a vector scale and draw 1 straight line to represent W in
havmg the mmunum factor of safety is tht one drawn with Po as the centre.
magnitude and direction . Using the known lines of actiou of C and F,
Thus, Fellenius' method yields an accurate result in this case. The factor of
complete the force triangle and determine the magnitude of C from it.
safety of the slope is found to be 1.25. ·
The. value of C obtained here is 41 t. 2
Pr blem 10. A .12m high cmb nknu n has sid; lop s of 1 V: 2 H. c = C = - 1.12 t/m
!he sod as. a umt ':'eight of 1.8 t/m , coht'sJon of 1.5 t/m- and angle of Mobilised cohesion, m L 36.49 -
mternal fnct10n of 15 .Determim the factor ofsafdy of tht' slopt with n spt·ct The factor of safety with respect to cohesion is,
to any chosen slip circle. Use the friction circle method.
Solution: The slope is drawn in Fig. 10.14. A trial slip <:ircle AEC is Fe = L = 1 2 = 1.34
drawn with a radius R = 20.5 m. The cbordAC is joined and its length is found Fc = 1.34 when the factor of safety with respect to friction, F cp = 1.0.
to be 32m. Let D be the mid point of A C.
However, these two factors of safety should be so adjusted that they ;re equal
The centre of the slip circle r is joint d to D and PD is t xkndcd. It to one another.
intersects the slope at F and the slip circle at£. The mid-point G of EF may
be taken as the centre of gravity of the an a ABC£. As a first trial, Iet Fcp = 1.20
aret ABC£ = MBC + areaADC£ tan 4> tan 1o·
Now, tan 4>m = --
1.20
= ---
1.20
1 ?
= - ·BH.AC + .::Ac. DE or, <l>m '"' 8.36°.
2 3

t (2.2) (32) + 3- (32) (7.45)

194.1 m 2 R sin cP
Considering unit width of the slope, wdgbt of the soil wedge
ABC£= (194.1)(1)(1.8)t
"" 349.381.
Now, deflection angle b = 102° = 1.78 radian
:. Arc length ofAEC = L = R 0 "' (20.5) (1.78) = 36.49 m.
The lever arm Ia of the c.ohesive force with respet·t to P is given by , I
\I
I - !::_·R I
a Lc
\ f'\
A I
363.24,9 (20.5) = 23.38 m.
F \I
At a distance of 23.38 m from P, draw a line parallel to the chord A C. W I

This gives the direction of the cohesivt: force C. Again, tllrough G, draw a
vertical line to represent the self-weight ofthe soil wedge W. The lines of
action of Wand C intersect at Q. ·
Now, radius of the friction circle,
r = R sin cp = (20.5) (sin 10°) = 3.56 m. Fig . 10.14
278 Problems in Soil M echanics and Foundmion Engineering
279
Stability of Slopes

The new radius of the friction circle is, of safety of the slope against shear failure. su e that friction and t ohesion
r' = R sin q>m = (20.5) (sin 8.36") = 2.98 m are mobilised to the same proportion of theu ulttmate values.
Solution: In case of full mobilisation of friction (i.e., F.p = 1), the
Draw another friction circle with this radius.
The direction ofF slightly changes. A new force triangle is constructed. alue of Taylor's Stability Number for cp = 15" and f3 "' 30", as obtained
The value of C obtained from it is 46.7 t. from Fig. 10.7, is, S11 = 0.046.
c 46.7 2 Using eqn. (10.30)
:. Mobilised cohesion, = 1.27 tim
em = L = .4 c
36 9 c
S,"" F
cY H' or, Fe = s,y H
Factor of safety w.r.t cohesion, F = !2_ = 1 18
c 1.27 . 1.6 1.61
Fe ... F.p or, Fe = (0.046) (1.8) (12)
Hence the fa<:tor of f>afety of the given slope for the slip circle under However, as friction will not be fully mobilised, the actual value of Fe
consideration is 1.18. will be less than this, and is to be found out by trials.
Problem to.:/ It is required to make a 6 m deef excavation in a stratum Let ·F.p = 1.25
of soft clay having y = 18 kN/m3 and c = 26 kN/m . A rock layer exists at a
tan 15"
depth of 9 m below the ground level. Determine the factor of safety of the tan cp = -- = 0.2143
slope against sliding if the slope angle be 40". 1.25
Solution: The problem will be solved by Taylor's method . or, q, = 12.1"
Referring to Fig. 10.7, for f3 = 30",
Here, the depth factor, nd •
9
6 • 1.5
when q, = 10", sll = 0.075
For nd = 1.5 and f3 = 40', the value of Taylor's Stability Number Sn> as when cp = 15", sn = 0.046
obtained from Fig. 10.8 is, Sn = 0.172. (0.075 - 0.046) (12.1 :- 10)
But, we have from eqn. (10.30),
:.. when q, = 12.1", sn ,-: 0.46 + (15 - 10)
c ... -c-
S" = FcyH ' or, Fe S,yH = u.058.
6
26 Fc .. (0.058 1. = 1.277 - 1.25
.. Fc = 1.40 ) (1.8) (12)
(0.172) (18) (6)
Hence, as Fc and F4> are nearly equal, the factor of safety of the slope
Hence, the required factor of safety of the slope = 1.40.
may be taken as 1.25.
It may be further observed from Fig. 10.8that, for f3 .. 40"·and nd = 1.5,
the value of n is approximately 0.7. EXERCISElO
.. x = nH .. (0.7)(6) = 4.2m 10.1. Compute the factor of safety of an infinite slope of 35" inclination
Hence, the critical slip circle will cut the ground level in front of the toe made in a sand deposit having an angle of internal friction of 40". [Ans. 1.2]
at a distance of 4.2 10.2. An infinite slope of 6 m height and 35" inclination is made in a
Problem lW A cutting is to be made in a soil mass having layer of dense sand having the following properties :
c = 4.5 t!m2 , q, = 5", e = 0.85, G = 2.70, w "" 0%
y • 1.8 t/m3, c ·=. 1.6 t/m 2 and q, • 15", with slide slopes of 30" to the
horizontal, upto a depth' of 12m below the ground.level. Determine the factor (a) Determine the factor of safety of the slope against sliding.
280 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Stability of Slopes 281

(b) How will the factor of safety change if the slope gets fully
submerged? [Ans. (a) 1.25 (b) 1.98)
10.3. Detennine the factor of safety of the slope AB with respect to the
given slip circle shown in Fig. 10.15. The soil has a unit weight of 18.5 kN/m 3
and a cohesion of 42 k.N/m 2 . Use the Swedish circle method. [Ans : 1.42)
10.4. A 12m deep cut is made in a silty clay with side slopes of 30". The
soil bas the following properties : ·
T 15m
? Clayey Silt
y = 1.9 gm/cc, c = 0.25 kg/em-, cp = 8°. 'i=1·8tfm3, c = 1·5t/m2
r:f>= 60

r
12m Rock
12m

Fig . 10.16

Fig.10.15

Locate the centre of the critical slip circle by Fellenius' method and
detennine the factor of safety of the slope against sliding failure by the
Swedish circle method. [Ans. 1.45) 'i = 1·9 gm/cc
10.5. Determine the factor of safety of the slope shown in Fig. 10.16with c = 0·4 Kg /cm2
respect to the given friction circle by the standard method of slices. cP = 5°
10.6. A 10m deep cut is to be made in a soil with side slopes of 1 V: 1
H. The unit weight of the soil is 1.8 gm/cc and the soil has an unconfim.d
compressive strength of 0.63 kg/cm 2 • Determine the factor of safety of the
slope against sliding,
(i) neglecting tension cracks Fig.l0.17
(ii) consider:ng tension cracks
Dctennine the factor of safety of the side slopes of the canal against
10.7. Compute the factor of safety of the slope shown in Fig. 10.17 with
sliding by Taylor's method . [Ans. 1.25]
respect to the given slip circle by the friction circle r.1ethod.
10.9. An embankment is constructed with a c-cpsoil having the following
10.8. An unlined irrigation canal has a depth of 8 m and a side slopes of
properties :
1 : 1. The properties of the soil are as follows :
c = 2.5 tlm 2, cp = 12·, y = 1.85 t/m 3
c = 2.0 tlm 2 , <P = 15·, y = 1.8 t!m 3
282 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

The embankment must have a factor of safety of 1.5 with respect to both
cohesion and angle of intemal friction.
(a) What will be the maximum allowable slope if the height of the
embankment be 12m ?
(b) What will be the maximum allowable height if the sides of the
embankm ent are sl9ped at 45• ?
10.10. A 6 m high embankment is to be made '";ith a clayey soil hav ng
a unit we.ight of 1.75 t/m3 and a cohesion of 3.5 t/m . A hard stratum ex1sts
11
at a depth of 3 m below the ground level. What should be the slope angle !f
the required factor of safety against sliding be 2.0? [Ans. 33 ] BEARING CAPACITY
10.11. Detennine the factor of safety of the slope shown in Fig. 10.18
with respect to the given slip circle. Use the friction circle method. 11.1 Introduction: Structures of all types have to rest on the soil existing
at the site. The load of the superstrut ture is transmitted to the supporting soil
through structural members called footings which are to be designed properly
so as to ensure:
(i) The shear stress dl veloped on any plane in the loaded soil mass
does not exceed the shear strength of the soil. In other words, shear failure
T6m
does not occur.
(ii) The settlement of the footing due to the applied load does not
exc.ee.d the tolerable limit.

,_l The bearing capacity of a given footing has to be detennined considering

both of these factors. The present chapter deals with the determination of
bearing capacity of a footing from the point of view of shear failure.
... 11.2 Definition of Terms Related to Bearing Capacity:
Fig.l0.18 1. Gross loading intensiJy (q): This is the intensity of total pressure at
/ the base of footing due to the load from the superstructure, self-weight of the
footing and the weight of earth fill above the base of footing.
2. Net loading intensity (q,J: Before the construction of a footing, the
soil at the foundation level is subject to an overburden pressure due to the
self-weight of the soil mass . The net loading intensity is the difference
between the gross loading intensity and the overburden pressure .
If a footing is founded in a soil mass having a unit weighty at a depth D
below the ground level, then,
qn = q- yD ...(11.1)
3. Ultimate bearing capacity (q,): This is the minimum intensity of
loading at the base of the foundation which will cause a shear failure of the
soil.
4. Net ultimate bearing capacity (qmJ: This is the minimum net
pressure intensity due to the applied load (i.e., excluding the existing
overburden pressure) which will cause a shear failure.
284 Problems in Soil M e c hanics and Foundation Engineerin
-- -- ----------- -
Bearing Capacity 285
,
5. Net safe bearing capacity ( q,IS): The minimum net pressure intensity
at the base of footing with respect to a specified factor of safety against shear
the following expression for the ultimate bearing capacity of a footing of
failun . i.e.,
width B, placed at a depth D below G.L.:
...(11.2)

6. Safe bearing capacity (q): The maximum gross loading intensity

whicb the footing will safely carry without the risk of shear failure,
irrespective of the magnitude of settlement.
Thus, qs q11s + y D ...(11.3)
q,, D
or, qs =- + Y ...(11.4)
F
7. Allowable bearing capacity (q,J: This is the net intensity of loading (a)
which the foundation will carry without undergoing settlement in excess of
Fig, ILl
the pem1issible value but not exceeding the net safe bearing capacity.
11.3 Types of Shear Failure: The shear failure of a soil mass supporting ...(11.5)
a structure may take place in either of the following modes:
where, N.-, N q and Ny are bearing capacity factors which depend on the
(i) General shear failure
(ii) Local shear failure angk of inkrnal frktion of the soil.
(iii) Punching shear failure Eqn. (11.5) is applicable lo general shear failun . For local shear failure,
In dense sands and stiff clays, when the loading intensity exceeds a the following equation is to be used:
certain limit, the footing ge.nerally settles suddenly into the soil and well
q11 = c' Nc' + y D Nq' t 0.5 y B Ny' ...(11.6)
defined slip surfaces are fonned. The shear strength of the soil is fully
mobilised along these surfaces. This is called a general shear failure.·
where, ...(11.7)
ln relatively loose sands and in medium clays, the footing settles
gradually. The failure planes are not so well defined and the shear strength of
and Ny' arc the bearing capacity factors obtained from cjl',
the soil is not fully mobilised. No heaving of soil takes place above the ground
level. This type of failure is called local shear failure.
In very loose sands and soft saturated clayl', a footing is often . found to
whert\ 3
cjl ' = tan -l ( 2 tan cjl ) ...(11.8)
virrually sink into the soil. No failure plane is formed at all. Sucil a failure is Eqn. (11.5) is nu ant lor strip footings. However, for square and circular
due to the shear failure along - the vertical f<!ce around the perimeter of the fiJotings tht' following modified equations should be used, which take into
base of the footing. The soil beyond this zone remains practically unaffected. account the shape factors:
This type of failure is called punching shear failure.
The type of shear failure expected to occur at a site has a direct bearing For square footings,
on the theoretical computation of bearing capacity. q11 = 1.3 c Nc t y D Nq t 0.4 y B NY ...(11.9)
11.4 Terzaghi's Theory: This theory is an extension of the concept For circular tootings,
originally developed by Prandtl. The mode of general shear failure of a
footing is illustrated in Fig. 11.1 (a). Considering the critical equilibrium of
q, = L3 c Nc + y D Hq + 0.3 y B NY ...(11.10)
the soil wedgexyz under the forces shown in Fig. ll.l (b), Terzaghi derived where, B stands for the width of a square footing or the diameter of a
circuhtr footing.
Tht' values ofTerzaghi's bearing capadty factors are givt n in Table 11.1.
286 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Bearing Capacity 287

Table 11.1: Terzaghi's Bearing Capacity Factors ...(11.16)

where, q = yD
4>" Nc Nq Ny Nc' Nq' Ny'
sc , sq , sy are the shape factors
0 5.7 1.0 0 5.7 1.0 0.0
de , dq, dy are the depth factors
5 7.3 1.6 0.5 6.7 1.4 0.2
10 9.6 2.7 1.2 8.0 1.9 0.5 ic , iq , iy are the inclination factors
15 12.9 4.4 2.5 9.7 2.7 0.9 The values of all these factors are given h1 Tables 11.2 through 11.5:
20 17.7 7.4 5.0 11.8 3.9 1.7 Table 11.2 Hansen's Bearing Capacity Factors
25 25.1 12.7 9.7 14.8 5.6 3.2
4> o· s· 10" 15" 20" 25" 30" 35" 40" 45" so·
30 37.2 22.5 19.7 19.0 8.3 5.7
Nc 5.14 6.48 8.34 10.97 14.83 20.72 30.14 46.13 75.32 133.89 266.891
57.8 41.3 42.4 25.2 12.6 10.1
. 35 Nq 1.0 1.57 2.47 3.94 6.40 10.66 18.40 33.29 64.18 134.85 318.96
40 95.7 81.3 100.4 34.9 20.5 18.8
45 172.3 173.3 297.4 51.2 34.1 37.7 Ny 0.0 0.09 0.47 1.42 3.54 8.11 18.08 40 .69 95.41 240.85 681.84
50 347.5 415.1 1153.2 81.3 65.6 87.1
11.5 Skempton's Equation: This equation is applicable to footings Table 11.3: Shape Factors for Hensen's Equation
founded on cohesive soils. The net ultimate bearing capacity of such a footing
Shape of footing Sc Sq Sy
is given by:
...(11.11) Continuous 1.00 1.00 1.00
where, c = cohesion. Rectangular 1 + 0.2B/L 1 + 0.2B/L 1-0.4B!L
Nc =Bearing capacity factor which depends on the shape of the
footing as well as on the depth of foundation. Square 1.3 1.2 0.8
The ultimate bearing capacity is given by: Circular 1.3 0.6
1.2
qn = C Nc + Y D ...(11.12)
Skempton suggested the following values ofNc:
(i) wheft D = 0 (i.e., when the footing is at the ground level) Table 11.4: Depth Factors for Hansen's Equation
for strip footings Nc = 5.J? de dq dy
for square @.cl circular footings, ;:::_.6.20
1 + 0.35 D/B For cp = o·, dq"' 1.0 1.0
(ii) when f?!B 'J. _;-
.N = (1 + 0.2 Q(JJJP!-e (surface) ...(11.13) (for all values of cp) For 4> >-25•, dq =de (for all values of cp)
. -----
·-- "' .....
(iii) when D!B > 2.5:
Nc = 1.5. ...(11.14) Table 11.5: Inclination Factors for Hansen's Equation
(iv) For rectangular footings: ic iq iy
Nc = (1 + 0.2 BIL)N _ ...(11.15)
H H ;2
11.6 Brinch Hansen's uati n: Ac ording to J. Brinch Hansen, the
l-2cBL 1-0.5 v q
ultimate bearing capacity of a footing :., given by'
288 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Bearing Capacity
289
Valid upt o : H :s V tan{) - c.p ·B L ... (11.17)
where, Hand V are the horizontal and vertical components of the resultant of the soil. When the soil is fully submerged, the submerged density Ysub
load acting on the footing. should be used in place ofy. But if the water table is at the.base of the footing,
only the third term is affected. The general bearing capacity equation is,
L = length of footing parallel to H.
therefore, modified as:
c.p = cohesion between footing and soil.
qu = c Nc + y DtNq W1 + 0.5 y B Ny W2 ...(11.20)
b = angle of friction between footing and soil.
where, W1 and W2 are the correction factors.
11.7 Bearing Capacity Equation as per IS Code: Hansen's bearing For most soils, Ysub is nearly equal to half the value of y. Hence, the
capacity equation was later modified by Vesic. In IS: 6403 - 1981, the
correction factors are given by (Refer to Fig. 11.2):
following equations were proposed, which incorporated Vesic's modifi-
cations: Wt = 0.5 (1 + ZtiDt) ...(11.21)
For general shear failure: When the water table is at G.L., W1 = 0.5
and when it is at the base of footing, W1 = 1.0
q, = c Nc scdc ic + q Nqsqdq iq + 0.5 y BNy Sydy iy w' ...(11.18)
W2 = 0.5 (1 + z2/B) ...(11.22)
for local shea r failure.
When the water table is at the base of footing, W2 = 0.5
q11 = cN/scdcic + qNq' sqdqiq + 0.5yBNysydyiy W
-' '
...(11.19)
The shape factors sc , sq and sy are the same as those used in Brinch 0 Z .,.1 ,
Hansen's equation and can be obtained from Table 11.3.
The depth factors are given by:
de = 1 + 0.2 (DI B) ·Vii"; +-- t
dq = dy = 1 for cp < to•
8 ----- ----t-- --
dq = d 1 = 1 + 0.1 (D/B) ·Vii"; for cp > 10• -1-------------
Fig. l1.2
The indination factors are given by:

iy
1

(t
q
f
= (1 - a/90)
2 When it is at a depth B below the base of footing, W2 :: 1.0.
Here
B it is assumed that, if the water table is at a depth equal to or greater
than below the base, the bearing capacity remains unaffected.
IS : 6403-1981 recommends the use of a single correction factor w' to
') 0
be usr.d in the third term ofequatio s(11.18) and (11.19). The value ofw' is
where, N .p = tate (45 + cp/2)
as follows:
and a = angle of inclination of the resultant force on the footing. (a) If the water table is at or below a depth of D + B beneath the G.L.,
In eqns. (1 L 18) and ( 11.19), W' = eorrection fa(_ tor for water table. then w' .. 1.
The N c and Nq- values are similar to those given in Table 11.2, while the (b) If it is at a depth D or above, w' • 0.5 .
Ny-values are sligh.tly different. (c) If the depth of water table is such that, D < D "'< (D+B), the value
H.8 Effect of Water Table on Bearing Capacity: In Terzaghi's bearing of w' should be obtained by linear interpolation.
c11padty equation, the second and third tem1s are dependent on the unit weight
290 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Bearing Capacity

11.9 Eccentrically Loaded Footin : A footing is said to be eccentrically In case of single eccentricity (Fig.11.4a) the effective dimension of the
loaded if the resultant load on it is applied away from the centre of gravity of footing in the direction of eccentricity is reduced by 2 e.
the load. Such footings may be designed by either of the following methods: i.e., B' = B- 2e
(a) Method/: In this method the load Q of eccentricity e is replaced by A' =L(B- 2e) ...(11.23)
an equal concentric load Q and a balancing moment of magnitude M = Q.e.
Stress distribution diagrams due to the concentric load as well as the In casl of double eccentricity the dimensions in both directions are
balancing moment are plotted (Fig. 11.3). The maximum stress intensity of n duced as follows :
the superimposed diagram should be Jess than the allowable bearing capacity L ' = L - 2 eL, and B' = B - 2 e8
of the footing.
A'= L' s' = (L - 2eL)(B- 2es)
r-s t
X

i - .
r--4---·-·+
-ierI
--+·
J I L

·.
Plan
M•Q.e tQ
Plan

... Fig. 11.4

Elevation
11.10 Bearing Capacity from N-value : The bearing capacity of a footing
Eleva f1 on Footing Under may be de.terminedfrom theN-value obtained from Standard Penetration Test
J_ Equivalent Loading carried ,put in the field from the following equations:
Q/A lllllJlllllllll For strip footings:
Original Footing 1
2 2
j_
M.e/I
411f11 qnu = 0.785 (100 + N )D W1 + 0.471 N B W2
For square footings:
..•(11.25)

-r- 2
L q1111 = 0.943(100 + N )DW1 + 0.314#BW2 •..(11.26)
9. +M
A I
UIJilllllllLD where, N = average corrected blow count.
D .. depth of footing.
. lPressure Distribution
Fig. 11.3 B = width of footing.
wl' w2 = correction factors f.,;\·: 'cr table.
(b) Method II (Meyerhof's method): In this method if a footing is q/Ill = net ultimate bearing capacity in kN/m 2.
exposed to an eccentric load, onJy a portion of the plan area of the footing is
considered to be useful. This area is termed as the effective area.
 Bearing Capacity
292 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
186.5 - (1.85) (1.5) = 183.7 t/m 2 .
11.11 lie Capacity from Plate Load Test: The bearing capacity of
a footing to be placed on a soil mass may be assessed from the results of a (iii) Net safe bearing capacity:
plate load test carried out at the site at the desired depth. However, the process qnu 183.7
has got several limita!ions. ' qns = Fs = = / 2
The method of the bearing capacity of a prototype footing 61.2 t m .
computing
(iv) Safe bearing capacity:
from the plate load test data is illustrated in Problem 11.10.
The settlement of the prototype footing, when founded on granular soils, qs = ql!s + Y Df
is given by the following relationship suggested by Terzaghi and Peck.

l
2
• 6 (1.85) (1.5) = 64 t/m •
2
BP (B + 0.3) Problem 11square footing of2.5 m x 2.5 m size bas been founded
Pp • [ B (BP + 0.3)
p ...(11.27) at 1.2 m below the ground level in a cohesive soil having a bulk density of
2
1.8 t/m3 and an unconfmed compressive strength of 5.5 t/m • Detennine the
where, Pp • settlement of the plate. ultimate and safe bearing capacity of the footing for a factor of safety of 2.5,
p "' Settlement of the prototype footing. by
(i) Terzaghi's theory (ii) Skempton's theory.
BP "" width of plate.
Solution: Cohesion of the soil,
B • width of the prototype footing.
c ... q,. .. 5·5 = 2.75 t/m 2
2 2
EXAMPLES
(i) Terzaglti's theory: For cohesive soils (q, .. 0) we have,
Problem ll.l/' A 2m wide strip footing is founded at a depth of 1.5 m
Nc = 5.7, Nq = 1.0, N 1 = 0.
below the grou level in a bomogeneou.c; bed of dense sand, having the
following properties: Using eqn. (11.9),
q, =- 36", y = 1.85 t/m3. qu = (1.3) (2.75) (5.7) + (1.8) (1.2) (1.0)
Determine .the ultimate, net ultimate, net safe and safe bearing capacity
of the footing. Given, for q, '"' 36• · = 22.54 t/m2
Nc • 60, Nq • 42, Ny• 47. qs = qu - Y D + Y D • 22.54 - .2) (1.0) + (1.8) (1.2 )
Assume a factor of safety of 3.0. 2
Fs
Solution: As q, • 36•, a general shear fai!ure is likely to occur.
(i) Ultimate bearing capacity: .. 10.31 t/m 2 ·
qu • cNc + yDNq + O.SyBNy (ii) Skempton's method:

Here, c=O, y=1.85t/m 3 , D=l.Sm, B=2.0m. Here, DIB • ;: • 0.48 < 2.5.
Nq=42 and N 1 • 47
.. Eqn. (11.13) is applicable.
qu • (1.85)(1.5)(42) + (0,5)(1.85) (2.0)(47)
Nc = (1 + 0.2D/B) Nc(surface)
2
• 186.5 t/m · But for square footings, Nc (surface) • 6.20.
(ii) Net ultimate bearing capacity: 2 2
Nc = {1 + (0. .;1. ) }(6.20) • 6.79
q, • q. - y D
• 186.5 - (1.85) (1.5) ... 183.7 t/m 2.
 Bearing Capaciiy 295
294 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering ·
Problem 11-'.A square footing of 2 m x 2 m size is subject to a gross
vertical load oN
sot. The depth of foundation is 1 m. The. foundation 3
soil
= (2.75) (6.79) "' 18.67 t/m2 consists of a deposit of dense sand having a bulk densisty of 1.85 t/m and an
angle of internal friction of 3ft. Determine the factor of safety against shear
2
qu = q,w + Y D = 18.67 + (1.8) (1.2) = 20.83 t/m failure. ·
qnu Solution: We have, for cj> = 36°
qs =F + yD Nc = 60, Nq = 42, Ny = 47
s
18.67 2 Using eqn. (11.9) and noting that the first term vanishes as c = 0,
= + (1.8) (1.2) "' 9.63 t/m .
% = (1.85) (1.0) (42) + (0.4) (1.85)(20) (47)
Problem !1,3. Detennine the safe load that can be carried by a square
footing of 2.2 )ri' x 2.2 m size, placed at a depth of 1.6 m below G.L. The 147.3 t/m2 .
foundation soil has the following properties: q11u = 147.3 - (1.85) (1.0) = 145.5 t/m-. .,
y "' 1.65 t/m3 • c .. ,lVm 2 , cp = 20", Now, actual bearing pressure at the base of footing, ·
Assume a factor of safety of 2.5. Given, for cjl = 20" ,
Q 180 . 2
Nc = 17.7, Nq = 7.4, Ny = 5.0 qb .. A = (2) (2) "' 45 t/m .
Nc' = 11.8, Nq' = 3.8, N/ = 1.3
But,
Solution: The low value of unit weight of the soil suggests that the soil
is in the loose state. Moreover, cp • 20" < 28". Hence a local shear failure is
likely to occur. Using eqn. (11.26), the net ultimate bearing capacity of the qllll 145.5
footing is given by, or, Fs = qb - y Dr = 45 - (1.85) (1.0) = 3.37.

qnu = 1.3 c' Nc' + yD (Nq' - 1) + 0.4 yB Ny' Problem 11column of a building, carrying a net vertical load of
125 t, has to be supported by a square footing. The footing is to be place-d at
I 2 · 2 1.2 m below G.L. in a homogeneous bed ·or soil having the following
Here, c • c
= (2/3) (1.2) • 0.8
t/m
3 properties:
Nc' • 11.8, Nq' • 3.8, Ny' .. 1.3 y = 1.82 gm/cc, cjl = 30"
Detennine the minimum size of the footing required to have a factor of
qnll ... (1.3) (0.8) (11.8) + (1.65) (1.6) (3.8- 1) safety of 2.5 against shear failure. Use Terzaghi's formula.
+ (0.4) (1.65) (2.2) (1.3) Solution: Net load on column from superstructure = 125 t.
- 12.27 + 7.39 + 1.89
Add 10% for the self weight of the footing = 12.5 t
= 2155 t/m2 137.5 t
The safe bearing capacity of the footing: Gross load= 137.5 t = 138 t (say).
qml 21.55 2 Now, the safe bearing capacity of a square footing on a cobesionless soil
qs = Fs + Y D = ""V + (1.65) (1.6) = 11.26 t/m is given by

.. Gross safe load to be carried by the footing, qs = [ 1.3cNc + yD(Nq- 1) + 0.4yBNy] + yD

• qs x Area of footing
2 From table 11.1, for cjl = 30", Nc =- 37.2, Nq • 22.5, Ny '"' 19.7
- {11.26)(2.2) - 54.5 t.

\
296 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Bearing Capacity 297
....--........_ ..-._.-......- "'\.- ...-........_, ..-....._

1 . . Problem An RC.C. column footing of f.8 m x 1.8 m size is

·· qs = . [ (1.82) (1.2) (22.5 -1) + (0.4) (1.82) (B)(19.7)]
25 founded at 1.5 m below G.L. The subsoil consists of a loose deposit of silty
+ (1.82) (1.2) sand having the following properties:
18.78 + 5.74B + 2.18 = 20.96 + 5.74B y = 1.75 t/m 3· 41 = 20·, c • 1.1 t/m 2
The safe load that can be carried by the footi!lg, Determine the ultimate bearing capacity of the footing when the ground
water table is located at:
Q = qs X A (i) ground level (ii) 0.6 m below ground level.
(iii) 2.0 m below the base of footing (iv) 4.0 m below the base of
= (20.96 + 5.74B)Ir"
footing.
= 5.74Ji3 + 20.96!? Given, for 41 = 2o·, Nc' = 11.8, Nq' "' 3.8, Ny' • 1.3.
3 2
5.74 B + 20.96 B = 138, Solution: Assuming a local shear failure, the ultimate bearing capacity
2 of a square footing is given by,
or, # + 3.65 B = 24.04
Solving the-- above eq11ation by trial and error, we obtain, qu .. 1.3c'Nc' + yDNq'W 1 + 0.4yBNy'Wz
B = 2.06 m = 2.10 m (say) , 2 2
Here, c = c = (2/3)(1.1),. 0.73t/m.
Hence, the eq ired size of the footing= 2.10 m 3
Problem . . If the size of the footing in Problem 11.5 has to be y = 1.75 t/m 3, D .. 1.5 m, B • 1.8 m
restricted to 1.7 · m x 1.75 m , at what depth the footing should be placed? Qu = (1.3) (0.73) (11.8) + (1.75) (1.5) (3.8) W1
Solution: The bearing capacity of a footing placed in a cohesionless + (0.4) (1.75) (1.8) (1.3) Wz
soil increases with depth. In Problem 11.5, the depth of the footing was
or, qu • 11.2 + 9.97 W1 + 1.64 W2 ...(i)
specified as 1.2 m. The corresponding si:>:e required for supporting a gross
load of 138 t was found to be 2.45 m x 2.45 m. However, if the size of the (i) When the water table is at the ground level, z1 = 0.
footing has to be restricted to 1.75 m x 1.75 m (such restrictions are some- Using eqn. (11.21), W1 • 0.5 (1 + 0) ;= 0.5.
times necessary for avoiding encroachment on adjacent land) and if the
column still has to withstand the same gross load, its depth has to be increased. W2 is not applicable ( i.e., W2 = 1).
Let d be the reqQired depth. Qu • 11.2 + (9.97) (0.5) + 1.64

Now, qs"" [ yD(Nq- 1) + 0.4yBNy] + yD .. 17.82 t/m 2

(ii) When the water table is at 0.6 m below the ground level,
.. qs • (1.82) d (22.5- 1) + iOS4) (1.82) (1.75) (19.7) + (1.82) d z1 = 0.6m,
or, Qs .. 17.472 d + 10.039
w1 = o.s (t + 0.6/1.5) • 0.1
138 Wz is again not applicable
Again, actual contact pressure, qc = • 45.061 t/m 2
(1.75) (1.75) qu • 11.2 + (9.97) (0.7) + 1.64
17.472 d + 10.039 = 45.061 19.82 t/m 2
or, d= 2.00m. (iii) When the water table is at 2.0 m below G.L.,
.. The footing has to be founded at a depth of 2.00 m below G.L.
Zz = 2.0 - 1.5 "' 0.5 m
W2 ... 0.5 (1 + 0.5/2.0) - 0.625
298 Problems in Soil Mec/umics and Foundation Engineering
Bearing Capacity

Here W1 is not aJlPiicable

or, Q '"' 37.5 t
q, = 11.2 + 9.97 + (1.64) (0.625) Hence, the required safe load on each column= 37.5 t.
= 22.19 t/m 2 (ii) In this case, Brinch Hansen's equation is expected to yield a more
(iv) When the ground water table is at 4 m below the base offooting, no reliable result. We have from eqn. (11.16),
correction due to ground wa tcr table is necessary. In other words, the ultimate q11 = cNcscdcic + yDNqsqdqiq + 0.5yBNY sydy
bearing capacity is not affected by the ground water table.
For cjl = 10", referring to table 11.2,
2
q, = 11.2 + 9.97 + 1.64 = 22.81 t/m Nc = 8.34, Nq = 2.47, Ny = 0.47
It is evident from the above results, that, the bearing capacity of a footing The shape factors, depth factors and indination factors are obtained from
increases with increasing depth of the ground water table. tables 11.3, 11.4 and 11.5.
For a rectangular footing of2.0 m x 3.5 m size, founded at a depth of 1.2
Problem 1 Two adjacent columns of a. building: carrying a vertical m below G.L., we get,
load of Q tonne each, are supported by a combmed footmg of 2 m x 3.5 m
size., founded at 1.2 m below the ground level. Determine the maximum sc • sq = 1 + (0.2) (2.0/3.5) = 1.114
allowable value of Q if the foundation soil consists of a deep, homogeneous Sy = f - (0.4) (2/3.5) = 0.77
stratum of:
de = 1 + (0.35) (1.2/2.0) = 1.21
(i) Saturated silty day· (y = 1.9 t/m 3 , c = 4.6 t!m 2 )
(ii} Partially saturated inorganic silt when cjl .. 0", d =
1.0 and when cjl = 25", dq = de 1.21
(y = 1.84 t/m 3 , cjl = 10", c = 1.6 t/m 2 ) 121
By linear interpolation, for cjl = 10", dq = 1.0 + < · l.O) (10)
Solution: Total column load to be .carried by the c.Ombined footing:
(a) load from the columns . = Q + Q = 2 Q = 1.084
(b) self-weight of footing (say 10% of column loading) = 0.2 Q Since the loading is vertical, 'c "' iq '"' iy = 1
gross load = 2.2 Q
(i) In this case, as the foundation soil is purely cohesive, Skempton's :. lJu = (1.6) (8.34) (1.114) (1.21) (1.0) + (1.84) (1.2) (2.47) (1.114)
formula may be applied. (1.084) (1.0) + (0.5) (1.84) (2.0) (0.47) (0.77) (1.0) (1.0)
Here, D!B = 1.2/2.0 = 0.6 < 2.5 17.99 + 6.59 + 0.67 = 25.25 t/m2
Using eqns. (11.11), (11.13) and (11.15), the net ultimate bearing
= 25.25 - (1.84) (1.2) + (1.84) (1.2) .. 11.42 t/m
2
capacity of a rectangular footing is given by,
.. qs
2.5 :
q,, • 5.14(1 + 0.2D/B)(1 + 0.2BIL)c Totalgross load on footing= (11.42) (2.0) (3.5) = 79.97 t.
- (5.14) [1 + (0.2) (0.6)) [1 + (0.2) (2.0/3.5)] (4.6) .. 2.2 Q = 79.97 t
or, Q = 36.35 t
= 29.51 t/m 2
:. Safe load on each colunul = 36.35 t
Considering a factor of safety of2.5, the safe bearing capacity,
2
Problem N .9h rectangular footing of 2.4 m x 3.5 m size is to be

q5 = '29.51 = 11.8 t/m constructed atb.elow G.L. 3in a c-cjlsoil having the following
y = 1.75 t/m , cjl = 20", c .. 1.0 t/m •
2
properties:

. . Safe gross load on the footing= q5 ·A

The footing has to carry a gross vertical load of 70 t, inclusive of its
= (11.8)(2.0) (3.5) = 82.6 t s.elf-weigbt. In addition, the column is subject to a horizontal load of 11 t
2.2 Q = 82.6
300 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Bearing Capacity
applied at a height of3.3 m above the base of the footing. Determine the factor
of safety of the footing against shear failure : (i)BrinchHansen'seqn: We have from eqn. (11.16),
(i) using Brinch Hansen's method.
(ii) As per IS: 6403 -1981.
quit .. cNcscdcic + yDNqsqdqiq + O.SyBNysyliyiy.
Solution: The loading condition of the column and the footing is shown For q, .. 20", Nc = 14.83, Nq • 6.40, Ny "' 3.54
in Fig.11.5. Due to the presence of the horizontal force, the resultant load on Sc ,. Sq • 1 + (0.2) (2.4/3.5) • 1.137
the column is inclined, and the footing becOD)eS eccentrically loaded. Let e
be this eccentricity. Sy ,. 1 - (0.4) (2.4/3.5) • 0.714
de • 1 + (0.35) (1.5/24) = 1.219
328
For q, fd "' 1.0 + (1. l.O) (20) .. 1262
T liy .. 1.0.
ic = 1 - H12cBL .. 1 - 11/(2 x 1.0 x 2.4 x 3.5)
- 0.345
5 11
iq - 1 - 0.5 - 1 - (0. ) - 0.921

iy .. ;t{ - (0.921f - 0.848

qu • (1.0) (14.83) (1.137) (1.219) (0.345). + (1.75) (1.5) (6.4) (1.137)
Fig.ll.5
(1.262) (0.921) +· (0.5) (1.75) (24) (3.54) (0.714) (1.0) (0.848)
Let R be the resultant soil reaction, applied at P, which can be resolved .. 33.79t/m 2
into two components, Rv and Rn. Safe bearing capacity,
l:H = 0 gives, Rn -. ,1.1 t
qu- yiD
l: V = 0 gives, Rv • 70't qs • F + yD
s
Summing up the moments of all forces about the mid-point of the base
Q, we get, or, qs • 33.79- .75) (1.5) + (1.75) (1.5)
s
Rv x PQ - 11 x z.
or, qs • 31.165
or, PQ - (11) (3.3) ... 0.52 m s + 2• 625
70
Actual contact pressure due to the given loading, ·
e • 0.52m
70
Effective length of the footing,L
1
= L - 2e
qc • _ • 11.86 t/m2
59
... 3.5 - (2) (0.52) - 2.46 m 31 65
} + 2625 - 11.86
B • 2.4 m
1
Effective width, B ..
s
I I I . 2
:. Effer.tive area A .. L B = (246) (2.4) ,. 5.9 m or, Fs • 3.37
(ii)As per 15:6403-1981:
 Problems in Soil-Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Bearing Capacity 303
302

For q, = 20·, Nc = 14.83, Nq = 6.40, Ny = 5.39 (i) Plot the load vs settlement curve and determine the ultimate bearing
Values of s sq and sy are the same as those obtained for Brinch
capacity of the plate.
0 (ii) Detennine the ultimate load which a footing of 1.5 m x 1.5 m, placed
Hansen's me.thod. at 1.2 m below G.L. in the same soil, will t< rry if the allowable settlement is
Now VFr; = tan (45• + 20" /2) = 1.428 2cm.
(0.2) (1.5) (1.428) Solution: (i) The load-settlement curve is shown in Fig. 11.6. In order
de 1 + 1.18 to detem1ine the ultimate bearing capacity of the plate, two tengents were
2.4
drawn to the load-settlement curve as shown in the figure. The load
dq = d
y
= 1 + (0.1)(1.5)(1.428)
2.4
109
.
corresponding to the intersection point of these !Wo tangents is found to be
')

3.75 kgkm-.
Angle of inclination of the resultant load,
q, (plate) "' 3.75 kg/em-.., == 37.5 t/m-..,
-1 H -t 11 •
a = tan V = tan 70
= 8.93 (ii) Using eq. (11.27), the settlement of the prototype footing is given
2 by:
?
. = lq
lc . = ( 1 - 8.93)
90 "' 0.811 _ [ B (B2 + 30.5) }-
,
iy = ( 1 _ 8 3 r 0.306
Here, p
p - Pp BP (B + 30.5)
2 em "" 20 rom, B • 1.5 m = 150 em B
2
= 30 em.

:. q,. = (1.0) (14.83) (1.137) (1.18) (0.811) + (1.75) (1.5) (6.4) (1.137)
(1.09) (0.811) + (0.5) (1.75) (2.4) (5.39) (0.714) (1.09) (0.306)
150 (30 + 30.5)
20 == Pp [ 30 (150 + 30.5)
1 2

== 2:809 Pp
2 20
= 35.72 t/m
72 75 • or, Pp = 2 .S09 == 7.12 mm.
35
Safe bearing capacity, qs .. · - · ) (l.S) + (1.75) (1.5)

or, .. 33.095
F
2 625
+ .
s
Load Intens ity ( Kg-'c!'12) -
qs 0 2 3 4 5
s
0 -
33F.095 + 2.625 70
s - 5.9 2
4
t:
or, /
Fs .. 3.58 .
E 6 N
Problem 11.1.((. The following re.sults were obtained from a plate load
test perfonned on a square plate of 30 em x 30 em size at a depth of 1.2 m
E B
,_
c:
l '
cu
below the ground level in a homogeneous bed of sand:
E 12

(kg/em2)

Applied Load 0.25 0.5 1 2 3 4 5

llJ

:l::
16
14
""
l/l

Settlement (mm) 0.45-1 0.85 1.80 3.45 5.60 8.75 14.50 17

18
Fig. 11.6
304 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Bell ring Ct pacity

From the load-settlement curve we get, for a settlement of 7.12 mm of qnu 20.7 2
the plate, the corresponding load on the plate qns = Fs • 2.5 = 8.28 lim .

.. 3.70 kg/em 2 • 37 t/m 2. (ii) Computation of Settlement: As the underlying soil is saturated silty
:. Ultimate bearing capacity of e prototype footing= 37 t/m 2 • clay, only consolidation settlement will take place. The zone of influence
below the base of footing is extended to a maximum depth of twice the width
:. Ultimate load= 97)(1.5) (1.5) = 83.25 t. of the footing, i.e., 4 m below the base. In Fig. 11.7, X-X is a horizontal plane
Problem lML Determme the allowable bearmg capac1ty of a 2m x through the middle of this consolidating layer.
2 m square footing founded at a depth of 1.5 m below the ground level in a Now, initial effective overburden pressure on X-X,
deep stratum of silty clay having the following average properties:
Po • Y Zt + Ysub Zz
¥ .. L8 t/m3, c • 3 t/m2 , q, .. o·, Cc .. 0.259, eo • 0.85
= (1.8) (1.0) + (1.8 - 1) (0.5 + 2.0)
The maximum permissible settlement of the footing is 7.5 em. The
highest position of the water table at the site is at a depth of 1.0m below G.L. 3.8 t/m 2 = 0.38 kg/cm2
=
Using 2: 1 dispersion method, stress increment atX-k,
8 28 2 20
!! p = ( · ) ( .0) < ; ) = 2.07 t/m 2 = 0.207 kg /m2
(2.0 + 2.0t
(assuming the footing to be loaded with 8.28 t/m 2 ).
:. Consolidation settlement,
cc Po+!lp
p, = H·--·log10 ---
' l+eo Po
(400) (0.259) I 0.38 + 0.207
= 10.58 em.
(1 + 0.85) oglO 0.38
As the estimated settlement is greater than the maximum permissible
Fig. ll.7 limit of7.5 em, the allowable bearing capacity of the footing should be less
than 8.28 t/m2.
Solution: Fig. 11.7 shows the given footing. Let, q be the load intensity on the footing which results in a settlement
ofjust 7.5 em. Let!>. p be the stress intensity onX-Xwhen the footing is loaded
(i) Computation of Bearing Capacity: with q t/m 2 . .
We have, from Skempton's equation,
\ .\
Cc Po + !lp
cNc qtUI • H ·--- · loglO = 7.5
1 + e0 Po
where, Nc • 5 (1 + 0.2DIB)(l + 0.2BIL)
(400) (0.259) . log Po + !lp ""
Here, D • 1.5 m B • L .. 2.0 m.
Nc • 5 ( 1 + (0.
1
1. l.
)) ( 1 + (0.2) (0.1)) = 6.9
or,
(1 + 0.85)
10
Po
15

Po + !lp
2 5 log10 Po = 0.1339
or,
2
qnu • 6.9 C • (6.9) (3) • 20.7 t/m
or, Po + Ap .. 1.1433.
For a factor of safety of 2.5, the net safe bearing capacity is given by I
Po
 306 Problems in Soil Mechanics and F owukuion Engineering Bearing Capacity
307
But the value of Po at X-X is constant, and is equal to 0.38 kg/l-m2 .
friction of 28° and a bulk density of 18 kN/m 3. The water table is located at
0.3 .;8 L1p = 1.3612 a great depth. Dl termine the safe bearing capacity of the footing. Assume a
general shear failure. Given, for cj> = 28·, Nc = 32.5, Nq = 18.8 and
. 2
Solving, we get, NY= 15.7.Thcfactorofsafetyshouldbetakenas3.0. [Ans.373.7kN/m}
11.4. In Problem 11.3, if the water table rises to the ground level due to
lip = 0.1372kg/cm 2 .. 1.372 t/m 2
llooding, determine the percent change in the safe bearing capacity of the
But, A qBL qnl footing. [Ans: Decreases by 18.6%]
p • (B + z) (L + z) 11.5. A square footingof2;2 m x 2.2 m size is founded at a depth of 1.2
m bdow G.L. in a homogeneous bed of dry sand having a unit weightof 1.95
q (22)
1.372 t!m 3 and an angle t1f intemal friction of 3(f. Determine the safe load the
(2 + 2)2 footing can carry with respect to a factor of safety of 3.0 against shear failure.
or, q = 5.49 t/m 2 .. 5.5 t/m
2 Given, for eli = 36°, Nc = 65.4, Nq = 49.4, Ny = 54.

Hence, a loading intensity of 5.5 t/m 2 wilJ result in a consolidation 11.6. A 2.0 m wide strip footing is required to ·be founded in a bed of
settlement of 7.5 em.?Therefore, the required allowable bearing capacity of dl·nsc .sand having a bulk density of 2.0 t/m 3 and an angle of shearing
the footing = 5.5 t/m-.
.
resistance of 35•. Plot the variation of ultimate bearing capac.ity of the footing
with depth of foundation, Dr tor 0 s D1 s 3.0 m. Given, for eli = 35",
EXERCfSEll
Nc = 58, Nq .. 41.5, Ny = 42.4.
11.1. Determine the ultimate bearing capacity of the following footings
11.7. De.tem1ine the safe load a circular footing of5 m diameter founded
placed at 1.2m below the ground level in a homogeneous deposit offirm soil
3
at a depth of 1.0 m below G.L. can carry. The foundation soil is a saturated
having y· = 1.8 t/m , cj> = 20° and c - 1.8 t!tn2• 2
clay havin an unconlined compressive strength of 6 t/m and a unit weight
(i) a strip footing of 2 m width oft.75 t/m .Assume a factor of safety of2.5. Use Skempton 's andTerzaghi's
(ii) a square footing of 2 m x 2 m size methods and compare the results. State, giving reasons, which one is more
(iii) a ci..cular footing of 2m diameter. reliable.
given,forcj> = 20•, Nc = 17.7, Nq = 7.4, Ny = 5.0 [Ans: Terzaghi: 154.92 t, Skempton: 131.48 t, Skempton's method}
2
(ii) 65.12 t/m 2 (iii) 62.SO t!m 2 J
[Ans. (i) 56.84 1m 11.8. A strip footing ha& to carry a gross load of 120 kN per metre run.
11.2. A 2.5 m x 2.5 m square footing is founded at a depth of 1.5 m Thl footing is placed at 1.25 m below G.L. in a homogeneous sand stratum.
below G.L. in a loose soil deposit having the following properties: The unit weight and angle of intemal friction of the sand are 19 kN/m 3 and
3 32• respectively. Detennine the minimum width of the f9oting requir.ed in
y • 1.65 t/rn , c = 0.2 kg/cm 2 , cj> = 15•
order to have a factor of safety of 3.0. Given, for eli • 32•, Nc = 44,
Determine:
Nq = 29, Ny .. 26. [Ans: 2;18m]
(i) the ultimate bearing capacity
(ii) the net ultimate bearing capacity 11.9. The size of square footing must be restricted to 1.5 m x 1.5 m. The
(iii) the net safe bearing capacity footing has to carry a net load of 150 t coming from the superstructure. The
(iv) the safe bearing capacity. foundation soil has the following properties: ·
The factor of safety should be taken as 3.0. Given, for cj> = t5•, y = 1.91 gm/cc, c = 0, cj> .., 36"
Nc = 12.9, Nq • 4.4, Ny .. 25, Nc' • 9.7, Nq' = 2.7, Ny' "' 0.9. For eli = 36·, Nc = 65, Nq = 49, Ny • 54.
[Ans. (i) 24.98 t/m 2 (ii) 22.51 t/m2 (iii) 7.50 t!m 2 (iv) 9.98 t!m 2 ] Determine the minimum depth at which the footing bas to be placed in
order to have a factor of safety of 2.5 against shear failure. [Ans: 1.10 m]
11.3. A circular footing of 2.5 m diameter rests at 1.3 m bet ow G.L. in
a soil mass having an average cohesion of 10 kN/m 2 , an angle of internal 11.10. Complete shear failure of an RCC footing took place under a
gross load of 62450 kg. The dimensions of tbe footing were 2.25 m x 2.25 m
 Bearing Capacity 309
308 Problems in Soil Meclumics and Foundation Engineering
11.16. In order to assess the bearing capacity of a 2.5 m square footing,
and the depth offoundation was 1.4m.The subsoil consisted ofa deep stratum a plate load te.st was conducted at a site with a square plate of 60 em x 60 em
of medium clay (y • 1.8 t/m 3 .)Find out the average unit cohesion of the size. The following results were obtained:
clay. [Ans: c = 3.5 t/m2 ] Applied load (kg) 180 360 720 1080 1440 1800
11.11. The footing of a column is 1.5 m x 1.5 min size, and is founded
Seulement (mm) 0.82 1.78 2.71 3.62 5.40 9.30
at a depth of 1.25 m below the ground level. The properties of the foundation
soil are:
c • 0.1 kg/cm 2, +• 15", y • 1.75 gm/cc.
Ifthe allowable settlement of the footing be 1.5em, lind outtheallowable
load on the footing. [Ans: 284.4 t]
Determine Ike safe load the footing can carry with a factor of safety of
2.5, when the water table is at:
(i) 0.5 m below the ground level.
(ii) 0.5 m below the base of footing. [Ans: (i) 24.99 t (ii) 28.29 t]
11.12. The subsoil at a site consists of a homogeneous bed of normally
consolidated soil having the following properties:
y • 1.85 tlm 3, c = 3.5 t/m 2 , q, = 10"
A 2 m x 3.5 m footing is to be founded on this soil at a depth of 1.5 m .
Detennine the safe load the footing can carry with a factor of safety,of 2.5.
Use Brinch Hansen's method.
Given, for q, • 10", Nc = 8.34, Nq '"' 2.47, Ny • 0.47.
[Ans: 152.44 t]
11.13. Redo Problem 11.12 using the method recommended by IS:
6403-1981. Given, for q, c 10", Nc • 8.35, Nq '"' 2.47, NY • 1.22.
. [Ans: 152.0 t]
11.14. Detennine the factor of safety against shear failure of a 1.5 m
wide strip footing located at a depth of 1 m below the ground level in a bed
of dense sand having y • 1.9 t/m 3 and+ - 40", if it carries a uniformly
distributed load of 22 t per metre run. Use Terzagbi's equation. Given, for
q, .. 40•, Nc • 75_.32, Nq • 64.18, and Ny • 95.41. (Ans: 2.61]
11.15. An R.C.C. coluiDll is subject to a vertical force of 900 kN acting
through its centre line and a horizontal thrust of 120 kN acting at 2.7 m above
G.L. The column is supported by a square footing of2.5 m x 2.5 m size, placed
at a depth of 1.2 m below G.L. The foundation soil bas an angle of internal
friction of 35• and a bulk density of 18.5 kN/m 3 .Assuming a factor of safety
of 3.0, detennine the safe load. Use:
(i) Brincb Hansen's method
(Nc • 46.12, Nq "" 33.3, Ny • 40.69)
(ii) Recommendation ofiS: 6403- 1981
<Nc = 46.12, Nq • 33.3, Ny • 48.03)
[Ans: (i) 3458 kN (ii) 2687 kN]
 Pile Foundations 311

The bearing capaCity of an individual pile may be determined by the

following methods:
(i) Dynamic formula
(ii) Static formula
(iii) Pile load test
12 12.5 Dynamic Fonnulae: The dynamic formulae are based on the concept
a
that pile derives its beanng capacity from the energy spent in driving it.
The following dynamic formulae are most widely used: ·
PILE FOUNDATIONS &Mgineering News Formula: According to this fonnula, the safe
beanng capacity of a pile is given by:
12.1 Introduction : According to Terzaghi, a foundation is called a de.ep
foundation if i width is Jess than its depth (i.e., D!B > 1). Various types of
WH
tYI-'1.{../. Q F (s + c)
...(12.1)
deep foundations are: --- (,;,.t-t )
1. Pile foundations where, Q = safHoad in kg
2. WelJ t<>undations or open caissons. W = weight of hammer in kg
3. Pier foundations or drilled caissons. H = fall of hammer in em
12.2 Pile Foundations: Piles are generally used to transfer the load of a s = average penetration of the pile in the last n blows in em
structure to a deep-seated, strong soil stratum. The other applications of piles
For drop hammers, n = 5
are as follows:
(i) to compact a loose soil layer (compaction piles) for steam hammers, n = 20
(ii) to hold down structures subject to uplift or overturning forces c =
additional penetration of the pile which would have taken
(tension piles) place had there been no loss of energy in driving the pile.
(iii) to provide anchorage against horizontal pull applied on earth- For drop hammers, c! = 2.5 em. ·
retaining structures (anchor piles) for steam hammers,e,= 0.25 em.
(iv) to protect waterfront structl!res from the impact of marine vessels Eqn. (12.1) gives the general fonn of the EngineeringNews Fonnula. '
(fender piles) The specific fonns of this fonnula for different types of hamm rs are given
(v) to resist oblique compressive loads (batter piles). below:
12.3 Classifacation of Piles According to Load Dispersal Characteristics: Wh
On the basis of the mode of load dispersion, piles can be classified into the (i) For drop hammer: Q ...(12.2)
6 (s + 2.5)
folJowing two categories:
Wh
(i) Bearing pUes· When a pile passes through a weak stratum but its tip (ii) For si, gle acting steam hammer: Q • ) ...(12.3)
(s + 0.2S
penetrates iuto a stratum of substantial bearing capacity, the pile transfers the 6
load imposed on it to the stronger stratum. Such a pi1e is calJed a bearing pile. (iii) For double acting steam hammer: Q .. (W + a p) h ...(12.4)
(ii) Friction pile: Whe a pile is extended to a considerable 6 (s + 0.25)
depth in a 7
where, a = effective area of the piston in cm2
stratum of poor bearing capacity, it derives its lo11d c rrying capacity from p = mean effective steam pressure in kg/cm 2 .
the friction of the soil mass on the sides of the pile. Such a pile is called a
friction pile. \.)/A.fodified Hiley Formula: IS: 2911 (Part 1)- 1964 recommends the
following formula based on an expression originally derived by Hiley:
12.4 Bearing Capacity of Piles: The bearing capacity of a pile may be
defined as the maximum load which can be sustained by a pile without
producing excessive settlement.
 - --·

312 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Pile Foundations 313

llh · W ·H ·llb The value of Fs should lie between 2 and 3.

...(12.5)
Q,. = s + c/2 12.6 Static Forntulae: The static formulae are based on the concept that
the ultimate load bearing capacity (Q,.) of a pile iii equal to the sum of the
,,
where, Q ,. ultimate load on pile (kg)
total skin friction acting on the surface area of the embedded portion of the ·'
W, H, s and c have the same meaning as in eqn. (12.1) pile (Qr) and the end bearing resistance acting on the pile tip (Qb), as iiiustrated
llh - efficiency of hammer. in Fig. 12.1.
llb • efficiency of hammer blow I ...(12.13)

the ratio of energy after impact to the striking energy of the

ram.

When W > eP, ...(12.6) ...(12.14) :.

2
when W < eP, 'lb • W
W++i.pP - [ W +ep
P] ...(12.7)
where, qf • average unit skin friction :
qb .. point bearing resistance of the
where, P = weight of the pile alongwith anvil, helmet, etc pile tip
e = co-efficient or restitution, the value of which may vary between At • surface area of the pile on
0 and 0.5, depending on the driving system as well as the
which the skin friction acts.
material of the pile.
Ab "' c/s area of the pile at its tip.
In eqn. (12.5), C represents the temporary elastic compression, which is
given by,
...(12.8) The method > of evaluating q1 and %are II
Fig. 12.1 explained below:
where, C1> C2 and C3 represent the elastic compressions of the doiJy nd
packing, the pile and the soil respectively. Their values may be 1. Cohesive Soils:
obtained from: Average unit skin friction, qf '"' a c ...(12.15)

...(12.9) where, c = unit cohesion

a = adhesion factor, which depends on the consistency of the soil
and may be determined from Table 12.1
...(12.10) ,l
Average point bearing resistance
% • cNc ...(12.16)
...(12.11) I•
According to Skempton, for deep foundations, Nc = 9
i'
where, Ap = cross-sectional area of the pile, em I· .. qb - 9 c ...(12.17)
L = length of pile, m ...(12.18)
The safe load on a pile may be obtained from: For a pile of diameter B and embedded depth D.
:n : 2
Q = Q,. Ab • "4 and At • :n: B D
...(12.12) B
s Fs
1
314 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Pile Foundations 315

Eqn. (12.14) therefore reduces to: For a purdy coheslonless soil, c = 0. Hence, the point bearing resistance is
Q, = "'11BD c/..+ 2.25JtB2 c ...(12.19) given by,
qb = yDNqsq + yBNysy ...(12.22)
Table 12.1: Adhesion Factors when>, Nq, NY = Bl aring capacity factors.
. 2
Pile material Consistency Adhesion factor
sq. sy = Shape factors
a
B = width or diameter of pile
Timber & soft 0-3.75 1-0.90
Concrete medium 3.75-7.50 0.90-0.60 D = length of pile
stiff 7.50 -'15.0 0.60-0.45 For a square or rectangular pik, sy = 0.5
Steel soft 0-3.75 1.0-0.80 for a circular pile, sy = 0.3
med:um 3.75-7.50 0.80-0.50 For piles of srnall dianwter or width, the secot1d temt of eqn. (12.22) is
stiff 7.50-15.0 < 0.50 negligible as compared to the first tenn. Thus, for all practical purposes,
qb = y D N q sq ...(12.23)
2. Cohesionless Soils: For piles driven in cohesionless soils,
The value of Nq may be detennined by the following methods :
qf = q;; Ks tan 0 ...(12.20)
(i) Vesic 'smethod: According to Vesic, sq = 3,
w ere, qa = average overburden pressure
and , Nq = e3·8 cp tan <P • tan2 (45• + cp/2)
i.e., qa = y' ·z ...(12.21)
Hence, qb = 3 q Nq ...(12.24)
K 5 = co-eftlcient of earth pressure, the value of which may
The values of Nq for various values of cp are given in Table 12.3.
vary from 0.5 for loose sand to 1.0 for dense sand.
0 = friction angle of the soil on the pile, wlilch depends on Table 12.3: Bearing Capacity Factors
the a:tgle of internal friction cp of the soil.
The value ofo may be obtained from Table 12.2. cjl (degrees) Nq cjl (degrees) Nq

Table 12.2: Friction Angle 0 1.0 30 9.5

Pile Surface condition tl 5 1.2 35 18.7
Value of
materfn 10 1.6 40 42.5
l
Dry sand Saw rated 15 2.2 45 115.0
sand 3.3 50 422..0
20
Smooth (polished) 0.54 0.64 25 5.3
Steel Rough (rusted) 0.76 0.80
Parallel to grain 0.76_ 0.85 (ii) Berezantsev's method: According to Berezantsev the Nq values
Wood Perpendicular to grain 0.88 0.89 depend on the D!B ratio of the pile and the angle of internal friction of the
soil. 1'heNq-value may be obtained from Fig. 12.2.
Smooth (made in metal form work) 0.76 0.80
Concrete Grained (made in timber form work) 0.88 0.80
Rough (c2st on ground) 0.98 0.90
 316 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Pile Foundations 317

piles is generally less than the product of capacity of a single pile and the
number of piles in the group. In order to determine the bearing capacity of a
150 pile group, Q , a correction factor llg is required to be used.
8
Qg • n Qu 1lg ...(12.28)

t
c1'"
100 r--- ---- -- --
when . n • number of piles in the group
Qu • ultimate bearing capacity of each pile
z
llg • efficiency of the pile group
The value ofllg may be obtained from the following empirical formulae:
(i) Converse-Labarre' Formula:
= _ _Q_ [ (n - 1) m + (m ...(12.29)
0 1
lg 1 90 mn
20 25 30 35 leO 45
¢(Degrees)- where, m = number of rows of pile in the group

Fig.12.2
n = number of piles in each row
-1 d
12.7 Pile Capacity from Penetration Tests: The pile capacity (.'all also be e -= tan -
s
detennined from the results of the Standard Penetration Test or Static Cone
Penetration Test performed in the field, using the following equations: where, d - diameter of each pile
(i) Standard Penetration Test: s = spacing of the piles
(ii) Los Angeles formula:
Qu .. 4N Ab + 0.02N At ...(12.25)
where, Qu .. ultimate bearing capacity of pile in kg ll 1 - _d_ [m (n- 1) + n (m- 1) + v'2 (m- 1)
IC (n-o] ...
(12.30)
g n;mns
N • blow count (without overburden correction) 11.9 Design of a Pile Group: The piles in a group are connected to a rigid
2 pile cap so that the group of piles behaves as a unit. The group capacity may
Ab • base area of pile in cm
be determined by the efficiency equation (eqn. 12.24). A more rational
2
At = surface area of pile in cm f Bj

.
r
However, for a bored pile,
Qu • 1.33NAb + 0.02NAt ...(12.26)
(ii) Static cone penetration test:
...(12.27)

where, qc = cone resistance at tip.

12.8 Group Action in Piles: A pile foundation consists of a number of
closely spaced piles, known as a pile group. Due to the overlapping in the
stressed zone of individual piles, the bearing capacity of a group of friction
l;_ c{
f
S c A-A

Soft Soil Fig . 12.3

318 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Pile Foundations 319

method is the rigid block method recommended by Terzaghi and Peck. (ii) The load on the pile group is effectively transmitted to the soil at
According to this method the ultimate bearing of a pile group equals the sum this lower one-third point.
of the ultimate bearing capacity of block occupied by the group and the (iii) The presence of pile below this level is ignored.
sht aring resistance mobilised along the perimeter of the group. With (iv) The transmitted load is dispersed as 60. to the horizontal.
reference to Fig. 12.3. With reference to Fig. 12.4, the settlement of the group is given by:
Q8 = q11 BL + Dr(2B + 2L)s- yDrBL ...(12.31) Cc a0 + 1::!. a
p = H · -- · logio ...(12.34)
where, Q = ultimate beariitg capacity of the pile group. 1 + e0 · a0
8
q, ultimate bearing capacity per unit area of the stressed
area at a depth D1
B, L = width and length of pile group
y unit weight of soil
s = average shearing resistance of soil per unit area betwt cn
ground surface and the bottom of pile
Dr = depth of embedment of piles.
The safe load on the pile group is given by,
Qs - -F Qg
...( 12.32)
g-
s
The minimum value ofFs should be taken as 3.0.
The above equations are applicable to cohesive soils. For end bearing
piles on hard rock (irrespective of the spacing) and on dense sand (with
spacing greater than 3 times pile diameter) the group capacity l quals the sum
of individual capacities. i.e., · Rock
Fig. 12.4

I
...(12.33)
12.10 Spacing of Piles: As per the recommendations of IS : 2911 (Part where, H = thickness of the layer
1)-1964, the spacing of piles may be obtained from the following general Cc = compression index, e0 = initial void ratio
rules:
a0 = initial stress at the centre of the Ia yer
(i) for friction piles, s { 3 d
(ii) for end bearing piles passing through compressible soil, 1::!. a = stress increment due to piles
s {: 2.5 d Qg
(iii) for end bearing piles passing through compressible soil but resting
on stiff clay, s "" 3.5 d
=A'
(iv) for compaction piles, s = 2 d A' = area over which the load is distributed at the centre
of the layer.
12.11 Settlement of Pile Group: The consolidation settlement of a pile
group in day is detennined on the basis of the following assumptions: 12.12 Negative Skin Friction: The downward drag acting on a pile due to
the relative movement of the surrounding soil mass is called the negative skin
(i) The soil mass between the top of the piles and their lower third
point is incompressible.
320 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Pile Foundations

friction. This tends to reduce the load carrying capacity of the pile. Its Solution: From eqn. (12.5), the ultimate load on pile,
magnitude can be determined from: tlh · W H "llb

(i) for cohesive soils: Q111 • p ·c ·Lt Q,. = s + c/2

...(12.35)
2
(ii) for cohesionless soils: Qnf = 21 p y K tan b ...(12.36) Here, W = 3.0 t, H = 91 em, llh = 75% = 0.75
L1 s= 10mm = l.Ocm
where, p - perimeter of the pile Now, e P = (0.55) (1.5) = 0.825 t
c • average cohesion of the soil W > eP
L1 "" thickness of soil layer which tends to move downwards Using eqn. (12.6),
y • unit weight of soil w + ip = 2.0 + (0.552 ) (1.5) .. 0 7
K = co-efficient oflateral pressure (K0 s: K s Kp) llb = w+p 2.0 + 1.5 .
b = frtction angle, (b s: cj>) In order to find out the value of Q,., assume as a first approximation,
c = 2.5 em.
EXAMPLES
Problem 1A timber pile is being driven with a drop hammer = (0.75) (2.0)(91) (0.7) - 42.47 t
Q
" 1.0 + 2.5/2
weighing 20 kN and having a free fall of 1m. The total penetration of the pile
in the last five blows is 30 mm. Detennine the load carrying capacity of the Now, using eqns. (12.9) through (12.11),
pile using the Engineering News formula.
cl = 1.77 Qu = (1.77) (4247) .. 0.106 em
Solution: Using eqn. (12.1), Ap X (30)2
WH 4
Q = 6 (s + c)
Here, W • weight of hammer • 20 kN. c2 • (0.657)(42.47) (22) = 0 868
.
2
X (30)
H '"' height of free fall .. 1 m -- 100 em.
c = 2.5cm (3.55) (4247)
s = ave.rage penetration for the last 5 blows C3 • = 0.213 em
2
30 X (30)
= - = 6 mm = 0.6 em
5 C • C1 + C2 + C3 • 1.187em < 2.5cm.
Q = (20) (100) "" 107.5 kN
6 (0.6 + 2.5) Let Qu = 50 t , .
••
c = (1.187)(SO} = .1397·
42.47 . . em
Problem 12.2. Detem1ine the safe load that can be carried by a pile
having a gross weight of 1.5 t, using the modified Hiley's formula. Given, .. Q"
= (0.75)(2.0) (91) (0.7) - 56 25 "\. .
1.0 + 1.397/2 . t
weight of hammer = 2.0 t
height of free fall = 91 em Let . c - (1.187) (S5) .. 1537
hammer efficiency = 75%
average penetration under the last 5 blows = 10 mm
Qu • 55 t, .. 42.47 .
Q = (0.75) (2.0} (91)(0.7) - 54
length of pile = 22m u 1.0 + •.537/2 t
diametl'r of pile = 300 mm.
/
co-efficient of restitution ::: 0.55
322 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Pile Foundations 323

In the third iteration the assumed and computed values of Qu are quite Here, q0 = average overburden pressure
close. Hence, the ultimate load bearing capacity of the pile is 54 t.
= yz = Y..!!._
Consequently, the safe bearing capacity 2
Qu 54
(1.6) (15) • 12 t/m2
Qs = Fs "' 2.5 • 21.6 t.
2
Problem 12..3/An RCC pile of 18m overall length is driven into a deef For loose sand, Ks = 0.5
stratum of soft c having an unconfined compressive strength of 3.5 t/m . The value of b may be obtained from Table 12.2. For a smooth RCC pile
The diameter of the pile is 30 em.Determine the safe load that c-an be carried embedded in dry sand,
by the pile with a factor of safety of 3.0. b/411 = 0.76, or, b = (0.76) (25") = 19"
Solution: From eqn. (12.14),
q .. (12) (0.5) (tan 19")
1 . 2
Qu .. qrAt + qb ·Ab.
= 2.066 t/m
As the pile is driven into a cohesive. soil, Using eqn. (12.24),
q1 • a· c qb • 3qNq
The value of adhesion factor a may be obtained from Table 12.1. For a - (3) (1.6) (15) (5.3) = 381.6 t!m2
3 2
soft clay having c = • • 1.75 tlm , a may be taken as 0.95. 2
:
At .. nB D • n (0.40)(15) • 18.85 m
Again, we have, qb = 9 c
Ab • 4lt.tr • (n/4) 2
( 0.40 ) .. 0.126 m
2
Ab • c/s area of pile tip
2 Qu = (2.066) (18.85) + (381.6) (0.126)

• Jt x
(30)
100
- 0.07 m 2 - 38.94 + 48.08
4 - 87.02 t = 87 t
At • surface area of the pile
.. n (0.30) (18) - 16.96 m2 Qu 87 .. 29 t.
Q - -
--,--
Qu = (0.95) (1.75) (16.96) + (9) (1.75) (0.07) - 3
s Fs
Problem 1 bored concrete pile of 400 mm diameter and having
= 28.2 + 1.1 .. 29.3 t an overall length of 12.5 m is embedded in a saturated stratum of c- 4jl soil
Qu 29.3 having the following properties:
.. Safe load, Qs • Fs • . • 9.76 t.
30 c ""' 15 kN/m2, 4jl • 20", Ysat .. 18 kN/m3
Problem 12..4/A smooth RCC pile of 40 em diameter and 15 m length Determine the safe bearing capacity of the pile. Given, for 411 • 20", the
is driven into a J{ep stratUm of dry, loose sand having a unit weight of 1.6 bearing capacity factors are:
t/m3 and an angle of internal friCtion of 25". Determine the safe load which
Nc • 26, - Nq • 10, Ny • 4.
can be carried by the pile. Given, for 411 • 25", Vesic's bearing capacity
factor Nq • 5.3. Assume reasonable values for aJJ other factors.
Solution: Using eqn. (12.20), Solution: For piles embedded in a c- 41 soil,
qb • cNc + y' D(Nq- 1) + O.Sy' BNy
 Pile Founda-tion s 325
324 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
.,
"' (15) (26) + (18 - 10) (12.5) (10 - 1) For the second layer, qt = a. cz = (0.80) (5) = 4 tlm-
2
'+ (0.5) (18 - 10) (0.40) (4)
and, A12 = n: (0.5) (3.0) = 4.71 m 2
= 390 + 900 + 6.4
-1296.4 For the third layer, the skin friction may be neglected.
qt = a. c + % Ks tan 0. Again, using eqn. (12.24),

Assume, a. 0.5, Ks • 1, o/q, .. 0.80. qb = 3qNq = (3)(1.85 X 5 + 1. X 3 + 1.8 X 2)(9.5)

0 = (0.80) (20°) - 16° = 528.67 tlm 2

3t ') .,
fJt = (0.5)(15) + (18 - 10) (12.512)(1.0)(tan 16.) and Ab = 4 · (0.5t = 0.196 m-
2
= 21.84 kN/m
Qu = (2.4) (7.85) + (4) (4.71) + (528.67) (0.196)
Again At .. n: (0.4) (12.5) = 15.71 m 2 = 18.84 + 18.84 + 103.62

and, Ab = 4 (0.40 )2 -=
3t
0.126 m
2 = 141.3 t
141.3
Qu = (21.84) (15,71) + (1296.4) (0.126) Qs =- 47.1 t ""47t.
. -"'
3
= 343.1 + 163.3 ProblemA raft foundation is supported by a pile group consisting
= 506.4 kN. of 15 piles arranged in 3 rows . The diameter and length of each pile are 300
mm and 15 m respectively. The spacing between the piles is 1.2 m. The
/ Qs =
50
:.4 .. 168.8 kN "" 168 kN. foundation soil
y .
consists of a soft clay layer having c = 3.2 t/m2 and
= 1.9 t/m 3 Detennine the capacity of the pile group.
Problem 1 .sf
The column of a footing is founded at a depth of 1.5 m
Solution: (i) Considering individual action of piles:
below G.L. a11 supported by a number of piles each having a length 6f 10
m. The subsoil consists of three layers, the properties of which are given fJt = a. c
below : = (0.9) (3.2) (Assuming a. = 0.90)
Layer I: c=3t/m 2 , 3
y • 1.8 t1m , q, "' o·, H • 6.5m = 2.88 t/m .
2
' 3
Layer II: c • 5 t/m 2 , y • 1.90 t/m , q, .. o·, H.., 3m At = n: (0.30) (15) = 14.14 m 2
3
Layerlll: c - 0, y • 1.80 t/m , q, - 30•, H .. 15 m fJb = 9 c .., '.J (3.2) = 28.8 tlm 2
Determine the safe load on each pile if the iameter of the piles be 500 3t
mm and the required factor of safety be 25. Assume, adhesion factor Ab = 4 (0. 2 .,
) "' 0.071
a. .. 0.80. 30 m-
Soludon: The depth of embedment of the piles in the three layers are
respectively, 5 m, 3m and 2m. lndividual capacity of each pile,

For the first layer, q11 • a. c1 • (0.80) (3) • 2.4 t/m2 . Qu = (2.88) (14.14) + (28.8) (0.071)
= 42.77 t
.. Group capacity, Qug = (15) (42.77) "' 641.55 t
2
and, At • n: (0.5) (5) • 7.85 m
1

!';
/I
 326 Problems in Soil Mechanics and FoundatiOn Engineering Pile Foundations 327

(ii) Considering group action of piles: Assuming a block failure, the = 17757 kN
capacity of the pile group may be obtained fromeqn. (12.31): (ii) Considering group action of piles: Assuming a block failure, width
Q8 = qbBL + D1(2B + 2L)s- yD1BL of block, B .. 2 (1.25) + 2 (0.50/2)
=3m.
With reference to Fig. 12.3,
length of block, L .. 3 (1.25) + 2 (0.5012) • 4.25 m
width of the block, B = 2(1.2) + 2(0.15) = 2.7 m
length of the block, L = 4(1.2) + 2(0.15) = 5.1 m depth of block, Dt = 30m.
depth of the block, n,= 15 m 2
qf = 30 kN/m , qb -= 337.5 kN/m
Group capacity, Q
2

qb = 9 c = (9) (3.2) .. 28.8 t/m 2 8

"' (337.5) (3) (4.25) + 30 (2 x 3 + 2 x 4.25) (30)
2 -(11) (30) (3) (4.25)
s - qf - a c .. (0.9) (3.2) = 2.88 t/m
• 13145.6kN < 17757kN
.'. Qg = (28.8) (2.7) (5.1) + 15(2 X 2.7 + 2 X 5.1) (2.88) Hence, group action governs the capacity of the pile group.
- (1.9) (15) (2.7) (5.1)
Qg = 13145.6 kN.
= 678.05 t > 641.55 t
6
Hence, the ultimate bearing capacity of the pile group is 641.55 t Qs .. l3 · • 5258.2 kN "" 5258 kN.
.. Safe bearing capacity w.r.t a factor of safety of 2.5,
641.55 Problem 12. A group of 20 piles, each having a diameter of 40 mm
Qs! = = 256.62 t"" 256 t. and 10m long, aYe arranged in 4 rows at a spacing 1.0 m c/c. The capacity of

Problem ¥ group of 12 piles, each having a diameter of 500 mm

and 30 m long, supports a raft foundation. The piles are arranged in 3 rows
each pile is 380 kN. Determine the group capacity of the piles.
Solution: Using eqn. (12.28), the capacity of the pile group,
and spaced at 1.25 m c/c. The properties of the foundation soil are as follows: Q8 ,. n · Qu 'llg·

y' = 11 kN/m ,
3
qu • 75 kN/m 2 , cp • o·. Here, n = 20, Qu = 380 kN.

Assuming a = 0.80 and Fs = 2.5, determine the capacity of the pile The efficiency of the pile group, llg> may be determined by either of the
group. following formula:
Solution: (i) Considering individual action of piles: (i) Converse- Labarre Formula: Using eqn. (12.29),
..
1
_ _!!_ [(n - 1) m + (m - 1) n]
qf = a c = (0.80) (7512) = 30 kN/m 2 1
lg 90 mn

qb .. 9 c = (9) (7512) = 337.5 kN/m 2 Here, m = 4, n = 5,

AI • :n: (0.50) (30) • 47.12 m 2 0 = tan -'1 d

- = tan -l
s
(0.40)
1.0
8"
"' 21.

i
Ab •(O.Sif) = 0.196 m
2
.. llg
.. 1 - 21.8 [(5 - 1) 4 + (4 - 1) 5] = 0 624 = 62 4m.
90 (4)(5) . . 70
Capacity of each pile, (ii) Los Angeles fonnula: Using eqn. (12.30),
Qu = (30) (47.12) + (337.5) (0.196) llg = 1 - _d_ [m (n- 1) + n (m - 1) + v2 (m- 1)(n- 1) J
- 1479.75 kN :n: m n s
Group capacity= (12) (1479.75)

---------------------- ---------- -----

 328 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Pile Foundations 329

t/m2 and an effective unit weight of 0.9 t/m3 • Design the pile group with a
= 1- :n: < 4 - (1) [4 (5-1) + 5 (4 -d) + v'2 (4 -1) (5-1) 1
factor of safety of 3 against shear failure.
= 0.771 = 77.1% Solution: Let us use 16 Nos. of 400 mm 4> R.C.C. piles in a square
The lower value sho)Jld be used. Hence, the c.apacity of the pile group formation. Let the spacings be equal to 3d,
Qg = (20) (380) (0.624) i.e. s = (3) (0.40) = 1.2 m
Let L be the length of each pile.
= 4742.4 kN ... 4742 kN.
Problem 12.u( It is proposed to drive a group of piles in a bed of loose
qu 4.8 2
Now, c•-=---=2.4t/m
sand to supportVr ft The group will consist of 16 piles, each of 300 mm 2 2
diam:eter and 12m length. The results of standard penetration tests performed qf = a c .. (0.9) (2.4) = 2.16 t/m .
2
[Assuming a = 0.90]
at the site at various depths are given below:
2
qb • 9 c '"' (9) (2.4) • 2:16 t/m
Depth(m) 2.0.. 4.5 7.5 9.0 12.0
2
At= :n:B L = (0.40) :n:L = 1.257 L m
Blow count 8 10 8 11 9
:n: ? 2
Estimate the capacity of the pile group, if the spadng of the piles be 1.5 ·(0.40)-
Ab = ,. 0.126 m
m c/c. 4
8 + 10 + 8 + 11 + 9 .. Capacity of each pile,
Solution: Average N-value .,. • 9.2 ... 9 Qu • (2.16) (1.257 L) + (21.6) (0.126)
5
Using eqn. (12.25), the capacity of a driven pile, or, Qu • 2.715L + 2.722

Qu = 4N Ab + 0.02N At Safe bearing capacity of each pile,

Qu
Here, the average value of N = 9 Qs .. ,. 0.905 L + 0.907
:n: 2 2 3
Ab • 4 (30) = 706.86 em
Actual load to be carried by each pile • = 15.625 t.
2
A1 "' :n: (30) (12) = 1130.97 cm
0.905 L + 0.907 = 15.625
Qu • (4) (9) (706.86) + (0.02) (9) (1130.97) kg
or, L = 16.27 m .. 16.5 m
- 25650 kg - 25.65 t. Check for group action: Considering the shear failure of a block of
As the spacing of piles is as high as 5 D, it can be assumed that there is dimension, B x L x D,
no overlapping of stressed zones. B = L • 3 s + d • 3 (1.2) + 0.4 = 4 m
:. Group capacity, Q8 = n ·Qu D ,. 16.5 m
... (16) (25.65) t :. Capacity of the pile grovp, Q - (21.6) (42 ) + (16.5) (2) (4 + 4) (2.16)
8
- 410 t - (0.9) (16.5) (42 )
Prpblem 12.11 A raft foundation has to be supported by a group of
concrete piles. The gross load to be carried by the pile group is 250 t, inclusive
= 894.24 t
of the weight of the pile cap. The subsoil consists of a 25 m thick stratum of Safe bearing capacity of the pile group
q
il normally consolidated clay having an unconfmed compressive strength of 4.8
'I

'It
---------------- --------- - -------- ------
330 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Pile Foundations 331

894 24 Assuming the load to be dispersed along straight lines inclined to the
Q sg 3• = 298 t > 250 t
horizontal at 60", the area over which tbe gross load is distributed at the middle
Hence the .·gned gr: p of piles is safe from the consideration ofblock of the first layer,
failure. = A 1 = (L + 2 H112 ·tan 30") (B t 2 H112 ·un 30")
Problem 12. • A raft footing founded at a depth of 1.5 m below G.L.
= (B + H1 tan 30")2
in a 19.5 thick stratum of normally <. onsolidated clay underlain by a dense
2
sand layer, is to be supported by a-group of 16 piles of length 12m and dia- .. (4 + 3 tan 30") .. 32.86 m2
meter 400 mm arranged in a square fonnation. The gross load to be carried Q 350 . 2
by the pile group (including the self-weight of pile cap) is 350 t. The piles are
flo = Al = .86 .. 10.65 tim
spaced at 1.2 m c/c. The water table is located at the ground level. The 32
properties of the foundation soil are: (300) (0.279) 1 . 9.9 + 10.65 14 32
w = 32%, G = 2.67, _L.L = 41% Pet = 1 + 0.854 . oglO 9.9 .. · em.
Estimate the probable consolidation settlement of the pile group.
Settlement of the second sub-layer:
Solution: With reference to Fig. 12.4, the load from the pile group is
assumed to be transmitted to the foundation soil at the lower one-third point, o0 • (0.90) (1.5 + 8.0 + 3.0 + 3.0/2) • 12.6 t/m 2
i.e., at a depth of x 12 • 8 m below the pile cap and 8+ 1.5 = 9.5 m below A2 = (4 +2x 4.5 x tan 30")
2
= 84.57 m
2

350
G.L. The t ickness of the clay layer undergoing consolidation settlement= flo • .Q_ • = 4.14 t/m 2
10m. Let us divide this zone·into three sub-layers of thickness 3m, 3m and A2 84.57
4 m respectively.
(300) (0.279) log 12.6 + 4.14 •
The settlement of each sub-layer ?1ay be obtained from: Pc2 '"' 1 + 0.854 . lO 12.6 557 em
cc o0 + o Settlement of the third sub-layer:
Pc = H . 1. + eo . loglO oo
o0 .. (0.90) {1.5 + 8.0 + 6.0 + 4.0/2) • 15.75 t/m2
wG
Now, we have, w G =- se, or, e = A3 • (4 + 2 x 8 x tan 30")2 .. 175.23 m 2
s
350 ?
eo = (0.321_ ·67) .. 0.854 fl o • . - 1.997 t/m-
175 23
Cc = 0.009 (LL - 10) .. 0.009 (41 - 10) = 0.279 p = (400) (0.279) log 15.75 + 1.997 = 3.12 em
1 + 0.854 . 10 15.75
G + e 2.67 + 0.854 3 c3

Again, Total settlement, Pc = P c + Pc + Pc

Ysat = y-:;:-e Yw =
1
+ 0.854 (1) "" 1.90 t/m ..
1 2 3
3 + 5.57 + 3.12
and, Ysub = 1.90 - 1.00 = 0.90 t/m = 14.32

Settlement of the first sub-layer: • 23 em.

o0 = initial overburden pressure at the middle of the layer EXERCISE12

? 12.1. Determine the safe load carrying capadty of an RCC pile driven
= y' z = (0.90) {1.5 + 8.0 + 3.02) = 9.9 tim-
by a drop hammer weighing 3 t and having a free fall of 1.5 m, if the average
Dimensions of the block of piles, penetration for the last five blows be 12 mm. [Ans. 20.3 t]
L = E = 3 s + d ... 3 (1.2) + 0.4 = 4 m
332 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Pile Foundations
12.2. An RCC pile having a diameter of 400 mm and a length of 10m
is being driven with a drop hammer weighing 30 kN, with a height of free fall friction angle = 16 o
of 1.2 m. The average penetration for the last few blows has been recorded for lj) = 20", Nc = 26, Nq = 10, NY = 4. [Ans. 279 kN]
as 9 mm. If the efficiency of the hammer be 70% and the co-efficient or 12.8. Determine the ultimate load capacity of an RCC pile of 500 mm
restitution 0.50, detennine the safe load the pile can carry using modified diameter supporting the footing of a column. The sub-soil conditions are
Hiley's formula. Given, unit weight of RCC = 24 kN/m 3 .Assume a factor of sketched in Fig. 12.5. Given,
safety of3.0. [ Ans. 200 kN] adhesion factor for soft clay = 0.9
12.3. A 22 m long pile having a diameter of 500 mm is driven into a and that for dayey silt = 0.7
deey stratum of soft clay having an unconfined compressive strength of 5.6 V t•sk's !waring capacity factor Nq for lj) = 30° is 9.5. The water table is
t/m . Detennine the static load bearing capacity of the pile with respect to a luntlnlnt a real dt pth . Skin friction in sand may b neglected. [Ans. 232 t]
factor of safety of 2.5. [Ans. 40 t]
12.4. A concrete pile of 30 t m diameter is embedded in a stratum of soft Soft Clay
clay having y = 1.7 t!m 3 , q,. = 4.2 t/m 2.The thickness of the clay stratum is ( 'll'=1'B t/m c=3t/rrt l
8 m and the pile penetrates through a distance of 1.2 minto the underlying
stratum of de;tse sand, having y = 1.85 tlm 3 and lj) = 36°. Detennine the safe Clayey Silt
load carrying capacity of the pile with a factor of safety of 3. 10m (¥=1-85 t/m3l,c= 6t!m2
Given, 0 = 0.80 4> and for 4> = 36", Vesic's bearing capacity factor
Nq = 23, a = 1, Ks = 1. [Ans. 32.3 t]
12.5. A smooth steel pile of 8 m length and 400 mm diameter is driven
l_
into a cohesionless soil mass having the following properties: 2·0m Sand
3
Ysat "' 1.8 11m , lj) = 30o -r ( ¥= 1-75 t /m3, rt> =30°1
Fig. 12.5
The water table is located at the ground level. If 0 = 0.60 lj) and Vesic's 12.9. A pile group consists of 42 piles arranged in 6 rows with a
bearing capacity factor Nq for q, .. 30° be 9.5, determine the safe capllcity of centre-to-centre spacing of 1.5 m in each direction. Each piJe is 22 m long
the pile with a factor of safety of 2.5. Given, Ks = 0.7. [Ans. 12.1 t] and 500 mm in diameter. Find out the group capacity of the pile using:
12.6. A 12m long pile having a diameter of 300 mm is cast-in-situ at a (i) Converse-Labarre formula
site where the sub-soil consists of the following strata: (ii) Los Angeles fonnula.
Stratum 1: thickness = 5 m, y' = q, = 30°, c = 10 kN/m2
10 kN/m 3, Given, load bearing capacity of each pile = 78 t.
(Ans. (i) 2142 t (ii) 2624 t]
Stratum ll: thickness= 16m, y' = 9 kN/m 3, q, = 0°, c = 60 kN/m 2
12.10. A pile group consisting of25 piles arranged in a square fonnation
Detennine the safe load on the pile with a factor of safety of 2.0. Assume is to support a raft footing. The length and diameter of each pile are 15 m and
reasonable values for all other data. 300 mm respectively, while their spacing is 85 em c/c. The foundation soil is
12.7. A 16m long bored concrete pile having a diameter of 500 mm is a nonnally consolidated clay having c = 5 t/m 2 andy= 1.85 t/m3 • Detennine
embedded in a saturated stratum of sandy silt having the following properties the safe load bearing capacity of the pile group. Take a., 0.85 and Fs = 3.0.
3 2
Ysat .. 19.5 kN/m , c = 11 kN/m , lj) "' 20o
[Ans. 527 t]
12.11. A multistoried building is to be supported by a raft footing placed
Detennine the safe load carrying capacity of the pile with a factor of on a pile foundation . The pile group supporting the raft consists of 96 piles
safety of 3.0. Given,
of 26m length and 400 mm diameter, with a spacing of 2.0 m c/c. The water
adhesion factor = 0.75 table is located near the ground surface and the properties of the foundation
co-efficient of earth pressure = 0.85
soil are as follows:
334 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

Ysat = 2.0 t/m 3, c = 3.6 t/m 2 , cp = o·.

The adhesion factor may be taken as 0.95.
Detem1ine the capacity of the pile group with a factor of safety of 3.0.
12.12. Design a pile group to support a raft footing of 8 m x 12 m size
and carrying a gross load of 760 t. The self weight of the pile cap may be
assumed as 20% of the gross load on footing. The subsoil consists of a
homogeneous layer of soft clay, extending to a great depth and having the
following properties:
3 2
y' = 0.85 t/m , qu = 5.7 t/m
Design the pile group with a factor of safety of 3 against shear failure.
Given, a = 0.85.
12.13. It is required to drive a group of piles in order to support a raft
footinof 10m x 10m plan area, and subject to a gross pressure intensity of
15 t/m . The subsoil consists of a 12 m deep layer of soft clay (y = 1.8
t/m 3 , qu = 4.5 t/m 2 ) which is underlain by a dense sand layer (Y = 2 t/m3,
cp .. 35•). The raft is founded c:t 1.5 m below G.L. In order to utilize the
bearing resistance of the sand layer, each pile should penetrate through it at
least 4D. The. adhesion factor for clay= 0.90. Vesic's bearing capacity factor
Nq_ for cjl • 35• is 18.7. Design a suitable pile group with a factor of safety of
2.5 against shear failure.
Assume that the self weight of pile cap = 25% of pressure intensity on
the raft .
12.14. A raft footing is founded at a depth of 3.5 m below G.L. in a 24
m thick stratum of soft clay having the following properties:
3
Ysat "" 2.05 tim , Cc = 0.3
The gross load to be carriedby the pile group, including the self weight
of the pile cap, is 800 t The group consists of81 piles of 400 mm cp, arranged
in a square formation, and extended to a depth of 12m below the pile cap.
The spacing of the piles is 1.25 m. The water table is located at the ground
level. Compute the probable consolidation settlement of the pile group.
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