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2
2001
2016
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An Overview of

Summary Report
in the Philippines
Agricultural Pollution
An Overview of
Agricultural Pollution
in the Philippines
Summary Report
2016

Submitted to
The World Bank’s Agriculture and Environment & Natural Resources Global Practices

Country Study Team

Damasa B. Magcale-Macandog, Team Leader and Crops Expert
Roehlano M. Briones, Policy and Socioeconomics Expert
Arsenio D. Calub, Livestock and Poultry Expert
Ronaldo B. Saludes, Livestock and Poultry Expert
Ma. Lourdes A. Cuvin-Aralar, Fisheries Expert
Arnold R. Salvacion, GIS Specialist
Erick Voltaire P. Tabing, Research Associate
Patricia Mae J. Paraiso, Research Associate
Carl H. Ricafort, Research Associate
Iana Mariene A. Silapan, Research Associate
Sarena Grace L. Quiñones, Research Associate
Rizza V. Estadola, Research Associate
© 2016 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank
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Cite this report as:

Magcale-Macandog, D.B, R.M. Briones, A.D. Calub, R.B. Saludes, M.L.A. Cuvin-
Aralar, A.R. Salvacion, E.V.P. Tabing, P.M.J. Paraiso, C.H. Ricafort, I.M.A. Silapan,
S.G.L. Quinones, R.V. Estadola. 2016. “An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in
the Philippines: Summary Report.” Prepared for the World Bank. Washington, D.C.

Publication design and typesetting by The Word Express, Inc.

Cover photos courtesy of istock.com, shutterstock.com and the authors of this report.
CONTENTS

Abbreviations and Acronyms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Executive Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

Summary Report

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Background, Aim, and Scope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Conceptual Framework. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2  Overview of Agriculture and Agri-Pollution Drivers. . . . . . . . . 5

2.1 Profile of Agriculture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.1 Rising Populations and Incomes have Driven Agricultural Growth. . . 6
2.2.2 Consumer Preferences have Shifted over Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.3 Supply-Side Factors Combine with Demand to
determine Trends in Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.4 Global Trade has also Shaped the Evolution of
Philippine Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 Agricultural Development Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3.1  Laws on Agricultural Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3.2  Commodity and Banner Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3 Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1 Total Area Planted with Rice in the Country. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 Areas Planted with White Corn in the Philippines from
1990 to 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3 Areas Planted with Yellow Corn in the Philippines from
1990 to 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
iv An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

3.4  Areas Planted with Sugarcane in the Philippines from 1990 to 2014. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.5  Areas Planted with Banana in the Philippines from 1990 to 2014. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.6  Areas Planted with Pineapple in the Philippines from 1990 to 2014. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.7  Fertilizer Application Trends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.7.1 Consumption Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.7.2 Fertilizer Application Rates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.7.3 Estimating Excess Fertilizer Usage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.8  Farming Systems Evolving Toward Modern Cropping Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.8.1  Impact of Fertilizer Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.8.2 Crop Farming and Air Pollution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.9   Pesticide Application Trends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.9.1 Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.9.2  Total Pesticide Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.9.3 Pesticide Application Across Different Crops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.9.4  Frequency and Timing of Herbicide Application in Wet and Dry Season Rice Cropping. . 39
3.9.5 Adverse Impacts of Pesticide Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.10 Hazardous Plastic Wastes from Cropping Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4 Livestock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.1  Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.1.1  Profile of the Livestock and Poultry Sectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.1.2  Problem of Animal Waste. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.2  Management of Pollution from Animal Wastes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.2.1  Impacts on the Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.3  Other Pollutants from Livestock and Poultry Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.3.1 Air Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.3.2 Antibiotic Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.4  Other Pollution Sources in the Supply Chain: Slaughterhouses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.5  Summary of Pollution Potential from Livestock Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.5.1 Regulatory Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5 Fisheries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.1   Profile of the Sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.2  Potentially Polluting Practices of Fish Aquaculture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.2.1 Fertilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.2.2  Soil and Water Conditioners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.3   Other Chemicals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.4   Pollution from Fish Aquaculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.4.1 Nutrient Loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.4.2 Nutrients and Pathogens from Excreta. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.4.3 Other Types of Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.4.4 Aquaculture and the Introduction of Alien Species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
 Contents v

5.5  Regulatory Standards for Fish and Fishery Products from Capture Fisheries
and Aquaculture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

6  Synthesis and Knowledge Gaps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

7  Existing Solutions/Interventions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

8  Concluding Remarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

List of Stakeholders Consulted for this Participatory Review and Assessment of

Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

List of Figures
Figure 01: Shares in real agriculture GVA, constant 1985 prices, 1970–2010, in %. . . . . . . . . . xiii
Figure 1: Conceptual framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Figure 2: Agriculture GVA, million pesos, constant 1985 prices, 1970–2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Figure 3: Per capita income and real GDP, in 2000 prices, 1998–2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Figure 4: Areas where the major crops are grown in the Philippines, 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Figure 5: Volume of production, top 10 agricultural crops, 1990–2014. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Figure 6: Area harvested for crops in the Philippines, 1990–2014. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Figure 7: Areas planted with rice in the Philippines, 1990–2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Figure 8: Areas planted with white corn in the Philippines, 1990–2014. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Figure 9: Areas planted with yellow corn in the Philippines, 1990–2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figure 10: Areas planted with sugarcane in thePhilippines, 1990–2014. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figure 11: Areas planted with banana in the Philippines, 1990–2014. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Figure 12: Areas planted with pineapple in the Philippines, 1990–2014. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Figure 13: National consumption of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium fertilizers
in the Philippines from 1961 to 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 14: Fertilizer application rates in rice in Southeast Asian countries in 2001. . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 15: Fertilizer application rates in corn in Southeast Asian countries in 2001 . . . . . . . . . . 22
Figure 16: Fertilizer application rates in sugarcane in Southeast Asian countries in 2001 . . . . . . 22
Figure 17: Trends of four major types of nitrogenous fertilizer application in rice crop from
1990 to 2014. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Figure 18: The rate of nitrogen fertilizer application (kg N/ha) during the wet
(July–December 2011) and dry (January–June 2012) cropping seasons in the various
provinces in the Philippines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Figure 19: The rate of phosphorus fertilizer application (kg P/ha) during the wet
(July–December 2011) and dry (January–June 2012) cropping seasons in the various
provinces in the Philippines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Figure 20: The rate of potassium fertilizer application (kg K/ha) during the wet
(July–December 2011) and dry (January–June 2012) cropping seasons in the various
provinces in the Philippines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Figure 21: Trends of four major types of nitrogenous fertilizer application in corn from
1990 to 2014. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Figure 22: Amounts of nitrogen applied, nitrogen content in harvested rice grains, and nitrogen
content in harvested rice grains + straw from 1988 to 2014 in Nueva Ecija. . . . . . . . 28
vi An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Figure 23: Amounts of phosphorus applied, phosphorus content in harvested rice grains, and
phosphorus content in harvested rice grains + straw from 1988 to 2014
in Nueva Ecija. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Figure 24: Amounts of potassium applied, potassium content in harvested rice grains, and
potassium content in harvested rice grains + straw from 1988 to 2014
in Nueva Ecija. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Figure 25: Area of irrigated systems by type, 1990–2014, ha, thousands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Figure 26: Daily wage in rice farming, year 2000 pesos, 1990–2011. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Figure 27: Nitrogen crop uptake and loading to the environment in Manila Bay, 2010 . . . . . . . 33
Figure 28: Calculated BOD loading (WLM) as generated within the
Laguna Lake catchment in 1995 and 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Figure 29: Community-based causal diagram showing the different factors related to
fish kill events in Taal Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Figure 30: GHG emissions from the agricultural sector in the Philippines (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Figure 31: Import values of pesticides in the Philippines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Figure 32: Increase in volume of palay and corn production and trends in the import
values of pesticides from 1993 to 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Figure 33: Comparative pesticide use per hectare of agricultural land in Asian countries. . . . . . . 38
Figure 34: Insecticide use of farmers in Central Luzon Loop Survey, in kg active ingredients
per hectare, by season, 1966–2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Figure 35: Herbicide use of farmers in Central Luzon Loop Survey, in kg active ingredients
per hectare, by season, 1966–2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Figure 36: Frequency of herbicides application in (a) wet season and (b) dry season of the
surveyed farmers, Central Luzon Loop Survey, 1966–2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Figure 37: Timing (days after transplanting) of herbicides application in (a) wet season and
(b) dry season of the surveyed farmers, Central Luzon Loop Survey, 1966–2012. . . . 40
Figure 38: Pesticide residues in bitter gourd bought from public markets in various regions
of the country from 2013 to 2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Figure 39: Pesticide residues in eggplant sampled from public markets in various regions
of the country from 2013 to 2015. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Figure 40: Pesticide residues in pechay sampled from public markets in various regions
of the country from 2013 to 2015. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Figure 41: Pesticide residues in tomato sampled from public markets in various regions
of the country from 2013 to 2015. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Figure 42: GHG emissions by crop type, CO2 equivalent, in kilotons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Figure 43: Distribution of swine population by type of operation, 1994–2014. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Figure 44: Shares in total inventory, by type of chicken, 1994–2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Figure 45: Proportion of captured and aquaculture from 1980 to 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Figure 46: Aquaculture production (excluding aquatic plants), by type of environment,
in million tons, 1950–2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Figure 47: Occurrences of fish kill in Taal Lake due to various factors based on BFAR
announcements and reports from 1998 to 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

List of Tables
Table 1: Shares in agriculture GVA, selected commodities, constant 1985 prices. . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Table 2: Population of the Philippines, 1980–2010, in millions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Table 3: Per capita consumption of major food items, in kg/year, 1990–2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Table 4: Income elasticity of demand of selected food items, Philippines, 2009. . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
 Contents vii

Table 5: Value of top agricultural exports, in US$, thousands, 1965–2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Table 6: Value of top agricultural imports and total net imports, in US$, thousands,
1965–2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Table 7: A comparison of the productivity of four different rice systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Table 8: Nitrogen emission into Laguna Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Table 9: Insecticides commonly used in temperate vegetables in the Cordilleras . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Table 10: Active ingredients of pesticides commonly used in rice, corn, and cassava
in Mindanao. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Table 11: Pesticide use in the Silang-Santa Rosa and Pila-Victoria subwatersheds . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Table 12: Concentration of pesticide residues in bitter gourd sampled from local markets
in various regions of the country, 2013–2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Table 13: Concentration of pesticide residues in eggplant sampled from local markets
in various regions of the country, 2013–2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Table 14: Concentration of pesticide residues in pechay sampled from local markets
in various regions of the country, 2013–2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Table 15: Concentration of pesticide residues in tomato sampled from local markets
in various regions of the country, 2013–2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Table 16: Reported self-perceived symptoms among the sprayers (N = 528) in Mindanao,
Southern Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Table 17: List of fungicides used by banana plantation companies in Mindanao (2006). . . . . . 55
Table 18: Emissions from rice straw open burning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Table 19: Share of nitrogen loading into Laguna Lake, by source, percentage,
1974 and 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Table 20 Number of accredited meat production facilities, by region, 2015. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Table 21 Shares of number of slaughterhouses, by type of waste management system,
percentage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Table 22 GHG emissions of livestock and poultry from enteric fermentation and
different manure management scenarios, 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Table 23: Fish consumption estimates, the Philippines, 1961–2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Table 24: Organic matter and nutrient loading for 1 ton of harvested shrimp,
alternative FCRs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Table 25: Phosphorus values from marine aquaculture sites in the Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Table 26: Veterinary drugs prohibited in aquaculture feeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Table 27: Impacts of agricultural pollution from the various sectors on
environmental resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Table 28: Gaps and recommended measures to address challenges in agri-pollution . . . . . . . . . 93

List of Plates
Plate 1: Rice crop residue burning in Jaen, Nueva Ecija. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Plate 2: Banana plantation in Compostela Valley. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Plate 3: Backyard swine in the Philippines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Plate 4: Freshwater fishpond in Laguna Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Plate 5: Fish cage in Taal Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

List of Boxes
Box 1: Evolution of rice cropping systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
ABBREVIATIONS
AND ACRONYMS

ACIAR Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research

AFMA Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act
AMR Antimicrobial resistance
ARMM Administrative Region of Muslim Mindanao
ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations
BAFPS Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Product Standards
BAI Bureau of Animal Industry
BAR Bureau of Agricultural Research
BFAD Bureau of Food and Drugs
BFAR Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
BFT Biofloc Technology
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand
BPH Brown planthopper
BPI Bureau of Plant Industry
BSWM Bureau of Soils and Water Management
CA Competent Authority
CAR Cordillera Administrative Region
CER Certified Emission Reduction
CHED Commission on Higher Education
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
DA Department of Agriculture
DAR Department of Agrarian Reform
DAT Days after transplanting
DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
DENR Department of Environment and Natural Resources
DILG Department of the Interior and Local Government
DOH Department of Health
DOST Department of Science and Technology
x An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

DOST-PCAARRD Department of Science and LGU Local Government Unit

Technology -Philippine Council LLDA Laguna Lake Development
for Agriculture, Aquatic and Authority
Natural Resources Research and LOQ Limit of quantitation
Development LWC Laguna Water Company
DSSAT Decision Support System for MF Maintenance feeding
Agrotechnology Transfer MFR Makiling Forest Reserve
ECC Environmental Compliance Mg Magnesium
Certificate Mn Manganese
E. coli Escherichia coli MOET Minus One Element Technique
EMB Environmental Management MOS Mannanoligosaccharide
Bureau MP Mariculture Parks
ENRO Environment and Natural MPN Most Probable Number
Resources Office MPP Meat Processing Plants
EF Emission factor MRDP Mindanao Rural Development
EU European Union Program
FAO Food and Agriculture MRL Maximum Residue Limit
Organization of the United MT Methyltestosterone
Nations N Nitrogen
FCR Feed Conversion Ratio NH4 Ammonium
FLA Fishpond Lease Agreement NO2 Nitrogen dioxide
FNRI Food Nutrition Research Institute NO3 Nitrate
FPA Fertilizer and Pesticide Authority N2O Nitrous Oxide
GAqP Good Aquaculture Practice NCPC National Crop Protection Center
GDP Gross Domestic Product NCR National Capital Region
Gg Gigagram NCDPC National Center for Disease
GHG Greenhouse Gas Prevention and Control
GVA Gross Value Added NDT Nutrient Diagnostic Technique
Ha Hectare NEDA National Economic and
HACCP Hazard Analysis Critical Control Development Authority
Points NFRDI National Fisheries Research and
HEI Higher Education Institute Development Institute
HYV High-yielding Variety NFSCC National Framework Strategy on
IAA Integrated Agri-Aquaculture Climate Change
IFOAM International Federation of NGO Nongovernmental organization
Organic Agriculture Movements NH3 Ammonia
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on NMHC Non-methane hydrocarbon
Climate Change NMIS National Meat Inspection Service
IPM Integrated Pest Management NOAB National Organic Agriculture
IRRI International Rice Research Board
Institute NOAP National Organic Agriculture
LCC Leaf color chart Program
 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS xi

NPAL National Pesticide Analytical PNSOA Philippine National Standards

Laboratory for Organic Agriculture
NPCMC National Poison Control PO People Organization
Management Center PO4 Phosphate
NPK Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and PSA Philippine Statistics Authority
Potassium PVMA Philippine Veterinary Medicine
NVRQS National Veterinary Research Association
and Quarantine Service R&D Research and development
NWQSR National Water Quality Status RA Republic Act
Report SEAFDEC/AQD Southeast Asian Fisheries
NWRB National Water Resources Board Development Center,
OCP Organochlorine Pesticide Aquaculture Department
OTC Oxytetracycline SF Submaximum feeding
OXA Oxalinic Acid SO2 Sulfur Dioxide
ppm parts per million SO4 Sulfate
PAES Philippine Agricultural SSNM Site-specific nutrient
Engineering Standards management
PAFMI Philippine Association of Feed SUC State Universities and Colleges
Millers SVOC Semi-Volatile Organic
PAGASA Philippine Atmospheric Compound
Geophysical and Astronomical TDS Total Dissolved Solids
Services Administration TPM Total particulate matter
PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon TSS Total Suspended Solids
PARRFI Philippine Agriculture and UPLB University of the Philippines Los
Resources Research Foundation Baños
Inc VOC Volatile Organic Compound
PEL Permissible Exposure Limit WBPH Whitebacked planthopper
PhilRice Philippine Rice Research WHO World Health Organization
Institute WLM Waste Load Model
PM Particulate matter WQMA Water Quality Management
PNS Philippine National Standards Area
FOREWORD

Between July 2015 and December 2016, the World Bank carried out a regional
study of agricultural pollution in East Asia with a focus on China, Vietnam, and
the Philippines, and in cooperation with each country’s ministry of agriculture.
This effort aimed to provide a broad, regional and national overview of agricultural
pollution issues associated with farming: their magnitude, impacts, and drivers;
and what is currently being done about these. It also sought to outline potential
approaches to addressing these issues going forward. The study aimed to examine
how the structural transformation of the agricultural sector and the evolving nature
of agricultural production are shaping agricultural pollution issues and mitigation
opportunities. It also set out to identify knowledge gaps, pointing to directions for
future investment and research. Ministries of agriculture and environment are the
study’s primary audience. Its secondary audience consist of development organiza-
tions, industry associations, and other actors with an interest in sustainable agricul-
ture and environmental protection.
The “study” constitutes the totality of the work and includes multiple com-
ponents, including national overviews of agricultural pollution for the three focus
countries, thematic working papers, and an overall synthesis report. The present
report corresponds to the national overview of agricultural pollution in the Phil-
ippines, and specifically, to the summary of three background papers on crops,
livestock, and fishery systems respectively. The overview covers water, soil, and air
pollution directly associated with activities and decisions made at the farm level
or its equivalent (that is, vessel level or pond level in the case of fisheries). It espe-
cially looks at: (a) the use of fertilizers; (b) the use of pesticides; (c) other cropland
management practices (including the use of plastics, the introduction of invasive
species, irrigation and land preparation practices); (d) the burning of agricultural
residues; (e) animal waste management (land and aquatic species); and (f ) the use
of feed supplements, including antibiotics, hormones, and heavy metals in animal
agriculture (land and aquatic). Environmental impacts relating to land-use change
are beyond the scope of the review.
The statements made in this national overview are based on existing liter-
ature and international data sources, data collected from national agencies, and
consultations with various stakeholders. Data were collected from the Philippine
xiv An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Statistics Authority (PSA) and other government agen- suggestions, additional data were collected from various
cies including the Environmental Management Bureau agencies including the Fertilizer and Pesticide Authority
(EMB) of the Department of Environment and Natu- (FPA), Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice), the
ral Resources (DENR), the Philippine Council for Ag- Department of Agriculture Policy and Planning Unit,
riculture and Fisheries, Aquatic, and Natural Resourc- the National Pesticide Analytical Laboratory (NPAL),
es Research and Development (PCAARRD), and the PSA, and the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resourc-
National Crop Protection Center (NCPC), as well as es (BFAR). The abovementioned agencies also provided
academic institutions including the University of the information, clarifications, and validations of the initial
Philippines Los Baños (UPLB). The World Bank coun- findings. A pre-final draft of the reports were presented
try staff were instrumental in establishing the link be- to the various stakeholders who attended the consulta-
tween the research team and government agencies, such tion workshop for final validation. The report was final-
as the Department of Agriculture (DA), the DENR, ized by consolidating and addressing comments from
PSA, PCAARRD, Blacksmith, and other agencies. various stakeholders and the World Bank task team.
An earlier version of this report was circulated This study was made possible with funding from
to stakeholders representing national government agen- the East Asia and Pacific Region Infrastructure for
cies, NGOs, and research institutions, and discussed Growth Trust Fund, which is financed by Australia and
at a consultation workshop. Based on comments and administered by the World Bank Group.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1.1  Background and Trends

Population and income growth, as well as global trade, have driven growth and
structural change in agriculture.
Population growth in the Philippines has been rapid, averaging 2.5 percent per year
since 1961 (though in the past decade growth has noticeably slowed to 1.6 percent
per year). Today nearly half of the population resides in urban areas. Per capita
income has been growing over time, averaging 1.7 percent per year over the past
50 years (World Bank 2015). With rising incomes and urbanization, preferences
are shifting toward higher consumption of cereals (mainly rice) and animal protein.

Figure 01:  Shares in real agriculture GVA, constant 1985 prices,

1970–2010, in %
120
27 17 9 5 5
100
19 25
80 19
15
15 12 18 24
60 22
12
40
27 38 31 29 26
20
19 19 22 23 22
–
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Palay and corn Other crops Livestock and poultry Fishery Forestry and others
Source: PSA 2015b.
xvi An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

In response to rising demand, agricultural out- in Ilocos Norte; vegetable growing areas in Atok, Ben-
put in the Philippines has followed an upward path guet, and Tirado; and agroecosystems in Laguna. On the
over the past several decades, growing by an average of other hand, the rice croplands of the Pampanga River
2.5 percent per year from 1961 to 2010. Global trade is Basin were found to contribute greatly to the NH4-N
also a major driver of the country’s agricultural produc- and total phosphorus nutrient loads of Manila Bay.
tion, providing more opportunities for major export The Pampanga River Basin is the biggest subwa-
crops while providing wider choice for key importables, tershed of the Manila Bay, covering 63 percent of the en-
such as cereals. tire watershed area. Agricultural areas in Pampanga River
In response to these drivers, the structure of ag- Basin comprise 868,129 ha, making up about 45 percent
riculture has been changing, away from resource-based of the total watershed area and distributed into 813,943
sectors (forestry and capture fishery) toward cereals, ha of croplands, 50,378 ha of fishponds, and 3,808 ha
livestock, and poultry, as well as aquaculture. Com- of livestock and poultry. The major crops grown in the
position of exports has shifted from traditional crops Pampanga River Basin are rice, sugarcane, and corn.
and raw materials toward fruit exports and processed or The total NH4-N loading in Manila Bay is
semi-processed goods. On the import side, the coun- 1,245 kg/day and the contributions of the four subwa-
try continues to increase importation of cereals, dairy tersheds are 482 kg/day from the Pampanga River Ba-
products, and processed food. sin, 373 kg/day from the Pasig River Basin, 275 kg/day
from the Bataan subwatershed, and 115 kg/day from
the Cavite subwatershed. The total NO3-N loading
1.2  Crops is 4,526 kg/day, of which the Pasig River Basin is the
major contributor. The total phosphorus loading is
Contamination of water bodies due to fertilizer 1,877 kg/day, with the Pasig River Basin contributing
nutrients has been detected, though adverse off-site about 46 percent (861 kg/day) (DENR 2012).
impacts are yet to be firmly established. Laguna Lake, which empties into Manila Bay via
Consumption of chemical fertilizers has been trending Pasig River, had a high fish production during the early
upward over the past few decades, in step with growth 1970s because of its hypertrophication. The lake had ex-
of output and area harvested. The national consump- tremely high nutrient level inputs from the surrounding
tion of nitrogenous fertilizers increased by 1,658 per- watershed. During this time, around 5,000 tons N/year
cent from 35,815 tons in 1961 to 629,808 tons in was entering the lake. These came from livestock and
2004, with an annual average increase of 10,406 ton/ poultry (36 percent), domestic sources (26 percent), Pa-
year. However, from 2004 to 2013, there was a gen- sig River backflow (22 percent), fertilizers (11 percent),
eral decrease in nitrogenous fertilizer consumption by and industrial sources (5 percent). The Waste Load
54 percent, from 629,000 tons to 287,000 tons. In the Model (WLM) developed by the Laguna Lake Devel-
late 2000s, the spike in fertilizer prices led to reduced opment Authority (LLDA) in 2003 showed that the to-
fertilizer consumption in absolute terms. Fertilizer tal load in 1995 was 66,305 tons/year and in 2000 was
application in the Philippines varies widely by type of 74,300 tons/year. Agriculture contributed 13 percent
crop and by region/province. In rice farming, nutrient to total Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) loading in
balance analysis suggests releases into the environment 1995 (8,620 tons/year) and 11.5 percent to total BOD
of excess nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). loading in 2000 (8,544 tons/year). Efforts to clean up
Evidences of nitrates in groundwater and surface Pasig River depends on minimizing pollution in Laguna
waters were attributed to inefficient nitrogenous fertiliz- Lake, which in turn results in lower pollution in Ma-
er application in the rice-sweet pepper cropping system nila Bay. Such a cleanup effort has generated a national
 Executive Summary xvii

concern toward protecting recreation (swimming) and most destructive pest attacking crucifers such as brocco-
viable fishing in both the bay and the lake. li, pechay, cabbage, radish, cauliflower, and mustard in
1992. This intensive use of synthetic insecticides resulted
Commercial crops tend to be subject to higher rates of in problems such as resistance to other insecticides, high
fertilizer application. Some of these crops are grown cost of insecticides, toxic hazards, contamination of soil
on large plantations and in general involve intensive and water, and reduction of natural enemies and pollina-
agrochemical use. tors. Fungicides are the most commonly used pesticides in
Large plantations of banana and pineapple are located banana plantations in Mindanao.
in Mindanao while large plantation areas of mango Vegetables commonly bought in public markets
are located in Pangasinan and tobacco is largely grown and consumed by Filipinos, including bitter gourd,
in Ilocos Region and Isabela. These large plantations eggplant, pechay, and tomato, were found to have trac-
employ intensive farming systems to optimize produc- es of combination of pesticide residues ranging from as
tion and produce quality products with minimal pest low as 2 to as many as 10 different pesticides (NPAL
damage. However, data on the fertilizer and pesticide 2016). Concentrations of cypermethrin residues in bit-
application in these systems are not available. ter gourd, pechay, and tomato; lambda-cyhalothrin in
bitter gourd; and chlorpyrifos and diazinon in pechay
Prevalent and improper pesticide use has had exceeding the maximum residue limit (MRL) were de-
deleterious on-site impacts, as well as suspected off-site tected. Soil samplings along river tributaries in Central
impacts. Luzon and along the Pampanga River yield no signifi-
Similar to fertilizers, pesticide use has been increasing, cant findings for pesticide contaminants.
based on increased importation of the product from The pollutants from the vegetable and rice farm-
1993 to 2008, after which imports fell steeply. Pesti- ing activities within the Pagsanjan-Lumban catchment
cide use is highest for the control of insects, followed affect the fisheries in the area (Varca 2012). Among the
by fungi and weeds. pesticides used, the pyrethroids (lambda-cyhalothrin,
The largest gross application of pesticides among deltamethrin, and cypermethrin) were identified to be
the important crops grown in the Philippines is the rice highly toxic under laboratory conditions to the tilapia
crop, primarily due to extensive areas planted with rice fingerling and freshwater shrimp. The maximum mea-
all over the country. Beginning from the 1980s, the fre- sured concentration of profenofos (15.4 µg/L) and py-
quency of insecticide application increased up to four rethroids (3–6 μg/L) in the field samples collected in
times during the cropping for both wet and dry seasons. the Pagsanjan-Lumban catchment were above the 48 h
However, insecticide application in rice crop in the Phil- LC50 values. Moreover, the sediment-bound contami-
ippines is the lowest compared with other Asian countries, nants cause changes to the food source of crabs, fresh-
including Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, and China. In water shrimp, and fish (Bajet et al 2012). Poor pesticide
rice growing areas, application rates of insecticides have management practices may result in decline of rice-fish
been falling in recent years, though herbicide application cultures and other invertebrates.
rates have been rising. Herbicides are applied early in the Pesticide misuse can cause great health impacts
cropping season to control weed growth and to minimize in the farming communities in the Philippines. Nu-
labor costs for weeding. merous researches correlated the extent of direct and
The other important crops that are heavily ap- indirect pesticide exposure to health hazards such as
plied with pesticides are vegetables and banana. Farmers headache, muscle pain, cough, weakness, eye and chest
in Benguet were spraying chemical pesticides 12 to 32 pain, and eye redness. Farmer-users are especially vul-
times per season to control the diamondback moth, the nerable to health effects attributed to pesticides.
xviii An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

The agriculture sector’s leading GHG contributions compounds [VOCs], and PAHs) in atmosphere (Gad-
to climate change include methane emissions from de et al. 2009).
irrigated rice and nitrous oxide emissions from the
application of synthetic fertilizer. Adverse on-site impacts of upland farming of temporary
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agriculture crops are well documented.
account for 29 percent of total national GHG emis- The cultivation of fragile and marginal upland areas
sions, second only to those from the energy sector can lead to deforestation, accelerated soil erosion, sed-
(69,667 Gg CO2eq vs. 37,003 Gg CO2eq), with 2000 imentation of rivers, and biodiversity loss. The forest
as the base year (UNFCC 2001). In 2012, the total area has been decreasing over the years. The forest cover
GHG emissions from the Philippine agricultural sector was 26 percent in 1970 and it decreased to 18 per-
increased by 38 percent from the 2000 GHG inventory cent in 2000. The rates of soil erosion in sloping areas
to 51 percent, 256 Gg CO2eq (FAOSTAT 2013). The range from 
23–218 tons/ha/year for bare plots on
breakdown of GHG emissions is as follows: methane gradients of 27–29 percent to 36–200 tons/ha/year on
emissions from rice cultivation: 64 percent; nitrous plots cultivated up and down the hill. These rates are
oxide emissions from synthetic fertilizer application: higher than the acceptable soil loss level of 3–10 tons/
6 percent; nitrous oxide emissions from the decompo- ha/year. Soil erosion from the surrounding watershed
sition of crop residues left in the field: 3 percent; and has resulted in sedimentation in Laguna Lake and
burning of crop residues: 1 percent (burning poten- thereby resulting in shallow water depth, now aver-
tially contributes to short-term warming as a result of aging at 2.5 m. Likewise, soil erosion from upstream
particulate emissions, though this short-term effect is areas have resulted in siltation in nearby coastal areas,
complex and carries uncertainty). resulting in coral bleaching in many coastal areas such
as in Mindoro.
Crop residue burning releases GHGs and toxic gases Evidences of soil acidification due to intensive
into the atmosphere. nitrogenous fertilizer application have been reported
Burning of rice, corn, and sugarcane residues is still in intensively cropped soils in La Trinidad, Benguet
widely practiced in the Philippines. The amount of where common bean is grown. Soil acidity can also be
rice biomass burned increased by 47 percent, from attributed to continuous planting of corn and sweet po-
1,748,555 tons in 1961 to 2,579,478 tons in 2012 tato which exhausts soil calcium, magnesium, available
(FAOSTAT 2012). The amount of corn biomass phosphorus, and organic matter levels.
burned increased by 78 percent, from 2,016,270 tons
in 1961 to 3,589,460 tons in 1991. In the same period, Use of Plastics
the amount of sugarcane residues burned increased by Use of plastic sheets as mulch for crops is rather lim-
147 percent, from 150,930 tons in 1961 to 372,190 ited to the dry season culture of vegetable and melons.
tons in 1976 (FAOSTAT 2012). No data is available on the extent of pollution from
The amount of total nitrous oxide emissions improper disposal of containers, bottles, and pesticides,
from burning of rice, corn, and sugarcane crop resi- including pesticide-impregnated plastic shrouds for
dues in the Philippines range from 0.27 Gg in 1961 banana plantations. Overall, there is a flourishing trade
to 0.41 Gg in 1990. Methane emissions increased by on recycling various plastic materials, together with
35.34% from 13.44 Gg in 1961 to 18.19 Gg in 1988 newspaper, bottles, and cans. Even local government
(FAOSTAT 2012). Open burning of crop residue/bio- garbage disposal facilities provide segregation/recov-
mass significantly increases the level of particulate mat- ery of these materials apart from organic material for
ter and gaseous pollutants (SO2, NOx, volatile organic composting.
 Executive Summary xix

1.3  Livestock pollutants, the more relevant subsector is aquaculture.

With the overexploitation of capture fisheries resulting
Pollution due to animal wastes has a negative impact in the stagnating and even declining production from
on water bodies, primarily in terms of organic load this sector, aquaculture was left to meet the gap in the
and eutrophication. demand for fishery products. This is evident in the
Swine and chicken, respectively, account for the larg- growing contribution of aquaculture to fish production
est inventory of livestock and poultry in the country. compared to capture fisheries; since 2011, aquaculture
Backyard operations account for majority of inventory; production in the country has outpaced capture fish-
however, there has been a shift over time toward com- eries production. Within aquaculture, the focus is on
mercial operations. Treatment of animal waste before farm-raised fish; seaweed aquaculture, the largest aqua-
release to the environment leaves much to be desired, culture subsector in the country (by volume), is cul-
particularly for backyard swine producers. For instance, tured in extensive systems relying on naturally occur-
in Laguna, as much as 68 percent of the disposed waste- ring nutrients. At the time of writing, fish farming is
water from the farms is directly discharged to a nearby well diversified among production systems, evolving
creek, river, canal, and or open space. Slaughter of live- from an industry largely devoted to brackish-water spe-
stock is also a highly polluting stage of the value chain. cies up to the 1970s.
Majority of slaughterhouses, poultry dressing plants,
and meat processing plants in the country do not even High input use in intensive freshwater aquaculture
meet the minimum standard of accreditation of the systems pose environmental risks.
National Meat Inspection Service (NMIS). Driven by growing demand for fish, aquaculture has
evolved from traditional and extensive systems using
In terms of air pollution from livestock industry: low inputs and low stocking densities to semi-intensive
noxious emissions are significant but localized problem; and intensive systems. Modern aquaculture practices
GHG emissions from livestock are significant but are have expanded the use of chemicals and other products
still much lower than those of crops. during different phases of production. Nitrogen and
Major gas pollutants from livestock and poultry pro- phosphorus loading has been associated with aquacul-
duction include ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, meth- ture activities in major aquatic resource systems in the
ane, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, and other odorous country. Use of animal wastes in aquaculture raises the
gases. Cattle and carabao, though they comprise only a possibility of pathogen contamination in both cultured
small share in livestock industry, accounts for 90 per- organisms and the aquatic environment. Antibiotic and
cent of the total methane emission, due to enteric fer- pesticide use in aquaculture has left measurable residues
mentation; the other major source of GHG emissions in cultured organisms and the aquatic environment,
from livestock is improperly disposed manure. with its implied risks to animal and human popula-
tions. The introduction of alien species in aquaculture
systems has reduced biodiversity and posed other envi-
1.4  Fisheries ronmental risks.
Studies of several aquaculture zones in the coun-
The bulk of fisheries output is now coming from try have found adverse environmental impact of the
aquaculture, which is also the main source of agri- activity. There has been increasing flux in sediment
pollutants from fisheries. cores in Honda Bay and Malampaya Bay in Palawan,
Capture fisheries has had massive environmental impact Manila Bay, Bolinao in Pangasinan, and Milagros Bay
over the decades; however, in terms of emission of in Masbate. Phosphorus sediment profiles reflected the
xx An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

intensity of aquaculture activities in the different sites. One may infer that agriculture is a major con-
In the case of Bolinao, coastal waters are being adversely tributor to the pollution of surface waters, with live-
affected by mariculture activities, due to organic mat- stock production (especially of backyard swine) being
ter load from unconsumed feed and fecal material. In the worst contributor. The LLDA monitoring report of
20 years (1995–2005) there has been an uncontrolled 2008 showed livestock as the third largest contributor
proliferation of fish pens and cages, reaching double the of organic loading in Laguna Lake. A secondary con-
allowable limit of 544 units. Water quality has turned tributor to water pollution is aquaculture, localized in
eutrophic, contributing to the first reported dinoflagel- water bodies dense with cultured fish. Agrichemicals in
late bloom in the Philippines, accompanied by a fish crops and livestock are known environmental contam-
kill event in 2002. inants, but evidence of significant environmental harm
In terms of long-term impact, the greatest is yet to be firmed up. Agriculture is also a large source
threat posed by the aquaculture sector is the introduc- of GHG emissions but is dwarfed by emissions from
tion of non-native species for culture without the ap- energy and other, mostly urban-based activities. Within
propriate risk-assessment and environmental impact agriculture, GHG emissions are mostly due to methane
studies. Repercussions are often irreversible, that is, emissions from paddy rice cultivation.
disruption of the host community, genetic degrada-
tion of the host stock, and the introduction of diseases Other impacts are also potentially harmful to human
and parasites. health and the environment (that is, introduction of
alien species, use of antibiotics), warranting further
study and impact assessment.
1.5  Summary The assessment of agri-pollution poses considerable
research challenges in the country. Major gaps include
Agricultural activity, particularly production of the following:
livestock, is a major concern for pollution of surface
waters. Air pollution is a secondary concern. Fertilizer application data is available for only
Comparison of the absolute level of contribution to rice and corn. No national agencies collect data
pollution of fisheries and aquaculture sector to the on quantity of fertilizers and pesticides applied
crops and livestock subsectors is not easy due to the for the other crops nor is there monitoring of
absence of complete data for each and for the differ- pesticide residues in vegetables and fruits.
ent types of pollutants. Some comparison can be made, Further assessment is needed on the impact of
with limited validity for the three subsectors, in terms pesticide application on the environment—that
of nutrient inputs. Milkfish aquaculture (Chanos chanos is, on groundwater, surface water, and soil, from
or bangus) (a top aquaculture commodity) rely heavily various sources, for example, direct spraying and
on fertilizers with as much as 40 kg/ha N and 50 kg/ha used pesticide containers.
P. Top commodity rice uses 51 and 15 kg/ha N and P, Initial studies have been done on the role of anti-
respectively, and sugarcane uses 85 and 55 kg/ha N and biotic use in livestock and on antimicrobial resis-
P, respectively. For livestock, as much as 1,000 kg/ha of tance among humans. Such studies should be
surplus nitrogen may be improperly conveyed through expanded, involving wider interdisciplinary col-
waterways by the hog industry. In this context, aqua- laboration, alongside the impact of alternatives
culture has the least impact, followed by livestock, with such as probiotics, yeast, and organic farming.
crops having the highest, considering the volume of Biological pollution from the introduction
production for these sectors. of non-native aquatic species for culture has
 Executive Summary xxi

adversely affected biodiversity, but the economic the mandate to enforce ordinances against discharge of
valuation of the benefits versus the adverse impact polluted water on small producers. However, they may
of these introductions remain undocumented. find it either politically expedient, or financially too
Pesticide application has adverse impacts on costly, to strictly enforce such ordinances. This could,
nontarget species and there is a lack of studies however, be remedied by empowering the Barangay
that investigate the impact of pesticides on the or village councils for the task. Through coordinated
population and interactions among the various trainings with such small producers, alternative systems
life forms (biodiversity) that make up the food such as built-up litter and composting, with reduced
chain in the agricultural systems, particularly the water usage, may be demonstrated to offset costs.
herbivores, pollinators, and predators. The Clean Water Act provides for a Water Qual-
ity Management Area (WQMA), to empower constit-
uents of clean water to maintain their rights under the
1.6  Existing Solutions/Interventions Act. However, even in the Laguna Lake WQMA, which
has a long-standing multisectoral governance structure,
The legal framework to address environmental issues is indiscriminate dumping of wastewater from livestock
well established in the Philippines. Protecting the right farms continues. The processes, institutions, and func-
to health, as well as a balanced and healthful ecology, tions of these WQMAs need to be examined so as to
is enshrined in no less than the Philippine Consti- improve the effectiveness and increase the voice of af-
tution as a policy of the State. At the same time, the fected sectors, for example, households and other enter-
Constitution recognizes the organization of the coun- prises near the affected water systems.
try as a market economy and the indispensable role of
the private sector. Subsequent laws, rules, and strate- Enforcement of regulations on commercial farms should
gies have been implemented in line with these basic be tightened and limits on total pollutants released per
principles. Clean Water and Clean Air Acts have been unit time imposed.
implemented primarily to safeguard people’s health and The commercial farm sector, though better regulated
welfare while promoting sustainable economic growth. than the smallholder sector, is still subject to enforce-
Despite a sound legal framework, however, the problem ment gaps. Closer monitoring should be undertaken by
of pollution from agricultural activities remains a seri- the government to ensure that agribusiness plantations
ous problem. The review suggests the following impli- limit fertilizer runoff and the risk of pesticide contam-
cations for policy. ination. For commercial piggeries, no caps are set on
amount of effluents released, only on pollution concen-
Strict implementation of the provisions and policies of tration of effluents. This seems to be a loophole in the
existing legislation, especially the Clean Water Act, are regulation that should be remedied as soon as possi-
necessary to address water pollution from livestock and ble, with prior scientific assessment of the appropriate
poultry. However, these are weakly enforced, especially pollutant releases per period and in consultation with
among small producers. affected parties.
Regulation of effluents from livestock and poultry
farms is already provided by existing law but is weakly Adoption of alternative production practices and
enforced, especially among small producers. This sector technologies should be explored to address agri-pollution
typically escapes regulation by the national agency, whose while pursuing inclusive and sustained growth.
threshold for enforcement is too high for it to monitor Alternative production systems seek to achieve multi-
small producers. Meanwhile, local governments have ple objectives, that is, increasing smallholder incomes
xxii An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

and quality of life, as well as maintaining environ- Ecological engineering. The provision of hab-
mental health and a sound ecology, by reducing agri- itats for beneficial arthropods can reduce pesti-
chemical usage, excessive nutrient loading, and so on. cide inputs and enhance biological pest control
Among others, these technologies aim to reduce input provided by natural enemies. Habitat manage-
usage and/or emission of pollutants, at affordable ment through ecological engineering with flower
cost per unit output to producers. Dissemination of strips can have beneficial and synergistic effects
such systems through extension and other campaigns on biological pest control, pollination, and cul-
deserve strong support from the public sector and tural services, including landscape aesthetics and
other stakeholders in human health and sustainable recreation.
development. Some of the more salient options are as Improved practices on soil, plant, nutrient,
follows: and water management. PhilRice is conducting
long-term research programs which aim to iden-
For crop farming: tify, evaluate, facilitate, and refine the delivery of
Integrated pest management (IPM). The Phil- improved practices in soil, plant, nutrient, and
ippine National IPM Program was established water management. The goal is to contribute to
in 1993. IPM is an ecosystem approach of crop attaining and sustaining rice self-sufficiency.
production involving crop protection strategies Biotechnology. Biotechnology offers sustain-
with minimal use of pesticides. In this program, able and practical solutions to numerous prob-
the farmers were trained on the agroecosystem lems in rice production, specifically on pest
interactions affecting the plant growth and protection. This technology could aid the devel-
crop management, to learn the proper timing, opment of cultivars with higher yields that offer
composition, and quantities of biochemical resistance against major pests in the Philippines.
application. Agroforestry system. Agroforestry is a dynamic,
Organic agriculture. A recent law (Organic ecologically based natural resource management
Act of 2010) enacts as State policy the propaga- system that, through the integration of trees
tion of organic agriculture, to reduce pollution into farms, diversifies and sustains smallholder
and destruction of the environment, and safe- production for increased social, economic, and
guard the health of farmers and consumers. The environmental benefits. Introducing trees within
National Organic Agriculture Program (NOAP) the cropping system can help prevent land deg-
of the DA is an effort to reduce rural poverty radation, increase biodiversity, and, at the same
by advocating low-input sustainable agricultural time, allow the sustainable use of the land for
techniques that improve land productivity while agricultural crop production.
minimizing adverse impacts to the environment. Feedstock for bioenergy. The Philippines is
The NOAP aims to attain food security, sustain- implementing various bioenergy policies that
ability, and competitiveness by converting at focus on a cleaner and greener environment,
least 5 percent of the total agricultural area in searching for more alternative renewable sources
the country, which is about 483,450 ha of the of fuel and energy. It has a large potential for
total area of 9,669,000 ha. Bio-fertilizers and bioenergy production since crops that are used
bio-pesticides are promising alternatives to inor- as feedstock include sweet sorghum and hybrid
ganic fertilizers and chemical pesticides, along napier and are indigenous or locally grown. Fur-
with higher-value produce for a growing niche ther, instead of burning corn and sugarcane crop
market. residues, they can be used as biomass feedstock.
 Executive Summary xxiii

For livestock production: friendly system which promotes harmonious

Vermicomposting. Using livestock manure as a coexistence between fisheries production and
substrate, vermicomposting is a waste manage- mangrovea in a semi-enclosed environment.
ment technology using earthworms to convert Mangroves are kept intact and are able to pro-
organic wastes into high-quality castings and ver- vide the host of ecosystem services while fish
micomposts. In small, backyard holdings, animal farmers can still continue their fish production
manure facilitates composting of crop residues, activities
home garden sweepings, and household biode- Integrated Agri-Aquaculture (IAA) system.
gradable wastes which are frequently burned. IAA combines production of crops, livestock, and
Biogas technology. Several hundred biogas aquatic animals in a limited system and is condu-
units exist in various sizes to deal with the level cive for small farm holding by maximizing produc-
of generation of wastes from agricultural sources. tion in a small area and using the different waste
Most of the installed biogas digesters are located components from each product. Water from fish
in Region 1 and Region 4 to mitigate pollution ponds can be used for watering crops and livestock
from the large population of swine. As of May and crop wastes can be used as fertilizers for other
2015, the Land Bank and World Bank have crops as well as in the fish ponds, thus reducing or
signed an Emission Reduction Purchase Agree- completely eliminating chemical inputs.
ment to purchase Certificate of Emission Reduc- Improved feeding practices. Proper feed man-
tion from livestock farms, beginning with 70 agement results in efficient utilization of feed
swine farms with biogas facilities. with reduced feed wastage resulting in high feed
For aquaculture: efficiency (low feed conversion ratio). Skip feed-
Good Aquaculture Practice (GAqP). GAqP ing or alternate day feeding strategy in Nile tila-
promotes a set of principles for hygienic, envi- pia has been found to be effective and efficient
ronmentally sound, and economically produc- in both pond- and lake-based cages. Also found
tive aquaculture. It requires monitoring of aqua- effective are maintenance feeding (MF) and sub-
culture operations to ensure compliance. The maximum feeding (SF).
aquaculture operator should provide records for Biofloc Technology (BFT). This is based on
the last two croppings, specifying the group of growth of microorganisms (biofloc) in a culture
fish treated with veterinary drugs, the total quan- medium. BFT gained prominence as a sustain-
tity of the drugs used, the start and end date of able method to manage water quality, with the
treatment, completion of withdrawal period, and added value of producing proteinaceous feed in
the earliest date the fish is safe to be consumed. situ from a combination of plankton and hetero-
Aquasilviculture. This is the integration of aqua- trophic bacteria that is able to provide nutrients
culture with mangroves. It is an environmentally to the cultured species.
Summary
Report
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1  Background, Aim, and Scope

The Philippines is a developing country contending with a widespread problem of

pollution. Eleven major rivers are prioritized for clean-up, as they fail to meet the
standard for biological oxygen demand (BOD) of 7 mg/L. Manila Bay falls short
of the standard for classification SB ((Recreational Water Class 1, that is, fit for
public bathing, swimming, skin diving; and Fishery Water Class 3 , that is, fit for
spawning areas for Chanos chanos) (DENR 1990; NEDA 2014)). Air pollution
causes 15,000 more premature deaths and 1 million additional cases of illness each
year (World Bank 2009). Though the country is not presently a major contributor
to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, CO2 emissions have been growing at the rate
of 3.2 percent per year over the past 20 years.
However, agriculture is often disregarded as a source of pollution despite its
significant contribution. The range of pollutants from agriculture are wide-rang-
ing—covering land and water pollution from inefficient fertilizer application, pes-
ticide residues, leaching of nitrates into ground and surface waters, excrement and
unconsumed feed from aquaculture, and fecal and slaughterhouse wastes from live-
stock, as well as air pollution, for example, GHG emissions and particulates from
burning of residues.
The study aims to provide a national overview of agricultural pollution is-
sues, their magnitude, impacts, and drivers, and what are currently being done
about these, and to identify potential approaches to addressing these issues go-
ing forward. In doing so, the study will specifically examine how the structural
transformation of the sector and evolving nature of agricultural production may
be shaping agricultural pollution and what this carries in terms of opportunities.
2 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

The country overview offers a broad picture of safety, and so on. Pollution is distinguished by type, that
agricultural pollution—all major forms associated with is, resource affected (air, water, soil); form of pollutant
the primary production of food—while details were (GHG, suspended particulates, suspended solids, and
given only on a selective basis. It focuses on farming ac- so on); and pollutant concentration (for example, parts
tivities in the food-crop, livestock, and fisheries subsec- per million [ppm], most probable number (MPN), per
tors and specifically covers (a) the inefficient use of fer- thousand liters) Pollution is generated as a by-product
tilizers; (b) the prevalent and improper use of pesticides; of economic activities, which are themselves motivated
(c) other cropland management practices (including by consumption of goods and services that contribute
the use of plastics, the introduction of non-native spe- to well-being.
cies, irrigation, and land preparation practices—but ex- Pollution intensity pertains to the rate at which
cluding the expansion of agriculture onto new land and economic activity (measured in output terms) emits
land clearing); (d) the burning of agricultural residues; pollutants affecting a resource system.1 Intuitively,
(e) the mismanagement of animal wastes; (f ) pollution farming of temperate vegetable appear to have higher
in aquaculture, along with introduction of non-native pollution intensity compared to farming of tropical
species; and (g) the problematic use of feed supplements vegetables. Quantitative estimates are available for
(including antibiotics, hormones, and heavy metals in few types of pollutants, for example, for atmospheric
both land and aquatic species). carbon, it is known that burning 1 liter of gasoline
The study identified existing knowledge gaps, results in about 9 kg of atmospheric carbon, and each
thus identifying directions for future research as well as gigaton of CO2 emissions results in a 0.4447 ppm in-
investment. The ministries of agriculture and environ- crease in atmospheric carbon.2 In practice, such pre-
ment are intended to be the study’s primary audience. cise estimates may be unavailable; hence intermediate
Its secondary audience will consist of industry organi- estimates of pollution intensity may be used, for ex-
zations, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and ample, thousand liters of polluted water released per
other practitioners with an interest in sustainable agri- ton of meat produced; where ‘polluted water’ is de-
culture and environmental protection. fined as water with coliform count in excess of stan-
dard concentration (5,000 MPN/thousand L). Sup-
plementary analysis may analyze how a nearby water
1.2  Conceptual Framework body (for example, a lake) is affected by the release of
polluted water.
Figure 1 displays a visual representation of the concep- In a market economy, the scale and structure of
tual framework. Concern with pollution is ultimately economic activity depends on economic drivers. Con-
due to its impact on well-being, as influenced by health, sumer preferences, purchasing power, and population
determine the quantity and composition of domes-
tic consumption. Supply-side factors, that is, state of
Figure 1:  Conceptual framework

Activities: 1 ‘Proximity’ is delimited by a range of effects. Surface water

Economic drivers Size; Well-being pollution may be relevant to a river basin and its associated
Composition estuarine area; underground water pollution to an aquifer;
air particulates pollution to a greater metropolitan area; and
Policies Pollution: GHG pollution to the entire atmosphere.
Regulations Amount 2 https://www.skepticalscience.com/print.php?r=45. Accessed
Other interventions Composition
30 September 2015.
 INTRODUCTION 3

technology and natural resource base, also determine Regulation of polluting activities is stated in the
activities (jointly with consumer demand), as well as Philippine Constitution, which enshrines the right to
pollution intensities. For instance, fish aquaculture may health, as well as a balanced and healthful ecology, as
be much more polluting than seaweed aquaculture, and a policy of the State. On the other hand, the Constitu-
yet demand may be driving growth of the former com- tion also recognizes the organization of the country as
pared to the latter. Furthermore, domestic economic a market economy, recognizing the indispensable role
activity can be strongly influenced by global trade, de- of the private sector and encouraging private enterprise.
pending on the degree of economic integration with Development is to be pursued by industrialization and
the rest of the world. full employment, ‘based on’ sound agricultural devel-
Lastly, nonmarket factors, most notably gov- opment and agrarian reform. Subsequent laws, rules,
ernment policies, regulations, and other stakeholder and strategies have been implemented in line with these
interventions, can strongly determine pollution inten- basic principles. Clean Water and Clean Air laws have
sity, for example, mandatory utilization of abatement been implemented primarily to safeguard people’s health
technologies or outright prohibitions of certain types and welfare; other laws provide for agricultural develop-
of activities or by-products. ment, as implemented in various policies and programs.
OVERVIEW OF
AGRICULTURE AND
AGRI-POLLUTION
2
DRIVERS

2.1 Profile of Agriculture

Agricultural output in the Philippines has followed an upward though erratic path
over the past four decades.
Agriculture gross value added (GVA) has been on an upward trend since the 1970s
(Figure 2); by 2010, agricultural GVA in real terms was nearly three times its level
in 1970. Annual growth though has been erratic; high rates of growth in the 1970s
(with severe contraction during 1972–74), averaging 4 percent; another sharp con-
traction during 1981–83, followed by a moderate recovery in the 1980s; and a
relatively fast recovery in the 2000s, averaging 3 percent.
While output is growing, the structure of agriculture has been changing, away from
resource-based sectors such as forestry and capture fisheries and toward farmed
animal products and cereals.
The structure or composition of agricultural output has been changing over
time (Table 1). Forestry has suffered a tremendous decline in share. Likewise, the
share of sugarcane output has fallen. Among the gainers, fishery has dramatically
elevated its share, due to the rapid expansion of aquaculture, which now rivals cap-
ture fishery in terms of size. After fishery, the next biggest gainer is poultry; other
gainers are other crops, cereals (especially palay or unmilled rice), and livestock.
 6 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Figure 2:  Agriculture GVA, million pesos, Table 1:  Shares in agriculture GVA,
constant 1985 prices, selected commodities, constant
1970–2010 1985 prices
300,000 10   1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
8
250,000 Palay (unmilled rice) 13.5 13.5 15.5 17.2 16.3
6
Millions of 1985 pesos

200,000 4 Corn 5.0 5.5 6.8 5.6 5.9

2 Sugarcane 4.0 3.6 2.3 2.4 1.7
150,000 Other crops 23.3 33.9 28.9 27.1 24.1
0
100,000 –2 Livestock 9.6 6.8 10.5 12.8 11.5
–4 Poultry 2.7 4.8 7.6 10.7 10.7
50,000
–6 Fishery 14.9 15.0 19.2 19.3 24.9
0 –8 Forestry 27.0 12.7 4.6 0.7 0.3
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Others — 4.1 4.8 4.2 4.4
Agriculture, fisheries, and forestry GVA Source: PSA 2015 a.
Growth rate of GVA, %
Source: PSA 2015a.

Table 2:  Population of the Philippines,

The growing prominence of fishery, livestock, and 1980–2010, in millions
poultry (‘the livestock revolution’) and the declining
  1980 1990 1995 2000 2007 2010
share of forestry are consistent with food system trends
worldwide. Philippines 48.1 60.7 68.6 76.5 88.6 92.3
Shares in total (%)            
National Capital 12.3 13.1 13.8 13.0 13.1 12.8
Region
2.2  Context
Cordillera 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.8
Administrative Region
2.2.1 Rising Populations and Incomes have II Cagayan Valley 4.0 3.9 3.7 3.7 3.4 3.5
Driven Agricultural Growth III Central Luzon 10.2 10.4 10.3 10.7 11.0 11.0
Population growth in the country has been rapid, IV-A Calabarzon 9.6 10.5 11.3 12.2 13.3 13.7
though the last decade has witnessed a slowdown. IV-B Mimaropa 2.9 2.9 3.0 3.0 2.9 3.0
Nearly half the population resides in urban areas. V Bicol 7.2 6.4 6.3 6.1 5.8 5.9
The number of people in the Philippines nearly dou- VI Western Visayas 9.4 8.9 8.4 8.1 7.7 7.7
bled over the period 1980–2010, reaching 92.3 million VII Central Visayas 8.1 7.8 7.3 7.5 7.2 7.4
in 2010, the last census year (Table 2). Projections place VIII Eastern Visayas 5.8 5.0 4.9 4.7 4.4 4.4
the country’s population at 101.5 million in 2015; by IX Zamboanga 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.6 3.7
Peninzula
2014, the population was over two-and-a-half times
X Northern Mindanao 4.6 4.6 4.7 4.6 4.5 4.7
its level in 1962. The country’s population density of
XI Davao Region 4.6 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.7 4.8
332 persons/km2 ranks it 31st in the world, ahead of
XII Soccsksargen 3.6 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.5
countries such as Vietnam (293 persons/km2), Indo-
XIII Caraga 2.9 2.9 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.6
nesia (140 persons/ km2), and Thailand (133 persons/
ARMM 3.2 3.4 3.4 3.7 4.7 3.5
km2). Growth averaged 2.2 percent since 1980, though
Source: PSA 2015a.
the pace has slowed to 1.9 percent per year since 2000. Note: ARMM = Administrative Region of Muslim Mindanao.
 OVERVIEW OF AGRICULTURE AND AGRI-POLLUTION DRIVERS 7

Figure 3:  Per capita income and real GDP, Table 3:  Per capita consumption of major
in 2000 prices, 1998–2013 food items, in kg/year, 1990–
2013
80,000 8,000
70,000 7,000   1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2013
Thousands of 2000 pesos

Billions of 2000 pesos

60,000 6,000
Rice 92.5 92.6 103.2 118.8 114.8 116.5
50,000 5,000 Cassava 3.0 2.8 2.3 2.0 2.3 2.5
40,000 4,000 Sugar (raw) 25.5 26.1 26.5 23.5 20.7 20.7
30,000 3,000 Pork 11.0 11.7 13.2 13.7 15.2 14.9
20,000 2,000 Chicken 4.4 5.9 7.2 7.6 10.4 11.7
10,000 1,000 Tilapia 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.2 3.2 3.1
0 0 Sources: FAOSTAT for sugar; PSA for all other products.
1998 2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
GDP per capita (P thousands: left axis)
GDP (P billion: right axis)
Source: Asian Development Bank Key Indicators 2015. revolution’ is taking place globally due to continuing
population growth, widening urbanization, and income
growth. Delgado et al. (1999) projected that by 2020
In terms of urbanization, at the national level, 45.3 per- developing countries will be producing 60 percent of
cent of the population now live in urban areas, up from the world meat and 52 percent of the world milk in
42.4 percent in 2007. The population is highly concen- response to massive increase in demand for food of ani-
trated in the National Capital Region (NCR), Central mal origin.
Luzon, and Calabarzon; by 2010, about 38 percent of Since 1990, per capita consumption of rice has
the country’s population lived in the national capital been rising fairly steadily, reaching 117 kg in 2013 up
and surrounding regions. from 92.5 kg/year in 1990, a 26 percent increase (Ta-
ble 3). Protein sources such as pork, chicken, and tilapia
The country’s income has been growing over time, have also witnessed rising per capita consumption; over
though in per capita terms, growth has been slow. 1990–2013, a 36 percent increase for pork, a doubling
From 1998 to 2013, the country’s gross domestic prod- of demand for tilapia, and a 169 percent increase in the
uct (GDP) in real terms has more than doubled (Figure case of chicken. On the other hand, more traditional
3). Per capita income though has risen by only around items such as cassava and sugar have witnessed declin-
50 percent over the same period owing to rising popula- ing per capita consumption.
tion. The pace of growth is slow by East and Southeast Consumer preferences, as described by income
Asian standards, but it is substantial enough to make a elasticity of demand, suggest one explanation behind
difference in consumption patterns over the long term. these demand trends (Table 4). As income rises, in-
come elasticities of unity imply constant income share;
below unity, a declining income share; and above uni-
2.2.2 Consumer Preferences have Shifted ty, a rising income share. A negative elasticity implies
over Time consumption declining as income rises (the case of the
Preferences and rising income leads to rising average inferior good).
consumption of rice and protein sources. Hence, as income rises, we expect, other fac-
Rising food demand for livestock products is not tors constant, that the pace of increase of per capita
unique to the Philippines; a demand-driven ‘livestock consumption is determined by the magnitude of the
8 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

income elasticity, that is, low to moderate increas- Table 4:  Income elasticity of demand of
es in per capita consumption for income elasticities selected food items, Philippines,
at or below unity, and rapid increases in per capita 2009
consumption for income elasticities above unity. The
Budget share (%) Income elasticity
elasticities in Table 4 suggest that consumers will de-
Rice 50.0 0.47
sire a shift in diet from traditional items and starchy
Pork 16.8 1.91
foods, such as rice, corn, and cassava, toward protein
Chicken 11.4 2.11
sources.
Milkfish 4.6 2.14
The trends are confirmed with the pattern of
Banana 4.0 0.97
elasticities in the table; no good is inferior, that is, con-
Tilapia 3.7 1.76
sumption should rise with rising income. Note in par-
Mango 1.9 1.48
ticular the high income elasticities of animal proteins,
Eggplant 1.6 0.96
that is, milkfish, tilapia, pork, and chicken. These fig-
Bitter gourd 1.4 1.53
ures are consistent with observed trends, that is, low
Sweet potato 1.3 0.57
to moderate consumption growth of cereals, and rapid
Cassava 0.9 0.08
increases for animal protein sources.
Corn 0.6 0.46
Pineapple 0.6 1.93
Taro 0.4 1.8
2.2.3 Supply-Side Factors Combine with Potato 0.3 2.14
Demand to Determine Trends in Source: Lantican, Sombilla and, Quilloy 2013.
Agriculture
Growth of agricultural output is achieved through
adoption of intensive production systems and improved
technologies while addressing worsening resource nonetheless, by 2013 the area of arable land and perma-
scarcities. nent crops has reached or is approaching its long-term
With the growing population and agricultural produc- peak (FAOSTAT 2015).
tion, increasing pressures on the natural resource base
arose. On a per capita basis, renewable water resources
per person are down by more than 70 percent of the 2.2.4 Global Trade has also Shaped the
level in the 1960s (FAOSTAT 2015). The level of Evolution of Philippine Agriculture
renewable water resources in the country is essentially
fixed at about 479 billion m3 annually; hence, the fall in Global trade is an important determinant of the
per capita water resources is an inevitable consequence aggregate level and composition of agricultural activity,
of population growth. thereby affecting the nature and level of pollution
Adoption of intensive production systems has emissions from agriculture.
become the norm for livestock, poultry, and aquacul- From the standpoint of the environment, importation
ture sectors. For some agricultural crops, low input sys- implies displacement of domestic production which is
tems could be adopted, up to the 1960s and 1970s, potentially polluting (that is, cultivation of rice). On
when new agricultural lands were available for cultiva- the other hand, export growth implies expansion of
tion. However, expansion of arable land and permanent crops and other products, which may not otherwise
crop area leveled off in the 1980s and 1990s. There were be as significant in the absence of foreign demand
moderate short-term increases during 2005–2013; (for example, monocrop cultivation of banana and
 OVERVIEW OF AGRICULTURE AND AGRI-POLLUTION DRIVERS 9

pineapple). There may be a correlation between net Coconut remains the top export from 1965 to
displacement of agricultural activity by trade, that is, 2012, though the form has changed from mainly copra
the agricultural trade deficit, with net displacement of (raw material) to mainly coconut oil and dessicated co-
agricultural pollution. conut along with the oil residue copra cake. Three prod-
In fact, the country’s trade performance over ucts have fallen off the top list, namely abaca, molasses,
time implies net displacement of domestic production and refined sugar. Meanwhile entering the top 10 are
by foreign trade. The country’s trade deficit in agricul- bananas, crude ore and materials, other prepared fruit,
tural goods went from negative (that is, the country is other preparations, and cigarettes. However there are
a net agricultural exporter) up to the late 1980s, then some commonalities; some of the commodity sources
turning positive (that is, the country is a net agricul- are the same, that is, coconut, pineapple, and tobacco;
tural importer). Much ink has been spilled, decrying canned pineapples and copra cake are consistently in
this erosion of the country’s competitiveness as an ag- the top 10, while unmanufactured tobacco as well as
ricultural producer in the world market; in fact, an in- mangoes (with mangosteens and guavas) are both in
advertent benefit of trade may have been to reduce the the top 20.
pollution burden of domestic farming.
Obviously, net trade is a crude and incomplete On the import side, the country continues to depend on
indicator of the role of trade in agricultural pollution, foreign sources for cereals, dairy products, and processed
as trade also influences the composition and nature of food, though important technological and economic
agricultural activity. The following section examines changes have also influenced patterns of agricultural
this influence on the export and import side of the ag- imports.
ricultural economy. The top two agricultural imports in the 2010s—rice
and wheat—were the same top imports in the mid-
Philippine agricultural exports have evolved from 1960s; wheat flour has remained a top import of the
mostly traditional crops and raw materials toward fruit
exports and processed or semi-processed goods.
Table 5 shows the top 20 agricultural exports of the Table 5:  Value of top agricultural exports,
country by value (average of 2010 and 2012) and traces in US$, thousands, 1965–2012
a time series back to the mid-1960s. The composition
1965 1970 1990 2010 2012
of top exports of the country changes dramatically from
1965 to 2012: Oil, coconut (copra) 66.9 97.6 360.7 1,265.7 1,016.1
Bananas 0.0 6.1 149.3 319.3 647.9
Crude materials 1.6 2.9 62.2 169.1 201.2
Coconuts, desiccated 22.3 18.4 60.7 152.6 197.0
Top 10 exports, 1965 Top 10 exports, 2010–2012 Pineapples canned 14.1 21.8 88.7 124.3 219.8
1. Copra 1. Oil, coconut (copra) Fruit, prepared, nes* 0.0 1.2 27.6 111.5 189.6
2. Sugar raw centrifugal 2. Bananas Milk, whole dried 0.0 0.0 0.1 129.0 79.2
3. Oil, coconut (copra) 3. Crude materials
4. Manila fibre (abaca) 4. Coconuts, desiccated Cake, copra 12.1 14.1 54.0 78.4 122.1
5. Coconuts, desiccated 5. Pineapples canned Food preparations 0.2 0.5 10.8 99.6 92.4
6. Pineapples canned 6. Fruit, prepared, nes*
Cigarettes 0.0 0.0 27.6 107.3 79.1
7. Tobacco, unmanufactured 7. Milk, whole dried
8. Cake, copra 8. Cake, copra Other exports 359.1 320.1 377.0 789.8 1,129.8
9. Molasses 9. Food preparations Total 476.2 482.7 1,218.6 3,346.4 3,974.0
10. Sugar refined 10. Cigarettes
Source: FAOSTAT 2012.
*nes (not elsewhere specified, FAOSTAT). *nes (not elsewhere specified, FAOSTAT).
10 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Table 6:  Value of top agricultural imports Government has intervened heavily in agricultural
and total net imports, in US$, trade through both protectionist and promotional
thousands, 1965–2012 policies, thereby indirectly influencing the level and
nature of agricultural pollution.
  1965 1970 1990 2010 2012
The nature and level of agricultural exports and imports
Rice – total (rice
(and thereby agricultural pollution) is strongly influ-
milled equivalent) 58.5 0.0 127.7 1,499.2 424.0
enced by government policy. For instance, policies
Wheat 28.6 36.2 260.4 448.6 974.3
Cake, soybeans 0.6 5.3 146.4 359.1 686.8
that suppress imports and promote domestic produc-
Food, prepared,
tion may also unintentionally boost pollution levels
nes 1.9 2.2 13.5 448.3 567.9 from these activities. This will hold for rice and corn,
Milk, skimmed both of which receive tariff protection of 50 percent
dried 9.2 9.1 112.2 306.6 320.3 and 40 percent, respectively; rice moreover is subject to
Meat, cattle,
quantitative restrictions, at least until 2017. Likewise,
boneless (beef
and veal) 0.0 0.0 19.5 175.6 230.4 sugarcane receives a tariff protection of 65 percent and
Feed, compound, is subject to the import permit system (which functions
nes* 0.1 0.3 11.9 141.2 194.9 like a quantitative restriction). Temperate vegetables are
Oil, boiled, and also afforded high tariff protection and import permit
so on 0.7 0.0 0.1 86.1 206.0
requirement. In the case of livestock, chicken and pork
Tobacco,
unmanufactured 0.8 7.8 60.7 116.7 144.3 products are subject to import permits as well as 40 per-
Coffee, extracts 0.0 0.0 0.0 70.5 179.9 cent tariff rates. On the other hand, historically govern-
Other imports 73.5 84.5 600.7 2,029.4 2,541.3 ment has supported the expansion of export-oriented
Total 173.9 145.4 1,353.0 5,681.2 6,470.1 agriculture by making public lands available at low
Less: exports −302.3 −337.4 134.4 2,334.7 2,496.0 cost to large agribusiness interests. The link from trade
*nes (not elsewhere specified, FAOSTAT). policy to pollution remains highly speculative barring
detailed analysis of the impact of trade at the level of
outputs and activities in the agricultural subsectors.
country since that time (Table 6). Other important
imports are processed milk, infant food, and other
processed food. There are, however, significant 2.3 
Agricultural Development Policies
changes as well, owing in part to industrial restruc-
turing, as well as perhaps widening global market Growth and development of agriculture, and therefore
opportunities. The country’s burgeoning livestock its environmental impacts, has also been shaped by gov-
and poultry sector has boosted imports of soybean ernment policies and development strategies. The key
cake as well as maize and feed imports; cotton lint policy frameworks and major programs are discussed in
has fallen out with the demise of the domestic tex- the following section.
tile industry and the decline of tallow use (that is, as
candle fuel and lubricant). Meanwhile, import sub-
stitution has reduced imports of palm oil and cocoa 2.3.1 Laws on Agricultural Development
beans as domestic sources have also become prom- Magna Carta of Small Farmers. Republic Act (RA)
inent. Imports of chicken, apples, and other goods 7607 (1992) aimed to give highest priority to the
are the result of global industrial change, including development of agriculture toward equitable distribu-
in logistics and shipping. tion of benefits and empowerment of small farmers.
 OVERVIEW OF AGRICULTURE AND AGRI-POLLUTION DRIVERS 11

It mandates the state to deliver support services and with the earlier law on devolution, namely the Local
associated infrastructure such as farm-to-market roads, Government Code. The code authorizes municipalities
bridges, piers, ports, airports, communications infra- and cities to provide extension, on-site research services
structure, postharvest facilities, market infrastructure, and facilities related to agriculture and fisheries activ-
good seeds and planting materials, fertilizers and pesti- ities. Provincial governments meanwhile also provide
cides, farm machinery and equipment, water manage- extension and on-site research, with focus on pest and
ment and irrigation facilities, technical assistance and disease control; animal breeding stations; and organiz-
training, and establishment of an efficient credit deliv- ing farmer and fisher associations.
ery system.
In particular the Magna Carta promotes utiliza-
tion of fertilizers and pesticides up to an acceptable lev- 2.3.2  Commodity and Banner Programs
el of deleterious effect on health and the environment, The lead agency for agricultural development is the
as well as efficient and proper usage to eliminate losses DA, supported by the Department of Agrarian Reform
from wasteful and improper application. It promotes (DAR) for agrarian reform beneficiaries and commu-
use of organic fertilizer and integrated pest manage- nities, the Department of Environment and Natural
ment (IPM). Resources (DENR) for community-based upland man-
agement areas, and the Department of Science and
Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act Technology (DOST) for science and technology. The
(AFMA). RA No. 8495 (1997) provides the primary DA pursues ‘banner’ or ‘flagship’ programs aimed at
legal framework for pursuing agricultural development specific commodities. In the 1970s, the flagship pro-
in the country. It aims at transforming agriculture and gram was Masagana 99 of the Marcos administration,
fisheries from a resource-based to technology-based aimed at disseminating modern rice varieties in a pack-
industry. The key strategies are people empowerment, age of support services, including subsidized credit,
a market-driven approach, and raising value added seed, fertilizer, irrigation, and extension. Commodity
for agriculture and fisheries products. Finally, agricul- programs were also implemented in the 1990s under
ture and fisheries modernization shall adopt a policy the succeeding administrations under various labels,
of sustainable development toward long-term benefits that is, the Rice Action Plan and Corn Production
and preservation of ecosystems. The AFMA reinforces Enhancement Program under the first Aquino admin-
the Magna Carta policy of state promotion of produc- istration, the Medium Term Agriculture Development
tion support services, covering credit, irrigation, infor- Plan under Ramos, the Agrikultural Makamasa under
mation and market support, other infrastructure, and Estrada, and GMA - CARES under Arroyo. The cur-
product standards and consumer safety. It also provides rent administration is implementing Agri-Pinoy com-
for agricultural modernization by research and develop- modity programs for rice, corn, and high-value crops;
ment (R&D) and extension and human resource devel- specialized bureaus and attached agencies implement
opment for science and technology. commodity development programs as well for high-
For extension, the AFMA identifies local gov- value crops, as well as fisheries and aquaculture. There
ernment units (LGUs) as the frontline service provid- is also a banner program for rice self-sufficiency, the
er, supported by national government agencies such as Food Staples Sufficient Program (FSSP), which sought
the Department of Agriculture (DA). This is consistent to achieve 100 percent rice self-sufficiency by 2013.
CROPS
3
The increasing trend of crop fertilizer application, along with pesticide use
throughout the Philippines, has been established as a major contributor to water
and land pollution.
The production of crops has been steadily increasing, due to (a) increase in area
planted/harvested and (b) adoption of modern production methods—with it the
increase of fertilizer and pesticide application.
The top 10 major crops grown in the Philippines are widely planted in dif-
ferent provinces (Figure 4). Rice is widely grown in various provinces all over the
country. The major provinces where large areas of rainfed rice is cultivated are Abra,
Agusan del Norte, and Agusan del Sur. On the other hand, irrigated rice is mostly
grown in Isabela, Nueva Ecija, Cagayan, and Pangasinan in Northern Luzon. Yel-
low corn is largely grown in Isabela and Cagayan in Region 2 and in Bukidnon,
North Cotabato, and South Cotabato in Mindanao. Major growing areas for white
corn are Maguindanao, Lanao del Norte, and Lanao del Sur in Mindanao and
Cebu and Negros Oriental in Visayas.
Large plantations of banana are located in Mindanao, including the provinc-
es of Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Compostela Valley, Bukidnon, North Co-
tabato, South Cotabato, and Maguindanao. In 2014, large areas in Lanao del Sur,
Bukidnon, and Camarines Sur were cultivated with cassava. Large plantations of
coconut are grown in Quezon, Zamboanga del Norte, and Davao Oriental. Coffee,
on the other hand is largely grown in Maguindanao, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del
Sur, Cebu, Negros Oriental, and Zamboanga del Sur.
Pineapple plantations are concentrated in Bukidnon and South Cotabato
(Figure 4). On the other hand, large plantation areas of mango are located in Pan-
gasinan while tobacco is largely grown in Ilocos Region and Isabela. Large areas are
planted to sugarcane in Negros Occidental and Bukidnon.
14 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Figure 4:  Areas where the major crops are grown in the Philippines, 2014

Source: Based on PSA 2015b.

 CROPS 15

Figure 5:  Volume of production, top 10 Figure 6:  Area harvested for crops in the
agricultural crops, 1990–2014 Philippines, 1990–2014
80,000 14,000
70,000 12,000
60,000 10,000
1,000 metric tons

1,000 Hectares
50,000
8,000
40,000
6,000
30,000
20,000 4,000

10,000 2,000
0 0
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014

1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
Sugarcane Palay Banana Corn Palay Coconut Corn Banana Sugarcane
Cassava Pineapple Mango Camote Rubber Cassava Mango Abaca Coffee
Eggplant Squash Fruit Others Camote Pineapple Oil palm Others
Source: PSA 2015b. Source: PSA 2015b.

Temperate vegetables are grown largely in Ben- increased from 3.31 million ha in 1990 to 4.74 mil-
guet. Tropical vegetables are grown in many areas in lion ha is 2014 (36 percent planted area). The second
Luzon and Visayas. Large areas in Isabela, Nueva Eci- most widely planted crop is coconut, covering about
ja, Pangasinan, and Ilocos Norte have been cultivated 3.11 million ha in 1990 to 3.5 million ha in 2014
with tropical vegetables since 2014 (Figure 4). Rubber (26.5 percent of planted area). The third most widely
is largely grown in Zamboanga Sibugay and North planted crop is corn, with 3.82 million ha in 1990,
Cotabato. Growing oil palms is becoming popular but falling to 2.61 million ha in 2014 (19.8 percent
in the Philippines and it is largely grown in Agusan planted areas).
del Sur, Sultan Kudarat, Palawan, Bohol, and North
Cotabato.
PSA (2015b) indicated that production of the 3.1 
Total Area Planted with Rice in the
top 10 agricultural crops in the country have generally Country
increased in the past 24 years, from 40,986,300 metric
tons in 1990 to 67,553,197 metric tons in 2014 (Fig- The combined total area planted with irrigated, rainfed,
ure 5). Palay, banana, and corn production increased and upland rice in the country has increased in from
by 50.89 percent, 60.16 percent, and 37.54 percent, 1990 to 2014. Rice is widely grown all over the country
respectively in the past 24 years. Volume of production (Figure 7). Major growing areas are the provinces of
is largest for sugarcane, followed by palay, banana, and Isabela, with a 40 percent increase from 204,280 ha to
corn (maize). 286,319 ha, and Cagayan, with an increase of 141 per-
On the other hand, the total area with agricul- cent from 94,370 ha to 227,493 ha in Region 2; Pan-
tural and permanent crops has continually increased gasinan, with an increase of 34 percent from 194,210
through the years, from 12 million ha in 1990 to ha to 260,632 ha in Region 1; Nueva Ecija, with an
13.2 million ha 2014 (Figure 6). Areas grown with rice increase of 33 percent from 240,210 ha to 318,284 ha
16 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Figure 7:  Areas planted with rice in the Philippines, 1990–2014

Source: Based on PSA 2015a data.

in Region 3; and Iloilo, with an increase of 75 percent Island and together contribute about 31 percent of the
from 150,680 ha to 264,269 ha in Region 6. In Mind- country’s total rice production.
anao Island, areas planted with rice in Region 12 have In the Philippines, there are three rice cropping
increased in the past 25 years by 107 percent, from ecosystems: irrigated, rainfed, and upland rice. Irrigat-
167,780 ha to 346,906 ha (Figure 7). ed rice has the highest productivity among the three
Nueva Ecija is the first largest rice producing different rice systems where more than one crop of rice
province in the country, contributing about 10 percent is grown per year (Table 7). Rice grown in upland sys-
of the total rice production in the Philippines in 2014. tems has the lowest yield with 1 crop per year since in-
The province of Isabela ranks second, contributing organic fertilizer is not applied in this system and when
6.7 percent of the total rice production. Pangasinan, soil productivity becomes low, the land is left fallow to
Cagayan, and Tarlac provinces rank 3rd, 4th, and 6th, rejuvenate soil fertility for a number of years, ranging
respectively. All these provinces are located in Luzon from 4 to 20 years.

Table 7:  A comparison of the productivity of four different rice systems

System Area (ha, thousands) (% of total) Yield, tons/ha Crops/year Fallow period, year Productivity, tons/ha/year

2,334
Irrigated rice 5.0 2.5 1 12.5
(62)
1,304
Rainfed rice 2.5 1 0 2.5
(35)
120
Upland rice* 1.0 1 8 0.12
(3)
Source: Mutert and Fairhurst 2002; IRRI Rice Facts 2002.
*Grown in slash-and-burn, usually on sloping land.
 CROPS 17

Figure 8:  Areas planted with white corn in the Philippines, 1990–2014

Source: Based on PSA 2015b data.

3.2 Areas Planted with White Corn in On the other hand, areas planted with white
the Philippines from 1990 to 2014 corn in Bukidnon and Maguindanao have increased.
In Bukidnon, areas planted with white corn increased
Corn agro-ecozone is found in the sloping, rolling to by 4.15 percent, from 180,200 ha to 187,999 ha, while
hilly uplands in Isabela, Camarines Sur, Bukidnon, in Maguindanao, it increased by 13.35 percent, from
South Cotabato, and Cotabato. With sufficient rain- 149,060 ha to 172,032 ha.
fall and favorable weather conditions, two to three
croppings of corn per year can be grown in these areas.
In these areas, the 3rd cropping can be grown with 3.3 
Areas Planted with Yellow Corn in
corn, legumes, tobacco, and other vegetables (Gerpa- the Philippines from 1990 to 2014
cio et al. 2004).
White corn is mainly grown in Mindanao and Yellow corn is widely grown in upland areas in the
Visayas Islands (Figure 8). In the decade of 1990–1999, country and the areas grown with yellow corn has
large areas were planted with white corn in Regions 9, increased from 1990 to 2014 (Figure 9). The province
12, and the Administrative Region of Muslim Mind- of Isabela is the largest yellow corn growing area and
anao (ARMM). In the past 24 years, the areas planted the area increased rapidly in the past recent 4 years,
with white corn have gradually declined. Areas planted with a total area of 263,014 ha, constituting 10.07
with white corn in North Cotabato decreased by 42.5 percent of the total area grown with yellow corn in the
percent, from 227,300 ha to 130,699 ha. Similarly, entire country.
areas planted with white corn in South Cotabato de- In the southern Philippines, yellow corn is large-
creased by 69 percent, from 483,580 ha to 148,367 ha. ly planted in the provinces of Bukidnon (150,130 ha),
In the 1990s, the island of Cebu had 350,570 ha and North Cotabato (130,699 ha), and South Cotabato
this decreased to 106,694 ha in 2014. (116,005 ha).
18 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Figure 9:  Areas planted with yellow corn in the Philippines, 1990–2014

Source: Based on PSA 2015b data.

3.4 Areas Planted with Sugarcane in 54 percent, from 121,249 ha to 186,788 ha from 1990
the Philippines from 1990 to 2014 to 2014 (Figure 10). The areas grown with sugarcane
in Bukidnon have also increased in the past 24 years by
The major sugarcane growing area in the Philippines 380 percent, from 14,990 ha to 72,000 ha, though the
is Negros Occidental and the area has increased by total area grown with sugarcane is much less compared

Figure 10:  Areas planted with sugarcane in thePhilippines, 1990–2014

Source: Based on PSA 2015b data.

 CROPS 19

Figure 11:  Areas planted with banana in the Philippines, 1990–2014

Source: Based on PSA 2015b data.

with Negros Occidental. In Mindanao, areas planted The past two decades have seen the rapid expan-
with sugarcane are rapidly increasing in the recent years. sion of banana plantations in Davao del Norte, with
Negros Occidental has the highest production an increase of 74.9 percent, from 20,671 ha to 36,153
of sugarcane, comprising about 50 percent of the to- ha; Compostela Valley, with an increase of 33.96 per-
tal volume of sugarcane production in the country in cent, from 14,154 ha to 18,962 ha; Bukidnon, with an
2014. Among the top 10 provinces with the largest increase of 622 percent, from 2,881 ha to 20,789 ha;
sugarcane production, Bukidnon ranks second, con- Maguindanao, with an increase of 132 percent, from
tributing about 14 percent of the total production in 7,800 ha to 18,077 ha; and North Cotabato, with an
the country. increase of 47.34 percent, from 11,309 ha to 16,663
ha. In the province of Quezon, areas planted with ba-
nana declined by 43.70 percent, from 18,140 ha to
3.5 Areas Planted with Banana in the 10,213 ha in the past 2 decades.
Philippines from 1990 to 2014

Varieties of banana are being grown all over the coun- 3.6 
Areas Planted with Pineapple in
try (Figure 11). There are cooking varieties like saba the Philippines from 1990 to 2014
and sweet varieties like latundan and lakatan. They
may be small patches of banana farms or planted in Pineapple is largely grown in the provinces of Bukid-
the backyard. Major growing areas for multinational non (23,000 ha) and South Cotabato (23,346 ha) in
banana plantations are in Mindanao, particularly the Mindanao Island (Figure 12). Large pineapple planta-
provinces of Davao del Norte (36,153 ha), Bukidnon tions of Del Monte and Dole companies are located in
(20,789 ha), Compostela Valley (18,962 ha), Maguind- these provinces. The areas planted with pineapple have
anao (18,077 ha), Misamis Oriental (16,702 ha), North increased in both provinces (66 percent in Bukidnon
Cotabato (16,663 ha), and Davao del Sur (15,384 ha). and 61 percent in South Cotabato) in the past 24 years.
20 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Figure 12:  Areas planted with pineapple in the Philippines, 1990–2014

Source: Based on PSA 2015b data.

3.7 Fertilizer Application Trends the United Nations (FAO) and World Health Organi-
zation (WHO). Before a pesticide is recommended for
3.7.1 Consumption Trends registration, a Pesticide Technical Advisory Committee
Consumption of chemical fertilizers has been trending will evaluate and review its toxicology, efficacy and resi-
upward over the past few decades, though consumption due data (Maredia, Dakouo, and Mota-Sanchez 2003).
has fallen overall since the rise in fertilizer prices in the From 1961, the national consumption of nitroge-
late 2000s. nous fertilizers increased continuously, from 35,815 tons
Regulation of fertilizer prices, imports, and marketing in 1961 to 629,000 tons in 2004, with an annual aver-
was first done in the Philippines in 1973 by the Fer- age increase of 10,406 tons/year. (Figure 13). However,
tilizer Industry Authority. The Authority established a from 2004 to 2013, there was a decrease of 54 percent in
two-tier pricing which provided privileges to food man- nitrogenous fertilizer consumption, from 629,000 tons
ufacturers to obtain fertilizers at lower prices (Briones to 287,000 tons. There was a steep decline since 2008,
2014). By virtue of Presidential Decree No. 1144, the coinciding with soaring fertilizer prices.
Authority was changed to the Fertilizer and Pesticide The most common forms of inorganic nitrogen
Authority (FPA) in 1977, for pesticide regulation and fertilizers applied are urea, ammonium sulfate, and
safety. It regulates the processes concerning pesticides complete fertilizer. Urea fertilizer is the world’s ma-
such as its formulation, manufacture, distribution, sale, jor source of nitrogen due to its high concentration
usage, disposal, and so on. Moreover, it has the follow- (46 percent N) and reasonable price per unit of nitro-
ing responsibilities: restricting the use of hazardous gen. Phosphorus is another macronutrient required by
pesticides, issuing licenses for pesticide users, dissem- plants in large quantities and it makes up about 0.1 to
inating information on the safe use of pesticides, and 0.4 percent of the plant dry matter.
registering new pesticides. The pesticide registration Phosphorus is a major component of adenosine
requirements were based according to the international triphosphate (ATP), the energy currency of the cell; thus,
standards by the Food and Agriculture Organization of it is very important in all metabolic processes in plants
 CROPS 21

such as photosynthesis and respiration. Phosphorus is Figure 13:  National consumption of

deficient in most agricultural soils (IFA 2000). Though nitrogen, phosphorus, and
most of the Philippine soils are deficient in phosphorus, potassium fertilizers in the
the amount of phosphorus fertilizer applied remained Philippines from 1961 to 2013
low compared with nitrogen fertilizer. For phosphate 7,000
fertilizer, the most common forms are ammonium phos-
6,000
phate, di-ammonium phosphate, and complete fertilizer
5,000
(14-14-14). Phosphate fertilizer consumption in 1961

100 metric tons

was 16,006 tons, rising to 227,000 tons in 2002. The 4,000
phosphorus fertilizer consumption in the country is 3,000
about one-third of the nitrogen fertilizer consumption. 2,000
From 2007, phosphate fertilizer consumption declined.
1,000
Lastly, potassium (K) is essential in carbohydrate
0
and protein metabolism and water regime of plants;

1961
1966
1971
1976
1981
1986
1991
1996
2001
2006
2011
the most commonly applied form is muriate of pot-
ash. Consumption of potash fertilizer in 1961 was Year
12,500 tons, rising to 174,660 tons in 2009. Among Nitrogenous Fertilizers Potash Fertilizers
Phosphorous Fertilizers
the three nutrients, potassium fertilizer consumption is
Source: FAO 2014.
the lowest. From 2009, the national potassium fertiliz-
er consumption declined until 2013 when the national
consumption was only 39,700 tons. Figure 14:  Fertilizer application rates
in rice in Southeast Asian
countries in 2001
3.7.2 Fertilizer Application Rates
120
In Southeast Asia, the Philippines has relatively low
application of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium for 100
rice but relatively high application rates of nitrogen for 80
corn and sugarcane.
kg/ha

60
In Southeast Asia, the amount of nitrogen fertil-
izer applied in rice crop in the Philippines is lower 40
(51 kg/ha) than the application rates in Indonesia
20
(105 kg/ha), Thailand (62 kg/ha), and Lao People’s
Democratic Republic (55 kg/ha) (Figure 14). Similarly, 0
N P K
the phosphorus fertilizer application rate in rice in the Indonesia Lao PDR Myanmar Philippines Thailand
Philippines (15 kg/ha) is lower than in Thailand (33
Source: Fertistat 2001.
kg/ha) and Indonesia (22 kg/ha).
The amounts of potassium applied in the five
Southeast Asian countries were also low, ranging from countries require varying rates of the major nutrients,
4 to 17 kg/ha, with Philippines applying at a rate of due to variations in soil types, soil test phosphorus and
11 kg/ha. The wide variation in application rates with- potassium levels, and nutrient ranges of different crops.
in crops reflects the differences in timing and frequen- However, for corn, the Philippines has the high-
cy of fertilizer application. Different crops in different est nitrogen fertilizer application rate (58 kg/ha) than
22 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Figure 15:  Fertilizer application rates Figure 16:  Fertilizer application rates in
in corn in Southeast Asian sugarcane in Southeast Asian
countries in 2001 countries in 2001
70 100
90
60
80
50 70
40 60
kg/ha

kg/ha
50
30 40
20 30
20
10
10
0 0
N P K N P K
Indonesia Lao PDR Myanmar Philippines Thailand Indonesia Lao PDR Myanmar Philippines Thailand
Source: Fertistat 2001. Source: Fertistat 2001.

Thailand (56 kg/ha), Lao PDR (50 kg/ha), and Myan- increased in the past three decades in these areas, partic-
mar (35 kg/ha) while Indonesia has the least applica- ularly in Apayao (from 117 kg/ha in 1990 to 167 kg/ha
tion rate (5 kg/ha). Thailand has the highest application in 2014) and Ilocos Norte (from 110 kg/ha in 1990
rates for potassium and phosphorus fertilizers (Figure to 209 kg/ha in 2014) in Region 1 and Isabela (from
15) while the Philippines has lower phosphorus (16 kg/ 133 kg/ha in 1990 to 144 kg/ha in 2014) and Cagayan
ha) and potassium (10 kg/ha) fertilizer application rates. (from 77 kg/ha in 1990 to 84 kg/ha in 2014) in Region
The Philippines (85 kg/ha) ranks second to In- 2. Complete fertilizer (14-14-14) is the second most
donesia (90 kg/ha) in the application rates of nitro- applied fertilizer in rice growing areas in the coun-
gen fertilizer in sugarcane (Figure 16). Among the five try. During 2000–2014, application rates continually
Southeast Asian countries, the Philippines and Thailand increased in Regions 1, 2, and 3 in Northern Luzon.
have the same rate of phosphorus fertilizer application Other sources of nitrogen are ammonium phosphate
(55 kg/ha) and this rate is higher than the other three and ammonium sulfate fertilizers. Both fertilizer types
Southeast Asian countries. Potassium fertilizer applica- are widely applied in most rice growing areas all over
tion rate in sugarcane in the Philippines (30 kg/ha) is the country, though at a much lower rate.
lower than in Thailand (65 kg/ha).
Fertilizer application in irrigated and nonirrigated rice
Fertilizer application in the Philippines varies widely systems during the 2011 wet and 2012 dry cropping
by type of crop and by region/province. systems in various regions in the country
There are wide variations in fertilizer application by (Source: PhilRice 2016)
area/province. The following focuses on the two crops Nitrogen Fertilizer Application
that account for the bulk of fertilizer consumption, In a survey of 2,500 farmers all over the country, the
namely rice and corn. Since the 1990s, urea is the most Socioeconomic Division of Philippine Rice Research
widely applied nitrogenous fertilizer in rice fields in Institute (PhilRice) reported that the national average
Northern and Central Luzon and in Davao Oriental rate of nitrogen fertilizer application in irrigated rice
(Figure 17). The amount of urea fertilizer applied has during the 2011 wet season (July–December 2011)
 CROPS 23

Figure 17:  Trends of four major types of nitrogenous fertilizer application in rice crop
from 1990 to 2014

Source: Based on PSA 2015b data.

24 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Figure 18:  The rate of nitrogen fertilizer application (kg N/ha) during the wet
(July–December 2011) and dry (January–June 2012) cropping seasons in the
various provinces in the Philippines

Source: Based on PhilRice 2016 data.

cropping was 78 kg N/ha and 81 kg N/ha during the Province had the highest rate of nitrogen fertilizer ap-
2012 dry cropping season (January-June 2012). This plication both during the wet (104 kg N/ha) and dry
rate is higher than the application rate in nonirrigated (117.5 kg N/ha) cropping seasons (Figure 18).
areas, with values of 53 kg N/ha during the wet sea-
son and 42 kg N/ha during the dry season. In both Phosphorus fertilizer application
rice farming systems, nitrogen fertilizer application is From the same survey of 2,500 farmers all the country,
higher in irrigated areas and during the wet season. PhilRice reported that the national average rate of phos-
The rate of nitrogen fertilizer application varied phorus fertilizer application in irrigated rice during the
greatly among the different provinces in the country 2011 wet season (July–December 2011) cropping was
(Figure 18). In irrigated rice, the rate of fertilizer appli- 6.8 kg P/ha and 7.7 kg P/ha during the 2012 dry crop-
cation during the wet season ranged from as low as 17 ping season (January–June 2012). This rate is higher
kg N/ha (Samar) in the various provinces in Visayas and than the application rate in nonirrigated areas, with
Mindanao to as high as 129 kg N/ha (Ilocos Norte) in values of 4.9 kg P/ha during the wet season and 4.2 kg
Northern Luzon, Mindoro, and Southern Mindanao. P/ha during the dry season.
In nonirrigated rice, a few provinces (Samar, Davao del The rate of phosphorus fertilizer application var-
Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental) did not apply ied greatly among the different provinces in the country
fertilizer during both the wet and dry seasons. Tarlac (Figure 19). In irrigated rice, the rate of phosphorus
 CROPS 25

Figure 19:  The rate of phosphorus fertilizer application (kg P/ha) during the wet
(July–December 2011) and dry (January–June 2012) cropping seasons in the
various provinces in the Philippines

Source: Based on PhilRice 2016 data.

fertilizer application during the wet season ranged from Sur, Davao Oriental, Sultan Kudarat, and Maguind-
as low as 0.23 kg P/ha (Samar) to as high as 12.9 kg anao, do not apply phosphorus fertilizer. Where phos-
P/ha (Ilocos Norte). During the dry season, the rate phorus fertilizer was applied during the dry season in
of phosphorus fertilizer application in irrigated rice nonirrigated areas, the range of application was from
ranged from 1.25 kg P/ha (Northern Samar) to as high 0.5 kg P/ha (North Cotabato) to 14.3 kg P/ha (Auro-
as 20.9 kg P/ha (Ilocos Norte). To summarize, among ra). During the wet season, the range of phosphorus
all the provinces in the country, Ilocos Norte has the fertilizer application was from 0.68 kg P/ha (Oriental
highest rate of phosphorus application in irrigated rice Mindoro) to 12.6 kg P/ha in Ilocos Norte.
in both the wet and dry seasons.
In nonirrigated areas, a few provinces (Pampan- Potassium fertilizer application
ga, Laguna, Northern Samar, Davao del Norte, Davao From the same survey of 2,500 farmers all over the coun-
del Sur, Davao Oriental) did not apply phosphorus fer- try, PhilRice reported that the national average rate of
tilizer during both the wet and dry seasons (Figure 19). potassium fertilizer application in irrigated rice during
During the dry season in nonirrigated areas, rice farm- the 2011 wet season (July–December 2011) cropping
ers in many provinces, including Ilocos Norte, Samar, was 10.5 kg K/ha and 11.3 kg K/ha during the 2012
Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, Tarlac, Occidental dry cropping season (January–June 2012). This rate is
Mindoro, Northern Samar, Daval del Norte, Davao del higher than the application rate in nonirrigated areas,
26 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Figure 20:  The rate of potassium fertilizer application (kg K/ha) during the wet
(July–December 2011) and dry (January–June 2012) cropping seasons in the
various provinces in the Philippines

Source: Based on PhilRice 2016 data.

with values of 6 kg K/ha during the wet season and did not apply potassium fertilizer during both the wet
5.3 kg K/ha during the dry season. and dry seasons (Figure 20). During the dry season in
The rate of potassium fertilizer application var- nonirrigated areas, rice farmers in many more provinc-
ied greatly among the different provinces in the coun- es including Sultan Kudarat, Maguindanao, Bulacan,
try (Figure 20). In irrigated rice, the rate of potassium Nueva Ecija, and Tarlac, did not apply potassium fertil-
fertilizer application during the wet season ranged from izer. Where potassium fertilizer was applied during the
as low as 0.43 kg K/ha (Northern Samar) to as high as dry season in nonirrigated areas, the range of applica-
19.9 kg P/ha (Ilocos Norte). During the dry season, the tion was from 0.01 kg K/ha (North Cotabato) to 27 kg
rate of potassium fertilizer application in irrigated rice K/ha (Aurora). During the wet season, the range of K
was from 2.37 kg K/ha (Northern Samar) to as high fertilizer application was from 0.09 kg K/ha (Cagayan)
as 28.4 kg K/ha (Ilocos Norte). To summarize, among to 24.02 kg K/ha in Ilocos Norte.
all the provinces in the country, Ilocos Norte has the Meanwhile for corn, fertilizer application in-
highest rate of potassium application in both the wet creased from 1960 to 2010 but decreased in the past
and dry seasons in irrigated rice. Potassium application few years since 2010. Among the four major types of
is higher during the dry season than the wet season. nitrogenous fertilizers commonly applied in corn crop,
In nonirrigated areas, a few provinces (Davao del urea is widely applied in greater quantities than the other
Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, and Pampanga) three types of fertilizer (Figure 21). During2000–2014,
 CROPS 27

Figure 21:  Trends of four major types of nitrogenous fertilizer application in corn from
1990 to 2014

Source: Based on PSA 2015b data.

 28 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Figure 22:  Amounts of nitrogen applied, nitrogen content in harvested rice grains, and
nitrogen content in harvested rice grains + straw from 1988 to 2014 in Nueva
Ecija
Nueva Ecija
45
40
35
1,000 metric tons

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Total N applied N in grains + straw N in grains
Source: Based on PSA 2015a.

the rate of urea fertilizer application further increased (PSA 2015a), with an average of 4.74 percent increase.
to as high as 200–250 kg/ha in Northern and Central The amount of nitrogen taken up by the crop and that
Luzon. Complete fertilizer was applied at a lower rate was harvested in the rice grain is about 33 percent of
(50–100 kg/ha) in almost all corn growing provinces the applied nitrogen in 1988 and 57 percent of applied
across the country from 1990 to 2009. nitrogen in 2014. Even for Aklan Province, which has
one of the lowest rates of nitrogen fertilizer application
and rice production, the amount of nitrogen taken up
3.7.3 Estimating Excess Fertilizer Usage by the crop and harvested in the rice grain and rice
In rice farming, nutrient balance analysis suggests straw is still lower than the amount applied. Typical
releases into the environment of excess nitrogen and fertilizer recovery efficiencies in irrigated lowland rice
phosphorus but not of potassium. with good crop management and grain yields of 5 to 7
Nitrogen. To estimate the release of excess nitrogen to tons/ha is 30–60 percent for nitrogen (Dobermann and
the environment, we compute the amount of chemical Fairhurst 2002).
N applied, less the amount of nitrogen utilized in rice
grain and straw. The factors used are 5.3 kg/ton of N Phosphorus. A similar technique can be used to esti-
for straw and 10.9 kg/ton of N for grain production (de mate excess phosphorus released to the environment
Datta 1981). From 1988 to 2014, the amount of nitro- due to rice production. In Nueva Ecija, there was an
gen applied in the soil in Nueva Ecija (province with increasing trend in the amounts of phosphorus applied,
the highest yield) is greater than the amounts of nitro- from 4,221.40 tons in 1988 to 13,151.49 tons in 2014
gen removed from the soil by harvesting straw and rice (PSA 2015a), with an annual increase of 8.14 percent in
grain (Figure 22, PSA 2015a). There was an increasing 26 years (Figure 23). Since 1988, the amount of phos-
trend in the total amount of nitrogen applied, from phorus applied is much greater than the amounts of
16,605.70 tons in 1988 to 37,054.62 tons in 2014 phosphorus taken up by the plant and harvested via the
 CROPS 29

Figure 23:  Amounts of phosphorus applied, phosphorus content in harvested rice grains,
and phosphorus content in harvested rice grains + straw from 1988 to 2014 in
Nueva Ecija
Nueva Ecija
14
12
10
1,000 metric tons

8
6
4
2
0
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Total P applied P in grains + straw P in grains
Source: Based on PSA 2015a.

rice grain and rice straw. In Aklan, though the amounts Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, and Vietnam (Shel-
of phosphorus applied were low, the amounts removed drick et al. 2002).
by the crop and harvested via the rice grain and straw
is still lower than applied phosphorus. Typical fertilizer
recovery efficiencies in irrigated lowland rice with good 3.8 
Farming Systems Evolving Toward
crop management and grain yields of 5 to 7 tons/ha is Modern Cropping Practices
10–35 percent for phosphorus (Dobermann and Fair-
hurst 2002). Farming systems in the Philippines have evolved from
low-input agriculture using traditional practices and
Potassium. Unlike nitrogen and phosphorus, the varieties to existing systems using high-yielding varieties
amounts of potassium fertilizer applied (from com- (HYVs) and modern practices. The case of rice which
plete fertilizer) in rice crop in both Nueva Ecija and underwent a Green Revolution in the 1960s–1980s
Aklan Provinces are much less than the amounts taken illustrates this evolution (Box 1).
up and accumulated in the rice straw and rice grain. The agricultural practices and intensive farming
The amount of potassium harvested in the rice grains systems in the country affect the environment. A simi-
is almost near the values of the amounts of potassium lar study by the DENR-EMB (2002) pointed out that
applied as fertilizer (Figure 24). the intensive use of inorganic nitrogenous fertilizer can
The ratio of N:P2O5:K2O fertilizer use in contaminate groundwater and contribute to pests, soil
Southeast Asia is about 8:2:1 (Mutert and Farhurst and water pollution. The continuous and intensive use
2002). This unbalanced fertilizer consumption may of chemical pesticides can lead to human poisoning,
deplete the potassium reserves in the soil. Research chemical dependency, new pests, resistance to pests and
results have shown there are negative balances of 40 water pollution. Moreover, the cultivation of fragile
to 60 kg K/year in intensified rice systems in the and marginal upland areas can lead to deforestation,
 30 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Figure 24:  Amounts of potassium applied, potassium content in harvested rice grains,
and potassium content in harvested rice grains + straw from 1988 to 2014 in
Nueva Ecija
Nueva Ecija
35
30
25
1,000 metric tons

20
15
10
5
0
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Total K applied K in grains and straw K in grains
Source: Based on PSA 2015a.

Box 1:  Evolution of rice cropping accelerated soil erosion, sedimentation of rivers, and
systems
biodiversity loss (DENR-EMB 2002).
In the pre-Green Revolution period, traditional rice varieties were Two key developments have been increases in
planted once a year and field operations were done manually or cropping intensity, enabled by irrigation, and adoption
using draught animals like carabao or cattle. Irrigation systems of labor-saving technologies such as using machinery.
were initially developed during the American regime. The
Trends in irrigation are shown in Figure 25. As not-
practice of transplanting of rice seedlings started in the 1920s.
The natural soil fertility was enough to support the growth of a ed in Section 2.2.3, growth in area of arable land and
single crop of rice in a year. permanent crops has essentially ceased; hence, increase
During the Green Revolution period, modern HYVs in area harvested, especially for rice, entails multiple
that are short statured, non photosensitive, and early maturing
cropping through irrigation. Note that according to of-
were developed and irrigation infrastructure was constructed
that revolutionized the rice farming system. These HYVs require ficial data, irrigated area (sum of national, communal,
high fertilizer and pesticide inputs and irrigation water, which and private systems) was the highest in the early 1990s;
enabled two croppings a year. Farming practices evolved, however, this is entirely due to an overestimate of the
including fertilizer management, chemical control of pests and area of communal systems. After a correction in 1994,
diseases, and mechanized threshing and drying of palay.
In the post-Green Revolution period, farmers are
the total irrigated area was back to a more realistic level
concerned with sustaining productivity while minimizing costs by of 1.27 million ha.
adopting efficient, inexpensive, and promising technologies for From that level, the area under irrigation in-
higher income. Integrated pest, nutrient, and water managements creased gradually to about 1.5 million ha. The increase
systems were further improved. High-quality seeds and hybrid
was relatively fastest in communal systems. Nonethe-
seeds were introduced by the government. Direct seeding
and application of herbicides were practiced, with the aim of less, the share of national systems remains the largest,
decreasing labor costs. accounting for about half the total; private irrigation
systems are also a significant share of the total, averag-
Source: Bautista and Javier 2005 (pg 2-65).
ing about 14 percent.
 CROPS 31

Meanwhile, for labor cost, data on real wages Figure 25:  Area of irrigated systems
reveal a long-term upward trend (Figure 25). In real by type, 1990–2014, ha,
terms, daily wages in rice farming are 21 percent higher thousands
in 2011 compared to 1990. From year to year, real wag- 1,800
es have moved somewhat erratically, peaking in 1997, 1,600
then tumbling with that year’s El Nino combined with 1,400
the Asian financial crisis, finally hitting rock bottom in

1,000 hectares
1,200
2006. From then, real wages have resumed their climb. 1,000
There are also large variations across space; the 800
regions around the capital, namely Central Luzon and 600
Calabarzon, have the highest real wages (27 percent 400
higher than average). Since 1990, the growth rate of 200
wages of Central Luzon and Calabarzon have been 0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
faster than that of the national average (respectively,
National irrigation system Communal irrigation system
41 percent and 31 percent). Private irrigation system
Source: PSA 2015.
Commercial crops tend toward higher rates of
fertilizer application. Some of these are grown on
large plantations and in general involve intensive Figure 26:  Daily wage in rice farming, year
agrochemical use. 2000 pesos, 1990–2011
At least five of the crops are commercial crops for 200
agro-industry, that is, palm oil, tobacco, cocoa, sugar- 190
cane, and fruits; the last includes export-oriented sub- 180
sectors (Cavendish banana and pineapple), together 170
160
with mango. Several of these important crops (palm oil,
150
tobacco, Cavendish banana, pineapple, and mango) are 140
known to involve intensive use of pesticides (see Sec- 130
tion 3.4.2). 120
It is no coincidence that major commercial crops 110
100
are associated with large-scale plantation production, 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
that is, palm oil, sugarcane, Cavendish banana, and Philippines Central Luzon
pineapple. Consolidation of landholdings is a typical Southern Tagalog/CAI ABAZON
Simple average, other regions
organizational form under massive economies of scale
at the processing stage (Hayami 2002). Achieving pre- Source: PSA 2015a.

dictable throughput with minimal transport cost typi-

cally involves a central processing factory, surrounded
by a monocrop plantation, and deploying intensive 3.8.1  Impact of Fertilizer Application
production technology. Consolidation of operations is Adverse on-site impacts of upland farming of temporary
done mainly through corporate lease or contract farm- crops are well documented.
ing, as ownership of farm land has been successfully Intensification of cropping systems to optimize pro-
partitioned in the Philippines after decades of land duction of these various major crops involve increased
reform. cropping frequency (2–3 crops per year for the annual
32 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

crops); increased cropping intensity (more trees or Ultisols, which were formerly slash and burn lands but
plants per unit area); increased fertilizer application to have been abandoned (Craswell 1989).
boost growth and crop yield; increased pesticide appli- A study evaluated the land degradation in the
cation to control pests and diseases; irrigation systems to Philippines by the amount of nutrient loss attributed
augment precipitation; adoption of technologies (new to soil erosion. The main nutrients evaluated are nitro-
cultivars, hybrid varieties); and farm mechanization. gen, phosphorus, and potassium. The results showed
These efforts may lead to environmental degrada- trends in the areas devoted for upland rice production.
tion such as depletion of soil nutrients; leaching of excess In 1994, nitrogen accounted for 87 percent of the total
fertilizers into the environment; pesticide residues in crops, nutrient loss in soils. It was followed by phosphorus at
soil, and water resources; volatilization of GHG into the 11 percent and potassium at 2 percent (NSCB 2000).
air; soil erosion; and sedimentation and eutrophication Large amounts of phosphorus are needed by
in adjacent water bodies. The continuous and intensive plants. In the three study sites in the Cordillera Region,
use of chemical pesticides can lead to human poisoning, Northern Philippines, the phosphorus content of the
chemical dependency, new pests, resistance to pests, and soils is above the standard limit. It can be attributed to
water pollution. Moreover, the cultivation of fragile and the soils’ low pH level. Also, the phosphorus fertiliz-
marginal upland areas can lead to deforestation, accelerat- er in the study sites may have contributed to the high
ed soil erosion, sedimentation of river and biodiversity loss phosphorus concentration in soil (Ngidlo 2013).
(DENR-EMB 2002). The forest area has been decreasing The total forest cover in the country declined
over the years. The forest cover was 26 percent in 1970 and by as much as 3.54 percent during 1990–1995, the
it decreased to 18 percent in 2000. This showed that in the fourth highest loss rate in the world. This rapid decline
last three decades, there is a very fast conversion of forest in forest areas can be attributed to the large and rapid
land into other land uses such as residential, commercial, conversion of the Philippine uplands into permanent
industrial, and agricultural uses annual cropping areas to meet the food requirements
Evidences of soil acidification due to intensive of an increasingly expanding population (Domingo
nitrogenous fertilizer application have been reported in and Buenaseda 2000). However, the productivity of
intensively cropped soils in La Trinidad, Benguet, Phil- sloping lands has been diminishing at an alarming rate
ippines grown with common bean (Gutierrez and Barra- due to soil degradation or erosion brought about by
quio 2010). Continuous application of nitrogenous fer- cultivation activities in the sloping upland areas. Ac-
tilizers, specifically ammonium sulfate, leads to increase cording to Escaño and Tababa (1998), the rates of soil
in soil acidity, thereby decreasing soil productivity in the erosion in sloping areas range from 23 to 218 tons/ha/
long term. Acid soils are vulnerable to erosion due to year for bare plots on gradients of 27–29 percent to
their low electrolyte levels in the soil solution. Also, soil 36–200 tons/ha/year on plots cultivated up and down
acidity depletes fertility through the toxic levels of iron the hill. These rates are higher than the acceptable soil
and by decreasing the amount of the most essentials nu- loss level of 3–10 tons/ha/year (Paningbatan 1989),
trients in the soil. Soil microbe, responsible for nutrient and the situation poses a grave threat to the produc-
release in the soil, is also affected (Briones 2005). Soil tivity and sustainability of farming in the upland areas.

acidity can also be attributed to continuous planting of
corn and sweet potato which exhausts soil calcium, mag- Contamination of water bodies due to fertilizer
nesium, available phosphorus, and organic matter levels nutrients has been detected, though adverse off-site
(Asio et al. 2009; Siebert 1987). Unfortunately, more impact has yet to be firmly established.
than 58 percent of the Philippines is covered with acid Rice cultivation releases agrochemical residues such as
soils in the hilly lands. These soils are mainly Oxisols and nitrates and ammonium to water due to application of
 CROPS 33

inorganic chemicals and fertilizers. These high concen- These are the Pampanga River Basin, Pasig River Basin,
trated residues are being carried by water to lakes and Bataan watershed, and Cavite watershed. The Pampanga
rivers through runoff erosion and leaching that often River Basin is the biggest, covering 63 percent of the en-
result in contamination of groundwater. Also included tire watershed area. Agricultural areas comprise 868,129
in the runoff erosion are the soil nutrients, soil sedi- ha, making up about 45 percent of the total watershed
ments, and suspended solids which lead to eutrophica- area and distributed into 813,943 ha of croplands, 50,378
tion. Eutrophication is an ecological imbalance in water ha of fishponds, and 3,808 ha of livestock and poultry.
and soil due to enrichment of phosphates and nitrogen. The major crops grown in the Pampanga River Basin are
Eutrophication leads to algal blooms which cause stress, rice, sugarcane, and corn while coconut is grown mainly
impair the immune system, and damage the living organ- in parts of the Pasig River Basin and Cavite watershed.
isms and eventually disrupt aquatic life (NSCB 2000). The total NH4-N loading is 1,245 kg/day and the
Evidences of nitrates in groundwater and surface contributions of the four subwatersheds are 482 kg/day
waters was attributed to excessive nitrogenous fertiliz- from the Pampanga River Basin, 373 kg/day from the
er application in rice-sweet pepper cropping system in Pasig River Basin, 275 kg/day from the Bataan subwa-
Ilocos Norte (Ladha et al. 1998); vegetable growing ar- tershed, and 115 kg/day from the Cavite subwatershed.
eas in Atok, Benguet, and Tirado (Greenpeace Report The total NO3-N loading is 4,526 kg/day, of which the
2007; Ngidlo 2013); wells in Bulacan (Greenpeace Re- Pasig River Basin is the major contributor. The total
port 2007); and agroecosystems in Laguna. phosphorus loading is 1,877 kg/day, with the Pasig River
A study conducted by Chang et al. (2009) Basin contributing about 46 percent (861 kg/day).
showed that the Northeastern shore of Manila Bay is In 2010, the amount of nitrogen fertilizers
highly eutrophicated due to the higher concentrations applied in 712,520 ha of croplands in the subwater-
of ammonium, phosphate, and silica. The primary sheds surrounding Manila Bay totaled 52,102 tons.
economies in catchment areas around the bay are agri- Nitrogen loss into the environment from croplands
culture, forestry, and fishery with a variety of industrial (rice lands, corn lands, sugarcane, and coconut areas)
manufacturing, mining, and quarrying. These sectors was estimated at 51 percent of the applied inorgan-
are responsible for rising emission of nutrients and ic fertilizer, amounting to 26,491 tons (Figure 27).
heavy metal concentrations that increase the frequen-
cy of aquatic oxygen deficiency and algal blooms. The
high phosphate concentration in the Northern part of Figure 27:  Nitrogen crop uptake and
Manila Bay can be attributed to sewage discharge and loading to the environment in
agricultural activities (DENR-EMB 2014). Manila Bay, 2010
In 2011, a major study was conducted to empir-
ically verify non-point cropland pollution from around Ricelands 24,476 23,706
the river basins draining into Manila Bay (Samar 2012). 152
Sampling points were identified along the river tributaries Cornlands 259
with considerable size of agricultural areas. The estima- 982
Sugarcane 2526
tion of nutrient loading covered the croplands within the
subwatersheds, particularly rice, corn, sugarcane, and co- Coconut
conut areas. Nonetheless, these four crops covered 88 per-
cent of the aggregate croplands of the Manila Bay system. 0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000

The Manila Bay watershed covers a total area of N uptake (mt) N loading to the environment (mt)
1,972,014 ha and 4 subwatersheds drain into Manila Bay. Source: Samar 2012.
34 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Table 8:  Nitrogen emission into Laguna environment accounts for 51 percent of the applied
Lake nitrogen fertilizer and this shows the low nitrogen use
efficiency of rice cropping systems (Samar 2012).
1973: 5,000 tons 2000: 13,800 tons
Source N/year N/year In Laguna Lake, the largest freshwater body in the
country, the total nitrogen emission rate reached 13,800
Domestic 26% 79%
tons N/year in 1973, with the livestock and poultry sec-
Livestock and poultry 36% 16.5% (Agricultural)
tor contributing 36 percent, while fertilizer contributed
Fertilizer 11% —
11 percent (Table 8). In 2000, the contribution of live-
Pasig river 22% —
stock and poultry declined to 16.5 percent.
Industrial 5% 4.5%
The LLDA (2003) conducted an inventory of
Total 100% 100%
waste loads from the sub-basins into Laguna Lake,
Source: Reyes 2012.
including organic matter (BOD, Chemical Oxygen
Demand [COD]); bacterial pollutants (Escherichia
Assuming that the amount of nitrogen lost as surface coli [E. coli]); nutrients (NH4, NO3, PO4); micro-pol-
runoff ranged from 1 percent to 13 percent, the values lutants (Cu, Cd, Pb, oils); and total suspended solids
of nitrogen lost range from 482 to 6,264 tons (BSWM (TSS). Total load in 1995 was 66,305 tons/year and
2013; Samar 2012). in 2000 was 74,300 tons/year. Agriculture contributed
In Manila Bay, it is the rice cropping system that 13 percent to total BOD loading in 1995 (8,620 tons/
contributes greatly to nitrogen loading into the envi- year) and 11.5 percent to total BOD loading in 2000
ronment (Figure 27), amounting to 23,706 tons of N. (8,544 tons/year) (Figure 28).
Coconut areas are not applied with nitrogen fertilizer; Fish kill is a recurring phenomenon in Taal Lake.
thus, they do not contribute to nitrogen loading to the A participatory rural appraisal (PRA) with local fish-
environment. Instead, application of salt is a common ing communities in four LGUs was conducted to as-
practice in coconut areas. Nitrogen loading into the sess their local ecological knowledge and community

Figure 28:  Calculated BOD loading (WLM) as generated within the Laguna Lake
catchment in 1995 and 2000
Calculated BOD loading (WLM) as generated Calculated BOD loading (WLM) as generated
within the Laguna de Bay catchment (1995) within the Laguna de Bay catchment (2000)

13% 21% 11.5% 10%

1%
1%

65% 68.5%

Industry Forest/others Domestic Agriculture

Source: LLDA 2003.
 CROPS 35

Figure 29:  Community-based causal diagram showing the different factors related to fish
kill events in Taal Lake
Long dry season followed by Changes in wind Strong wind
onset of rainy season direction velocity

Lake overturn

Oxygen depletion Lake pollution

Volcanic activities
Odd fish
(e.g. earthquakes,
hydrothermal vents) behavior Improper
Lack of public aquaculture
Fishkill information on waste
segregation Domestic wastes
Hot water Obstructed river outlet Agriculture waste
Sudden change in
water color Population increase Recreational wastes

Source: Magcale-Macandog et al. 2014.

perception on fish kill in Taal Lake (Magcale-Macan- Figure 30:  GHG emissions from the
dog et al. 2014). Agricultural wastes and improper agricultural sector in the
aquaculture practices were contributing to Taal Lake Philippines (2012)
pollution, which results in oxygen depletion that may
3% 1%
cause fish kill (Figure 29). 2%
5%
13%
6% 6%
3.8.2 Crop Farming and Air Pollution
Major sources of GHG emissions from the agriculture
sector are methane emissions from irrigated rice and
N2O emissions from synthetic fertilizer application. 64%

In the Philippines Second National Communication

(UNFCCC 2001), the agriculture sector ranked sec-
ond (37,003 Gg CO2eq) to the energy sector (69,667 Enteric fementation Manure management
Rice cultivation Synthetic fertilizers
Gg CO2eq) in the amount of GHG emissions using Manure applied to soils Manure left on pasture
2000 as the base year. GHG emissions from agricul- Crop residues Burning crop residues
ture accounts for 29 percent of the total national GHG Source: FAOSTAT 2015.

emissions.
In 2012, the total GHG emissions from the
Philippine agricultural sector increased by 38 percent application accounts for 6 percent (2887 Gg). Burning
from the 2000 GHG inventory to 51, 256 Gg CO- of crop residues contributes about 1 percent, composed
2eq (FAOSTAT 2015). Methane emissions from rice of 309 Gg CH4 and 118 Gg N2O. N2O emissions from
cultivation constitutes about 64 percent (32,951 Gg) the decomposition of crop residues left in the field con-
(Figure 30). N2O emissions from synthetic fertilizer tribute about 3 percent (1,767 Gg).
36 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

In rice fields, methane is produced through an- of pesticides in smallholder farms started with the Green
aerobic decomposition of organic material and, by dif- Revolution package in the mid-1960s that included
fusive transport, released to the atmosphere. The most high-yielding crop varieties, improved irrigation, fertil-
common and major release process is the methane loss izer, and pesticides. Increase in the application of pes-
as bubbles from the soil, especially during land prepara- ticides in smallholder farms commenced in the 1970s
tion and initial growth stage of rice plants. Meanwhile, when disease and pest outbreaks occurred following
N2O production mainly depends on the mineral nitro- the introduction of new varieties and with government
gen substrates such as ammonium and nitrate in the credit scheme. The most widely used pesticides in the
soil. Thus, there will be major drivers of N2O produc- country are carbofuran, endrin, parathion, and mono-
tion if there is addition of nitrogen from other sources crotophos; all were classified as extremely hazardous or
and fertilizers such as crops residues, sewage sludge, an- highly hazardous by the WHO, while the most com-
imal manures, and nitrogen fixing crops. Ammonium monly used insecticides are organophosphates, carba-
is released from these sources through mineralization. mates, and pyrethroids (Tirado and Bedoya 2008).
Note that GHG emissions from crop agriculture
is dwarfed by the total GHG emissions of the country,
equal to 167,298 kilotons in 2012. In turn, the Philip- 3.9.2  Total Pesticide Imports
pines ranks 147th out of 214 countries in CO2 emis- Based on import data, pesticide use in the country has
sions per capita, at only 1 ton/year. There is no data on been rising, except in the past three years, due in part
ammonia emissions from cropping systems. to government policy.
The Philippines imports a variety of pesticides including
insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, disinfectants, and
3.9  Pesticide Application Trends others. From 1961 to 1975, the total import values of
pesticides was below US$5 million. In 1987, the value
3.9.1 Overview of pesticide imports peaked at US$31 million. From
Pesticide use is now widespread among even 1990, the import values of pesticide started to increase
smallholder systems and is the highest for the control of sharply from US$14 million to US$214 million in
insect pest, followed by fungi and weeds. 2013 (Figure 31). This translates to 1,428 percent
Before the 1970s, pesticide application in the Philip- increase in pesticide imports, with an average increase
pines was mainly concentrated in large plantations. Use of US$8.7 million per year.

Figure 31:  Import values of pesticides in the Philippines

Pesticide Import (1961–2013)
2,500

2,000
US$, millions

1,500

1,000

500

0
1961
1963
1965
1967
1969
1971
1973
1975
1977
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013

Source: FAO 2014.

 CROPS 37

The major types of pesticides are insecticides, private sector, NGOs, and people organizations or co-
fungicides, and herbicides. Since 1993, the share of the operatives. Negros Island Sustainable Agriculture and
import values of insecticides was largest, ranging from Rural Development Foundation, Inc., better known
a minimum of 36.5 percent in 2006 to a maximum as NISARD, founded in 2005, is the prime mover of
of 64 percent of the total pesticide imports in 2009 promoting organic agriculture development in Negros
(Figure 32). Import values of fungicides rank second Island. Its mission is to make Negros Island the organic
and herbicides rank third. The import values of these food island of Asia by advocating and promoting or-
three types of pesticides increased by 396 percent from ganic agriculture across the island, evolved out of the
US$24 million in 1993 to US$119 million in 2008. serious socioeconomic and environmental problems
Beginning from 2009, there was a gradual decline in faced by Negrenses.
the import values of these pesticides used in cropping The DA through the Bureau of Agriculture and
systems. Fisheries Product Standards (BAFPS) approved the es-
Starting in 2009, pesticide imports in the Phil- tablishment of the Philippine National Standards for
ippines started to decline (Figure 32). However, despite Organic Agriculture (PNSOA). These standards for
this downward trend, corn and palay production con-
tinued to increase in the past recent years. This may
be attributed to the government support on sustain- Figure 32:  Increase in volume of palay and
able agriculture since 2000. Generally, sustainable ag- corn production and trends in
riculture is economically practical, ecologically sound, the import values of pesticides
and socially humane. Common practices include IPM, from 1993 to 2013
crop rotations, deliberate use of animal and green ma-
80 20,000
nures, soil and water conservation methods, and use 70 18,000
16,000

1,000 metric tons

of environment-friendly inputs. Moreover, sustainable 60
14,000
US$, millions

agriculture includes organic farming, conservation 50 12,000

farming, green agriculture, ecological farming, natural 40 10,000
30 8,000
farming, and so on. These production methods target 20
6,000
4,000
the goals in profitability, quality of life, and steward- 10 2,000
ship (Maghirang and Villareal 2000). Synchronization 0 0
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
of the rice cropping calendar among the many regions
in the country is seen as one of the most determining Insecticides Fungicides Herbicides
factors that lead to the reduction in pesticide use in the Palay Corn
recent years (Protacio 2016, pers. comm.). 140
Organic agriculture on the other hand is an agri- 120
cultural production system that promotes environmen- 100
US$, millions

tally, socially, and economically sound production of 80

food and fibers and excludes the use of synthetically 60
compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators, 40
20
livestock feed additives, and genetically modified or-
0
ganisms. The Philippines’ organic production area re-
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2011
2011
2012
2013

ported in 2009 is 52,546 ha, employing around 70,000

producers or farmers scattered all over the country. The Insecticides Fungicides Herbicides
organic industry has been primarily in the hands of the Source: FAO 2014.
38 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

organic agriculture have been prepared to provide a in the form of organophosphates, organochlorines, car-
uniform approach to the requirements, which is the ba- bamates, and pyrethroids. Pesticides are highly used in
sis of the following: conversion to organic agriculture, the growing of agricultural crops, including vegetables,
crop production, livestock, processing, special prod- banana, and rice (ACIAR 2000, as cited in Tirado and
ucts, labeling, and consumer information. Bedoya 2008). Pesticide importation is growing; during
Pesticide use per hectare of agricultural land in 1972–1978 importation grew by 500 percent.
the Philippines is much lower compared with neigh-
boring Asian countries including the Republic of Ko- Rice farming is the biggest user of pesticides; it has been
rea, Malaysia, Thailand, China, Pakistan, Vietnam, the suspected of causing environmental contamination.
Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, and Sri Lanka Herbicide application rates have in fact been rising
(Figure 33) (FAO 2005). Pesticides commonly used are and those of insecticides have been falling.
composed of insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides The largest gross application of pesticides among the
(Figure 33). Insecticides are the widely used pesticides important crops grown in the Philippines is for rice
in Pakistan, Cambodia, Myanmar, India, and Bangla- farming, primarily due to extensive areas planted with
desh. On the other hand, herbicides are the widely used rice all over the country (ACIAR 2000 as cited in Tirado
pesticides in plantation crops in Thailand, Malaysia, and Bedoya 2008). The total amount of pesticides used
and Sri Lanka (FAO 2005). in rice and corn production systems is small compared
with other Asian countries, including Japan, China,
Republic of Korea, Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia
3.9.3 Pesticide Application Across (Pingali and Roger 1995; Gerpacio et al. 2004). Glob-
Different Crops ally, pesticide use in rice cropping systems in the Phil-
Among all pesticides, insecticides are widely used, repre- ippines account for only 2 percent of the world market
senting 56 percent of the total pesticide that is commonly value in 1988 (Woodburn 1990, as cited in Pingali and
Roger 1995).
The country’s ‘rice bowl’ is located in Region 3,
Figure 33:  Comparative pesticide use per the heartland of the Green Revolution. In rice cropping
hectare of agricultural land in
systems here, majority of the farmers (more than 80
Asian countries
percent) applied insecticides once for both the wet and
Pesticide Use per ha agric. Land dry rice cropping seasons during the decade of 1970 to
Rep. of Korea 1980. Beginning from the 1980s, insecticide use fell
Malaysia
Thailand steeply during the cropping for both wet and dry sea-
China sons (Figure 34). Currently, insecticide application in
Pakistan
Viet Nam rice crop in the Philippines is the lowest compared with
DPR Korea other Asian countries, including Thailand, Vietnam,
Sri Lanka
Philippines Indonesia, and China (IRRI 2015).
Bangladesh
India About half of the total insecticides are applied in
Myanmar rice production systems (Pingali and Roger 1995). Start-
Nepal
Cambodia ing in 1987, molluscicides are being applied to control
Lao PDR snail infestation in rice fields. Herbicide application
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 trends are shown in Figure 35 During the dry season,
kg formulated product per ha agriculture land herbicide use is slightly higher as the farmers practice
Source: FAO 2005. direct seeding, which needs herbicide to control weeds.
 CROPS 39

Figure 34:  Insecticide use of farmers in Figure 35:  Herbicide use of farmers in
Central Luzon Loop Survey, in kg Central Luzon Loop Survey, in kg
active ingredients per hectare, active ingredients per hectare,
by season, 1966–2012 by season, 1966–2012
0.7 0.50
0.45
0.6
0.40
0.5 0.35
0.4 0.30
kg ai/ha

kg ai/ha
0.25
0.3 0.20
0.2 0.15
0.10
0.1
0.05
0 0
1966–67
1970–71
1974–75
1979–80
1982
1986–87
1990–91
1994–95
1998–99
2003–04
2007–08
2011–12

1966–67
1970–71
1974–75
1979–80
1982
1986–87
1990–91
1994–95
1998–99
2003–04
2007–08
2011–12
WS DS WS DS
Source: Moya et al. 2015. Source: Moya et al. 2015.

In rice growing areas, application rates of insecticides 37). During the dry season cropping, majority of the
have been falling, though herbicide application rates farmers (75–90 percent), apply herbicides at 1–15
have been rising. The increase in herbicide use started DAT while the others apply at 16–45 DAT.
after 1974–1975 when the farmers applied herbicide in
rice crop during its early growth period. Moreover, the Pesticides in vegetable and banana farming are
increase was attributed to the decline of farm labor in significant sources of environmental pollutants.
the area and increase in wage rates. The other important crops heavily applied with pesti-
cides are vegetables and banana. The pesticides com-
monly used in growing temperate vegetables in the
3.9.4 Frequency and Timing of Herbicide provinces of Benguet, Mt. Province, and Ifugao in
Application in Wet and Dry Season the Cordilleras belong to the pyrethroid, organophos-
Rice Cropping phates, and carbamate class of pesticides (Table 9).
From 1966 to early 1970s, all the farmers apply herbi- Diamondback moth is the most destructive pest that
cides once during both the wet and dry rice cropping attacks crucifers such as broccoli, pechay, cabbage,
seasons (Figure 36). Beginning in 1974, farmers started radish, cauliflower, and mustard in Benguet. In 1992,
to increase the spraying of herbicides to 2x or even to farmers sprayed chemical pesticides 12 to 32 times per
3x during both cropping seasons. season to control the diamondback moth. This inten-
During the wet season rice cropping, ex- sive use of synthetic insecticides resulted in problems
cept for the year of 1966–67, majority of the farm- such as resistance to other insecticides, high cost of
ers (70–80 percent) apply herbicides 1–15 days after insecticides, toxic hazards, contamination of soil and
transplanting (DAT) while the rest of the farmers water, and reduction of natural enemies and pollinators
(5–30 percent) apply herbicides at 16–45 DAT (Figure (Maredia, Dakouo, and Mota-Sanchez 2003).
40 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Figure 36:  Frequency of herbicides application in (a) wet season and (b) dry season of
the surveyed farmers, Central Luzon Loop Survey, 1966–2012
A. Wet Season B. Dry Season
100% 100%
90% 90%
80% 80%
70% 70%
60% 60%
50% 50%
40% 40%
30% 30%
20% 20%
10% 10%
0% 0%

1966–67
1970–71
1974–75
1979–80
1982
1986–87
1990–91
1994–95
1998–99
2003–04
2007–08
1966–67
1970–71
1974–75
1979–80

1986–87
1990–91
1994–95
1998–99
2003–04
2007–08
2011–12
1982

1x 2x 3x
Source: Moya et al. 2015.

In agricultural areas grown with rice, corn, and by farmers (Perez et al. 2015). A total of 701 farmers,
cassava in Mindanao, including the provinces of Bukid- who were engaged in rice, corn, and cassava farming, par-
non, Misamis Oriental, Misamis Occidental, and Zam- ticipated in this study. Among them, 528 were recorded
boanga del Sur, pyrethroid, phenoxyacetic acid deriva- as pesticide sprayers, while the remaining 173 (mostly
tive, and organophosphate pesticides are commonly used women: 111) were nonsprayers and were involved in

Figure 37:  Timing (days after transplanting) of herbicides application in (a) wet season and
(b) dry season of the surveyed farmers, Central Luzon Loop Survey, 1966–2012
a. Wet Season b. Dry Season
100% 100%
90% 90%
80% 80%
70% 70%
60% 60%
50% 50%
40% 40%
30% 30%
20% 20%
10% 10%
0% 0%
1966–67

1979–80

1982

1986–87

1990–91

1994–95

1998–99

2003–04

2007–08

2011–12

1979–80

1986–87

1990–91

1994–95

1998–99

2003–04

2007–08

2011–12

0 1–15 16–45 46–60 >60

Source: Moya et al. 2015.
 CROPS 41

Table 9:  Insecticides commonly used in In the Silang-Sta. Rosa subwatershed, farmers
temperate vegetables in the apply glyphosate pesticide in pineapple and fenthion,
Cordilleras cyhalothrin, and chlorpyrifos pesticides in upland rice
crop (Table 11) (Magcale-Macandog et al. 2013a).
Length of
Name of Active Usage Pesticide
Insecticide Ingredients (in days) Class

Sumicidin Fenvalerate 15 Pyrethroid 3.9.5 Adverse Impacts of Pesticide

Bida Cyhalothrin 10 Pyrethroid Application
Karate Cyhalothrin 10 Pyrethroid Excessive pesticide use has had deleterious on-site
Nurell Cypermethrin 2 Pyrethroid impacts, as well as suspected off-site impacts.
Selecron Profenofos 5 Pyrethroid The pesticide residues can accumulate in the water
Tamaron Methamidophos 10 Organophosphate bodies, causing harm to drinking water and toxins to
Silicron Dimethoate 5 Organophosphate fishes and other aquatic species. Pesticide residues also
Lorsban Chlorpyrifos 3 Organophosphate threaten food safety and security, affecting soil, ground-
Cartap Dimethylamine 10 Carbamate water, and aquatic ecosystems.
Source: Ngidlo 2013. Between 1995 and 1999, in Ilocos Norte, it was
found that the pesticide residues of azin and butachlor
have higher concentrations (0.1 μg/L) beyond the safe-
other agricultural activities such as seed and land prepa- ty limits of the European Union (EU) standard. Oth-
rations, weed control, fertilizer application, and posthar- er pesticides—carbofuran, dichlorodiphenyltrichlo-
vest management. Other pesticides used are salicyanilide, roethane (DDT), diainon, endosulfan, endrin, MIPC,
nitro compound, nereistoxin, and aldehyde (Table 10). and parathoin—were also beyond the EU standard.

Table 10:  Active ingredients of pesticides commonly used in rice, corn, and cassava in
Mindanao

Active Ingredient WHO Classification Chemical Family N* (%)

Cypermethrin II Pyrethroid 336 63.64
Lambda-cyhalothrin II Pyrethroid 246 46.59
2,4 D IBE II Phenoxyacetic acid derivative 226 42.80
Butachlore + propanil III Organophosphate 177 33.52
Niclosamide U Salicyanilide 107 20.27
Niclosamide ethanolamine salt U Nitro compound 93 17.61
Cartap hydrochloride III Nereistoxin 91 17.23
Chlorpyrifos II Organophosphate 84 15.90
Beta-cypermethrin II Pyrethroid 64 12.12
Malathion U Organophosphate 56 10.61
Metaldehyde II Aldehyde 41 7.77
Diazinon II Organophosphate 33 6.25
Carbofuran IB Carbamate 29 5.49

(continued on next page)

42 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Table 10:  Active ingredients of pesticides commonly used in rice, corn, and cassava in
Mindanao (continued)

Active Ingredient WHO Classification Chemical Family N* (%)

Phenthoate + BPMC II Organophosphate + Carbamate 23 4.36

Methomyl IB Carbamate 17 3.22
Glyphosate IPA U Phosphonoglycine 17 3.22
Coumatetralyl IB Coumatrin derivative 14 2.65
Thiobencarb II Thiocarbamate 13 2.46
Imidacloprid II Pyrethroid 13 2.46
Pyribenzoxim U — 12 2.27
Beta-cyfluthrin II Pyrethroid 12 2.27
Metsulfuron Methyl + Chlorimurone U Sulfonylurea 12 2.27
Endosulfan II Organochlorine 9 1.70
Fipronyl II Pyrazole 8 1.52
Fenoxaprop p-ethyl III Aryloxyphenoxypro-pionate 6 1.14
Difenoconazole + Propiconaloze II Azole 5 0.95
Zinc phosphide IB Inorganic zinc 5 0.95
Monochrotophos IB Organophosphate 2 0.38
Deltamethrin II Pyrethroid 2 0.38
Chlorantraniliprole III Oxadiazine 2 0.38
Copper hydroxide III Copper hydroxide 2 0.38
Tebuconazole II Triazole 1 0.19
MIPC (Isoprocarb) II Carbamate 1 0.19
Diuron U — 1 0.19
Thiophanate Methyl U — 1 0.19
Source: Perez et al. 2015.
Notes: *N = 528 farmers spraying pesticides.
WHO Classification: IA=extremely hazardous, IB=highly hazardous, II=moderately hazardous, III=slightly hazardous, U=unlikely to present acute hazard.

Table 11:  Pesticide use in the Silang-Santa Rosa and Pila-Victoria subwatersheds

Subwatershed Crop Pesticide Active Ingredient Frequency (per cropping season) Quantity (Liter/ha)

Silang-Santa Rosa Pineapple Roundup Glyphosate 1 1

Pila-Victoria Rice Lebaycid Fenthion 2 1
Karate Cyhalothrin 1 1
Brodan Chlorpyrifos 2 1
Source: Magcale-Macandog et al. 2013a.

Meanwhile, researchers from Benguet State University Pesticide residues in water samples taken along
(BSU) found that concentrations of organophosphates, the Pampanga River were below the limit of quantitation
organochlorines, and pyrethroids in soil and vegetables (LOQ) set at 0.1 μl/L. Likewise, pesticide residue analy-
grown in Benguet municipality are high. ses of soil samples taken in the Manila Bay watershed are
 CROPS 43

less than the LOQ at 0.005 mg/kg for organochloride, The National Pesticide Analytical Laboratory
organophosphates, and pyrethroids (Samar 2012). (NPAL) of the Bureau of Plant Industry of the DA is
In Santa Maria, Pangasinan, around 20 percent conducting monitoring of pesticide residues in tropi-
of eggplant samples and 42 percent of soil samples from cal vegetables commonly consumed by Filipinos: bitter
various farms had insecticide residues of 25 commer- gourd, eggplant, pechay, and tomato. The NPAL mon-
cial brands, with varying levels of toxicity—from high- itoring team is sampling vegetables sold in public mar-
ly toxic, moderately toxic, slightly toxic, to nontoxic kets and vegetable trading posts in various municipali-
(Del Prado-Lu 2015). Banned pesticides and restricted ties across the country and analyzing the vegetables for
chemicals were frequently sprayed on vegetable crops, pesticide residues. Results of the analysis from 2013 to
including cabbage, baguio beans, string beans, toma- 2015 are presented in the following maps and graphs.
toes, pechay, bell pepper, ampalaya, and rice (Saldivar
1996). In Benguet, Philippines, 44 percent of soil sam- Bitter gourd
ples tested positive for pesticide residues of pyrethroids, Almost all of the pesticides applied in bitter gourd are
organophosphates, and carbamates. A water sample insecticides, except for two fungicides (chlorothalonil and
was also found to have a high level of pesticide residue, difenoconazole) (Table 12). Cypermethrin (pyrethroid,
which is toxic to aquatic biota (Lu 2009). II) is a commonly applied insecticide in bitter gourd in

Table 12:  Concentration of pesticide residues in bitter gourd sampled from local markets
in various regions of the country, 2013–2015

2013 2014 2015 MRL

Pesticide Concentration Concentration Concentration Concentration

Region Location Residue Detected (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)
Baguio City Public
CAR Market; Tuba, ND*        
Benguet
Cypermethrin 0.01,0.05 0.01, 0.07   0.07
Fenvalerate 0.04   0.04  
Ilocos Sur, Ilocos
1 Chlorpyrifos 0.01,0.02,0.02 0.02 0.09  
Norte, La Union
Fipronil 0.03    
Cyfluthrin   0.01    
Deltamethrin 0.01,0.01,0.03      
Nueva Vizcaya and β-Cyfluthrin     0.03  
2
Isabela Cypermethrin 0.44     0.07
Chlorpyrifos   0.01, 0.03    
3   Dimethoate   0.04    
Imus/Dasmariñas/ Chlorpyrifos 0.03      
Silang (Cavite), Cypermethrin 0.04 0.13   0.07
Biñan/Sta.Rosa/
4 Profenofos 0.33–1.2      
Calamba (Laguna),
Tanauan/Sto.Tomas/
Permethrin   0.13    
Malvar (Batangas)

(continued on next page)

44 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Table 12:  Concentration of pesticide residues in bitter gourd sampled from local markets
in various regions of the country, 2013–2015 (continued)

2013 2014 2015 MRL

Pesticide Concentration Concentration Concentration Concentration

Region Location Residue Detected (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)
0.037, 0.017, 0.7, 0.04, 0.08, 0.19,
Cypermethrin 0.01–0.33 0.07
0.012, 0.121, 0.039 0.08, 0.26, 0.02, 0.09
Cyfluthrin 0.021 0.02  
7 Cebu and Bohol
lamda-Cyhalothrin 0.0149, 0.012, 0.026 0.01–0.21 0.04, 0.16, 0.06, 0.07 0.05
Chlorpyrifos   0.06    
Profenofos   0.01    
Chlorpyrifos     0.02  
9 Zamboanga del Sur
Profenofos     0.03  
0.04 , 0.05, 0.05,
0.01, 0.01, 0.05, 0.01, 0.02, 0.02,
λ-Cyhalothrin 0.02, 0.03, 0.11, 0.05
0.05, 0.49 0.01, 0.01, 0.01, 0.03
0.01, 0.02, 0.01
0.01, 0.03, 0.01, 0.01,
0.03 , 0.04 , 0.11, 0.01, 0.02, 0.1, 0.01,
Cypermethrin 0.04, 0.06, 0.02, 0.04, 0.07
0.15, 0.03, 0.09, 0.1 0.06
0.05, 0.01
0.7, 0.07, 0.13, 0.4,
10 Cagayan de Oro City Chlorpyrifos 0.04 0.01  
0.01
Dimethoate 1.8   0.02  
Fenvalerate     0.01  
Cyfluthrin   0.01, 0.02    
0.01, 0.01, 0.01,
Profenofos   0.04, 0.01, 0.02  
0.04, 0.02
Total Endosulfan   0.06, 0.81 0.04, 0.05 2.00
Total Endosulfan 0.004–0.134     2.00
Chlorothalonil 0.082, 0.011 0.01    
Diazinon 0.02     0.50
Difenoconazole 0.019–0.073      
Davao City, Tagum Cypermethrin 0.007–0.017 0.02, 0.23, 0.01   0.07
11 City, Mati City, Davao Chlorpyrifos 0.02 0.01, 0.03, 0.02    
del Sur Lamdacyhalothrin 0.013–0.041 0.02   0.05
Deltamethrin 0.011      
Cyfluthrin   0.01, 0.01    
Profenofos   0.01    
Lindane 0.002–0.008      
Cypermethrin 0.007–0.015 0.01   0.07
Isazophos 0.03      
Lamdacyhalothrin 0.015 0.01, 0.01, 0.01 0.01 0.05
General Santos Deltamethrin   0.03    
12 City, Koronadal City,
Kidapawan City Chlorpyrifos   0.01, 0.01    
Dimethoate   0.03    
Lindane 0.005–0.006      
Total Endosulfan 0.006–0.008     2.00
Source: NPAL 2016.
*ND – not detectable.
 CROPS 45

Figure 38:  Pesticide residues in bitter gourd bought from public markets in various
regions of the country from 2013 to 2015

Source: Based on NPAL 2016 data.

various regions (7 out of 10) of the country (Figure 37). various regions of the country (Figure 39). The con-
Concentrations of cypermethrin residues above the Maxi- centrations of profenofos residues in eggplant did
mum Residue Level (MRL) were detected in three regions not exceed the MRL (Table 13). Other insecticides
(Nueva Vizcaya/Isabela, Cebu/Bohol, and Cagayan de applied in eggplant are cypermethryin, dimethoate,
Oro) (Table 12). Bitter gourd sampled from Bohol and and lindane. In most regions, farmers apply 1–2 insec-
Cebu had consistently high concentrations of cyperme- ticides only in eggplant crop. However, in the Ilocos
thrin above the MRL in three years, from 2013 to 2015. and Davao Regions, up to 6 different kinds of pesti-
Lambda-cyhalothrin (pyrethroid, II) is another cide residues were detected in eggplant (Table 13). In
insecticide with pesticide residue concentrations higher Ilocos Region, this residue is a combination of cyper-
than the MRL that was detected in bitter gourd sam- methrin, profenofos, fipronil, chlorothalonil, chlorpy-
pled from Region 10 (Cagayan de Oro) in 2013 and rifos, and dimethoate. In Davao, this is a combination
2014 (Table 12). of total endosulfan, cypermethrin, chlorpyrifos, cyflu-
Farmers in Mindanao (Regions 10, 11 and 12) ap- thrin, lambda-cyhalothrin, and lindane. Among the
ply a combination of several insecticides during the bit- pescticides with established MRL, the concentrations
ter gourd cropping season (Figure 38). As in the case of detected in eggplant were below the MRL. However,
Davao, about 9 different pesticides were detected in bitter for most of the pesticides being applied, there are no
gourd in 2013: total endosulfan, chlorothalonil, diazinon, established values for MRL.
difenoconazole, cypermethrin, chlorpyrifos, lambda-cy-
halothrin, deltamethrin, and lindane (Table 12). Pechay
In 2013 and 2014, profenofos was the pesticide com-
Eggplant monly applied in pechay in various regions in the coun-
From 2013 to 2015, profenofos (organophosphate) try. However, in 2015, cypermethrin was applied in
was the insecticide commonly applied in eggplant in many regions in the country (Figure 40).
46 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Figure 39:  Pesticide residues in eggplant sampled from public markets in various regions
of the country from 2013 to 2015

Source: Based on NPAL 2016 data.

Table 13:  Concentration of pesticide residues in eggplant sampled from local markets in
various regions of the country, 2013–2015

2013 2014 2015 MRL

Pesticie Residue Concentration Concentration Concentration Concentration

Region Location Detected (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)

Baguio City
CAR Public Market; ND*        
Tuba, Benguet
Cypermethrin   0.03,0.03, 0.07 0.01 0.20
Profenofos   0.05,0.07,0.10 0.04  
Ilocos Sur, Ilocos Fipronil   0.06    
1
Norte, La Union Chlorothalonil   0.02    
Chlorpyrifos   0.01    
Dimethoate   0.01    
Profenofos 0.09 0.02, 0.03 0.02, 0.08  
Chlorpyrifos     0.01  
Nueva Vizcaya
2 Malathion     0.03  
and Isabela
Cypermethrin   0.01    
Cyhalothrin   0.01, 0.01    
Bulacan, Tarla,
3 Profenofos 0.36      
Nueva Ecija

(continued on next page)

 CROPS 47

Table 13:  Concentration of pesticide residues in eggplant sampled from local markets in
various regions of the country, 2013–2015 (continued)

2013 2014 2015 MRL

Pesticie Residue Concentration Concentration Concentration Concentration

Region Location Detected (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)

Cavite, Laguna, Profenofos   0.11    

4
Batangas Chlorpyrifos   0.02    
Cypermethrin 0.013, 0.009, 0.01 0.01, 0.05, 0.02, 0.04 0.02, 0.08 0.2
7 Cebu and Bohol lamda-Cyhalothrin 0.015, 0.008, 0.14 0.11, 0.01, 0.01    
Profenofos   0.9, 0.04    
8 Ormoc and Leyte Cypermethrin     0.03 0.2
λ-Cyhalothrin 0.01, 0.01, 0.02 0.01, 0.07    
Cagayan de Oro Cypermethrin 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.2
10
City Chlorpyrifos 0.02 0.03    
Profenofos   0.01, 0.02, 0.03 0.01, 0.08  
0.01, 0.01, 0.01, 0.02, 0.02,
Total Endosulfan 0.005–0.009    
0.02, 0.01, 0.01, 0.01
Davao City, Cypermethrin 0.01 0.1, 0.02   0.2
Tagum City, Mati Chlorpyrifos 0.012 0.12    
11
City, Davao del
Sur Cyfluthrin 0.003 0.01    
lamda-Cyhalothrin 0.003 0.02, 0.01    
Lindane   0.02    
Cypermethrin 0.007–0.009 0.02, 0.02   0.2
General Santos Lindane 0.003      
City, Koronadal
12 Deltametrin   0.01    
City, Kidapawan
City 0.01, 0.01, 0.01, 0.01, 0.01,
Total Endosulfan 0.008-0.009   2
0.01, 0.02, 0.02, 0.02
Source: NPAL 2016.
*ND – not detectable.

In 2013, up to 10 different kinds of pesticide High concentrations of cypermethrin residues

residues were detected in pechay in Regions 11 and 12 exceeding the MRL were detected in pechay sampled
(Davao and General Santos). In Davao, these include from Cebu/Bohol in 2014 and Cagayan de Oro in
chlorpyrifos, dimethoate, profenofos, cypermethrin, 2013–2014. High levels of dizinon residues were also
lambda-cyhalothrin, lindane, total endosulfan, difeno- detected in pechay sampled from Cagayan de Oro in
conazole, deltamethrin, and cyfluthrin (Table 14). On 2014 and 2015.
the other hand, in General Santos, there were residues
of profenofos, defenoconazole, deltamethrin, cyperme- Tomato
thrin, melvinphos, chlorothalonil, lambda-cyhalothrin, Profenofos and cypermethrin are the most commonly
lindane, and total endosulfan. However, the concentra- applied insecticides in tomato in various regions in the
tions of these residues were below the MRL. country (Figure 41). Farmers apply a combination of
48 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Figure 40:  Pesticide residues in pechay sampled from public markets in various regions
of the country from 2013 to 2015

Source: Based on NPAL 2016 data.

Table 14:  Concentration of pesticide residues in pechay sampled from local markets in
various regions of the country, 2013–2015

2013 2014 2015 MRL

Pesticide
Residue Concentration Concentration Concentration Concentration
Region Location Detected (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)

Chlorpyrifos 0.03 0.03 0.07, 0.14, 0.06, 0.10

Baguio City Public
Fenvalerate 0.17
CAR Market; Tuba,
Benguet 0.04, 0.05, 0.12, 0.02, 0.04, 0.14, 0.28,
Profenofos
0.15, 0.51, 0.52 1.02, 0.25,1.55, 2.25
0.06,0.07,0.11, 0.14, 0.8, 0.01, 0.02, 0.46,
Cypermethrin 0.01, 0.10 1.00
1.76 0.02, 0.03
0.06,0.13,0.18, 0.03,
0.02, 0.11, 0.20,
Profenofos 0.07, 0.10, 0.37, 0.07, 1.00
3.5
0.10, 0.37, 0.42, 3.40
Ilocos Sur, Ilocos Chlorpyrifos 0.09, 0.21, 0.37 0.05, 0.12, 0.19 1.00
1
Norte, La Union Deltamethrin 0.02, 0.06 2.00
Indoxacarb 0.03
β-cyfluthrin 0.11, 0.37, 0.60
Cyhalothrin 0.03
Dimethoate 0.71

(continued on next page)

 CROPS 49

pesticides during the cropping season, from 2 to as 9 (Table 15), including a combination of endosulfan,
many as 9 different pesticides. Majority of the pesti- chlorothalonil, lambda-cyhalothrin, profenofos, lin-
cides are insecticides, with possibly 1 fungicide. Among dane, and cypermethrin in 2013 or a combination of
the different regions, farmers in Davao applied the cypermethrin, chlorpyrifos, cyfluthrin, deltamethrin,
most number of pesticides in 2014, ranging from 6 to diazinon, fenitrothion, lambda-cyhalothrin, malathion,

Table 14:  Concentration of pesticide residues in pechay sampled from local markets in
various regions of the country, 2013–2015 (continued)

2013 2014 2015 MRL

Pesticide
Residue Concentration Concentration Concentration Concentration
Region Location Detected (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)

Cyhalothrin 0.22
Cypermethrin 0.04, 0.51 0.01, 0.01 1.00
Nueva Vizcaya and 0.135, 0.15, 0.22, 0.07, 0.29, 0.47,
2 Profenofos 0.7, 0.08, 0.45
Isabela 0.24, 0.28, 0.42 0.48, 0.72, 0.74
Deltamethrin 0.02
Dimethoate 0.05
Profenofos 0.33–0.68 0.73, 1.52
Bulacan, Tarlac,
3 Chlorpyrifos 0.75, 3.07, 3.94
Nueva Ecija
Cypermethrin 0.18 8.35 1.00
Imus/Dasmariñas/ Chlorpyrifos 0.03 0.05 1.00
Silang (Cavite), Cypermethrin 0.18
Biñan/Sta.Rosa/
4 Calamba (Laguna), 0.12–4.61,
Profenofos 0.31–2.0
Tanauan/Sto. 2.86–4.26
Tomas/Malvar
Phenthoate 0.37
(Batangas)
Profenofos 0.04 0.02
Cypermethrin 0.1, 0.25, 0.1 0.08
5 Camarines Sur
Deltamethrin 0.02
λ-Cyhalothrin 0.01–0.04 0.04 0.30
Cypermethrin 0.32 1.00
6 Iloilo
lamda-Cyhalotrhin 0.03
Cypermethrin 2.29–0.01 0.03, 0.21, 0.04, 0.44 1.00
Profenofos 3.16, 1.08
lambda-
0.07, 0.3, 0.03 0.04, 0.08, 0.54
7 Cebu and Bohol Cyhalothrin
Fenvalerate 0.09, 0.27
Chlorpyrifos 0.03 1.00
t-Endosulfan 3.6
9 Zamboanga del Sur λ-Cyhalothrin 0.05

(continued on next page)

50 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Table 14:  Concentration of pesticide residues in pechay sampled from local markets in
various regions of the country, 2013–2015 (continued)

2013 2014 2015 MRL

Pesticide
Residue Concentration Concentration Concentration Concentration
Region Location Detected (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)

0.24, 2.51, 0.02,

Chlorpyrifos 0.01 1.00
0.06
0.02, 0.22, 0.25, 2.17, 0.01, 0.06, 0.02,
0.02, 0.08, 0.12, 0.27, 0.14, 0.47, 0.05,
0.03, 0.10, 0.22, 1.1, 0.06, 1.91, 0.01,
Cypermethrin 0.1, 0.53, 0.02 1.00
2.78, 0.02, 0.02, 1.0, 0.02, 0.02, 0.3,
0.06, 0.11, 0.17, 0.2, 0.31, 0.33, 0.63,
0.5, 0.01 2.09, 0.26, 0.13
malathion 0.79, 0.01, 0.02
Cagayan de Oro Phenthoate 0.04 0.25
10
City
0.02, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04,
λ-Cyhalothrin 0.07, 0.05, 0.34 0.35
0.04, 0.07, 0.07, 0.5
0.06, 0.07, 0.37,
1.7, 0.03, 0.12, 0.02, 2.4, 2.29, 1.58,
Profenofos
0.1, 0.06, 0.08, 2.3 0.01, 0.04, 0.41,
0.61, 0.91, 0.5
Diazinon 0.12, 0.05, 0.04 0.21 0.05
Heptachlor 0.02
Total Endosulfan 0.31, 0.25 0.04, 0.02, 0.22
Chlorpyrifos 0.01–0.132 0.02, 0.06 1.00
Dimethoate 0.831–1.604
Profenofos 0.067–0.43 0.5
Cypermethrin 0.124–0.018 0.26, 0.13 1.00
0.01, 0.16, 0.06,
Lamdacyhalothrin 0.004
1.17
Davao City, Tagum Lindane 0.003–0.008
11 City, Mati City,
Total Endosulfan 0.004–0.011 0.02
Davao del Sur
Difenoconazole 0.014
heptachlor 0.02
m.Parathion 0.12
Deltamethrin 0.012
Profenofos 0.02–0.81 0.13, 0.29, 0.4
yfluthrin 0.01, 0.01, 0.02

(continued on next page)

and permethrin. The concentrations, though, of pesti- residue, though it is a banned insecticide, was detected
cide residues were below the MRL. It was only in Cebu/ in tomatoes sampled from Davao in 2014. Endosulfan
Bohol that excessive concentration of cypermethrin was recently banned in the Philippines, and it was not
residues was detected in tomato in 2014. Malathion detected in tomato in 2015.
 CROPS 51

Table 14:  Concentration of pesticide residues in pechay sampled from local markets in
various regions of the country, 2013–2015 (continued)

2013 2014 2015 MRL

Pesticide
Residue Concentration Concentration Concentration Concentration
Region Location Detected (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)

Profenofos 0.14 0.02, 0.04, 0.09

Difenoconazole 0.018
0.18, 0.24, 0.08,
Chlorpyrifos 1.00
0.49
Deltamethrin 0.017
Heptachlor 0.02
General Santos 0.02, 0.23, 0.01,
12 City, Koronadal City, Cypermethrin 0.007–0.059 0 1.00
0.03, 0.05
Kidapawan City
Mevinphos 0.079–0.275
Chlorothalonil 0.007–0.009
Lamdacyhalothrin 0.006–0.008 0.03, 0.03 1
Lindane 0.006–0.038 0.01
Total Endosulfan 0.003–0.008
Permethrin 0.27
Cypermethrin 0.02
13 Agusan del Norte
λ-Cyhalothrin 0.35
Source: NPAL 2016.

Figure 41:  Pesticide residues in tomato sampled from public markets in various regions
of the country from 2013 to 2015

Source: Based on NPAL 2016 data.

52 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Rice grain and straw do not have pesticide resi- Based on residue analysis, there was no pesticide
dues because of the 30- to 45-day interval from the last built up in the soil. Hence, the best environment for
application to the harvesting. Chemicals are quickly de- fast pesticide detoxification is at tropical flooded soil.
graded in tropical lowland environment (Tejada, Varca, Repeated use of the same pesticide increases the growth
and Magallona 1977; NCPC 1983). of decomposing microorganisms which then cause

Table 15:  Concentration of pesticide residues in tomato sampled from local markets in
various regions of the country, 2013–2015

2013 2014 2015 MRL

Pesticide
Residue Concentra-tion Concentra-tion Concentra-tion Concentra-tion
Region Location Detected (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)

Baguio City
CAR Public Market; ND        
Tuba, Benguet
Cypermethrin 0.01 0.01   0.20
Ilocos Sur, Chlorpyrifos 0.02   0.02  
1 Ilocos Norte, La
Union Profenofos 0.01, 0.02 0.02, 0.05   10.00
Fenvalerate   0.01    
Chlorpyrifos 0.02 0.02, 0.05    
Nueva Vizcaya
2 Cypermethrin 0.01 0.02, 0.02, 0.02, 0.04   0.20
and Isabela
Profenofos 0.12, 0.19 0.02, 0.04, 0.04   10.00
Bulacan, Tarlac, Profenofos   0.31   10.00
3
Nueva Ecija Dimethoate   0.02–0.04    
Cavite, Laguna, Profenofos 0.03      
4
Batangas Cypermethrin   0.02    
Chlorpyrifos 0.02      
Profenofos 0.02     10.00
5 Camarines Sur Cypermethrin 0.02, 0.10     0.20
Deltamethrin 0.02      
λ-cyhalothrin 0.01      
0.085, 0.039, 0.214,
0.063, 0.045, 0.123, 0.07, 0.02, 0.03,
Cypermethrin 0.01–0.84 0.20
0.006, 0.029, 0.174, 0.1, 0.03, 0.07
0.021, 0.04, 0.008
Chlorpyrifos   0.03  
7 Cebu and Bohol
lamda-Cyhalothrin 0.011, 0.015, 0.07, 0.006 0.02, 0.04, 0.01 0.04  
Profenofos   0.06, 0.04 10.00
Fenvalerate   0.02    
t-Endosulfan   0.11    

(continued on next page)

 CROPS 53

Table 15:  Concentration of pesticide residues in tomato sampled from local markets in
various regions of the country, 2013–2015 (continued)

2013 2014 2015 MRL

Pesticide
Residue Concentra-tion Concentra-tion Concentra-tion Concentra-tion
Region Location Detected (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)

0.01, 0.02, 0.02, 0.04, 0.01, 0.01, 0.03, 0.01,

Chlorpyrifos    
0.05, 0.03 0.05, 0.07, 0.02
0.01, 0.01, 0.01,0.02,
0.01, 0.02, 0.02, 0.05,
0.03, 0.05, 0.01, 0.01,
0.05, 0.1, 0.14, 0.01,
Cypermethrin 0.02, 0.03, 0.03, 0.04,   0.20
0.03, 0.04, 0.06, 0.08,
0.1, 0.01, 0.01, 0.01,
0.01, 0.01, 0.03, 0.06
0.03, 0.03, 0.04

Cagayan de Oro Phenthoate 0.01, 0.03      

10
City 0.01, 0.03, 0.01, 0.01,
λ-Cyhalothrin   0.01, 0.01, 0.01,    
0.01,0.01, 0.02, 0.01
0.01, 0.1, 0.26, 0.01, 0.02,
0.1, 0.19, 0.01, 0.04, 0.09, 0.11, 0.45, 0.29,
Profenofos 0.03, 0.03, 0.05, 0.14,  
0.23, 0.4, 0.02, 0.43 0.01, 0.08, 0.09
0.17, 0.01, 0.06, 0.05
Endosulfan   0.49    
Total Endosulfan 0.06      
Total Endosulfan 0.044–0.076      
Chlorothalonil 0.056–0.095      
Lamdacyhalothrin 0.025–0.054      
Profenofos 0.38      
Lindane 0.001–0.003      
Cypermethrin 0.006–0.01 0.01, 0.04   0.20
Davao City,
Tagum City, Chlorpyrifos   0.02    
11
Mati City, Davao Cyfluthrin   0.01, 0.01, 0.01    
del Sur
Deltamethrin   0.01    
Diazinon   0.01    
Fenitrothion   0.01    
Lambdacyhalothrin   0.01    
Malathion   0.01    
Permethrin   0.01    
General Santos 0.01, 0.02, 0.06, 0.08,
Profenofos     10.00
City, Koronadal 0.08
12
City, Kidapawan
City Cypermethrin   0.01, 0.01, 0.01   0.20

Profenofos 0.02–0.06     10.00

Cypermethrin 0.005–0.015     0.20
Agusan del
13 Lamdacyhalothrin 0.008–0.017      
Norte
Lindane 0.003      
Total Endosulfan 0.007      
Source: NPAL 2016.
*ND – not detectable.
54 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Table 16:  Reported self-perceived physical injury. An average of 503 cases of pesticide
symptoms among the sprayers poisoning were reported between 1980 and 1988 (of
(N = 528) in Mindanao, Southern which 15 percent led to death every year). On the other
Philippines hand, health hazards prevalent among pregnant wom-
en include dermal contamination, fetal abnormalities,
Symptoms N (%)
spontaneous abortion, and decrease in cholinesterase
Skin irritation*† 174 32.95
level (Lu 2009).
Headache*† 156 29.55
Pesticides can cause acute and chronic toxic ef-
Cough 123 23.30 fects to humans. Acute toxicity is the outright effect of a
Dry throat* 81 15.34 single, short-term exposure to a pesticide while chronic
Shortness of breath* 79 14.96 toxicity is because of repeated exposure to the pesticide.
Dizziness*† 75 14.20 The most common acute effect of pesticide to humans
Nausea*† 67 12.69 is voluntary ingestion (suicide). In rural Asia, pesticide
Eye irritation 60 11.36 poisoning accounts for 60 percent of reported deaths. A
Excessive sweating*† 21 3.98 total of 273 cases of pesticide poisoning were recorded
Loose bowel movement 11 2.08 between April 2000 and May 2001 by the Philippine
Excessive salivation*† 4 0.76 National Poison Control and Information Service, of
Convulsion*† 3 0.57 which 88 percent were due to intentional oral contact.
Fatigue*† 3 0.57 Sixty percent of victims were young, between the age of
Source: Perez et al. 2015. 10 and 35 years.
*Manifestations of pyrethroid poisoning; †Manifestations of organophosphate
poisoning.
On the other hand, pesticide exposure can trig-
ger chronic eye, skin, pulmonary, neurological, and re-
nal problems. The United Nations Environmental Pro-
tection (1996) conducted a comparative study in 1992
rapid pesticide inactivation (Roger 1989). However, among farmers exposed and not exposed to fertilizers
Oliver et al. (2010) reported that malathion residues in the Nueva Ecija and Quezon areas. The study found
were detected at vegetables sites while profenofos were that those who are exposed to pesticides have eye, skin,
detected at rice sites in Laguna. pulmonary, neurological, and renal problems.
Pesticide misuse can cause great health impacts In a study conducted by Perez et al. (2015)
in the farming communities in the Philippines. Mc- among 528 farmers spraying pesticides in rice, corn, and
Cracken and Conway (1987) mentioned that widely cassava farming systems, many reported various signs
used pesticides (carbofuran, endrin, parathion, and and symptoms that are presented in Table 16. The most
monocrotophos) in the country are classified by the prevalent complaints felt by farmers right after applying
WHO as extremely hazardous. Numerous researches pesticides were skin irritation (32.95 percent), head-
correlated the extent of direct and indirect pesticide ache (29.55 percent), cough (23.30 percent), dry throat
exposure to health hazards such as headache, muscle (15.34 percent), shortness of breath (14.96 percent),
pain, cough, weakness, eye and chest pain, and eye red- dizziness (14.20 percent), nausea (12.69 percent), and
ness. Farmer-users are especially vulnerable to health eye irritation (11.36 percent).
effects attributed to pesticides. Loevinsohn’s study Based on the records of the National Poison
(1987) showed that the widespread use of pesticides in Control Management Center (NPCMC), mixed pesti-
Central Luzon was followed by a 27 percent increase cide was among the top 10 poisons recorded from 2004
in deaths among the farmers from causes other than to 2009. Mixed pesticides accounted for 104 of the
 CROPS 55

3,620 poison cases in 2007 and 209 of the 3,931 cases tridemorph, and others. Table 17 lists the most com-
in 2008 (Lu 2010). In 2009, pesticide ranked third, mon types of fungicides, as well as suspected effects on
with 164 cases. Of the total number of poisoning cases human health and the environment.
for six years, from 2004 to 2009, pesticide poisoning However, due to the heavy reliance on chemical
ranks sixth. This means that mixed pesticides have be- control, host plant resistance and widespread cultiva-
come one of the main causes of poisoning cases in the tion of HYVs during the Green Revolution resulted in
Philippines. problems caused by weeds, diseases, and insects. This
Based on the NPCMC data, pyrethroid was the intensive use of pesticides then led to pest outbreaks
most frequent cause of pesticide poisoning from 2008 (Maredia, Dakouo, and Mota-Sanchez 2003). This
to 2009. In 2008, there were 112 recorded pesticide paved the way for the IPM to be declared as the nation-
poisoning cases due to pyrethroids. Then in 2009, 72 al crop protection policy by the Philippine government
cases were recorded. in 1986. IPM focused on ecology-based approaches, in-
In Bohol Province, located in the southern part cluding season-long farmer training and cost-reducing
of Luzon in the Philippines, a mass pesticide poison- technology for pest control in rice. Some approaches
ing case among children was reported in March 2005 of IPM include the use of resistant varieties and cul-
because of the chemical carbamate that is common- tural methods (sanitation, proper spacing, low use of
ly used as household and agricultural pesticides. The nitrogen, proper water management, and synchronous
victims ate cassava that was contaminated by carba- planting on large continuous areas). The IPM was set
mate. This is a case of unsafe pesticide storage. The as the standard method for crop production wherein
pesticide was mistaken for flour that caused the food farmers were trained on the agroecosystem interactions
poisoning of more than 100 children, resulting in 27 affecting plant growth and crop management (Maredia,
deaths (Lu 2010). Dakouo, and Mota-Sanchez 2003).
Meanwhile, fungicides are the most common- On the other hand, the sampling study of the
ly used pesticides in Cavendish banana plantations in Manila Bay river systems (see Section 3.3.4) also col-
Mindanao. The active ingredients of these fungicides lected soil samples for pesticide contamination. Pesti-
include azoxystrobin, biterthanol, propiconazole, cide residue analysis of soil samples showed that levels

Table 17:  List of fungicides used by banana plantation companies in Mindanao (2006)

Active Ingredient Product/Brand Name Documented Health Effects

Azoxystrobin Bankit 250 EC Highly toxic to fish and aquatic invertebrates; not allowed in Canada
Biterthanol Baycor 300 EC Possible source of birth defects; not allowed in U.S. farms
Propiconazole Bumper 250 EC Possibly carcinogenic; contains reproductive toxins
Tridemorph Calixin 750 EC Causes birth defects; not allowed in Canada
Chlorotalonil /c Daconil 720 F Carcinogenic; highly toxic to fish and aquatic
invertebrates; builds up in fish
Mancozeb Dithane 448 F Carcinogenic; contains reproductive toxins; may
cause birth defects; aerial spraying suspected to disrupt endocrine system
Diteconazole Sico 250 EC
Mancozeb Vondozeb Plus 80 WP Potential cause of birth defects
Thiophanate Topsin M 70 WP Highly toxic to catfish; toxic to earthworms; hyperthyroidism
Source: Fuertes 2006.
56 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

of organochlorine, organophosphates, and pyrethoids pesticides leads to frequent pest invasions. For instance,
are below the LOQ at 0.005 mg/kg. As with fertilizer the brown planthopper (BPH) is mainly affected by
usage, the use of pesticides in the Manila Bay system the frequency, timing, and kind of insecticide applied
croplands is below recommended levels (and in fact has (Heong 1991).
been declining in the case of insecticides). Hence, pesti- Isoprocarb is present in fish, frog, and shrimp
cide contamination appears to remain at levels that can 45 days after transplanting and after the application of
be managed by natural processes within the relevant herbicide and insecticide because it is less soluble in wa-
ecosystem. ter. Therefore, it can be easily absorbed through the gills
Even though the farmers in the Philippines are before the toxicant is transferred in flooded paddies.
using less toxic pesticides, a majority of those pesticides The chemical is less toxic; thus, the remaining aquatic
are highly poisonous to fish and other aquatic organ- vertebrates are found in polluted water (Bajet and Ma-
isms (Fabro and Varca 2012). The pollutants from the gallona 1982). The toxicity of pesticides leads to high
agricultural activities within the Pagsanjan-Lumban fish mortality rather than bioaccumulation (Pingali and
catchment affect the fisheries in the area (Varca 2012). Roger 1995).
Among the pesticides used, the pyrethroids were iden-
tified to be highly toxic for the tilapia fingerling and Burning of crop residues remains widespread, but
freshwater shrimp. Moreover, the sediment-bound con- the practice has been on a decline since 1989. Corn
taminants cause changes to the food source of crabs, residue burning is the biggest source of GHG emissions,
freshwater shrimp, and fish (Bajet et al. 2012). followed by rice.
A complex food chain of vertebrate (fish, frogs, Burning of rice, corn, and sugarcane residues is still
rats) and invertebrate (crustaceans, microcrustaceans, widely practiced in the Philippines. This practice is
aquatic insects, annelids, microflora, and microfau- continuing to minimize labor requirement for land
na) organisms can be found in rice paddies. The use preparation of the farms for the next cropping season.
of pesticide can reduce the number of species, change The ashes serve as an immediate source of phosphorus
the composition, and contribute to residue accumula- and potassium and are used to control pests and dis-
tion in the remaining populations. Aquatic vertebrates eases. However, burning is also a quick way to lose soil
quickly decline with the use of pesticides in the first nutrients, contributes to GHG emissions, and releases
five to seven days after applying the pesticide (Bajet and toxic gases into the atmosphere. Burning of biomass
Magallona 1982; Tejada, Varca, and Magallona 1977; has been falling since 1989, from nearly 6,000 kilotons
NCPC 1983; Tejada 1985). The residues in the remain- down to just about 5,500 kilotons (FAOSTAT 2012).
ing populations were usually small. Due to the reduc- Nitrogen content of rice straw may range from
tion of predators, application of insecticides has small 0.5 to 0.8 percent (dry matter), equivalent to removal
effects on invertebrates (Pingali and Roger 1995). of 5–8 kg N/ha with the removal of 1 ton of rice straw
Long-term application of insecticides is harmful (Dobermann and Fairhurst 2002). Phosphorus content
to the algal community because it decreases its diversity of rice straw may range from 0.07 to 0.12 percent (dry
and causes rapid growth of small crabs, 1–2 mm long. matter), equivalent to removal of 0.70–1.18 kg P/ha
In rice fields, application of insecticides and herbicides with the removal of 1 ton of rice straw. Potassium con-
severely affects the microflora. Carbamate is the most tent of rice straw may range from 1.16 to 1.66 percent
harmful insecticide, followed by organochlorines and (dry matter), equivalent to removal of 11.62–16.60 kg
then organophosphates. K/ha with the removal of 1 ton of rice straw. Burning
Predator and prey balance can be disrupted if of rice straw causes loss of all nitrogen, 25 percent of
pesticides are applied routinely. The use of chemical phosphorus, and 20 percent of potassium in the straw
 CROPS 57

Figure 42:  GHG emissions by crop type, CO2eq equivalent, in kilotons

500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1962

1964

1966

1968

1970

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012
Maize Palay Sugarcane
Source: FAOSTAT 2012.

biomass. The major impact of straw removal is on the such as SO2, CH4, CO2, CO, N2O, NOx, NO, NO2,
soil potassium balance that may eventually lead to in- organic compounds, BC, TC, NMHCs, semi-vola-
creased incidence of potassium deficiency (Dobermann tile organic compounds (SVOCs), volatile organic
and Fairhurst 2002). compounds (VOCs), O3 (Table 18) (Gadde et al.
Burning has led to release of GHGs, which in 2009a Guoliang et al. 2008, Sahai et al. 2007). Thus,
CO2 equivalent reached about 427 kilotons in 2012, crop residue burning greatly influences the quality of
up from 302 kilotons in 1962; the bulk of the emis- environment and it also contributes to global warm-
sions comes from methane. GHG emissions from the ing and climate change.
burning of corn crop residues in the Philippines in- Open burning of crop residue/biomass signifi-
creased from 1961 to 1989 (Figure 42). The decline in cantly increases the level of particulate matter and gas-
GHG emissions after 1989 is largely attributed to the eous pollutants (SO2, NOx, VOCs, and PAHs) in the
decrease in methane emissions from crop residue burn- atmosphere.
ing. The biggest contributor to burning of biomass is
corn, followed by rice, with a small contribution from
sugarcane. 3.10 
Hazardous Plastic Wastes from
Gadde et al. (2009a) reported that other emis- Cropping Systems
sions of open field burning of rice straw in the Philip-
pines also includes 283 Gg CO, 32 Gg of non-meth- Plastic wastes from cropping systems are potential
ane hydrocarbons (NMHCs), 25 Gg of NOx, 16 Gg sources of hazardous pollutants.
of SO2, 106 Gg of total particulate matter (TPM), and Plastic bags containing fertilizers and bottles contain-
106 Gg fine particulate matter (PM2.5). ing pesticides are potential sources of pollutants. Farm-
The proportion of the rice residue burnt in ers in Ifugao, Mt. Province, and Benguet do not dispose
open fields is highest in the Philippines (95 percent), empty pesticide bottles properly (Ngidlo 2013). Empty
followed by Thailand (48 percent), and the least was bottles that are left in the farm are prone to releasing
in India (23 percent) (Gadde et al 2009b. Crop res- poisonous liquids that can flow to nearby surface water
idue/biomass residue burning emits poisonous gases bodies, especially during the rainy season. Sprayers used
58 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Plate 1:  Rice crop residue burning in Jaen, Nueva Ecija

Photo by Magcale-Macandog 2016.

Table 18:  Emissions from rice straw open burning

Emissions from Rice Straw Open Burning

Name of Pollutant Emission Factor (g/kgdm) India (Gg) Thailand (Gg) Philippines (Gg)

CO2 1,460.00 16,253 11,850 11,850

CH4 1.20 13 10 10
N2O 0.07 1 1 1
CO 34.70 386 290 282
NMHC 4.00 45 33 32
NOx 3.10 35 26 25
SO2 2.00 22 17 16
TPM 13.00 145 109 106
PM2.5 12.95 14 108 105
Source: Gadde et al. 2009a, © Elsevier. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier; further permission required for reuse.
Note: Gg = Giga gram, g/kgdm = gram per kg of dry matter.

to spray pesticides are washed in nearby rivers. These contaminated with pesticides are not properly disposed
improper methods have negative impacts on the soil of and some farming households even use them for oth-
and water. er domestic purposes in their homes. Similarly, plastic
In banana plantations, plastic bags coated with mulches used in other cropping systems like strawber-
pesticides are used to wrap banana fruit bunches to pro- ries and vegetables are potential agricultural pollutants
tect them from pests and diseases. These plastic bags that need proper disposal.
 CROPS 59

Plate 2:  Banana plantation in Compostela Valley

Photo by Magcale-Macandog 2015.

LIVESTOCK
4
4.1 Overview

4.1.1  Profile of the Livestock and Poultry Sectors

Pollution from the livestock and poultry subsector largely result from improper
treatment of animal wastes. Consequently, improper waste disposal is prevalent
among small-scale farms due to low incentive rates and larger costs. Untreated
animal waste largely damages water condition through eutrophication, nutrient
overload, and contamination, among others.
The livestock subsector consists of swine, large ruminants such as cattle and carabao
(water buffalo), and small ruminants such as goats and sheep. The poultry group
consists of chickens, ducks, and some turkey and quail. The Philippine Statistics
Authority (PSA) classifies farm scale of operations as backyard or commercial: both
large and small ruminant animal holdings of up to 20 heads are backyard—sim-
ilarly, up to 20 heads for swine and up to 100 bird holdings for poultry farms.
Commercial farms raise more than the mentioned holdings.

In terms of production, swine is the largest among the livestock group and chicken
among poultry. Both remain dominated by traditional production systems, though
the share of these is declining.
Swine. The swine industry in the Philippines is divided into backyard (less than 20
heads, Plate 3) and commercial swine operations. The swine industry, as a whole,
registered an annual growth rate of 1.4 percent from 1994 to 2014. Backyard oper-
ations account for a majority of the inventory; however, there has been a shift over
time toward commercial operations. The share of the backyard sector fell from
80 percent of total inventory in 1994 to 65 percent in 2014 (Figure 43).
 62 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Figure 43:  Distribution of swine Other top swine-producing regions are Regions 5 and
population by type of 7 (Bicol and Western Visayas) where swine is mostly
operation, 1994–2014 located in backyard farms (BAS 2014).
100
Chicken. The poultry industry is divided into back-
yard and commercial sectors; the former pertains to
75
operations with not more than 100 birds (PSA 2015a).
Percentage (%)

Commercial operations involve mostly a large-scale and

50
integrated production and marketing system (Costales
et al. 2003).
25
The Philippine chicken inventory is further clas-
sified into broiler, layer, and native. Broilers and layers
0 consist of imported hybrids with foreign strains while
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
native chickens refer to local breeds. From 1994 to
Backyard Commerial 2015, the population of native chicken breeds has been
Source: PSA 2015b. steadily dropping from its 1994 contribution of 56 per-
cent to 45 percent in 2014 (Figure 44). Over the same
period, the shares of broiler and layer populations have
Majority of the swine population is found
been steadily increasing, from 34 to 37 percent for the
in Regions 3 and 4-A (Central Luzon and Calabar-
former and 10 to 17 percent for the latter.
zon), where large commercial farms are located near
Broiler and layer farms in the Philippines are
NCR-Metro Manila to meet its growing demand for
geographically concentrated in Central Luzon (Region
food (U.S. EPA 2009). This is a strategic development
3) and Calabarzon (Region 4-A). Based on the 2014
in response to logistics and transport of feeds and
chicken inventory, Central Luzon and Calabarzon
products, coupled with accompanying slaughterhouses
combined for 50 percent of total broiler population.
and meat processing. Large commercial farms in turn
manage waste to minimize pollution (U.S. EPA 2009).
Figure 44:  Shares in total inventory, by
type of chicken, 1994–2014
Plate 3:  Backyard swine in the Philippines
100

75
Percentage (%)

50

25

0
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Year
Native Layers Broiler
Photo by A. D. Calub 2016. Source: PSA 2015b.
 LIVESTOCK 63

On the other hand, native chickens are widespread in of more than a 1,000 slaughterhouses. A majority
the Philippines. The top five native chicken producing of the slaughterhouses that passed the standards are
provinces are Western Visayas, Northern Mindanao, owned by private entrepreneurs and are mostly located
Central Visayas, Central Luzon, and Davao Region. in Metro Manila and nearby Central Luzon and Cal-
These provinces combined for 54.2 percent of the total abarzon. The top three regions combined account for
native chicken inventory (PSA 2015b). almost 44.41 percent of the total of the 11 million
livestock slaughtered in the country and from which
Cattle. Large cattle ranching was a dominant sector in 46.20 percent of the total swine population is included
the Philippine cattle industry from the 1940s to the late (NMIS 2015).
1960s. However, the size of available pastureland as the
population grows is declining. Moreover, implemen-
tation of comprehensive agrarian reform and security 4.1.2  Problem of Animal Waste
concerns like rustling and tenancy conflicts between Treatment of animal waste before release to the
occupants with large estates or haciendas in the 1980s environment leaves much to be desired, particularly for
resulted in a major shift from large cattle operations backyard swine producers.
to smallholder farming (Stanton 2010). Ranching in Agricultural wastes decompose through the help of nat-
grasslands through grazing lease agreements with the ural processes involving organic compounds. However,
DENR have also declined with nonrenewal of the leases increased agricultural activities produce high concentra-
to favor a reforestation effort. tions of wastes which overwhelm the maximum capacity
The cattle industry is presently dominated by of the natural process that involves agricultural activities
backyard farms (below 20 heads of adult cattle), which and results in the accumulation of pollutants (PCAR-
account for 93 percent of the total cattle inventory as RD-DOST 2002) . In the Philippines, indiscriminate
of 2014. Most of the cattle are found in Regions 1 (Ilo- dumping of hog waste and untreated wastewater directly
cos), 4-A (Calabarzon, 6 and 7 (Western and Central into creeks, rivers, and other receiving water bodies has
Visayas), and 10 (Northern Mindanao). These regions resulted in the pollution of these surface waters. Waste
contributed 53 percent of the total cattle population in from swine farms is generally composed of manure,
the Philippines. Some of the remaining ranching areas urine, feeds, and water used for cleaning, flushing, and
include Isabela, Occidental Mindoro, Masbate, Bohol, cooling. Backyard swine farms are major contributors to
and Bukidnon. Pangasinan and Cebu reflect large in- water pollution. Several local studies have already shown
ventories mainly as trading centers. Out of the 5 mil- that majority of backyard farms do not have adequate
lion heads of cattle, there were 0.45 million dairy cattle, manure management systems. Effluents from these farms
about 0.89 percent of the total population. From the are directly discharged to nearby creeks, rivers, and other
total dairy cattle, 25.77 percent are on the milk line water bodies. Moreover, these farms are usually exempted
that produced 12.5 million Liters, 63.68 percent of the from Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) mon-
total milk produced in 2014 (PSA 2015a). itoring because their effluents are less than 30 m3/day.
The swine industry is at present dominated by
Slaughter and processing. In 2008, there were 1,100 backyard farms. These farms have greater pollution
reported slaughterhouses in the country, of which only problems than large size or commercial farms due to
121 were accredited. In 2015, a decrease of 39 percent poor management practices and lack of proper facili-
was observed, with only 87 slaughterhouses facilities ties to treat waste effluents. Catelo, Dorado and Agbisit
that passed the standards set by the National Meat (2003) pointed out that backyard swine farms are con-
Inspection Service (NMIS) from the increasing number sidered as a non-point pollution source due to the large
64 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

number of such farms and relatively dispersed locations Large-scale farms, mostly the independent farms,
all over the country. utilize manure by applying it to agricultural land as fer-
More untreated and ill-disposed wastes are pro- tilizers for crops. Untreated animal waste application to
duced by smallholders because of the farrow-to-wean farmland can be a cause for nutrient overload. This in-
predominant type of production activity. Thus, the most creases the risk of nutrient runoff and leaching, which in
common disposal method is to throw manure into the turn pollutes water resources. Contamination of potable
waterways or lay it on the ground to decompose (Catelo water supplies leads to waterborne diseases in both hu-
and Narrod 2008). Current regulations and instruments mans and animals, such as cholera, dysentery, and diar-
appear to be incapable of influencing backyard farm op- rhea (Alcantara et al. 2008). In addition, high concen-
erators to comply with pollution mitigating activities. tration of heavy metals in soil originating from fortified
Small commercial farms are also exempted from the animal feed can lead to undesirable effects such as de-
monitoring compliance because the effluent discharge crease in soil fertility and plant toxicity. It may also indi-
standard of 30 m3/day is equivalent to 1,000 heads of rectly affect animals and humans through the food chain.
hogs being raised (Catelo, Dorado, and Agbisit 2003). Swine population is highly concentrated in Re-
There is a gradual increase in the commercial swine gions 3 and 4-A. Livestock wastes coming from these
population for the last 20 years. The gradual shift from regions are one of the major sources of pollution of
backyard to commercial farming may suggest improve- Manila Bay and Laguna Lake. Central Luzon has been
ment in waste management system and therefore a re- identified as the top contributor to Manila Bay pollu-
duction in pollution contribution of the swine industry. tion. Livestock wastes together with domestic wastes
Trends show that the swine industry is gradual- and fertilizer residues from Central Luzon go to Pam-
ly shifting from backyard to commercial farming. This panga River and drain into Manila Bay (Ronda 2014).
shift in swine operation may reduce the water pollution On the other hand, backyard swine farms in Majay-
problems generated by the swine industry. Commercial jay and other municipalities surrounding Laguna Lake
farms are required to install a waste treatment facility have been identified as point sources of water pollu-
as part of their environmental compliance certificate tion. These farms are directly disposing wastes to creeks
requirements. However, other environmental problems which serve as tributaries to the lake. The Laguna Lake
that may get worse as commercial farms grow include Developing Authority (LLDA) reported in 2008 that
extensive use of antibiotics, disposal of plastics and used livestock is the third largest source of nutrient loading
bottles from antibiotics, and carcass disposal. in Laguna Lake. The total volume of waste water dis-
On the other hand, pollution regulations are bet- charged by livestock and poultry farms reached 2,500
ter enforced on large farms, compelling them to invest m3 and the total BOD loading was 153,000 kg/year.
in appropriate structures for proper waste management Meanwhile, waste generated by poultry farms is
and disposal. Aside from the lower cost of enforcement, usually composed of manure, spilled feeds, feathers, and
the incentives may simply be skewed against smallhold- bedding materials. Poultry wastes can be disposed by ei-
ers: when smallholders do opt to mitigate pollution ther selling it to chicken manure traders who deliver to
(that is, ‘capture environmental externalities’), they face vegetable farms or by spreading on the poultry farmer’s
higher costs per unit in doing so; in 2002–2003, large land as organic fertilizer. However, some backyard and
commercial independent operations spent PHP 27 per poultry farms surveyed in Laguna dispose their wastes
100 kg output for mitigation, whereas independent through open dumping and discharging to accessible
smallholders (below 100 heads of hogs) spent PHP 57 bodies of water or septic tanks (Paraso et al. 2010).
per 100 kg output. The difference is statistically signifi- On the other hand, cattle manure in stall pens
cant (Delgado, Narrod, and Tiongco 2003). are usually scraped and allowed to decompose in the
 LIVESTOCK 65

roofed shed or open spaces and then dumped in pasture and commercial and industrial discharges collectively
or crop areas. contribute to the pollution of freshwater, groundwater,
Local governments have the mandate to enforce and coastal and marine waters. The BOD contribution
ordinances against discharge of polluted water on small encompasses the production of livestock and poul-
producers. However, they may find it either politically try animals such as swine, chicken, cattle, and other
expedient, or financially too costly, to strictly enforce dairy farming activities. Wastewater from these sourc-
such ordinances. Facing high cost of compliance rela- es is generally high in organic content. Furthermore,
tive to the risk of being penalized, small producers are most of the backyard animal farms have no appropriate
therefore incentivized to evade the regulation rather wastewater treatment facilities.
than comply with it. Agricultural BOD contribution was calculated
using animal type and number of heads of livestock and
poultry from which pollution load factors are based on
4.2 Management of Pollution from the WHO Rapid Assessment report (DENR-EMB
Animal Wastes 2014). The BOD loading from non-point sources was
estimated to be at 465,595 tons in 2013, of which the
4.2.1  Impacts on the Environment contributions from agricultural runoff were estimated
Pollution due to animal wastes produced by the at 61 percent.
livestock industry has had massive negative impact on
water bodies, primarily in terms of organic load and Case studies of pollution to major water bodies.
eutrophication. Before the establishment of swine farms, farmers near
Overall impacts. The lack of aeration lagoons and Benig River, Tarlac, were still able to use the river for
secondary treatment facilities to neutralize swine irrigation. The river is now biologically dead from the
waste before use as organic fertilizers can be danger- discharge points of swine wastes. These swine farms,
ous when there is an oversight of the capacity of the which raise about 30,000 heads each, are located in agri-
lands and crops to absorb the nutrients (for example, cultural and residential areas and do not have any waste
nitrogen and phosphorus) from the waste (Paraso et treatment facilities. They dump their wastes directly
al. 2010). Ilocos Region was found to be one of the into this water body. They also do not have locational
highest contributors to nitrate contamination, with and zoning clearance. There is also the proliferation of
an estimated agricultural wastewater of 37 percent flies and insects and other disease vectors.
(Claudio 2015). In the case of Laguna, it was found that most of
Over time, such pollution has decreased the the poultry and swine farms resorted to environmental-
quality and productivity of affected water bodies be- ly unacceptable ways of effluent management. About
cause their assimilative capacities have likewise deteri- 80 percent of the hog raisers do not have any waste
orated. Thus, receiving waters are rendered unfit even treatment facilities at all (Catelo, Dorado, and Agbisit
for noncontact activities and irrigation. In extreme in- 2003). As much as 68 percent of the disposed wastewa-
stances, surface waters have become biologically dead. ter from poultry and swine farms is directly discharged
Evidence of such cases in Central Luzon, Southern Lu- to a nearby creek, river, canal, and/or open space (EPA
zon, and Northern Mindanao has been locally docu- 2001, as cited by Alcantara et.al. 2008). Effluent dis-
mented (Catelo and Narrod, 2008). posal that involves the use of water to flush waste out
It is estimated that 4.5 million tons of BOD was of the pens and permitting this to flow to the nearest
generated by pollution point sources in 2013. Point creek or river is expected to worsen soil, air, and water
sources such as human settlements, agricultural sites, pollution in the province, particularly of Laguna Lake,
66 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

through its tributaries or by way of surface runoff (Para- with fisheries while the third site is a point source for
so et al. 2010). piggery farms (BSWM 2013).
Swine wastes produced within the province dis- The foregoing largely implicates swine raising
charged raw dump, at an estimated 3,600 tons PO4 per in Laguna Province with pollution loading. Delgado,
year, into the catchment. The eutrophication potential Narrod and Tiongco (2003) note that waste problem
of swine production in Laguna Province has been esti- from poultry is less problematic partly because chicken
mated at a total of 1,193.3 tons, which can have sig- manure can be sold. However, there are many small-
nificant cumulative impacts on local aquatic environ- holder farms that produce small amounts of manure
ments and the lake ecosystem as a whole (Alcantara et and are widely distributed in the province; therefore,
al. 2008). The negative impact of eutrophication is that open dumping or release of manure by these enterprises
high primary productivity, in response to the abundant into bodies of water collectively still creates potential
nutrient supply, occasionally leads to massive fish mor- environmental and health problems due to potential
tality (Szekielda et al. 2014). nutrient and microbial content.
In 1974, an estimated 5,000 tons of nitrogen There is a data gap with regard to spatial patterns
entered Laguna Lake, of which 36 percent originated of water pollution contribution of livestock, particular-
from livestock and poultry (Table 19). A follow-up ly swine. Available reports are more focused on Laguna
study in 2012 by Reyes provided a rough estimate of Lake and Manila Bay, mainly because of the established
the dimensions of nutrient loading (pollution) in La- monitoring agencies such as the LLDA and Manila Bay
guna Lake; the updated estimate for 2000 is 13,800 Coordinating Office (MCBO).
tons of nitrogen, of which only 16.5 percent is from The two main contributory areas of Manila Bay
agriculture (Lasco and Espaldon 2005). Livestock con- are Pasig and Pampanga River Basins. Most of the river
tribution to nitrogen loading is also increasing due to systems in Region 3, one of the top livestock produc-
the increase in livestock population. However, the pro- ing regions in the country, drain into Pampanga River.
portion declined because of the significant increase in Pasig River connects Manila Bay to Laguna Lake, the
pollution due to domestic waste. largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia (BFAR 1995,
Four sampling sites along the 249.2 km stretch as cited by MBEMP 2001).
of Pampanga River exceeded the allowable count of
1,000 MPN/100 ml for total coliform based on the
DENR, DAO 90-34. Two of these sites were associated 4.3 
Other Pollutants from Livestock
and Poultry Production
Table 19:  Share of nitrogen loading
into Laguna Lake, by source, 4.3.1 Air Pollutants
percentage, 1974 and 2000 In terms of air pollution from livestock industry,
noxious emissions are significant but this is a localized
Source 1974 2000 problem; GHG emissions are of minor concern.
Domestic 26 79 Major gas pollutants from livestock and poultry pro-
Livestock and Poultry 36 16 duction include ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, meth-
Fertilizer 11 — ane, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, and other odorous
Pasig River 22 — gases. Majority of these gases come from freshly depos-
Industrial 5 5 ited or stored feces and urine (Burton and Turner 2003)
Total 100 100 and are released through aerobic or anaerobic decom-
Sources: SOGREAH 1974 and Reyes 2012. position. As for GHG emissions, domestic livestock
 LIVESTOCK 67

animals account for 30 percent of GHG from agricul- commonly mixed or placed in feeds and water. Three
ture, mainly in the form of methane and nitrous oxide. of the main antimicrobials that are sold in the market
Cattle and carabao industry contributed 90 percent of are being used principally to treat sick animals and to
the total methane emission due to enteric fermenta- control infectious animal diseases. Reports of antibiot-
tion; these subsectors, however, constitute only a small ic-resistant bacteria isolated from farms and animal car-
share of the livestock industry. casses are raising concerns that antibiotic use in agricul-
The global GHG emissions from the live- ture may play a role in selecting for antibiotic resistance
stock supply chain are estimated at 7.1 billion tons of among food-borne bacteria (Baldrias, Gatchalian-Yee,
CO2eq/year (Gerber et al. 2013). The contribution of and Raymundo 2008; Baldrias 2012).
Philippine livestock to the global anthropogenic GHG Antibiotics are permitted in the Philippines and
emissions is quite small. However, the local impact of elsewhere, provided that therapeutic indications are val-
GHGs is not adequately known. A major concern is id. In practice, many popular antibiotic growth promot-
the cumulative effect of livestock GHG emissions in ers have these indications (Kroismayr 2007). Legislation
the country, which may have a significant effect on our did not stop the overuse of antibiotics as growth promot-
future global climate. GHGs from livestock are known ers until the Food Safety Act of 2013 (RA No. 10611).
to have long residence life in the atmosphere. Methane In 2010, the Philippine government started to
remains in the atmosphere for about 9–15 years, while limit application of antibiotics in animal feeds to heed
nitrous oxide has a residence time of 114 years. warnings by the WHO on rising antibiotic resistance
GHG emissions from enteric fermentation and in both animals and humans. The National Veterinary
different manure management scenarios were estimated Research and Quarantine Service (NVRQS) reported
using the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change the decreasing use of antibiotics such as tetracyclines
(IPCC) Tier 1 Method. Based on the 2014 national and neomycin, with a drop of 18 percent from 1,211
livestock and poultry inventory, 11.7 million tons of tons to 998 tons in 2008. In comparison to the report
CO2eq/year can be emitted by the livestock and poul- in 2001, there was a 37 percent drop in volume from
try subsector under Scenario A, 9.9 million tons of 1,595 tons of antibiotics (World Poultry News 2010).
CO2eq/year under Scenario B, and 7.1 million tons of The extent and level of antimicrobial resistance
CO2eq/year under Scenario C. In Scenario A, 25 per- (AMR) in the country remains to be established. Limited
cent manure is properly utilized and 75 percent is po- studies were conducted by Cresencio in 2012. The occur-
tentially polluting; in Scenario B, it is 50:50, and in Sce- rence of multi-resistance of the microorganism was found
nario C, 90 percent and 10 percent, correspondingly. to be significant from among the Campylobacter jejuni iso-
lates of 64.2 percent of the 162 liver samples from freshly
dressed chickens at dressing plants of commercial chicken
4.3.2 Antibiotic Resistance producers and backyard raisers (Baldrias et al. 2008).
Antibiotic use is prevalent among livestock growers;
little evidence is available regarding the long-term
impact of this practice in bacterial resistance. 4.4 
Other Pollution Sources in the
In 2011, an industry study and analysis was conducted Supply Chain: Slaughterhouses
for the sale and use of veterinary drugs both for med-
ication and vaccination for livestock. It was projected Aside from production, slaughter of livestock is also a
to grow by 4.4–5.5 percent per year from 2010 to highly polluting stage of the value chain.
2015 to meet the projected increase in the production Further down the value chain of the meat indus-
of livestock and poultry sector. These chemicals are try are the slaughterhouses, which are also sources of
68 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

pollutants. Wastewaters from slaughterhouses have high The NMIS discourages the location of abat-
organic load and organic nutrients, adequate alkalinity, toirs adjacent to public markets because of potential
and relatively high temperature and are usually free of contamination of carcasses with microorganisms, dirt,
toxic materials. Slaughterhouses generate an average of chemicals, and other organic matter in public markets.
30 to 40 gallons (0.113 to 0.151 m3) per hog slaugh- However, nonaccredited slaughterhouses were built be-
tered. Raw wastewater BOD5 concentration reportedly fore the institution of the NMIS recommendations and
averages 2,500 mg/L. The COD of meat and poultry therefore tend not to comply (Maranan et al. 2008). In
processing (slaughterhouse) is 4,100 mg/L. Laguna, some slaughterhouse were situated less than 10
No data are available from the EMB on the m from a creek or river, which enables them to easily
characteristic of slaughterhouse wastewater before dispose generated waste materials directly into the wa-
treatment. Most slaughterhouses reportedly process ter bodies.
an average of 200 to 260 animals per day, from which Most registered slaughterhouses in Metro Ma-
discharge rates are lower than the standard discharge nila, the largest meat market in the country, use physi-
of 30 m3/day and are exempt from EMB monitoring cal and chemical treatment processes to eliminate solid
and compliance. Hence, these slaughterhouses waste and effluents. Some slaughterhouses outside Met-
are not monitored by the EMB but are under the ro Manila use either a lagoon system or a combination
jurisdiction of LGUs. Waste materials pose a hazard of septic tank and lagoon systems. Several slaughter-
to the environment if not managed properly. The houses outside Metro Manila have anaerobic digesters,
waste matter from slaughterhouses has a high capacity but most are either inefficient or no longer functioning.
to pollute the environment due to the high content Even those rated AA do not have lagoon systems due to
of animal blood and fat, dirt, and other pollutants limited space (Table 21).
(Maranan et al. 2008). Visual inspections carried out from a number of
Under the Meat Inspection Code, the NMIS slaughterhouses in Metro Manila revealed inefficient
accredits three categories of facilities (slaughterhouses, operation of biogas digesters, septic tanks, and settling
poultry dressing plants, and meat processing plants), tanks. The inefficiency can be caused by lack of capac-
namely Class AAA, Class AA, and Class A. The NMIS ity of the facility relative to the wastewater flow. This
lists the possession of a water discharge permit from suggests intermittent disposal of effluents that are not
the EMB as a requirement for accreditation. Across the within the standard requirements and possible methane
country, there were only four AAA slaughterhouses in emissions, even in systems that theoretically should be
2015. Majority of slaughterhouses have AA accredita- under aerobic conditions.
tion (Table 20). Around Laguna Lake, slaughterhouses contrib-
However, majority of slaughterhouses, poul- ute to the deterioration of water quality of the Lake and
try dressing plants, and meat processing plants in the its tributaries. Pollution cases have been filed against 24
country do not even met the minimum standard of slaughterhouses in Laguna, Cavite, and Rizal in 2008.
accreditation, which is Class A by the NMIS (2015). These cases ranged from violation of the pollution con-
They are not regarded as ‘accredited’ but only ‘regis- trol code to operating without LLDA clearance and dis-
tered’ at the local level (Costales and Delgado 2002, as charge permits (Maranan et al. 2008).
cited in Maranan et al. 2008). Based on the data of BAS Proper waste management of effluent requires a
in 2008, it was assumed that about 30–40 percent of suitable drainage system. Less than 30 percent of the
the total number of food animals slaughtered in 2008 drainage systems of the accredited and nonaccredited
were slaughtered in unaccredited establishments (U.S. slaughterhouses were deemed unhygienic. The stagna-
EPA 2009). tion of liquid wastes is a possible source of contamination
 LIVESTOCK 69

Table 20:  Number of accredited meat production facilities, by region, 2015

Slaughterhouse Poultry Dressing Plant Meat Processing Plant

Accredited Accredited Accredited

Region A AA AAA Total A AA AAA Total A AA AAA Total

CAR 2 1 — 3 — 1 — 1 2 4 — 6
NCR 2 16 — 18 — 9 2 11 3 6 — 9
I — 6 — 6 1 3 1 5 — 1 — 1
II — 3 — 3 — 14 9 23 — 46 6 52
III — 11 — 11 — — — 0 — 54 12 66
IVA 1 17 2 20 — 7 6 13 — 26 9 35
IVB 1 1 — 2 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1
V — 1 — 1 — 7 — 7 1 1 — 2
VI — 2 — 2 — 6 — 6 — 7 — 7
VII — 1 1 2 3 4 2 9 — 5 5 10
VIII — — — — — 5 — 5 — — — 0
IX 2 1 — 3 — 2 — 2 — — — 0
X — 4 — 4 — 9 3 12 — 11 — 11
XI — 4 — 4 — 5 2 7 — 10 — 10
XII — 4 1 5 — 3 — 3 1 1 — 2
CARAGA — 3 — 3 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1
Total 8 75 4 87 4 77 25 106 7 174 32 213
Source: NMIS 2015.
Note:
Class AAA: Highest level of standard in terms of sanitation; produces export quality with Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) certification.
Class AA: Qualified for normal domestic trade; allowed to sell and trade products nationwide.
Class A: Meets minimum standards for accreditation; allowed to trade their product within the municipality or city.

Table 21:  Shares of number of slaughterhouses, by type of waste management system,

percentage

% Wastewater Management System Used

Anaerobic digester/ Anaerobic Chemical treatment/ Direct discharge

Type of slaughterhouse Lagoon Septic tank/ Lagoon digester Physical to waterways

NCR accredited — — 10 90 —
Accredited 65 30 5 — —
Nonaccredited — 60 — — 40
Source: U.S. EPA 2009.
Note: The methane conversion factor for lagoon is 0.90; anaerobic digester/septic tank/lagoon is 0.50; anaerobic digester is 0.60; and direct discharge to waterways is 0.01.
70 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

because the liquid can be splashed accidentally on the under Scenario C*. The global GHG emissions from
carcasses during abattoir activities. Stagnant water can the livestock supply chain are estimated at 7.1 billion
also serve as a reservoir for insects and rodents that are tons of CO2eq/year (Gerber et al. 2013)
known carriers of pathogens. As a result, the wastewater
could exceed the maximum allowable BOD, suspended
solids (SS), total dissolved solids (TDS), nitrates, and 4.5.1 Regulatory Environment
phosphates (Maranan et al. 2008). Pollution emissions of the livestock industry are
regulated, but enforcement is problematic, especially for
backyard operations.
4.5 Summary of Pollution Potential For the swine industry, large-scale hog operations are
from Livestock Production mostly located in areas far from densely populated
communities. Contract growers mostly prefer to be
Table 22 shows the estimated GHG emissions from in an isolated location to avoid outbreaks; integrators
enteric fermentation and different manure manage- require that contractors be positioned usually 1–1.5 km
ment scenarios. Based on the 2014 national livestock from another swine business to reduce contamination
and poultry inventory, 11.7 million tons of CO2eq/year or infection of bacteria or viruses that can be transmit-
can be emitted by the livestock and poultry subsector ted by air. Where the swine business is near urban areas,
under Scenario A, 9.9 million tons of CO2eq/year the number of hogs raised is typically inhibited by local
under Scenario B*, and 7.1 million tons of CO2eq/year ordinances (Rola et al. 2003).

Table 22:  GHG emissions of livestock and poultry from enteric fermentation and
different manure management scenarios, 2014

GHG Emission

Manurea (ton CO2eq/year)

Enteric Fermentation a

Animal (ton CO2eq/year) Scenario Ab Scenario Bc Scenario Cd

Ruminants
Cattle 2,501,298 780,637 520,425 104,085
Carabao 3,297,338 916,846 611,231 122,846
Goat 385,790 334,905 223,270 44,654
Total 6,184,426 2,032,388 1,354,925 270,985
Nonruminants
Pig 251,994 2,515,467 1,676,978 335,396
Chicken — 713,225 475,483 95,097
Total 251,994 3,228,693 2,152,462 430,492
a
Based on IPCC 2006 Tier 1 method and conversion factor of 1 kg CH4 = 21 kg CO2eq and 1 kg N2O = 310 kg CO2eq.
b
25 percent of total manure production is properly managed.
c
50 percent of total manure production is properly managed.
d
90 percent of total manure production is properly managed.
* Scenario B: 9.9 mil tons of CO2 eq/yr = (6,184,426+251,994) + (1,354,925 + 2,152,462).
** Scenario C: 7.1 mil tons of CO2 eq/yr = (6,184,426+251,994) + (270,985 + 430,492).
 LIVESTOCK 71

For poultry, backyard raisers are found almost addition, the Livestock and Poultry Feeds Act (RA No.
everywhere near public markets. Municipal ordinanc- 1556) provides the rules and regulation and the standard
es restrict the size of backyard poultry farms. Contract for feeds in the Philippines. This includes registration
poultry farms are found in remote location or less ur- of feeds, quality control service, labeling, classification,
banized areas. Such areas are preferred to minimize methods of analysis, publication, sampling, payment of
complaints from nearby residents (Rola et al. 2003). fees, prohibitions, damaged and adulterated feed dispo-
Aside from the laws and ordinances already dis- sition, and offenses and penalties that must be prescribed
cussed in Section 2.3, several other laws and regulations for the use of feeds. Lastly, the Philippine Agricultural
govern the livestock industry. RA No. 9296, otherwise Engineering Standards (PAES) provide standards adopt-
known as the Meat Inspection Code of the Philippines, ed by the DA and serve as National Standards for Agricul-
governs the flow of food animals, meat, and meat prod- tural Engineering (AO 10 s. 2002). PAES are defined for
ucts through the various stages of marketing and the the design and construction of biogas plants, agricultural
proper preservation and inspection of such products. In liquid wastes, and agricultural solid waste—composting.
FISHERIES
5
5.1  Profile of the Sector

The problem of pollutants from fisheries largely arises from aquaculture operations,
which now account for the bulk of fisheries output.
Capture fisheries has had massive environmental impact over the decades; how-
ever, in terms of emission of pollutants, the more relevant subsector is aquacul-
ture. With the overexploitation of capture fisheries resulting in the stagnating and
even declining production from this sector, aquaculture was left to meet the gap
in the demand for fishery products (Figure 45). This is evident in the growing

Figure 45:  Proportion of captured and aquaculture from 1980

to 2010
100

75
Percentage (%)

50

25

0
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year
Captured Aquaculture
Source: PSA 2015b.
74 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Plate 4:  Freshwater fishpond in Laguna Province

Photo by M. C. Aralar 2016.

Plate 5:  Fish cage in Taal Lake

Photo by D. B. Magcale-Macandog 2011.

contribution of aquaculture to fish production com- farm-raised fish; seaweed aquaculture, the largest aqua-
pared to capture fisheries: since 2011, aquaculture culture subsector in the country (by volume), is cul-
production in the country has outpaced capture fish- tured in extensive systems relying on naturally occur-
eries production. Within aquaculture, the focus is on ring nutrients.
 FISHERIES 75

Figure 46:  Aquaculture production (excluding aquatic plants), by type of environment, in

million tons, 1950–2013
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1950
1952
1954
1956
1958
1960
1962
1964
1966
1968
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
Marine Freshwater Brackish
Source: FAO 2015.

Currently fish aquaculture is well diversified among from freshwater aquaculture (Figure 46). Up until the
production systems, evolving from an industry largely early 1970s, marine aquaculture was generally confined
devoted to brackish-water species in the 1950s to 1970s. to seaweeds and other aquatic plants. From the early
From the 1950s to 1970s, brackish-water aquaculture 1970s to the present, marine fish culture grew in vol-
dominated the fish culture, contributing to 87 percent ume and by 2013, marine fish production from aqua-
of total production, while the remaining was mainly culture contributed almost 169,000 tons compared to
a measly 38 tons in 1972. Freshwater aquaculture pro-
duction also increased to 319,000 tons in 2013, equiva-
Table 23:  Fish consumption estimates, the lent to 39.1 percent of the total compared to just 3,300
Philippines, 1961–2013 tons (13 percent) in 1950. Brackish-water and freshwa-
Per capita consumption Total Fish Consumption
ter aquaculture’s contribution by 2013 was equivalent
Year in kg/year in tons to 40.2 percent, at a volume of 327,000 tons. The main
1961 23.04 625,881.60
brackish-water product is shrimp; freshwater cultured
1965 25.79 797,246.27
fish are mostly milkfish and tilapia.
1970 33.58 1,202,331.90
1975 37.40 1,544,470.40 Growth in aquaculture production has been driven
1980 32.43 1,537,117.14 by rising demand both in terms of population and
1985 32.87 1,785,662.75 consumption per capita.
1990 35.64 2,207,862.36 Per capita fish consumption of Filipinos has been ris-
1995 31.59 2,198,885.13 ing steadily, from 23.1 kg/year in 1961to 31.6 kg/year
2000 28.83 2,238,707.16 in 2013 (Table 23). This translates to a total fish con-
2005 32.75 2,810,637.75 sumption of 3.1 million tons in 2013 and 3.3 million
2010 35.64 3,330,344.16 tons in 2010. With the country’s population projected
2013 31.58 3,107,250.94 at 110.97 million in 2020, fish consumption will likely
Source: PSA 2015a. hit 3.5 million tons.
76 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

5.2 Potentially Polluting Practices of lime (CaCO3), hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2) and dolomite
Fish Aquaculture (MgCO3). For soils with very low pH and for new ponds,
hydrated lime is the choice, while agricultural lime is
High input use in intensive aquaculture systems pose used for old ponds (Cruz-Lacierda et al. 2008). To a lim-
environmental risks. ited extent, some farmers even use liming to kill potential
Aquaculture has evolved from traditional and extensive pests and predators (Rico et al. 2012). To remove ammo-
system using low inputs and low stocking densities to nia and other nitrogenous compounds, zeolite is applied
semi-intensive and intensive systems characterized by (Rico et al. 2012). Many of these water and soil condi-
increased inputs. Modern aquaculture practices have tioning chemicals have short environmental life and are
expanded the use of chemicals and other products relatively harmless, although they do affect water quality.
during different phases of production. Fertilizers, water
and soil treatment chemicals, disinfectants, antibiot-
ics, pesticides (molluscicides, piscicides, algicides), and 5.3  Other Chemicals
antibiotics are among the most common groups of
compounds used in aquaculture. Typical for pond preparation, before stocking any com-
modity for culture is the eradication of other fish species
and mollusks which may prey on the cultured species
5.2.1 Fertilizers or compete for food, oxygen, and space in the culture
Asia has a long history of organic and inorganic fertilizer environment. As a routine part of pond preparation,
use in pond culture. Often, in extensive systems, fertil- chemical agents are applied to kill fish and mollusks in
izers are the only input, especially in small-scale, single the pond bottom .
pond operation. Almost all extensive and semi-intensive Exogenous hormones, particularly gonado-
aquaculture rely on fertilizers and manure (de Silva and tropins have been used for years to induce final mat-
Hassan 2007). Mono-ammonium phosphate (16-20-0), uration of captive female brood fish (Fermin 1991).
di-ammonium phosphate (18-46-0), urea (46-0-0), and Hormones are also applied to induce sex reversal. The
ammonium sulfate (21-0-0) are the most widely used fer- culture of monosex fish has been shown to improve
tilizers in Philippine aquaculture. In combination with growth compared to mixed sex culture because a greater
lime, ammonium sulfate is also used to kill unwanted spe- portion of energy in feed is channeled toward somatic
cies as part of pond preparation before stocking. Organic growth rather than reproduction (Chakraborty et al.
fertilizers, mainly animal manure, are also widely used in 2011). In the Philippines, the most common species
Philippine aquaculture. that undergoes sex reversal through hormone treatment
of methyltestosterone (MT) is tilapia.
Anesthetics are employed in fisheries and aqua-
5.2.2  Soil and Water Conditioners culture in instances when the fish need to be transport-
Aside from fertilizers, other chemicals are used in the ed or handled, which is stressful to the fish. Immersion
preparation of ponds before stocking to improve soil and in an anesthetic bath is the most common method used
water quality. These chemicals act as soil or water condi- for fish and crustaceans. Environmental and human
tioners. Lime is applied to adjust the pH of the pond soil safety regulations on the use of anesthetics in aquacul-
to neutral or alkaline to promote volatilization of ammo- ture are not yet in place in the Philippines.
nia. Lime is also a disinfectant. Application is by broad- The use of antibacterial treatment in aquaculture
casting on dried and caked pond bottom. Commonly became widespread in the 1970s when bacterial patho-
used types of lime in pond preparation are agricultural gens became increasingly prevalent and aquaculture
 FISHERIES 77

operations intensified. Method of dosing of these an- Table 24:  Organic matter and nutrient
tibiotics may be through (1) immersion or water bath, loading for 1 ton of harvested
(2) injection, (3) topical application, or (4) incorpora- shrimp, alternative FCRs
tion as a feed ingredient. The last is the more common
Organic matter Nitrogen Phosphorus
approach, particularly for shrimp culture. FCR kg/ton kg/ton kg/ton

1 500 26 13
1.5 875 56 21
5.4  Pollution from Fish Aquaculture
2 1,250 87 28
2.5 1,625 117 38
5.4.1 Nutrient Loading Source: Asian Shrimp Culture Council 1993, as cited by White et al. 2008.
Nitrogen and phosphorus loading has been associated
with aquaculture activities in major aquatic resource
systems in the country. in Masbate. The sites have varying degrees of aquacul-
A study on nitrogen and phosphorus utilization of for- ture activity. Results show a narrow concentration range
mulated feeds under controlled laboratory conditions for nitrogen from older core samples to newer ones. On
show that an equivalent of only 33 percent of nitrogen the other hand, phosphorus showed significantly higher
and 29 percent of phosphorus is retained in fish (as bio- levels in younger or more recently deposited sediments.
mass) and the rest lost through fecal and urinary excre- Sediments deposited 30 years ago and older had 20
tion (Cuvin-Aralar 2003). As this was done in the labo- ppm phosphorus. On the other hand, a two–threefold
ratory, the feed ration was visibly consumed by the fish increase in phosphorus levels was noted in sediments de-
with some unquantified, but considered minor, nutri- posited within the last 15 years. Phosphorus sediment
ent losses through leaching. Unabsorbed nutrients are a profiles reflected the intensity of aquaculture activities in
major concern as eutrophication results from the heavy the different sites. The aquaculture activities in Honda
inputs of nutrients in the aquatic environment, mainly Bay and Malampaya Sound in Palawan had lower aqua-
from unconsumed feeds, aquatic animal wastes, and culture intensity. Manila Bay has about 39 km2 of fish
other inputs into the aquatic system to boost production. cages and it is located adjacent to urban centers. Bolinao
Feed conversion rates vary with species, feeding has more than 1,100 fish cages, mainly milkfish (Chanos
strategy, and feeding management. Overfeeding results chanos) and Milagros Bay is a developing aquaculture
in a high feed conversion ratio (FCR), with excess nu- site with shellfish as the major product. Phosphorus con-
trients entering the culture environment as organic centrations in these sites ranged from 10 to 90 ppm. In-
sediments or dissolved nutrients in the water column. crease in nutrients coincided with harmful algal bloom
Nitrogen and phosphorus loading rates from 1 ton of events in the study sites, when effective phosphorus in-
shrimp harvest have ranged from 10 to 117 kg N and 9 put exceeded 130 kg/km2/year. Aside from the physical
to 46 kg P, depending on the FCR (White et al. 2008). attributes of each of the study sites and urbanization of
Table 24 shows model estimates of amounts of nitrogen the coastal zones, the proliferation of aquaculture activ-
and phosphorus released to the aquatic environment ities is a major contributor to the observed increase in
from aquaculture as a function of FCR. phosphorus levels in the sediment. Table 26 summarizes
David et al. (2009) documented the increasing the phosphorus values obtained for the study sites.
nutrient flux in sediment cores from aquaculture activi- The coastal waters of Bolinao, Pangasinan, are
ties in a number of marine aquaculture sites in the Phil- being adversely affected by mariculture activities,
ippines: Honda Bay and Malampaya Sound in Palawan, which release organic matter from unconsumed feed
Manila Bay, Bolinao in Pangasinan, and Milagros Bay and fecal material. In 20 years (1995–2005) came an
78 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Table 25:  Phosphorus values from noteworthy incident was the 2011 massive fish kill that
marine aquaculture sites in the disrupted socioeconomic activities in the lake, with re-
Philippines corded losses of approximately PHP 140 million. The
event was attributed to an interplay of factors such as
Site Characteristics P-range, ppm
lake overturn, water pollution, change in season (that
Malampaya Capture fisheries; shellfish 15–85 is, summer to rainy season), changes in wind stress, and
Sound culture
intermittent rainfall (BFAR 2011).
Honda Bay less aquaculture development 22 (average)
From 1998 to 2011, lake overturn and pollution
Manila Bay 39 km fish cages
2
20–60
were the major causes of reported fish kill in Taal Lake
Bolinao Bay 1,100 fish cages (milkfish) 20–90
Milagros Bay Developing aquaculture site 15–40
(Figure 47) (Magcale-Macandog et al. 2013b). Increase in
Baseline value 15–20
wind turbulence and low atmospheric temperature cools
Source: David et al. 2009.
the lake water surface layer (epilimnion) and erodes the
thermal stratification of the water column (ADB 2004;
Balistrieri et al. 2006; Caliro et al. 2008; Marti-Cardona
uncontrolled proliferation of fish pens and cages, reach- et al. 2008). In combination with the pressure of strong
ing double the allowable limit of 544 units. Water qual- winds, mixing of water occurs. This transports the low
ity has turned eutrophic, with ammonia increasing by dissolved oxygen and reduced chemical substances such
56 percent, nitrite by 35 percent, nitrate by 90 percent, as H2S, nitrite (NO2-), and ammonia (NH3) from the lake
and phosphate by 67 percent. This contributed to the bottom to the water surface, as well as mixing them in lo-
first reported dinoflagellate (Prorocentrum minimum) calized portions of the lake. The lake then goes into a state
bloom in the Philippines, associated with a fish kill of hypoxia, characterized by low dissolved oxygen, that is,
event in 2002 (San Diego-Mcglone et al. 2008). below 2 mg/L. This undesirable water quality subsequent
Taal Lake has multiple uses and benefits such to lake overturn triggers fish kills in Taal Lake.
as open water fisheries, commercial aquaculture, recre-
ational activities, navigation routes, and water source.
Of particular interest are the immense aquaculture ac- 5.4.2 Nutrients and Pathogens from
tivities in the lake that started in the 1980s by which Excreta
tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and milkfish (Chanos cha- Use of animal wastes in aquaculture raises the
nos) culture was introduced (Papa and Mamaril 2011). possibility of pathogen contamination in both cultured
The proliferation of fish pens and cages has affected the organisms and the aquatic environment.
water quality of the lake. It is estimated that 64 percent The use of excretory waste products, from both animals
of the nitrogen and 81 percent of the phosphorus con- and humans, has been a common practice in many
tents of fish feed are released into the lake environment Asian countries where aquaculture is present. The Phil-
(Edwards 1993). Yambot (2000) calculated that for ev- ippines does not traditionally use human wastes for
ery 1.5 tons of fish feed given, 16 kg of phosphorus is re- fertilizers in aquaculture ponds, but the use of animal
leased into the Taal Lake waters. Further, the excess fish waste is a common practice. In 1989, the WHO esti-
feeds and fish feces contribute to the increased organic mated that at least two-thirds of the world’s aquacul-
material that settles at the bottom of the lake. Decom- ture production of fish comes from ponds fertilized by
position of this organic matter releases hydrogen sulfide human and animal waste (Howgate 1998).
(H2S) and other toxic gases (White et al. 2007). Although the trend in the overall use of fecal
Significant fish kill occurrences in Taal Lake wastes is in decline worldwide, the Philippines still uses
have created major economic setbacks in the area. One livestock manure as organic fertilizers in ponds. The use
 FISHERIES 79

Figure 47:  Occurrences of fish kill in Taal Lake due to various factors based on BFAR
announcements and reports from 1998 to 2011
200 3.0
180
2.5
Wind direction (degrees)

160

Wind velocity (mps)

140 2.0
120
100 1.5
80
60 1.0
40 0.5
20
0 0
0 5 0 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Week
Wind direction Fish kill due to pollution Wind velocity Fish kill due to lake overturn
Fish kill due to timud infestation Fish kill due to oxygen depletion Fish kill due to sulfur upwelling
Sources: BFAR and PAGASA; Graph by Magcale-Macandog et al. 2013b.

of animal (and human) wastes as fertilizers in aquacul- hectare would produce 56 tons N and 21 tons P. These
ture may result in the transfer of excreted pathogens like nutrients reach the pond as uneaten feed and excreted
bacteria, viruses, and helminths not only to the aquatic matter. Nutrient input from shrimp pond fertilization
environment but also to the cultured organisms which in would be two orders of magnitude lower at the highest
turn results in transfer to human consumers of the fishery reported application rate of di-ammonium phosphate.
product. Although thus far there is no available docu- Ammonia (NH3) is the principal form of nitrogen
mentation on actual transfer of pathogens from aqua- excreted by fish and the main sink for this is phyto-
culture products reared in ponds fertilized with excreta plankton uptake, with nitrification as well as volatiliza-
in the Philippines, other countries have documented tion considered minor. Sediments may act as a source
the bioaccumulation of pathogenic viruses and bacteria of ammonia as well and as a sink for nitrite and nitrate.
in muscle tissue of shellfish exposed to animal and hu- Nitrogen biochemistry in aquaculture ponds is highly
man feces (Schwab et al. 1998). The potential to infect affected by feeds and feeding practices, water exchange
humans through direct dermal contact (of aquaculture and circulation, aeration, pond depth, and other man-
wastewater) or ingestion of improperly cooked contami- agement procedures (Hargreaves 1998). Decreased bio-
nated fish products is a possibility (Sapkota et al. 2008). availability of phosphorus in the diet for shrimp would
determine loading as waste materials to the pond.
Fish excretion is a principal source of nitrogen and
phosphorus.
The levels of nitrogen and phosphorus excreted by 5.4.3 Other Types of Contamination
cultured species depend on the FCR. Shrimp is a top Antibiotic and pesticide use in aquaculture has left
culture commodity that is used heavily in diets high measurable residues in cultured organisms and the
in protein, compared to other species. An FCR of 1.5 aquatic environment, with its implied risks to animal
is estimated to produce 56 kg N and 21 kg P per ton and human populations.
of shrimp produced (Asian Shrimp Culture Council, A survey of residues of various chemicals, specifically
as cited by White et al. 2000). A ton of shrimp per selected antibiotic and pesticide residues in Philippine
80 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

aquaculture and fishery products was conducted use of veterinary drugs, including antibiotics, as used in
recently by Coloso, Catacutan and Arnaiz (2015) aquaculture is difficult to document as the drugs are of-
from samples of tilapia, milkfish, sea bass, snapper, ten similar to those used for humans (Howgate 1998).
grouper, rabbitfish, carp, catfish, silver perch, tiger
shrimp, white shrimp, and freshwater prawn. Some
of the fish sampled showed positive results for the 5.4.4 Aquaculture and the Introduction of
antibiotic oxytetracycline (OTC) and oxalinic acid Alien Species
(OXA) as well as for organochlorine pesticides (OCP) The introduction of alien species in aquaculture systems
for both high-value and low-value fish commodities. has reduced biodiversity and posed other environmental
OXA and OTC were the most common antibiotic risks.
residues found and methoxychlor for OCP from Introduced species have far-reaching adverse envi-
Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. OXA in P. vanna- ronmental impacts. The loss of most of the endemic
mei sample from Mindanao was found to exceed the cyprinids in Lake Lanao, the third largest lake in the
MRL (based on Japan Food Chemical Research) and country, has been attributed to the introduction of the
Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL, based on Occupa- white goby Glossogobius giurus and the eleotrid Hypse-
tional Safety and Health Administration, U.S. based). leotris agilis (Juliano, Guerrero III, and Ronquillo
In one sample of freshwater prawn Macrobrachium sp. 1989). The introduction of the Thai catfish Clarias
from Luzon, the level of endosulfan I (0.0144 ppm) batracus has resulted in the loss of the native catfish
was considered harmful based on the PEL (0.00642) Clarias macrocephalus in many inland water bodies in
and MRL (0.005). the country.
A study conducted by Tendencia and de la Peña Cuvin-Aralar (2014) compared the fish biodi-
(2001) compared the resistance to antibiotics of mi- versity in an aquaculture and non-aquaculture site in
crobial populations (mostly Vibrios) in shrimp ponds Laguna Lake the largest inland water body in the Phil-
currently using antibiotics, those that have used an- ippines that is widely used for fish production. Results
tibiotics before, and ponds which did not use antibi- showed that fish biodiversity was significantly lower in
otics. Their results showed that the highest percent- the aquaculture site compared to the non-aquaculture
age of microbials with multiple antibiotic resistance site. There was a significantly higher predominance
from ponds that were using antibiotics (OXA) at the of introduced species for culture (Nile tilapia, big-
time of the sampling, followed by those from ponds head carp, Tra catfish) compared to native species in
which used antibiotics before. The lowest incidence of the aquaculture site. The non-aquaculture site had sig-
antibiotic resistance was in ponds that have not used nificantly higher relative dominance of native species.
antibiotics. Antibiotic resistance was shown for oxy- Indices of biodiversity such as Shannon-Wiener Index,
tetracycline, furazolidone, OXA, and chloramphen- Simpson Index, and Evenness all indicate significantly
icol. Further, the study also showed no correlation higher fish biodiversity in non-aquaculture sites (Cu-
of resistance with the actual type of antibiotic used, vin-Aralar 2014).
with the highest incidence of resistance to OXA and Aside from adverse impacts on biodiversity,
furazolidone. introduced aquatic species have also adversely affect-
Because many antibiotics used in aquaculture are ed other environmental factors. The introduction of
also used for humans, concerns of antibiotic resistance the golden apple snail, Pomacea canaliculata, caused
and other subsequent effects on human health have considerable havoc in rice fields. The snails are also
been raised (Marshall and Levy 2011). However, con- vectors of a rat lungworm that also affects humans
crete evidence for any possible harm to humans by the (Joshi 2006).
 FISHERIES 81

5.5 Regulatory Standards for Fish and and feed quality, water management, disease control
Fishery Products from Capture and management, animal welfare, postharvest and
Fisheries and Aquaculture transport. Establishment of the Code for GAqP is part
of the Philippine commitment to the ASEAN Road-
Regulatory standards for fish aquaculture are codified map for ASEAN Community 2009–2015, seeking to
as Philippine National Standards (PNS), Code enhance intra and extra-ASEAN trade and long-term
of Good Aquaculture Practice (GAqP), and the competitiveness of ASEAN food, agriculture, and for-
Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) estry products and commodities.
Guidelines for the Use of Chemicals in Aquaculture. ASEAN has recently published the ‘Guidelines
The PNS for Aquaculture Feeds have also been finalized for the use of Chemicals in Aquaculture and Measures
and published (PNS/BAFPS 2014), which sets nutrient to Eliminate the use of Harmful Chemicals’ (ASEAN
standards for feeds for various commodities and for dif- Secretariat 2013). Note that most antibiotics and an-
ferent life stages, together with standards for pellet qual- timicrobials are allowed in the Philippines but prohib-
ity and stability. The standard also lists prohibited veter- ited in the rest of ASEAN; likewise some chemothera-
inary drug feeds (Table 26) adopted from the Philippine peutants (trichlorfon, tirfluralin). There is no chemical
Veterinary Drug Directory. It is noteworthy that despite that is banned in the Philippines and allowed elsewhere,
a ban on the use of antibiotics like chloramphenicol as suggesting that the rest of ASEAN adopts a more con-
early as 1990, the drug was still in use when a survey was servative stance toward chemicals in aquaculture.
conducted by Cruz-Lacierda et al. in 1995–1996. Under these ASEAN guidelines, the Bureau of
The Code of Conduct for GAqP was published Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) is the desig-
in 2014 (PNS/BAFPS 2014). The Code states mini- nated Competent Authority (CA) for the regulation of
mum compliance requirements covering location, hy- chemicals used in aquaculture while the Food and Drug
giene/sanitation, waste disposal/removal, culture envi- Administration of the Department of Health (DOH) is
ronment preparation including application/dispensing the CA for veterinary drugs and the FPA is the CA for
of chemical inputs and veterinary drugs, feed inputs pesticides (Coloso, Catacutan, and Arnaiz 2015).

Table 26:  Veterinary drugs prohibited in aquaculture feeds

Drug Subject
Clenbuterol, Salbutamol, Terbutalin, Pirbuterol Ban on the use, in food-producing animals, of beta-agonist drugs that are used by humans as
bronchodilators and tocolytic agents (as of 2003)
Furaltadone, Furazolidone, Nitrofurazone Declaring a ban/phase-out of the use of nitrofurans in food- producing animals (as of 2000)
Carbadox, Olaquindox Ban and withdrawal of olaquindox and carbadox from the market (as of 2000)
Chloramphenicol Declaring a ban on the use of chloramphenicol in food-producing animals (as of 1990)
Source: PNS/BAFPS 2014.
SYNTHESIS AND
KNOWLEDGE GAPS 6
Environmental Impacts of Agricultural Pollution

Table 27 is a qualitative summary of the environmental impacts of various sources

of agricultural pollution. The matrix reflects the resource system, pollution source,
and commodity category.

Impacts on Water Resources

Pollution of surface waters is a key environmental issue. Agriculture is a major

contributor.
Inefficient use of inorganic fertilizers in cropping systems releases nutrients into
water bodies through runoff and leaching
Fertilizer use efficiency involves the correct method of applying ample amount of
fertilizer at the right time for the crop to optimize nutrient uptake and within the
capacity of the soil to retain the nutrients. Inefficient use of inorganic fertilizers in
cropping systems have been documented in rice (NSCB 2000), rice-sweet pepper
(Ladha et al. 1998), temperate vegetables in the Cordilleras (Ngidlo 2013), and
agroecosystems in Laguna (Maredia, Dakouo, and Mota-Sanchez 2003) releasing
nitrates, ammonium, phosphates, and silica to water bodies through runoff erosion
and leaching that often result to contamination of groundwater. Also included in
the runoff erosion are the soil nutrients, soil sediments, and suspended solids which
lead to eutrophication. Eutrophication leads to algal blooms which cause stress,
84 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Table 27:  Impacts of agricultural pollution from the various sectors on environmental
resources

Crops Animals
Resource
system Source of pollution Annual Perennial Livestock Poultry Aquaculture
Water Excrement, feed, n.a n.a Swine Chicken Fish, shrimp
carcasses
Fertilizer Rice, corn, sugarcane, Banana, pineapple, n.a n.a Fish, shrimp
vegetables mango
Chemicals Rice, corn, sugarcane, Banana, pineapple, Swine Chicken Fish, shrimp
vegetables mango
Land Fertilizer Rice, corn, sugarcane, Banana, pineapple, n.a n.a Fish, shrimp
(Soil and Sediments) vegetables mango
Application of animal Rice, corn, sugarcane, Banana, pineapple, Swine and Poultry manure n.a
manure on cropland vegetables mango cattle manure
Chemicals Rice, corn, sugarcane, Banana, pineapple, Swine Chicken Fish
vegetables mango
Plastic vegetables Banana n.a n.a n.a
Air GHG Rice, corn, sugarcane n.a Cattle (enteric Poultry manure n.a
(Odorous gases) fermentation)
Swine (waste)
Burning of crop residues Rice, corn, sugarcane Coconut n.a n.a n.a
Human Health and Pesticide residues Vegetables Banana, pineapple, n.a n.a n.a
Antibiotic Resistance mango
Pathogens from wastes n.a n.a Animal waste Poultry manure Aquaculture
Antibiotics, hormones n.a n.a Swine Poultry Fish
Ecosystem and Chemicals (Pesticides) Rice, corn, sugarcane, Banana, pineapple, Swine Poultry Aquaculture
Biodiversiy vegetables mango
Alien species n.a n.a n.a n.a Aquaculture
Note: n.a. = Not applicable.

impair the immune system, and damage the living 13 percent to total BOD loading in 1995 (8,620 tons/
organisms and eventually disrupt aquatic life. year) and 11.5 percent to total BOD loading in 2000
In 2012, the total nutrient loading of Ma- (8,544 tons/year). In 2000, Laguna Lake had a total
nila Bay system was 1,245 kg NH4-N/day; 4,526 kg nitrogen load of 13,800 tons from various sources:
NO3-N/day, and1,877 kg P/day, of which the Pasig domestic sources (79 percent), agricultural practices
River Basin is the major contributor. It is the rice crop- (16.5 percent), industrial wastes (4.5 percent), and oth-
ping system that contributes greatly to nitrogen loading er sources (0.5 percent) (LLDA 2003).
into the Manila Bay system, amounting to 23,706 tons
of N, which accounts for 51 percent of the applied ni- Pesticide application leads to groundwater and surface
trogen fertilizer (Samar 2012). water pollution through leaching and runoff
In 1995, Laguna Lake had a total BOD load- The continuous and intensive use of chemical pesti-
ing of 66,305 tons/year and in 2000, BOD load- cides can lead to groundwater and surface water pol-
ing was 74,300 tons/year. Agriculture contributed lution through leaching and runoff. A water sample in
 SYNTHESIS AND KNOWLEDGE GAPS 85

vegetable growing areas in Benguet was also found to other disease vectors in rivers and water bodies polluted
have a high level of pesticide residue which is toxic to with animal wastes.
aquatic biota (Lu 2009). The eutrophication potential of swine produc-
tion in Laguna Province has been estimated at a total
Livestock production, especially of backyard swine, is of 1,193.3 tons, which can have significant cumulative
the major contributor of localized pollution of surface impacts on local aquatic environments and the lake
waters. ecosystem as a whole (Alcantara et al. 2008). The nega-
The review of various sectors has uncovered clear evi- tive impact of eutrophication is that high primary pro-
dence of damage to the environment due to agricul- ductivity, in response to the abundant nutrient supply,
tural pollution in the case of water bodies in large swine occasionally leads to massive fish mortality.
growing areas. Typically, these areas will be dominated Untreated animal waste application to farmland
by backyard systems which typically dump untreated can be a cause for nutrient overload (Alcantara et al.
waste into nearby streams and waterways. The wastes 2008). This will increase the risk of nutrient runoff and
lead to excess nutrient loading, eutrophication, and leaching, which in turn pollutes water resources.
related problems; pathogenic bacteria may, further- Over time, such pollution has decreased the quali-
more, cause contamination of drinking water supplies. ty and productivity of affected water bodies because their
Waste from swine farms is generally composed assimilative capacities have likewise deteriorated. Thus,
of manure, urine, feeds, and water used for cleaning, receiving waters are rendered unfit even for noncontact
flushing, and cooling. In the Philippines, indiscriminate activities and irrigation. In extreme instances, surface
dumping of swine and untreated wastewater directly waters have become biologically dead. Evidence of such
into creeks, rivers, and other receiving water bodies has cases in Central Luzon, Southern Luzon, and Northern
resulted in the pollution of these surface waters. Back- Mindanao has been locally documented (Catelo and
yard swine farms are major contributors to water pollu- Narrod 2008). Benig River in Tarlac is now biologically
tion because of the farrow-to-wean predominant type dead from the discharge points of swine wastes.
of production activity. Livestock wastes coming from
Regions 3 and 4-A are one of the major sources of pol- Wastewater from slaughterhouses has high capacity to
lution of Manila Bay and Laguna Lake (Ronda 2014). pollute the environment.
In Laguna, as much as 68 percent of the dis- Wastewaters from slaughterhouses have high organic
posed wastewater from poultry and swine farms is di- load and organic nutrients, adequate alkalinity, and
rectly discharged to a nearby creek, river, canal, and/or relatively high temperature. Slaughterhouses generate
open space (Alcantara et al. 2008). About 36 percent of an average of 30 to 40 gallons (0.113 to 0.151 m3) per
the estimated 5,000 tons N loading came from the live- hog slaughtered. Raw wastewater BOD5 concentration
stock and poultry sectors in 1973 (Reyes 2012). A fol- reportedly averages 2,500 mg/L (Maranan et al. 2008).
low-up study estimated that 16.5 percent of the 13,800 The waste matter from slaughterhouses has a high capac-
tons N loading into Laguna Lake came from agricul- ity to pollute the environment due to the high content
ture in 2000. Swine wastes produced within the prov- of animal blood and fat, dirt, and other pollutants.
ince discharged raw dump, at an estimated 3,600 tons Most slaughterhouses reportedly process an av-
PO4 per year, into the catchment (LLDA 2003). The erage of 200 to 260 animals per day, from which dis-
BOD loading from non-point sources was estimated to charge rates are lower than the standard discharge of
be at 465,595 tons in 2013, of which the contributions 30 m3/day. Majority of slaughterhouses, poultry dress-
from agricultural runoff were estimated at 61 percent. ing plants, and meat processing plants in the country do
There is also the proliferation of flies and insects and not even met the minimum standard of accreditation,
86 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

which is Class A by the NMIS. They are not regarded as Likewise, the proliferation of fish pens and cages
‘accredited’ but only ‘registered’ at the local level. in Taal Lake has affected the water quality of the lake.
It is estimated that 64 percent of the nitrogen and 81
A secondary contributor to water pollution is percent of the phosphorus contents of fish feed are re-
aquaculture, localized in water bodies dense with leased into the lake environment. For every 1.5 tons of
cultured fish. fish feed given, 16 kg of phosphorus is released into the
Problems have been noted in selected water bodies Taal Lake waters (Edwards 1993). Further, the excess
where cage and pen aquaculture has grown unchecked, fish feeds and fish feces contribute to the increased or-
that is, Laguna de Bay, previously in Taal Lake, and ganic material that settles at the bottom of the lake. De-
Bolinao, Pangasinan. In other areas where fish cages composition of this organic matter releases hydrogen
are less widespread and stocking densities lower, water sulfide (H2S) and other toxic gases (White et al. 2007).
bodies are able to absorb emissions from fish excrement From 1998 to 2011, lake overturn and pollution were
as well as excess fertilizers and feeds. However, fish the major causes of reported fish kill in Taal Lake (Mag-
aquaculture involves much lower production volumes cale-Macandog et al. 2013b).
compared to farming of livestock and poultry; hence,
the problem is much more localized. Fish excretion is a principal source of nitrogen and
A study on nitrogen and phosphorus utilization phosphorus.
of formulated feeds under controlled laboratory condi- The levels of nitrogen and phosphorus excreted by cul-
tions show that an equivalent of only 33 percent of ni- tured species depend on the FCR. Shrimp is a top cul-
trogen and 29 percent of phosphorus is retained in fish ture commodity that is used heavily in diets high in
(as biomass) and the rest lost through fecal and urinary protein, compared to other species. An FCR of 1.5 is
excretion. Nitrogen and phosphorus loading rates from estimated to produce 56 kg N and 21 kg P per ton of
1 ton of shrimp harvest have ranged from 10 to 117 shrimp produced (Asian Shrimp Culture Council, as
kg N and 9 to 46 kg P, depending on the FCR (Asian cited by White et al. 2008). These nutrients reach the
Shrimp Culture Council 1993, as cited by White et al. pond as uneaten feed and excreted matter.
2008). Feed conversion rates vary with species, feeding
strategy, and feeding management. Overfeeding results
in a high FCR, with excess nutrients entering the cul- Impacts on Land Resources
ture environment as organic sediments or dissolved nu-
trients in the water column. Cropping system intensification to boost food
The coastal waters of Bolinao, Pangasinan, are production leads to environmental degradation
being adversely affected by mariculture activities, which Intensification of cropping systems to optimize pro-
release organic matter from unconsumed feed and fe- duction of various major crops involve increased crop-
cal material. In 20 years (1995–2005) there has been ping frequency, increased fertilizer application to boost
an uncontrolled proliferation of fish pens and cages, growth and crop yield, and increased pesticide appli-
reaching double the allowable limit of 544 units. Water cation to control pests and diseases. These efforts may
quality has turned eutrophic, with ammonia increasing lead to environmental degradation such as depletion
by 56 percent, nitrite by 35 percent, nitrate by 90 per- of soil nutrients, leaching of excess fertilizers into the
cent, and phosphate by 67 percent. This contributed environment, pesticide residues in soil, and soil ero-
to the first reported dinoflagellate (Prorocentrum mini- sion. Moreover, the cultivation of fragile and marginal
mum) bloom in the Philippines, associated with a fish upland areas can lead to deforestation and accelerated
kill event in 2002 (San DiegoMcglone et al. 2008). soil erosion.
 SYNTHESIS AND KNOWLEDGE GAPS 87

Long-term application of inorganic fertilizer (for concentration of heavy metals in soil originating from
example, ammonium sulfate) may lead to build-up of soil fortified animal feed can lead to undesirable effects such
acidity. Evidences of soil acidification due to intensive as decrease in soil fertility and plant toxicity.
nitrogenous fertilizer application have been reported in On the other hand, the waste generated by poul-
intensively cropped soils in La Trinidad, Benguet, grown try farms is usually composed of manure, spilled feeds,
with common bean and continuous planting of corn and feathers, and bedding materials. Poultry wastes can be
sweet potato (Gutierrez and Barraquio 2010). Increased disposed by either selling it to chicken manure traders
soil acidity renders other essential nutrients unavailable who deliver to vegetable farms or by spreading on the
for crop uptake and may destroy soil aggregation, thereby poultry farmer’s land as organic fertilizer. Finally, cattle
increasing the risk to soil erosion of the topsoil. manure in stall pens are usually scraped and allowed to
The other important crops heavily applied with decompose in the roofed shed or open space and then
pesticides are vegetables and banana. The pesticides dumped in pasture or crop areas (Paraso et al. 2010).
commonly used in growing temperate vegetables in
the provinces of Benguet, Mt. Province, and Ifugao Soil treatment chemicals and fertilizers during
in the Cordilleras belong to the pyrethroid, organo- pond preparation for aquaculture may lead to water
phosphates, and carbamate class of pesticides (Ngidlo pollution, resulting in algal blooms.
2013). In Benguet, Philippines, 44 percent of soil sam- Fertilizers, water and soil treatment chemicals, disinfec-
ples tested positive for pesticide residues of pyrethroids, tants, antibiotics, pesticides (molluscicides, piscicides,
organophosphates, and carbamates. algicides), and antibiotics are among the most common
This intensive use of pesticides resulted in prob- groups of compounds used in aquaculture. Almost
lems such as resistance to other pesticides, high cost of all extensive and semi-intensive aquaculture rely on
pesticides, toxic hazards, contamination of soil, reduc- fertilizers and manure (de Silva and Hassan 2007).
tion of natural enemies and pollinators, and decreased Mono-ammonium phosphate (16-20-0), di-ammo-
number of microorganisms in water and paddy soil nium phosphate (18-46-0), urea (46-0-0), and ammo-
which maintain the fertility while decreasing the use of nium sulfate (21-0-0) are the most widely used fertil-
chemical fertilizer. The degree and frequency of these izers in Philippine aquaculture. In combination with
effects are greatly influenced by the type of chemical, its lime, ammonium sulfate is also used to kill unwanted
tenacity, and quantities used. species as part of pond preparation before stocking.
Crop residue burning results in decline of soil Organic fertilizers, mainly animal manure, are also
organic matter and contributes to the gradual decline widely used in Philippine aquaculture.
in soil fertility and productivity. Increasing nutrient flux in sediment cores from
aquaculture activities in a number of marine aquacul-
Application of untreated livestock waste and poultry ture sites in the Philippines, including Honda Bay and
manure on croplands may lead to nutrient overload Malampaya Sound in Palawan, Manila Bay, Bolinao
and plant toxicity. in Pangasinan, and Milagros Bay in Masbate, has been
The most common disposal method in backyard swine documented (David et al. 2009). Sediments deposit-
farms is to throw manure into the waterways or lay it on ed 30 years ago and older had 20 ppm phosphorus. A
the ground to decompose (Catelo and Narrod 2008). two–threefold increase in phosphorus levels was not-
Large-scale swine farms use manure by applying it to the ed in sediments deposited within the last 15 years. In-
agricultural land as fertilizers for crops (Alcantara et al. crease in nutrient coincided with harmful algal bloom
2008). Untreated animal waste application to farmland events when effective phosphorus input exceeded
can be a cause for nutrient overload. In addition, high 130 kg/km2/year.
88 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Plastic wastes from cropping systems are potential oxide. Cattle and carabao industry contributed 90 per-
sources of hazardous pollutants. cent of the total methane emission, due to enteric fermen-
Plastic bags and bottles contaminated with pesticides tation. Using the IPCC Tier 1 Method and based on the
are potential sources of pollutants. Empty pesticide 2014 national livestock and poultry inventory, 11.7 mil-
bottles that are left in the farm are prone to releasing lion tons of CO2eq/year can be emitted by the livestock
poisonous liquids that can flow to nearby surface water and poultry subsector under Scenario A, 9.9 million tons
bodies, especially during the rainy season. Sprayers used of CO2eq/year under Scenario B, and 7.1 million tons of
to spray pesticides were washed in nearby rivers. CO2eq/year under Scenario C. In Scenario A, 25 percent
Plastic bags that are used to wrap banana fruit manure is properly utilized and 75 percent is potentially
bunches and are contaminated with pesticides are not polluting; in Scenario B, it is 50:50, and in Scenario C,
properly disposed of and some farming households even 90 percent and 10 percent, correspondingly.
use them for other domestic purposes in their homes. GHG contribution of fisheries and aquaculture
Similarly, plastic mulches used in other cropping systems and related supply chains are small when compared to
like strawberries and vegetables are potential agricultur- other sectors.
al pollutants that need proper disposal. These improper
methods have negative impacts on the soil and water. Burning of crop residues releases toxic gases into the
atmosphere.
Burning of rice, corn, and sugarcane residues is also a
Impacts on Air quick way to lose the precious nutrients (particularly
nitrogen) from the residues, contributes to GHG emis-
Major sources of GHG emissions from agriculture sions (methane and nitrous oxide), and releases toxic
sector are methane emissions from irrigated rice and gases into the atmosphere.
N2O emissions from synthetic fertilizer application
and enteric fermentation from ruminants. Decomposition of animal manure releases gaseous
Livestock and poultry production are a localized nui- pollutants into the air.
sance owing to emission of noxious gases; of greater Major gas pollutants from livestock and poultry produc-
impact on the planet’s atmosphere is emission of GHGs tion include ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, methane,
from enteric fermentation, as well as from crop farming nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, and other odorous gases
through burning of residues and releases of gases from (Burton and Turner 2003). Majority of these gases come
irrigated rice agriculture. In 2012, the total GHG emis- from freshly deposited or stored feces and urine and are
sions from the Philippine agricultural sector increased released through aerobic or anaerobic decomposition.
by 38 percent from the 2000 GHG inventory to 51,256
Gg CO2eq (FAOSTAT 2013). Methane emission from
rice cultivation constitutes about 64 percent (32,951 Impacts to Human Health and
Gg) while N2O emission from synthetic fertilizer appli- Antibiotic Resistance
cation accounts for 6 percent (2,887 Gg). Burning of
crop residues contributes about 1 percent, composed of Evidences of pesticide residues exceeding the MRL,
309 Gg CH4 and 118 Gg N2O. N2O emissions from particularly hazardous and toxic active ingredients, in
the decomposition of crop residues left in the field con- food crops like vegetables have been detected in several
tribute about 3 percent (1,767 Gg). regions in the country.
Livestock account for 30 percent of GHG from Too much use of pesticide can be harmful and result
agriculture, mainly in the form of methane and nitrous in diseases and food contamination that may lead to
 SYNTHESIS AND KNOWLEDGE GAPS 89

human poisoning. Widely used pesticides (carbofuran, pesticides in Central Luzon was followed by a 27 per-
endrin, parathion, and monocrotophos) in the Philip- cent increase in deaths among the farmers from causes
pines are classified by the WHO as extremely hazardous other than physical injury (Loevinsohn 1987). An av-
(McCracken and Conway 1987). Fungicides are the erage of 503 cases of pesticide poisoning were reported
most commonly used pesticides in banana plantations between 1980 and 1988 (of which 15 percent led to
in Mindanao. The active ingredients of these fungicides death every year). On the other hand, health hazards
include azoxystrobin, biterthanol, propiconazole, tride- prevalent among pregnant women include dermal con-
morph, and others (Fuertes 2006). tamination, fetal abnormalities, spontaneous abortion,
In Santa Maria, Pangasinan, around 20 percent and decrease in cholinesterase level (Lu 2009).
of eggplant samples and 42 percent of soil samples from Based on the records of the NPCMC, mixed
various farms had insecticide residues of 25 commer- pesticide was in the top 10 poisons recorded from 2004
cial brands with varying levels of toxicity. Banned pes- to 2009. Mixed pesticides accounted for 104 of the
ticides and restricted chemicals were frequently sprayed 3,620 poison cases in 2007 and 209 of the 3,931 cases
on vegetable crops, including cabbage, baguio beans, in 2008 (Lu 2010). In 2009, pesticide ranked third,
string beans, tomatoes, pechay, bell pepper, ampalaya, with 164 cases. Of the total number of poisoning cases
and rice (Lu 2009). for six years, from 2004 to 2009, pesticide poisoning
Local vegetables, including bitter gourd, egg- ranks sixth. This means that mixed pesticides have be-
plant, pechay, and tomato, were found to have traces of come one of the main causes of poisoning cases in the
combination of pesticide residues, ranging from as low Philippines.
as 2 to as many as 10 different pesticides. Concentra- Based on NPCMC data, pyrethroid was the
tions of cypermethrin residues in bitter gourd, pechay, most frequent cause of pesticide poisoning from 2008
and tomato; lambda-cyhalothrin in bitter gourd; and to 2009. In 2008, there were 112 recorded pesticide
chlorpyrifos and diazinon in pechay exceeding the poisoning cases due to pyrethroids. Then in 2009, 72
MRL were detected (NPAL 2016). cases were recorded.
In Bohol Province, located in the southern part
Pesticide misuse can cause great health impacts. of Luzon in the Philippines, a mass pesticide poisoning
In Asia, only small dosages of pesticides are being used, case among children was reported in March 2005 be-
which greatly affects the tropical flooded areas than the cause of the chemical carbamate that is commonly used
temperate upland areas. Direct and indirect exposure as household and agricultural pesticides. The victims ate
to chemicals have negative health impacts on humans, cassava that was contaminated by carbamate. This is a
which can cause acute and chronic diseases. The chemi- case of unsafe pesticide storage. The pesticide was mis-
cals being sold in Asia are considered extremely hazard- taken for flour that caused the food poisoning of more
ous; hence, these are banned in the developed countries than 100 children, resulting in 27 deaths (Lu 2010).
(Pingali and Roger 1995). Health costs can be reduced by regulating the
Pesticide misuse can have severe health impacts pesticides through eliminating the least productive and
on the farming communities in the Philippines (Mc- most harmful pesticides (Pingali and Roger 1995).
Cracken and Conway 1987). Numerous researches Untreated animal waste application on farmland
correlated the extent of direct and indirect pesticide can be the cause for nutrient overload. This will in-
exposure to health hazards such as headache, muscle crease the risk of nutrient runoff and leaching, which in
pain, cough, weakness, eye and chest pain, and eye red- turn pollutes water resources. Contamination of pota-
ness. Farmer-users are especially vulnerable to health ble water supplies leads to waterborne diseases in both
effects attributed to pesticides. The widespread use of humans and animals, such as cholera, dysentery, and
90 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

diarrhea (Alcantara et al. 2008). It may also indirectly Exogenous hormones, particularly gonado-
affect animals and humans through the food chain. tropins have been used for years to induce final mat-
uration of captive female brood fish (Fermin 1991).
Use of animal wastes in aquaculture raises the Hormones are also applied to induce sex reversal. In
possibility of pathogen contamination in both cultured the Philippines, the most common species that under-
organisms and the aquatic environment. go sex reversal through hormone treatment of methyl-
The use of animal (and human) wastes as fertilizers testoterone (MT) is tilapia.
in aquaculture may result in the transfer of excreted Anesthetics are employed in fisheries and aqua-
pathogens like bacteria, viruses, and helminths not culture in instances when the fish need to be transport-
only to the aquatic environment but also to the cul- ed or handled, which is stressful for the fish. Immersion
tured organisms, which in turn result in transfer to in an anesthetic bath is the most common method used
human consumers of the fishery product (Schwab et for fish and crustaceans.
al. 1998).

Concerns regarding antibiotic resistance, hormones, Impacts on Ecosystem and Biodiversity

and other subsequent effects on human health have
been raised. Pesticide use disrupts the food chain in rice systems and
Antibiotics are permitted in the Philippines and else- caused BPH pest outbreak.
where, provided that therapeutic indications are valid. A complex food chain of vertebrate (fish, frogs, rats)
Legislation did not stop the overuse of antibiotics as and invertebrate (crustaceans, microcrustaceans,
growth promoters until the Food Safety Act of 2013 aquatic insects, annelids, microflora and microfauna)
(RA No. 10611). Reports of antibiotic-resistant bacte- organisms can be found in rice paddies. The use of
ria isolated from farms and animal carcasses are raising pesticide can reduce the number of species, change
concerns that antibiotic use in agriculture may play a the composition, and contribute to residue accumula-
role in selecting for antibiotic resistance among food- tion in the remaining populations. Aquatic vertebrates
borne bacteria (Marshall and Levy 2011). quickly decline with the use of pesticides in the first
In 2015, samples of tilapia, milkfish, sea bass, five to seven days after applying the pesticide (Bajet and
snapper, grouper, rabbitfish, carp, catfish, silver perch, Magallona 1982; Tejada, Varca and Magallona 1977;
tiger shrimp, white shrimp, and freshwater prawn NCPC 1983; Tejada 1985). The residues in the remain-
showed positive results for the antibiotic OTC and ing populations were usually small. Due to the reduc-
OXA as well as for OCP for both high-value and tion of predators, application of insecticides has small
low-value fish commodities (Coloso, Catacutan and effects on invertebrates (Pingali and Roger 1995).
Arnaiz 2015). In one sample of freshwater prawn Mac- Long-term application of insecticides is harmful
robrachium sp. from Luzon, the level of endosulfan I to the algal community because it decreases its diversity
(0.0144 ppm) was considered harmful based on the and causes rapid growth of small crabs, 1–2 mm long.
PEL (0.00642) and MRL (0.005). In rice fields, application of insecticides and herbicides
Antibiotic resistance was shown for OTC, fura- is the main pesticide that severely affects the microflora.
zolidone, OXA, and chloramphenicol. Because many Carbamate is the most harmful insecticide, followed by
antibiotics used in aquaculture are also used for hu- organochlorines and then organophosphates.
mans, concerns of antibiotic resistance and other sub- Predator and prey balance can be disrupted if
sequent effects on human health have been raised (Mar- pesticides are applied routinely. The use of chemical
shall and Levy 2011). pesticides leads to frequent pest invasions. For instance,
 SYNTHESIS AND KNOWLEDGE GAPS 91

the BPH is mainly affected by the frequency, timing, enemies and ecosystem services. It was found by Heong
and kind of insecticide applied (Heong 1991). (2009) that the pattern of damage in crops often coin-
Isoprocarb is present in fish, frog, and shrimp cides with the patterns of insect spraying in the early
45 days after transplanting and after the application of crop stages (Spangenberg et al. 2015).
herbicide and insecticide because it is less soluble in wa- However, insecticide spraying is not a reliable
ter. Therefore, it can be easily absorbed through the gills strategy in cases of acute infestation and does not pre-
before the toxicant is transferred in flooded paddies. vent future damages resulting from direct feeding and
The chemical is less toxic; thus, the remaining aquatic infections due to virus diseases that the hoppers car-
vertebrates are found in polluted water (Bajet and Ma- ry. The spraying of insecticide has become a routine,
gallona 1982). applied prophylactically, and to maximize its effec-
tiveness, the frequency and dosage are increased, or at
Pesticides used in the Philippines are harmful to other times, mixture of different insecticides were prepared
nontarget species, thereby affecting biodiversity. (Escalada and Heong 2012).
Pesticide application disrupts the natural food chain, The planthopper infestations are seen to be the
eliminating one or more components of the trophic primary driving force at the micro level. The presence
structure that may lead to pest outbreak due to loss of of WBPHs or BPHs creates pressure in the ecosystem.
natural enemies and predators. Therefore, the standard control measure against insects
Majority of the pesticides used by Filipino farm- is applied, that is, insecticide spraying, which kills most
ers are highly poisonous for fish and other aquatic or- of the insects, including the leaf feeding pests. How-
ganisms. The pollutants from the vegetable and rice ever, in the growing season, the problem will reoccur
farming activities within the Pagsanjan-Lumban catch- and BPHs will appear. Unlike during the first season,
ment affect the fisheries in the area (Fabro and Varca the hoppers will multiply this time and spread over the
2012; Varca 2012). Among the pesticides used, the paddies in enormous numbers. At the macro level, the
pyrethroids (lambda-cyhalothrin, deltamethrin, and biological functions of the system are affected, partic-
cypermethrin) were identified to be highly toxic un- ularly the reduction of net primary production (Span-
der laboratory conditions for the tilapia fingerling and genberg et al. 2015).
freshwater shrimp (Varca 2012). Moreover, the sedi- This leads to reduced service potential that
ment-bound contaminants cause changes to the food threatens to diminish or possibly destroy the harvest.
source of crabs, freshwater shrimp, and fish. Poor pesti- This ecological catastrophe translates into a societal
cide management practices may result in decline of rice- problem; that is, there is a reduced harvest, failure in
fish cultures and other invertebrates (Bajet et al. 2012). the local income generation of growers, and even risk in
The toxicity of pesticides leads to high fish mortality nutrition. The immediate response to this catastrophe
rather than bioaccumulation (Pingali and Roger 1995). will follow the same pattern, spraying of insecticides,
in line with the current methods, attitudes, ideologies,
Rice crop develops vulnerabilities to pests due to and past experiences. This does not work as efficiently
insecticide spraying but eventually destroys natural as before, in that the number of insects and the speed of
enemies and ecosystem services. their spread, as well as the damage, becomes manifest.
BPH (Nilaparvata lugens) and whitebacked planthop- Insecticides are found to be a mitigation and not
per (WBPH) (Sogatella furcifera) were found to cause a prevention strategy. The hoppers are found to be po-
huge losses in rice yields (Spangenberg et al. 2015). tential vectors transferring viruses; thus, they represent
Rice crops develop vulnerabilities to pests due to insec- multiple simultaneous pressures in the system. Feed-
ticide spraying, but this eventually destroys natural back loop from the society to the ecological system is,
92 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

however, often overlooked at the micro level. The first Gaps and Recommended Measures to
cycle of spraying insecticides induces changes in the Address Agricultural Pollution
environmental process. Individuals and organizations
like corporations, extension officers, and agro-admin- Table 28 presents a matrix of the gaps identified in this
istrations are either profit driven or ideology driven review, recommended measures to address these gaps,
when they decide to spray insecticides. Existing mech- the relevant stakeholders who can be involved in imple-
anisms of decision making, routines, attitudes, and le- menting the measures, and the classification of the
gal regulations legitimized by a similar ideology of im- measure. Gaps include the need for monitoring data,
proving the standard of living through intensification strengthening enforcement of existing regulations and
mechanisms and chemicalization to create additional strengthening and/or developing new regulations.
income and economic growth are being followed in the
system of intensified insecticide spray (Spangenberg et Crops. The major gaps that this study had identified
al. 2015). are the lack of available data on the kind and amount of
Pressures caused by plans to rescue one ecosys- pesticides actually applied in various cropping systems
tem service in turn threaten other aspects such as water like rice, corn, vegetables, pineapple, banana, tobacco,
purification and pollination. In this particular case, it and other crops grown in the country. There is no
is reducing the biocontrol potential of the respective national agency that collects and monitors the applica-
ecosystem. This will not be noticed in the first round tion of pesticides in various crops. 
of insecticide spray. When the infestation materializes Fertilizer consumption in rice and corn cropping
for the second time, and the pressure on the ecosystem systems are the only data available. Data on the amount
is felt, it will be noticeable that the sensitivity of the and timing of fertilizer application in all other crops
system has increased and its resilience has decreased. It grown in the country are lacking. Data on fertilizer and
can then no longer absorb infestations by limiting their pesticide consumption in plantation crops like pineapple
impact, size, and duration. The hoppers multiply and and banana are not available despite the common knowl-
spread, leading to a partial or total collapse of the en- edge that massive amounts of pesticides and fertilizers are
tire system or some of its parts. When spraying is done applied by multinational companies in these systems.
regularly, the system as a whole may flip permanently Pesticide residues in tropical and temperate veg-
to a different state, with less potential for important etables would likely have a direct impact on human
ecosystem services (Spangenberg et al. 2015). health, thus it is critical to obtain data on the amount,
timing and manner of application of pesticides in these
The introduction of alien species in aquaculture systems food crops. Close monitoring of pesticide residues in
has reduced biodiversity and posed other environmental vegetables locally sold in community markets is necessity
risks. to ensure food safety of consuming these commodities.
Introduced species have far-reaching adverse envi- The only water bodies where studies on the im-
ronmental impacts. The loss of most of the endemic pacts of pollution are being monitored are Manila Bay
cyprinids in Lake Lanao, the third largest lake in the and Laguna Lake. Studies on the impacts of agricultural
country, has been attributed to the introduction of the pollution on the other major water bodies and river ba-
white goby Glossogobius giurus and the eleotrid Hypsele- sins is lacking in the country.
otris agilis (Juliano, Guerrero III, and Ronquillo 1989). Furthermore, pesticide application has adverse
The introduction of the Thai catfish Clarias batracus has impacts on non-target species and there is a lack of
resulted in the loss of the native catfish Clarias macro- studies that investigate the impact of pesticides on the
cephalus in many inland water bodies in the country. population and interactions among the various life
 SYNTHESIS AND KNOWLEDGE GAPS 93

forms (biodiversity) that make up the food chain in the validation of detectable antibiotics in meat; consis-
agricultural systems, particularly the herbivores, polli- tent with the WHO guidelines and developments in
nators, and predators. Europe, the United States, and elsewhere—toward ban
on sub-therapeutic (feeds) use and further limits on
Livestock. Some challenges in the livestock sector therapeutic use in livestock and poultry. This requires
that can be explored are as follows: (a) continued field interagency collaboration among DA/BAI, BFAD,

Table 28:  Gaps and recommended measures to address challenges in agri-pollution

Sector Gap Recommended Measures Relevant Stakeholders Classification

Lack of available data on the kind Include data collection on pesticide Farmer-users, DA extensionists, Institutional
and amount of pesticides actually consumption in the crops (and Municipal Agricultural Officer Measure; Technical
applied and manner of application livestock) sector(s) in the various LGUs (LGU), Provincial Agricultural
in various cropping systems and regions by the PSA. Officer, PSA
No national agency that collects Institutionalize the data collection and PSA and DA, LGU Institutional
and monitors the application of monitoring of application of pesticide Measure; Technical
pesticides in various crops  in various crops.
Lack of data on the amount and Include data collection on amount and Farmer-users, DA Institutional
timing of fertilizer application in all timing of fertilizer application in the extensionists, Municipal Measure; Technical
other crops grown in the country various crops grown in each locality Agricultural Officer (LGU),
(except for rice and corn) by the PSA. Provincial Agricultural Officer,
PSA
Inaccessibility to data on fertilizer Institutionalize the submission of data Multinational companies, PSA Policy, Institutional
and pesticide consumption in on fertilizer and pesticide application/
multinational plantations of crops consumption of multinational
like pineapple and banana plantation crops to the PSA
Lack of systematic and regular Systematic sampling and regular NPAL Capacity building of
monitoring of pesticide residues monitoring of pesticide residues in NPAL technical staff;
in vegetables locally sold in vegetables sold in the public markets Technical (upgrading
CROP
community markets and supermarkets of regional NPAL
laboratories and
equipment)
Lack of studies on the impacts Conduct of multidisciplinary studies DENR, DOST, National Technical, Capacity
of agricultural pollution on the on the ecological and socioeconomic Economic and Development Building
other major water bodies and river impacts of agricultural pollution on Authority (NEDA), DA,
basins in the country (except for river basins and watersheds academia (SUCs and HEIs),
Manila Bay and Laguna Lake) local communities
Lack of studies that investigate Conduct of multidisciplinary DENR, DOST, DA, academia Technical, Capacity
the impact of pesticides on the studies on the ecological impacts (SUCs and HEIs), local Building
population and interactions among of pesticides on biodiversity and communities
the various life forms (biodiversity) ecosystem functions
that make up the food chain in the
agricultural systems
Potentially harmful release of Tighter enforcement of regulation of FPA, LGUs, EMB, DA, industry Policy
harmful pesticides and excess commercial farms associations
nutrients from fertilizers Adoption of alternative production DA, LGUs, farmer Technical
practices and technologies (for organizations
example, organic agriculture)

(continued on next page)

94 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Table 28:  Gaps and recommended measures to address challenges in agri-pollution (continued)

Sector Gap Recommended Measures Relevant Stakeholders Classification

Need for continued field validation Continued inspection and monitoring DA/BAI, (BFAD, DOH, Technical,
of detectable antibiotics in meat of antibiotics, hormones, and so on SUCs-UP System, veterinary Institutional
in meat, practitioners (Philippine
including game fowl carcasses Veterinary Medicine
Association [PVMA]),
Philippine Association of Feed
Millers (PAFMI)
Need for local trials for new Research and development for new DA/BAI, BFAD, DOH, Technical, Capacity
compounds, verification/ validation compounds, verification/validation academia (SUCs and HEIs), Building
of prebiotics and probiotics of prebiotics such as yeast, herbals local drug companies
especially local indigenous/traditional (UNILAB, UNAHCO), National
practices; likewise for probiotics such Biotech Center
as Bacillus spp
Need to validate the benefits from Conduct of multidisciplinary research DA/BAI, BFAD, academia Technical, Capacity
organic agriculture projects, including pilot testing (SUCs and HEIs) Building
vs conventional high-input options of organic livestock from free
practices range and native breeds, compared
to genetically modified organisms
(GMO)-fed commercial livestock;
recycling vermi/composting; labor-
saving measures such as no-tillage,
providers/microfinance and insurance
Need to validate health hazards Conduct monitoring studies to DA/BAI, BFAD, FNRI, Technical, Capacity
LIVESTOCK from antibiotics, hormones, and so establish antibiotic resistance and academia (SUCs and HEIs) Building
on in meats consumed meat source(s); also adverse impact
of hormones and so on.
Lack of monitoring of air quality Set up air quality monitoring DENR, DOST, academia Technical, Capacity
pollutants (for example, NH3, H2S, instruments OR develop protocols for (SUCs, HEIs) Building
VOCs, and PM) from livestock air sampling from pilot farms and air
farms quality testing in the laboratory.
Need to institutionalize monitoring Institutionalize monitoring of pollution DENR, DA, DOST, NEDA Institutional, Capacity
of livestock pollution from agricultural sector—soil, water, Building
and air
Lack of country-specific GHG Conduct local studies to derive DA, DENR, DOST, academia Technical, Capacity
emission factors (EFs) from country-specific GHG emissions (SUCs, HEIs) Building, Institutional
enteric fermentation and manure factors from enteric fermentation and
management manure management.
Lack of data/ accessibility to Strengthen monitoring of swine BAI, DA, DENR-EMB Technical, Capacity,
data on waste management farms in relation to environmental Building, Institutional
compliances of commercial and compliance.
backyard swine farms
Lack of controls on release of Strict implementation of the provisions DENR, DA, LGUs, industry Policy
livestock waste into water bodies and policies of existing legislation, associations
especially the Clean Water Act
Adoption of alternative production DA, EMB, LGUs, industry/ Technical
practices and technologies farmer associations

(continued on next page)

 SYNTHESIS AND KNOWLEDGE GAPS 95

Table 28:  Gaps and recommended measures to address challenges in agri-pollution (continued)

Sector Gap Recommended Measures Relevant Stakeholders Classification

Gaps in the information available, Conduct specific researches/studies DOH, BFAR, Southeast Asian Technical,
specific direct correlation between Fisheries Development Center Capacity Building;
human resistance (AMR) due to (SEAFDEC), academia (SUCs, Targeted research
direct consumption of fish and HEIs)
fishery products with antibiotic
residues
Need for data on degree or level Monitor the use of regulated or Philippine Pesticide Authority; Technical, Capacity
of compliance in the sector on the banned drugs and chemicals for BFAR Building of
use of regulated or banned drugs aquaculture. regulatory staff
and chemicals for aquaculture
FISHERIES Lack of local valuation studies on Conduct research to study trade-offs BFAR, SEAFDEC, National Technical,
trade-offs associated with biological associated with biological pollution Fisheries Research and Capacity Building
pollution from the introduction of from the introduction of non-native Development Institute (NFRDI), (for valuation of
non-native aquatic species for aquatic species for culture; conduct academia (SUCs, HEIs) ecosystem services)
culture in local water bodies; lack of studies on commercially important
studies on commercially exploited local species for their potential for
native species that could be used culture in local environments.
for aquaculture instead of exotic
species
Lack of control of release of waste Adoption of alternative production DA-BFAR, industry Technical
into water bodies practices and technologies associations

DOH, SUCs-UP System, Veterinary practitioners synthetic. Moreover, pursuing the abovementioned re-
(Philippine Veterinary Medicine Association [PVMA]), searches can strengthen private-public partnerships by
feedmillers (PAFMI), and so on; (b) Alternative Sub- participation of local drug companies (for example,
stitutes for Antibiotics and Additives: local trials for UNILAB/UNAHCO and National Biotech Center).
new compounds, verification/validation of probiotics Other challenges in the livestock sector are the
such as yeast, herbals especially local indigenous/tradi- (a) monitoring of air quality pollutants (for example,
tional practices, and so on; and (c) validation of ben- NH3, H2S, VOCs) from livestock farms—similar to
efits from organic agriculture, including pilot testing EMB air quality monitoring for vehicles, factories, and
options of organic livestock from free range and native so on; (b) institutionalization of pollution monitoring
breeds (among others) compared to recycling/compost- to be able to segregate contribution of livestock, facto-
ing, labor-saving means, providers/ microfinance, and ries, domestic, and so on—similar to what BFAR does
insurance. to monitor red tide; and (c) expansion of livestock water
Through these potential topics, substitutes for pollution monitoring to other regions in the country.
antibiotics and additives can be determined, especially Another data gap is the lack of country-spe-
by conducting local trials for new compounds, verify- cific GHG EFs for enteric fermentation and manure
ing probiotics such as yeast and herbals, and identifying management.
relevant indigenous practices. Validation or confirma-
tory trials can also be done on reducing enteric meth- Fisheries. In the course of searching the literature on
ane emissions from ruminant animals through feed human health impacts of pollutants from aquaculture
management and use of additives, both natural and and fisheries operations, it was revealed that there are
96 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

distinct gaps in the information available, particu- residues of these detected in fishery products from aqua-
lar direct correlation between the various issues such culture operations in the country (Coloso, Catacutan,
as AMR among humans due to direct consumption and Arnaiz 2015). This only indicates that compliance
of fish and fishery products with antibiotic residues. is highly irregular.
Although there is a clear case of AMR in humans, how Biological pollution from the introduction of
many of these cases are directly attributable to the con- non-native aquatic species for culture has adversely af-
sumption of products with antibiotic residues? Separat- fected biodiversity, but the economic valuation of the
ing the causes such as use of prescription antibiotics or benefits versus the adverse impact of these introduc-
consumption of food products tainted with antibiotic tions remain undocumented. Introduction of species
is largely unknown. Concrete evidence for any possible such as tilapia and other species for culture has certainly
harm to humans by the use of veterinary drugs, includ- benefited fish-farming communities but the perceived
ing antibiotics, as used in aquaculture is difficult to adverse impacts from displaced native species that are
document as the drugs are often similar to those used also of economic importance are not available for the
for humans (Howgate 1998). Philippines. Beyond the cost and benefits of introduced
Another issue that needs more detailed investi- alien species for provisioning, local studies on trade-
gation is the degree or level of compliance in the sector offs associated with these impacts using specific case
on the use of regulated or banned drugs and chemi- studies are lacking. Other countries have implemented
cals for aquaculture. The Philippines still allows a large cost-benefit analysis on the impact of introduced spe-
number of chemicals for use in aquaculture that have cies for culture, incorporating ecological and economic
been largely banned by its ASEAN neighbors. Among factors for use in policy and decision making (Pejchar
these are a number of antibiotics, chemotherapeutants, and Mooney 2009; Pimentel et al. 2000). The Philip-
disinfectants, and anesthetics, among others (Coloso, pines would benefit from such a type of study, to make
Catacutan, and Arnaiz 2015). Of those chemicals list- rational policies and decisions regarding the entry of
ed as banned for use in the Philippines, there are still exotic species for culture to the country.
EXISTING SOLUTIONS/
INTERVENTIONS 7
The legal framework to address environmental issues is well established in the Phil-
ippines. Protecting the right to health, as well as a balanced and healthful ecology, is
enshrined in no less than the Philippine Constitution as a policy of the State. At the same
time, the Constitution recognizes the organization of the country as a market economy
and the indispensable role of the private sector. Subsequent laws, rules, and strategies
have been implemented in line with these basic principles. Laws and implementing rules
and regulations now broadly cover all sources and forms of pollutants (though there may
be gaps in controls over specific compounds, contaminants, or indicators.

PHILIPPINE ENVIRONMENT CODE (PRESIDENTIAL

DECREE No. 1152)

The Philippine Environment Code was one of the first initiatives of the government
to resolve pollution and other environmental problems in the country. It was signed
into law on June 6, 1977, by former President Ferdinand E. Marcos. Through the
Presidential Decree No. 1121, the National Environment Protection Council was
created, which was to be complemented with the launching of comprehensive pro-
gram of environmental protection and management. The Philippine Environment
Code specifies environmental management policies and environment quality stan-
dards (www.doe.gov.ph).
The purposes of the the Code are

a. to achieve and maintain such levels of air quality as to protect public health; and
b. to prevent to the greatest extent practicable, injury and/or damage to plant
and animal life and property and promote the social and economic develop-
ment of the country.
98 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

The salient points in the Code include the Management Policy on Soil Conservation
following: The national government, through the DENR and the
DA, shall likewise undertake a soil conservation pro-
Ambient Air Quality Standards gram, including therein the identification and protec-
There shall be established ambient air quality standards tion of critical watershed areas, encouragement of scien-
which shall prescribe the maximum concentration of tific farming techniques, physical and biological means
air pollutants permissible in the atmosphere consistent of soil conservation, and short-term and long-term
with public health, safety, and general welfare. researches and technology for effective soil conservation.

National Emission Standards Use of Fertilizers and Pesticides

There shall be established national emission standards The use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture shall
for new and existing stationary and mobile sources of be regulated, prescribing therefore a tolerance level in
pollution which PRIME-M4 Page 2 of 13 shall con- their use. Their use shall be monitored by appropri-
sider among others such factors as type of industry, ate government agencies to provide empirical data for
practicable control technology available, location and effective regulation
land use, and the nature of pollutants emitted.

National Land Use Scheme

Enforcement and Coordination The Human Settlements Commission, in coordination
The production, utilization, storage, and distribution of with the appropriate agencies of the government, shall
hazardous, toxic, and other substances such as radioac- formulate and recommend to the National Environ-
tive materials, heavy metals, pesticides, fertilizers, and mental Protection Council a land use scheme consis-
oils, and disposal, discharge and dumping of untreated tent with the purpose of this title.
wastewater, mine-tailings, and other substances that The Land Use Scheme shall include, among others,
may pollute any body of water of the Philippines result-
ing from normal operations of industries, waterborne a. a science-based and technology-oriented land
sources, and other human activities, as well as those inventory and classification system;
resulting from accidental spills and discharges shall be b. a determination of present land uses, the extent
regulated by appropriate government agencies pursuant to which they are utilized, underutilized, ren-
to their respective charters and enabling legislation. In dered idle, or abandoned;
the performance of the above functions, the government c. a comprehensive and accurate determination
agencies concerned shall coordinate with the National of the adaptability of the land for community
Environmental Protection Council and furnish the latter development, agriculture, industry, commerce,
with such information as may be necessary to enable it to and other fields of endeavor;
attain its objectives under Presidential Decree No. 1121. d. a method of identification of areas where uncon-
trolled development could result in irreparable
damage to important historic, cultural, or aes-
Solid Waste Disposal thetic values, or nature systems or processes of
Solid waste disposal shall be by sanitary landfill, incin- national significance;
eration, composting, and other methods as may be e. a method for exercising control by the appro-
approved by the competent government authority. priate government agencies over the use of land
 EXISTING SOLUTIONS/INTERVENTIONS 99

in area of critical environmental concern and The DENR is the primary agency responsi-
areas affected by public facilities, including, but ble for the implementation of the Clean Water Act.
not limited to, airports, highways, bridges, ports It takes the lead in the preparation, implementation,
and wharves, buildings, and other infrastructure and enforcement of the following (Aquino and Cor-
projects; rea 2014):
f. a method to ensure the consideration of regional
development and land use in local regulations; National Water Quality Status Report
g. a policy for influencing the location of new (NWQSR). This report identifies (a) the loca-
communities and methods for assuring appro- tion of water bodies; their quality, taking into
priate controls over the use of land around new account the seasonal, tidal, and other variations;
communities; existing and potential uses and sources of pol-
h. a system of controls and regulations pertaining lution per specific pollutant; and pollution load
to areas and development activities designed to assessment and (b) water quality management
ensure that any source of pollution will not be areas and water classification.
located where it would result in a violation of Integrated Water Quality Management
any applicable environmental pollution control Framework (IWQMF). This may contain, but
regulations, and is not limited to, the following: (a) assessment
i. a recommended method for the periodic revi- of policies and institutional arrangements and
sions and updating of the national land use capacities relevant to water quality manage-
scheme to meet changing conditions. ment, including the strategy of devolution to
LGUs; (b) management strategies; (c) sustain-
able financing strategies; and (d) performance
THE PHILIPPINE CLEAN WATER ACT monitoring.
OF 2004 Action Plan for each WQMA. It includes, but
is not limited to, (a) goals and targets, includ-
The Philippines has enacted into law the Clean Water ing sewerage or septage program; (b) schedule of
Act on March 22, 2004, through RA No. 9275 with compliance to meet the applicable requirements
Implementing Rules and Regulation (IRR) which took of this Act; (c) water pollution control strategies
effect on May 6, 2004 (Aquino and Correa. 2014). or techniques; (d) water quality information and
The Clean Water Act applies to water quality manage- education program; e) resource requirement and
ment in all water bodies in the Philippines, particu- possible sources; (f ) enforcement procedures of
larly in the abatement and control of pollution from the plan; and (g) rewards and incentives.
land-based sources. The Clean Water Act of 2004
(RA No. 9275) adopts a policy of pursuing economic Within the system, the Act instructs the DENR
growth in a way that is compatible with protecting, to establish WQMAs. These are appropriate physio-
preserving, and reviving the quality of the country’s graphic units (river basin, watershed, water resource
water resources, that is, freshwater (surface water or body) sharing similar hydrologic, hydrogeological,
groundwater), brackish water, and marine water. The meteorological, or geographical conditions (for exam-
water quality standards and regulations, including ple, affecting diffusion of pollutants in the water bod-
the civil liability and penal provisions under this Act, ies) or otherwise share similar development problems.
are enforced irrespective of the sources of pollution WQMAs shall be governed by a board composed
(Aquino et al. 2014). of representatives of local chief executives, relevant
100 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

government agencies, registered NGOs, the water that discharge regulated effluents are not allowed
utility sector, and the business sector. Each board will to discharge into water bodies in the absence of a
be served by a technical secretariat within the DENR. discharge permit. The permit specifies pollution
To date, there are 20 WQMAs, as follows: standards to be followed by the owner/opera-
tor, who is subject to water discharge fees. Dis-
1. Areas within LLDA 11. Ormoc Bay charges beyond standard are subject to higher
Jurisdiction 12. Pinacanauan de fees and possibly other fines and penalties. How-
2. Balili River Tuguegarao ever, there are no regulations restricting the total
3. Butuanon River 13. San Juan River volume of discharges.
4. Cagayan de Oro 14. Sarangani Bay Classification and Re-classification of Water
5. Calapan River 15. Silway River Bodies. All water bodies shall be classified
6. Davao River 16. Sinocalan-Dagupan according to their potential beneficial usage, tak-
7. Ilo-ilo - Batiano River River System ing into account, among others, the following:
System 17. Taguibo River (a) existing quality of the body of water; (b) size,
8. Jalaur River System 18. Tigum-Aganan depth, surface area covered, volume, direction,
9. Lake Buhi Watershed rate of flow, and gradient stream; (c) most ben-
10. Marilao-Meycauy- 19. Tumaga River eficial existing and future use of these water
an-Obando River 20. Ylang ylang Rio bodies and lands bordering them, such as for
System Grande River system residential, agricultural, aqua cultural, commer-
cial, industrial, navigational, recreational, wild-
Water Quality Guidelines. These shall reflect life conservation, and aesthetic purposes; and
the latest scientific knowledge on the following (d) vulnerability of surface water and groundwa-
matters: (a) effects of pollutants on public health, ter to contamination from polluting and hazard-
biological diversity, aquatic life, productivity ous wastes, agricultural chemicals, and under-
and stability, including information on the fac- ground storage tanks of petroleum products.
tors affecting rates of eutrophication and rates of
organic and inorganic sedimentation for varying The LGUs are responsible for the management
types of waterways, bio-accumulation of chemi- and improvement of water quality within their territo-
cals; (b) concentration and dispersal of pollutants, rial jurisdictions. Each LGU through its Environment
including naturally occurring pollutants in highly and Natural Resources Office, shall have the following
mineralized areas, through physical, chemical, and powers and functions (Aquino et al. 2014):
biological processes; pollution loading may also be
used together with the concentration scheme; and a. Monitor water quality.
(c) beneficial uses of the receiving water body. b. Emergency response.
Effluent Standards. It means any legal restric- c. Ensure compliance with the framework of the
tion or limitation on quantities, rates, and/ Water Quality Management Action Plan.
or concentrations or any combination thereof, d. Take active participation in all efforts concern-
of physical, chemical, or biological parameters ing water quality protection and rehabilitation.
of effluent, which a person or point source is e. Coordinate with other government agencies
allowed to discharge into a body of water or and civil society and the concerned sectors in
land. The Act sets up a water quality manage- the implementation of measures to prevent and
ment system. Owners or operators of facilities control water pollution.
 EXISTING SOLUTIONS/INTERVENTIONS 101

The DENR and its concerned attached agencies, The State recognizes that the responsibility of
including the LLDA, are tasked to coordinate and enter cleaning the habitat and environment is primar-
into agreement with other government agencies, the in- ily area based.
dustrial sector, and other concerned sectors to accomplish The State also recognizes the principle that ‘pol-
the objectives of this Act (Aquino and Correa 2014). luters must pay’.
The Act also establishes a National Water Qual- Finally, the State recognizes that a clean and
ity Management Fund, under the DENR, to finance healthy environment is for the good of all and
containment, clean-up, restoration and rehabilitation, should, therefore, be the concern of all.
research, enforcement and monitoring, technical assis-
tance, rewards and incentives, information and educa-
tion, and other uses for water pollution control and wa- Air Quality Monitoring and Information
ter quality management. The Fund will be financed from Network
water fines and damages, proceeds of water permits, and The DENR is mandated to prepare an annual National
other contributions to the national government. Air Quality Status Report which shall be used as
the basis in formulating the Integrated Air Quality
Improvement Framework, as provided for in Sec. 7 of
PHILIPPINE CLEAN AIR ACT OF 1999 the Act. The report shall include, but shall not be lim-
ited to, the following (The LawPhil Project 1999):
RA No. 8749, otherwise known as the Philippine
Clean Air Act of 1999, signifies the government efforts Extent of pollution in the country, by type of
to radically reduce air pollution and incorporate envi- pollutant and type of source, based on reports of
ronmental protection into its development plans. the department’s monitoring stations
The Act relies heavily on the polluter pays prin- Analysis and evaluation of the current state,
ciple and other market-based instruments to promote trends, and projections of air pollution at the
self-regulation among the constituents. It sets emis- various levels provided herein
sion standards for all motor vehicles and issues pollut- Identification of critical areas, activities, or projects
ant limitations for industry. Emission limit values are which will need closer monitoring or regulation
laid down by the Philippine DENR, as ‘Implementing Recommendations for necessary executive and
Rules and Regulations for Philippine Clean Air Act of legislative action
1999’. These rules and regulations shall apply to all in- Other pertinent qualitative and quantitative
dustrial emissions and other establishments which are information concerning the extent of air pollu-
potential sources of air pollution (www.iea.org). tion and the air quality performance rating of
The important precepts of the Act include the industries in the country.
following (The LawPhil Project 1999):

The State shall protect and advance the right of Integrated Air Quality Improvement
the people to a balanced and healthful ecology in Framework
accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature. Within six (6) months after the effectivity of the Act,
The State shall promote and protect the global the DENR should establish, with the participation of
environment to attain sustainable development LGUs, NGOs, people organizations (POs,) the aca-
while recognizing the primary responsibility of demia, and other concerned entities from the private
LGUs to deal with environmental problems. sector, to formulate and implement the Integrated Air
102 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

Quality Improvement Framework for a comprehensive or chief of office, preferably the provincial, city, or
air pollution management and control program. municipal agriculturist or any of his employee and
The framework is intended to prescribe the provided, finally, that in case an employee is desig-
emission reduction goals using permissible standards, nated as such, he must have sufficient experience
control strategies, and control measures to be undertak- in environmental and natural resources manage-
en within a specified time period, including cost-effec- ment, conservation, and utilization.
tive use of economic incentives, management strategies,
collective actions, and environmental education and in-
formation (The LawPhil Project 1999). Public Education and Information Campaign
A continuing air quality information and education
campaign is being promoted by the DENR, the Depart-
Ban on Incineration ment of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS), the
Incineration is defined as the burning of municipal, bio- Department of the Interior and Local Government
medical, and hazardous waste, which emits poisonous and (DILG), the DA, and the Philippine Information
toxic fumes. It is prohibited, provided that the prohibi- Agency (PIA). Consistent with Sec. 7 of this Act, such a
tion shall not apply to traditional, small-scale method of campaign encourages the participation of other govern-
community/neighborhood sanitation ‘siga’, traditional, ment agencies and the private sector, including NGOs,
agricultural, cultural, health, and food preparation and POs, the academia, environmental groups, and other
crematoria. The existing incinerators dealing with bio- private entities in a multisectoral information cam-
medical wastes should be decomissioned within three (3) paign (The LawPhil Project 1999).
years after the effectivity of this Act. In the interim, such
units shall be limited to the burning of pathological and
infectious wastes and subject to close monitoring by the ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE
department (The LawPhil Project 1999). MANAGEMENT ACT: ENVIRONMENTAL
The Environment and Natural Resources Office PROTECTION THROUGH PROPER
in every province, city, or municipality, which is headed SOLID WASTE PRACTICE
by the Environment and Natural Resources Officer, is
mandated with the following powers and duties, among The Philippine Ecological Solid Waste Management
others (The LawPhil Project 1999): Act of 2000, known as RA No. 9003, was crafted in
response to the looming garbage problems in the
To prepare comprehensive air quality manage- country (Aquino, Deriquito, and Festejo 2013). It has
ment programs, plans, and strategies within the been a landmark environmental legislation since waste
limits set forth in RA No. 7160 (Local Govern- management in the Philippines has become a serious
ment Code) and this Act which shall be imple- environmental problem, contributing to the growing
mented within its territorial jurisdiction upon pollution in the country. RA No. 9003 highlights the
the approval of the Sanggunian. country’s policy in adopting a systematic, comprehen-
Exercise such other powers and perform such duties sive, and ecological solid waste management program
and functions as may be prescribed by law or ordi- that ensures the protection of public health and the
nance—provided, however, that in provinces/cit- environment and the proper segregation, collection,
ies/municipalities where there are no Environment transport, storage, treatment, and disposal of solid waste
and Natural Resources Officers, the local executive through the formulation and adoption of best environ-
concerned may designate any of his officials and/ mental practices (Aquino, Deriquito, and Festejo 2013).
 EXISTING SOLUTIONS/INTERVENTIONS 103

The Solid Waste Management Act was ap- activities. The rate of waste diversion is set to
proved by the Office of the President on January 26, increase every three (3) years.
2001, and contains seven (7) chapters subdivided into c. Recycling Program. The national program
66 sections setting out policy direction for an effective entails an inventory of existing markets for recy-
solid waste management program in the country. The clable materials, product standards for recyclable
Act describes solid waste management as a discipline and recycled materials, and to stimulate demand
associated with the control of generation, storage, col- for the production of recycled materials and
lection, transfer and transport, processing, and dispos- products. A coding system for eco-labelling is
al of solid wastes. The conduct of these activities shall also mandated. Non-environmentally acceptable
be in accordance with the best principles of public products shall be allowed within one (1) year
health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthet- after public notice as alternatives available to
ics, other environmental considerations, and public consumers but at cost not exceeding 10 percent
attitudes. It is a comprehensive program which created of the disposable product. In addition, the use
the necessary institutional mechanisms and incentives, of non-environmentally acceptable packaging is
appropriating funds, declaring certain acts prohibited, strictly prohibited by the Act.
and even providing penalties (Aquino, Deriquito, and The LGUs are mandated to establish a Mate-
Festejo 2013). rials Recovery Facility (MRF) in each baran-
gay or cluster of barangays. This is designed to
receive, sort, process, and store compostable
COMPREHENSIVE SOLID WASTE and recyclable materials efficiently. The residual
MANAGEMENT wastes shall then be transferred to a long-term
storage or disposal facility or sanitary landfill.
RA No. 9003 involves four aspects of managing All solid waste disposal facilities or sites in the
solid wastes which are currently being implemented country shall be announced by the DENR. No
nationwide: open dumps nor any practice or disposal of solid
waste constituting open dumps for solid waste
a. Waste Characterization and Segregation. The shall be allowed. The Act further provides for
solid waste generated within the area of jurisdic- conversion of existing open dumps to controlled
tion is characterized for initial source reduction dumps within three (3) years.
and recycling element of the local waste manage- d. Composting. The Philippine DA shall publish
ment plan. A separate container is required for an inventory of existing markets and demands
each type of waste for on-site collection prop- for composts which is to be updated annually.
erly marked as ‘compostable’, ‘non-recyclable’, These composts intended for commercial distri-
‘recyclable’, or ‘special waste’. Waste segregation bution should conform to the standards set by
includes household, commercial, industrial, and the DA for organic fertilizers.
agricultural sources.
b. Source Reduction. This refers to the methods by
which the LGUs can reduce a sufficient amount IMPLEMENTING RULES AND
of solid waste disposed within five (5) years. The REGULATIONS OF REPUBLIC ACT 9003
LGUs are expected to divert at least 25 percent
of all solid waste from waste disposal facili- The Philippine DENR adopts and promulgates the fol-
ties through reuse, recycling, and composting lowing rules and regulations pursuant to the provisions
104 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

of RA No. 9003 (Section 59), known as the Ecological i. institutionalize public participation in the devel-
Solid Waste Management Act: opment and implementation of national and
local integrated, comprehensive, and ecological
It is the policy of the State to adopt a systematic, waste management programs; and
comprehensive, and ecological solid waste management j. strengthen the integration of ecological solid waste
program which shall management and resource conservation and recov-
ery topics into the academic curricula of formal
a. ensure the protection of public health and and nonformal education to promote environ-
environment; mental awareness and action among the citizenry.
b. utilize environmentally sound methods that max-
imize the utilization of valuable resources and
encourage resources conservation and recovery; GUIDELINES FOR COMPOST QUALITY
c. set guidelines and targets for solid waste avoid-
ance and volume reduction through source Organic fertilizers derived from compost and intended
reduction and waste minimization measures, to be distributed commercially shall conform to the
including composting, recycling, reuse, recovery, standards for organic fertilizers set by the FPA of the
green charcoal process, and others, before collec- DA. Compost products intended for commercial or
tion, treatment and disposal in appropriate and noncommercial distribution shall be free from haz-
environmentally sound solid waste management ardous/toxic constituents above permissible levels and
facilities in accordance with ecologically sustain- shall be tested for such constituents using the Toxicity
able development principles; Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) test method
d. ensure the proper segregation, collection, trans- developed by the United States Environmental Protec-
port, storage, treatment, and disposal of solid tion Agency (U.S. EPA).
waste through the formulation and adoption of
the best environmental practices in ecological
waste management, excluding incineration; THE CLIMATE CHANGE ACT OF 2009
e. promote national research and development
programs for improved solid waste management Creation of Climate Change Commission
and resource conservation techniques, more The Climate Change Commission is the lead poli-
effective institutional arrangement and indige- cy-making body on all concerns related to climate
nous and improved methods of waste reduction, change. It is an attached agency to the Office of the
collection, separation, and recovery; Philippine President, and is tasked to coordinate, for-
f. encourage greater private sector participation in mulate, and monitor and evaluate programs and actions
solid waste management; on climate change (Aquino, Abeleda, and Ani 2014).
g. retain primary enforcement and responsibility of The Climate Change Commission’s primary goal
solid waste management with LGUs while estab- is to formulate the National Framework Strategy on
lishing a cooperative effort among the national Climate Change, which shall serve as the basis in for-
government, other local government units, non- mulating and developing programs on climate change
government organizations, and the private sector; planning, R&D, and monitoring of activities. Further,
h. encourage cooperation and self-regulation the Climate Change Commission supports capaci-
among waste generators through the application ty-building activities and provides technical and finan-
of market-based instruments; cial assistance extension to agencies and institutions. It
 EXISTING SOLUTIONS/INTERVENTIONS 105

also recommends key development investment areas on Among the key government agencies with the
climate-sensitive sectors such as water resources, agricul- prime responsibility of ensuring food safety are the DA,
ture, and forestry (Aquino, Abeleda, and Ani 2014). the DOH, the Department of Interior and Local Gov-
ernment (DILG), and the LGUs. The following are the
responsibilities of these government agencies (Aquino,
Formulation of Framework Strategy and Correa, and Ani 2014):
Program on Climate Change
The National Framework Strategy on Climate Change a. Department of Agriculture. The DA shall be
(NFSCC) serves as the road map for national programs responsible for food safety in the primary pro-
and plans toward more a climate risk-resilient Philip- duction and postharvest stages of the food supply
pines. Among its goals are to build the adaptive capac- chain and foods locally produced or imported
ity of communities, increase the resilience of natural in this category (Section 15.a). With the DOH,
ecosystems to climate change, and optimize mitigation the DA shall serve as the forefront agency to set
opportunities toward sustainable development. The mandatory food safety standards (Section 9) and
NFSCC provides the framework for the formulation conduct cargo inspection and perform necessary
of climate change action plans both at the national and clearance procedures to determine compliance
local level (Aquino, Abeleda, and Ani 2014). with national regulations (Section 12).
In 2010, the NFSCC identified key result areas The agencies under the DA with food
(KRAs) or climate-sensitive sectors, namely agriculture, safety regulatory functions are the following:
biodiversity, infrastructure, energy, and population, (a) the Bureau of Animal Industry (BAI), for
health, and demography. From these climate-sensitive food derived from animals, including eggs and
sectors, objectives and strategies were laid down either honey production; the National Dairy Author-
in the form of mitigation or adaptation. ity (NDA), for milk production and posthar-
vest handling; (c) the NMIS, for meats; (d)
the BFAR, for fresh fish and other seafood,
FOOD SAFETY ACT including those grown by aquaculture; (e) the
Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI), for plant foods;
RA No. 10611, also known as the Food Safety Act of 2013 (f ) the FPA, for pesticides and fertilizers used
was enacted with the primary objective of strengthen- in the production of plant and animal food; (g)
ing the food regulatory system in the country (Aquino, the Philippine Coconut Authority (PCA), for
Correa, and Ani 2014). This regulatory system is com- fresh coconut; (h) the Sugar Regulatory Admin-
posed of regulations, food safety standards, inspection, istration (SRA), for sugarcane production and
testing, data collection, monitoring, and other activities marketing; and (i) the National Food Author-
carried out by Food Safety Regulatory System Agencies ity (NFA), for rice, corn, and other grains. The
(FSRAs) and by the LGUs. This regulatory system aims BAFPS shall develop food safety standards,
to protect the public from food-borne and waterborne including those for organic agriculture (Section
illnesses and unsanitary, unwholesome, misbranded, 16). In addition, oversight functions for the
or adulterated foods; enhance industry and consumer Food Safety Act shall be assigned to the Under-
confidence in the food regulatory system; and achieve secretary for Policy and Planning, R&D, and
economic growth and development by promoting fair Regulations (Section 17).
trade practices and sound regulatory foundation for b. Department of Health. The DOH shall be
domestic and international trade (Section 3). responsible for the safety of processed and
106 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

prepackaged foods, foods locally produced or activities in slaughterhouses, dressing plants, fish
imported under this category, and the conduct ports, wet markets, supermarkets, school can-
of monitoring and epidemiological studies on teens, restaurants, catering establishments, and
food-borne illnesses (Section 15.b). water refilling stations. The LGU shall also be
Specifically, the FDA Center for Food Reg- responsible for street food sale, including ambu-
ulation and Research shall be responsible for lant vending (Section 15.c).
implementing a performance-based food safety The Local Government Code of 1991 (RA
control management system (Section 18.b). No. 7160) is the primary legislation provid-
The Bureau of Quarantine (BOQ) shall provide ing for local government autonomy. It assigns
sanitation and ensure food safety in its area of municipalities and cities the responsibility for
responsibility in both domestic and international setting up environmental management sys-
ports and airports of entry, including in-flight tem and services or facilities related to general
catering, food service establishments, sea vessels, hygiene and sanitation, as well as the operation
and aircraft (Section 18.c). The National Epide- of public slaughterhouses. Provinces are assigned
miology Center (NEC), the Research Institute the responsibility for pollution control law and
of Tropical Medicine (RITM), and the National other laws related to the environment, subject to
Center for Disease Prevention and Control the control and review of the DENR.
(NCDPC) shall conduct and document epide-
miological monitoring studies on food-borne
illnesses for use in risk-based policy formula- SANTA ROSA CITY ENVIRONMENT
tion. Food safety risk assessment bodies shall CODE (An Example of Local
be established for this purpose (Section 18.d). Environment Code)
The National Center for Health Promotion
(NCHP) shall be responsible for advocating The City Government of Santa Rosa has imple-
food safety awareness, information, and educa- mented its Environment Code through City Ordi-
tion to the public (Section 18.e). The NCDPC nance No. 1720–2011. It was established pursuant to
shall strategize actions to help ensure the safety the Philippine Local Government Code or Republic
of food, reduce the risk of food contamination Act 7160 which states that, “Local government units
and food-borne diseases, address the double shall share with the national government the respon-
burden of micronutrient deficiencies and non- sibility in the management and maintenance of eco-
communicable diseases, and regularly evaluate logical balance within their territorial jurisdiction”.
the progress made (Section 18.f ). RA No. 7160 also empowers the local government to
c. Department of Interior and Local Govern- “adopt adequate measures to safeguard and conserve
ment. The DILG, in collaboration with the land, mineral, marine, forest, and other resources of
DA, the DOH, and other government agencies, the city.”
shall supervise the enforcement of food safety The Santa Rosa Environment Code stipulates
and sanitary rules and regulations as well as the measures to curb agricultural pollution through adop-
inspection and compliance of business establish- tion of the national laws such as the Clean Air Act,
ments and facilities within its territorial jurisdic- Clean Water Act, and Ecological Solid Waste Manage-
tion (Section 15.d) ment Act at the local level. The LGU of Santa Rosa
d. The LGUs shall be responsible for food safety specifies, in its ordinance, its efforts to achieve its mis-
in food businesses such as, but not limited to, sion to protect the environment:
 EXISTING SOLUTIONS/INTERVENTIONS 107

Prohibition on the burning of agricultural wastes over municipal waters (inland and marine waters up to
(Section 19, Article 3 of Santa Rosa Environ- 15 km from the coast). The Fisheries Code also sets up
ment Code) Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Management Coun-
Burning of agricultural wastes from rice or from cils, which are multistakeholder consultative bodies for
any planting materials especially rice stack or the governance of aquatic resources.
rice hulls is hereby prohibited. RA No. 1556, also known as Livestock and
The City of Santa Rosa envisions to be a model Poultry Feeds Act, provides the rules and regulations
in sustainable water management (Section 33, and the standards for feeds in the Philippines. This in-
Article 5) cludes registration of feeds, quality control service, la-
Due to the transboundary nature of water beling, classification, methods of analysis, publication,
resources and flooding, the City will coordinate sampling, and payment of fees, prohibitions, damaged
with nearby LGUs such as Cabuyao and Biñan and adulterated feed disposition, and offenses and pen-
in Laguna and Silang in Cavite to ensure sus- alties that must be prescribed for the use of feeds.
tainable water supply and to minimize flood-
ing. The City also adopts RA No. 9275 or the
Philippine Clean Water Act. LEGISLATIVE CHALLENGES TO
Water quality monitoring (Section 37, Article 5B) ADDRESS AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION
Within one (1) year from the effectivity of this IN THE PHILIPPINES
Code, the Mayor, in consultation with the
LLDA, EMB, National Water Resources Board Despite a sound legal framework, however, the prob-
(NWRB), Laguna Water Company (LWC), lem of pollution from agricultural activities remains a
other national government agencies, and the pri- serious problem. There are still great challenges ahead
vate sector, shall prepare a master plan for effec- to address pollution coming from agricultural activities
tive water quality monitoring of major water in the Philippines. There are no government programs
bodies and groundwater in the city, including that directly address problems of agricultural pollution.
identification of potable water sources. The three legal mandates that may be related to agri-
Administrative arrangements with the LLDA cultural pollution are the Clean Water Act, Clean Air
(Section 38, Article 5B) Act, and Solid Waste Management Act. If there are pro-
Environmental clearance from City Environ- visions for controlling pollution coming from agricul-
ment and Natural Resources Office (ENRO) for tural pollution, they are not being strictly implemented
backyard livestock and poultry farms (Section by the national or local government units.
39, Article 5B)
Backyard livestock and poultry farms in the City
that are otherwise exempt from environmental Addressing Priority Agri-Pollution Issues
compliance certificate (ECC) requirements from Strict implementation of the provisions and policies of
the DENR must obtain an environmental clear- existing legislation, especially the Clean Water Act, are
ance from the City ENRO. necessary to address water pollution from livestock and
Secure waste management disposal of commer- poultry.
cial and backyard livestock farming Regulation of effluents from livestock and poultry
farms is already provided by existing law but is weakly
Likewise, the Fisheries Code of 1998 (RA No. enforced, especially among small producers. This sec-
8550) assigns municipal/city governments jurisdiction tor typically escapes regulation by the national agency
108 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

(DENR); apparently in many LGU jurisdictions, local systems, including organic agriculture. These systems
ordinances that would limit discharges of polluted seek to achieve multiple objectives, that is, increasing
water are either unenforced or nonexistent. smallholder incomes and quality of life, as well as main-
The WQMA was designed to empower constit- taining environmental health and a sound ecology, by
uents of clean water to maintain their rights under the reducing agrichemical usage, excessive nutrient load-
Clean Water Act. However, even in the LLDA area, ing, and so on. Dissemination of such systems through
which has a long-standing multisectoral governance extension and other campaigns deserve strong support
structure, indiscriminate dumping of wastewater from from the public sector and other stakeholders in human
livestock farms continues. The processes, institutions, health and sustainable development. Some of the more
and functions of these WQMAs need to be examined salient options are discussed in the following
to improve the effectiveness and increase the voice of
affected sectors, for example, households and other en- Strengthening the vertical institutional structure of
terprises near the affected water systems. agricultural and environmental extension activities
To support the policies and programs of the national
Enforcement of regulations on commercial farms should agencies, there is a need to strengthen the vertical struc-
be tightened, and limits on total pollutants released per ture linking the national agencies, regional agencies,
unit time imposed. provincial agencies, and the LGUs.
The review has noted some problems with enforcement,
even on the more tightly regulated commercial farm
sector. This holds for commercial swine and chicken Technologies and Good Practices to
operators and large agribusiness plantations. In case of Address Agricultural Pollution and Attain
the latter, closer monitoring should be undertaken by Sustainable Agriculture
the government to ensure that such plantations limit This section presents a listing of technologies and good
fertilizer runoff and the risk of pesticide contamination. practices from which an Agricultural Program to attain
In the commercial piggery sector, enterprises are Sustainable Agriculture with reduced agricultural pol-
still free to release as much effluent as they need to as lution can be crafted by the national government.
long as it complies with pollution concentration stan-
dards. That is, the discharge permit typically imposes
no limits on the total quantity of pollutants emitted. Crop Farming
This seems to be a gap in the regulation that should Integrated pest management. In early 1940s, the IPM
be remedied as soon as possible, with prior scientific in the Philippines started with farmers planting crops
assessment of the appropriate pollutant releases per pe- free from pest and diseases, then they practiced crop
riod and in consultation with affected parties. rotation and intercropping and used repellents to con-
trol pests. Former President Fidel V. Ramos formed
Adoption of alternative production practices and the Philippine National IPM Program in 1993. It was
technologies should be explored to address agri-pollution named ‘Kasaganaan ng Sakahan at Kalikasan’ (Prosper-
while pursuing inclusive and sustained growth. ity of the Farm and Nature) or KASAKALIKASAN.
Prominent examples of effective extension programs The IPM was set as the standard method to crop pro-
that have led to reduced fertilizer and pesticide usage duction under the KASAKALIKASAN program. In
are IPM, site-specific nutrient management (SSNM), this program, the farmers were trained on the agroeco-
integrated natural resource management (INRM), system interactions affecting the plant growth and crop
Integrated Agri-Aquaculture (IAA), and similar management.
 EXISTING SOLUTIONS/INTERVENTIONS 109

Improved Practices on Soil, Plant, Nutrient, and Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT)
Water Management. PhilRice is conducting long-term is a software developed about crop genotype, soil, and
researches which aim to identify, evaluate, facilitate, and weather options. The DSSAT must be calibrated first
refine the delivery of improved practices in soil, plant, before it can be fully used to determine potential rice
nutrient, and water management. The goal is to con- yield under the best crop management in varying loca-
tribute to attain and sustain rice self-sufficiency with tions and weather conditions. The Field Nutrient Diag-
the following objectives: “(1) identify and propagate nostic Techniques (NDTs) were developed for effective
approaches for nutrient and crop management with the nutrient management in irrigated lowland rice system.
integration of management of principal insect pests and NDTs are less expensive and more practical compared
diseases; (2) develop technologies that will improve soil to laboratory procedures. Crop nutrient diagnostic
and water conservation practices; (3) develop practices tools serve as a guide for economical fertilizer use. Us-
to manage crop residues for healthy soils in rice ecosys- ing this tool, different electronic and nonelectronic me-
tems; (4) strengthen the scientific basis for rice-based ters must be evaluated for performance and usability.
cropping system technologies; and (5) assess the impact
of developed technologies on environmental quality. Organic agriculture. This excludes the use of pesti-
Finally, the division is expected to develop crop manage- cides, manufactured fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides,
ment protocol, diagnostic tools, and processes toward fungicides and even hormones, food additives, genet-
sufficiency and sustainability” (PhilRice website 2016). ically modified organisms, and livestock antibiotics.
The long-term fertility experiment aims to exam- It evolved from the traditional practices in farming
ine the sustainability of intensive double rice cropping communities over the years. It is included in the sus-
and providing an early warning indicator of nutrient tainable agriculture framework. If a production system
imbalances and nutrient mining that can occur with passes the standards of the International Federation of
intensification in farmers’ fields. Another study aimed Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) or PNSOA
to assess the yield potential, nitrogen use efficiency, and and meets the requirements for national organic certi-
grain quality of different varieties in response to varying fication, then that farming system will be certified as
nitrogen management. organic.
A long-term experiment on the use of organic In May 1986, the farmers’ convention initiated
fertilizers aims to determine the long-term effects of the Farmer-Scientist Partnership for Agricultural De-
different organic fertilizers or amendments on the soil velopment which is known as MASIPAG (Magsasaka
physico-chemical characteristics and nutrient availabil- at Siyentipiko para sa Ikauunlad ng Agham Pang-Agri-
ity for paddy rice; assess sustainability of grain yield kultura). This NGO pioneered teaching farmers rice
production and soil health by just the use of organic breeding to allow farmers to select the parent materials
fertilizers in paddy soils as compared to the use of inor- based on desired plant characters at zero chemical (fer-
ganic fertilizers; assess grain quality, nutrient content, tilizer and pesticide) inputs. Subsequently, several other
and seed viability of organically nourished rice plants; projects emerged. MASIPAG, the pioneer of all the or-
and produce a database for the development of an or- ganic agriculture NGOs in the Philippines, is a member
ganic-based rice production management protocol. of ANSOFT-Philippines Network (Carating and Teja-
There are already several tools and techniques da 2012. Since then, organic agriculture has progressed
available, from software to hardware, which contribute widely in the country. A recent law (Organic Act of
to overall rice land productivity. The techniques devel- 2010) enacts as State policy the propagation of organic
oped contributed to the technical know-how on fer- agriculture, to reduce pollution and destruction of the
tilizer use and its timing of application. The Decision environment and safeguard the health of farmers and
110 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

consumers. The Act provides for a National Organic area in the country, which is about 483,450 ha of the
Agriculture Board (NOAB) to implement the Organic total area of 9,669,000 ha. The major components of
Act and its accompanying policies and programs. The the NOAP include (a) institutional development and
Secretariat of the NOAB is the BAFPS, established by strengthening; (b) research and development; (c) pro-
the AFMA under the DA. duction and technology support; (d) extension and
Research programs of BIOTECH include the de- capability building; (e) promotion, advocacy, and ed-
velopment of bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides, which are ucation; (f ) market development; and (g) results-based
promising alternatives to inorganic fertilizers and chem- monitoring and evaluation.
ical pesticides. Among the bio-fertilizer technologies de- As of April 2016, the program has attained 31
veloped by the institute include BIO-N, the most pop- percent of its target by converting 151,740 ha of agricul-
ular and one of the most effective; Vesicular Arbuscular tural lands, which has produced 512,680 tons of organic
Mycorrhiza Root Inoculant or VAMRI; Brown Magic; agriculture goods in 2014–2015, distributed to 72 local
BioGroe; Mykovam; NitroPlus; microbial inoculants for and foreign markets. The program’s advocacy has reached
the bioconversion of crop residues and agro-industrial 86,900 farmer beneficiaries and stakeholders, who have
by-products into bio-fertilizers; Cocogro or plant growth been recipients of production and technology services
hormones from coconut water; and BioCon (Javier and and extension and capacity-building support for organic
Brown 2009). Bio-fertilizers are very cheap, easy to use, agriculture. Accomplishments in this area include 29 or-
safe, and do not require repeated applications. Bio-pes- ganic trading posts, 707 vermicomposting facilities, 186
ticides are derived from natural materials, including ani- techno-demo farms, 234 organic agriculture learning
mals, plants, bacteria, and certain minerals. sites, and circulation of more than a million Informa-
Notable examples of technology intervention in- tion, Education, and Communication (IEC) materials.
cluded (a) application of optimum fertilizer amounts; The institutional development and strengthening
(b) proper management and recycling of crop residues; component of the NOAP has established Local Techni-
(c) use of foliar fertilizers to improve grain filling per- cal Committees in 69 provinces, 100 cities, and 1,086
centage; (d) reintroduction of green manures in rice- municipalities nationwide. Under the extension services
based farming systems; (e) organic fertilizer application component, the program has partnered with extension
to enhance biological nitrogen fixation (BNF); (f ) inte- services providers such as Costales Nature Farms, Kaha-
gration of bio-fertilizers in rice production systems; (g) riam Farms, and ACES Polytechnic College.
reintroduction of slow release nitrogenous fertilizers; The Regional Organic Agriculture Research and
and (h) expansion of irrigated areas through installa- Development Networks and Centers, in collaboration
tion of shallow tube wells, water harvesting structures, with the Bureau of Agricultural Research (BAR), has
and irrigation facility repair and rehabilitation, among introduced and disseminated to farmers a number of
others (Velasco et al. 2012). new technologies in organic agriculture. Collaborative
The Philippine Organic Agriculture Act (RA No. efforts with universities and LGUs have also been fruit-
10068, signed on April 6, 2010) created the National ful in tapping technologies such as Integration of Bee-
Organic Agriculture Program (NOAP) of the DA in an keeping to Coconut Farming System (Cagayan State
effort to reduce rural poverty by advocating low-input University), Processing Technology Development and
sustainable agricultural techniques that improve land Utilization for Organically Grown Arius Fruits (Batanes
productivity while minimizing adverse impacts to the State College), and the Production and Management
environment. With this, the NOAP targets to attain of Multi-Bee Species for Livelihood and Pollination
food security, sustainability, and competitiveness by of HVCC (Local Government Unit of Batac, Ilocos
converting at least 5 percent of the total agricultural Norte). Moreover, the program has tapped Bureau of
 EXISTING SOLUTIONS/INTERVENTIONS 111

Soils and Water Management (BSWM) technologies enhance biological pest control provided by natural ene-
and establishing 377 small-scale composting facilities mies (Gurr et al. 2011). Habitat management through
and dispersed Philmech technologies such as Paddy ecological engineering with flower strips can have ben-
Huller (Brown Rice Mill), Corn Mill, and Coffee and eficial and synergistic effects on biological pest control,
Vegetable Processing Equipment. pollination, and cultural services, including landscape
On production and technology support, the aesthetics and recreation (Westphal et al. 2015). Eco-
NOAP has established 162 production facilities and 63 logical engineering is also effective in reducing input
production machinery and equipment and funded 1,085 costs, as well as reduction of health risks for both pro-
projects. In 2015, provision and delivery of support ser- ducers and consumers (Spangenberg et al. 2015).
vices has distributed 121,653 kg of seeds, 115,027 plant-
ing materials, 11,177 animals and livestock, 81,880 bio- Agroforestry system. Agroforestry is a dynamic, eco-
con agents, and 688,039 fertilizer and soil ameliorants. logically based, natural resource management system
At the policy level, the program has produced that, through the integration of trees into farms, diver-
policy resolutions particularly on Soil Fertility and sifies and sustains smallholder production for increased
Ecosystems’ Management Support Systems, certifica- social, economic, and environmental benefits. Intro-
tion subsidy, regulation of organic input, registration ducing trees within the cropping system can help pre-
and labeling of organic products, and sustainable land vent land degradation, increase biodiversity, and at the
management. same time allow the continued use of the land for agri-
Extension and capability-building efforts have cultural crop production.
enhanced farmer competencies and are continuing
to perform training of extension workers and farm- Feedstock for bioenergy. The Philippines is imple-
er groups. So far, 697 trainings have been conducted menting various bioenergy policies that focus on a
with 6,679 farmers trained. These training activities in- cleaner and greener environment searching for more
clude Farmer Field Schools (FFS), Training of Trainers alternative renewable sources of fuel and energy. It has
(TOT), and trainings in support of the Installation of a large potential for bioenergy production since crops
Internal Control Systems and Training of Agritecture. that are used as feedstock are indigenous or locally
grown. Further, instead of burning, corn and sugarcane
Biotechnology. This technology offers sustainable and crop residues can be used as biomass feedstocks.
practical solutions to numerous problems in rice pro-
duction, specifically on pest protection. This technol-
ogy could aid the development of cultivars with higher Livestock
yields that offer resistance to major pests in the Phil- Vermicomposting is a waste management technology
ippines, research on endophytic fungal isolates from utilizing earthworms to convert organic wastes into
different rice ecosystems in relation to biological con- high-quality castings and vermicomposts of high eco-
trol of sheath blight, rice variety-site specificity trials nomic value while vermiculture is the art and science of
like planting low-yielding rice for the sloping uplands, worm rearing. The two main products of vermiculture
medium-yielding rice for the unfavorable flatlands, and and vermicomposting are worms and composts. These
high-yielding rice for the favorable flat uplands, and products are simultaneously produced during the pro-
upland variety resistance to leaf rollers, among others. cess and can further be transformed into other valuable
vermi products (Adorada 2007). Livestock manure is
Ecological Engineering. The provision of habitats for one of the substrates used in vermicomposting. From
beneficial arthropods can reduce pesticide inputs and 1991 to 2002, the total number of vermiculture/
112 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

earthworm culture in the Philippines increased by 153 compliance. The aquaculture operator should provide
percent. More than one-third of vermiculture/earth- records for the last two croppings, specifying the group
worm are in Central Visayas (PSA 2015). of fish treated with veterinary drugs, the total quantity
of the drugs used, the start and end date of treatment,
Environmental audit, part of a swine waste manage- completion of withdrawal period, and the earliest date
ment system, can be adopted by LGUs and the EMB the fish is safe to be consumed. The code further states
for monitoring the compliance of swine farms. In Lipa that the withdrawal period be verified by conducting
City, this method was used to evaluate the environmen- residue analysis on samples of treated fish. MRL for the
tal performance of anaerobic digester and lagoon sys- particular drug should fall within the acceptable level
tems of various scales of swine production (Padura and based on the standards set by Codex or trading partners
Alcantara 2014). (PNS/BAFPS 2014).

Biogas technology. This technology is already in the Aquasilviculture is the integration of aquaculture with
commercial stage in the country. Several hundred bio- mangroves. It is an environment-friendly system which
gas units exist in various sizes to deal with the level of promotes harmonious coexistence between fisheries
generation of wastes from agricultural sources (PCAR- production and mangrove systems in a semi-enclosed
RD-DOST, PARRFI, DA-BAR 2004). Currently, the environment. This culture method promotes harmoni-
BAI has installed biogas digesters in several regions in ous utilization of the mangrove areas for aquaculture
the Philippines. Most of the installed biogas digesters production, without destroying the mangrove forests.
are located in Region 2 and Region 4 to compensate for The Philippine government through the BFAR and
the large population of swine. the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), in
Conventional digesters rely on anaerobic pro- collaboration with academic institutions and local gov-
cess. There are also several commercial swine farms ernments, are implementing the ‘Philippine National
in the Philippines that have installed the Covered In Aquasilviculture Program’. A memorandum of agree-
ground Aerobic Reactor or CIGAR technology, result- ment has been signed between the two institutions
ing in generation of electricity from biogas. With the as principals. The program involves reforestation of
collaboration of the Clean Development Mechanism denuded mangrove areas and using these reforested
(CDM), CO2 is trapped and converted into carbon areas and existing mangroves for the culture of fish and
credits and valued per unit of Carbon Emission Re- other fishery products without cutting down a single
duction (CER), resulting in odorless and flie-free swine tree. Abandoned areas covered by fishpond lease agree-
farming. They have also added a concoction of odor ments (FLAs) as determined jointly by the DENR, DA,
erasing microbes, emulsifiers, nitrogen fixing bacteria, and the LGUs shall also be restored to their original
and probiotics. These are mixed and broadcasted to la- mangrove state (Flores et al. 2014).
goons and manure at an inclusion rate of 5 grams per
square meter (Barroga undated). Integrated Agri-Aquaculture System. IAA combines
production of crops, livestock, and aquatic animals in a
limited system and is conducive for small farmholding
Aquaculture by maximizing production in a small area and utiliz-
GAqP. This set of good practices has already been dis- ing the different waste components from each product.
cussed earlier and is by far the most advanced in terms Rice-fish-vegetable integrated production is widely
of development and official recognition. GAqP requires practiced in many Asian countries like China, Viet-
monitoring of aquaculture operations to ensure nam, India, and Bangladesh. However, there is limited
 EXISTING SOLUTIONS/INTERVENTIONS 113

adoption in the Philippines. This type of production Biofloc Technology (BFT) is considered an environ-
system is ideally suited for small farmholdings in rural ment-friendly and efficient system to produce aqua-
communities. This type of farming provides several culture products since nutrients could continuously be
advantages: (a) maximizes utilization of land and water recycled and reused. The system is based on growth of
resources over a limited area; (b) IPM system by reduc- microorganism in a culture medium; these microorgan-
ing the use of pesticides since fish feed on larvae and isms (biofloc) have two major roles: (a) maintenance
juveniles of pests in ricefields; (c) minimizes the use of of water quality, by the uptake of nitrogen compounds
fertilizer in rice because fish waste provides a source of generating ‘in situ’ microbial protein and (b) nutrition,
nutrients for the growing rice and other crops; and (d) increasing culture feasibility by reducing the FCR and
improves resource utilization by diversifying crops pro- a decrease of feed costs (Emerenciano, Gaxiola and
duced in a limited area. Cuzon et al. 2013).
The BFAR has been promoting the integrated As a closed system, BFT has the advantage of
culture of rice and freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium minimizing release of effluents into water bodies as
rosenbergii) through pilot demonstration sites in the opposed to traditional culture systems where water
province of Laguna using just 1,000 ha of rice fields, drained from ponds and tanks in the course of the
with 10 percent devoted to prawn and the rest to rice. grow-out results in eutrophication of receiving water
Cost and return analysis for this setup proved to be sig- bodies. In BFT, ‘waste’ nitrogen from uneaten feed and
nificantly better for the integrated rice-prawn system the cultured organisms is converted into proteinaceous
compared to monoculture of rice.3 feed available for those same organisms (Lezama-Cer-
vantes and Paniagua- Michel 2010). BFT gained prom-
Improved feeding practices. Proper feed management inence as a sustainable method to control water quality,
results in efficient utilization of feed with reduced feed with the added value of producing proteinaceous feed
wastage resulting in high feed efficiency (low FCR). In in situ from a combination of plankton and heterotro-
the Philippines, it has been shown that skip feeding or phic bacteria (Crab et al. 2012) that is able to provide
alternate day feeding strategy in Nile tilapia is effective nutrients to the cultured species. The technology has
and efficient in both pond (Bolivar, Jimenez and Brown been used in the culture of various species like Nile
2006) and lake-based cages (Cuvin-Aralar et al. 2012). tilapia (Avnimelech 2007) and marine shrimps (Bal-
FCRs were significantly lowered, but no reduction in lester et al. 2010; Emerenciano, Ballester and Cavalli
growth was observed. 2011; Emerenciano et al. 2012; Brito et al. 2014) with
Another feeding management strategy that has positive results in terms of better growth and survival
proved to be effective in reducing feed wastage and but with differences in the degree of beneficial effect of
improving feed efficiency is the use of maintenance BFT among the different species.
feeding (MF) and submaximum feeding (SF). Exper-
imental studies using this type of feed management
where the fish are given MF and subsequently SF gave
30 percent less feed wastage, as measured by fecal out-
put, compared to control (given full daily feed ration).
Mean FCR of fish given the MF/SF ration was only 3 Availability of family labor is a critical determinant of adop-
0.8, which is significantly lower than 1.6 of fish given tion of integrated natural resource management (INRM)
the full ration. Growth rates of fish also did not dif- practices, especially for low income households. Such
fer and full catch-up growth occurred in the MF/SF households face liquidity constraints in hiring wage laborers
ration. (Marenya and Barrett 2007).
CONCLUDING REMARKS

Agricultural production in the Philippines has been growing and diversifying over
8
time, in response to market opportunities both domestically and overseas. These
opportunities arise from rising incomes as well as a growing population; however,
the income effect has led to a shift to animal protein sources, higher vegetable con-
sumption, and higher consumption of rice. Moreover, foreign demand has stimu-
lated intensive monocrop cultivation of export crops. As a consequence, agriculture
has become more widespread and more intensified, leading to increasing pollution
loading on the essentially fixed ecosystems. The precise nature of causes and impacts
of pollution from agricultural activity still requires deeper study and assessment,
as shown in this review. Such a study must be conducted on various phenomena
suspected to cause environmental damage, for example, fertilizer nutrient runoff
and leaching, pesticide residues and contamination, antibiotic resistance, and even
the impact of invasive species. However, the need for further research should not
preclude immediate action in terms of enforcement, rule of law, and expansion of
environmentally friendly agricultural extension programs; indeed, such interven-
tions may benefit as well from parallel research and evidence-based analysis.
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128 An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: Summary Report

List of Stakeholders Consulted for this Participatory Review and Assessment of

Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines
Name Position Office/Agency Classification

Sigfredo Serrano Undersecretary for Planning Department of Agriculture National Government Agency
Noel Gaerlan Undersecretary Department of Environment and Natural Resources National Government Agency
Calixto Protacio Executive Director PhilRice, DA Government Agency
Ma. Lourdes de Matta National Pesticide Analytical Laboratory, BPI, DA Government Agency
Gavino Barlin Executive Director Fertilizer and Pesticide Authority Government Agency
Rodolfo Ilao Director Agricultural Resources Management Research Division Government Agency
(ARMRD), Philippine Council for Agricultural and
Aquatic Resources Research and Development
Christina Bajet University Researcher National Crop Protection Center Government Agency
Adoracion B. Armada Senior Science Research Program Planning and Packaging Section, Philippine Government Agency
Specialist Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources
Research and Development (PCAARRD)
Lorna V. Gabito Chief Fruits, Vegetables and Root Crops Statistics Section, Government Agency
Philippine Statistics Authority
Mario M. Padrinao OIC, Division Chief Crops Statistics Division, Philippine Statistics Authority Government Agency
Engr. Teresita A. Peralta Board, Secretary Pollution Adjudication Board (PAB), Department of Government Agency
Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)
Brian Arda Information Officer Department of Agriculture, National Organic Government Agency
Agriculture Program
1818 H Street, NW
Washington, DC 20433