Heat Transfer

Dr. Chaouki Ghenai

 Conduction Classes
• Heat Transfer is a vector quantity (unlike temperature).
• Rate of heat conduction in a specified direction is proportional
to temperature gradient (change in temperature per unit length).
• Heat conduction in a medium is 3-Dimensional and time
dependent: T = T(x, y, z, t): temperature in a medium varies
with position as well as time.
• Necessary to use coordinate system to indicate direction of
Heat Transfer.

2
 HT Coordinates
• HT in positive direction of a coordinate
axis is positive and in opposite direction
it is negative.
• Positive quantity indicates heat transfer
in the positive direction and a negative
quantity indicates heat transfer in the
negative direction.
• Driving force for any form of HT is
temperature difference.
• The larger temperature difference, the
larger rate of heat transfer.

3
 Temperature Distribution
• Determination of temperature distribution (variation of
temperature) throughout the medium in order to calculate
some quantities of interest (local heat transfer rate, thermal
expansion, and thermal stress at some critical locations at
specified times).
• Must specify location of a point to specify its temperature.
• Choose suitable coordinate system (rectangular, cylindrical,
or spherical coordinates), depending on geometry involved,
and a convenient reference point (origin).
• Best coordinate system for a given geometry is one that
describes surfaces of geometry best.
4
 Coordinate Systems
• Point can be located using:
• (x, y, z) in rectangular coordinates.
• (r, ϕ, z) in cylindrical coordinates.
• (r, ϕ, θ) in spherical coordinates.
• where the distances x, y, z, and r and the angles ϕ and θ are
shown below:

5
 Steady vs. Transient HT
• Steady implies no change with time at any point within the
medium, while transient implies variation with time or time
dependence.
• Temperature or heat flux remains unchanged with time
during steady heat transfer through a medium at any location,
although both quantities may vary from one location to another.

6
 Lumped System
• During transient heat transfer, temperature normally varies
with time as well as position.
• In special case of variation with time but not with position,
temperature of medium changes uniformly with time: called
lumped system.
• Most HT problems encountered in practice are transient in
nature, but usually analyzed under presumed steady
conditions (steady processes are easier to analyze, and provide
answers to questions).

7
 One-Dimensional HT
• Temperature in medium varies in 1D only and thus heat is
transferred in one direction, and variation of temperature and
thus heat transfer in other directions are negligible or zero.
• HT can be assumed 1D if symmetry exists (boiling an egg
has heat transferred into a single point).

8
 Fourier’s Law of Heat conduction
• For 1D case:

• k is thermal conductivity of the material

(measure of ability of a material to
conduct heat).
• dT/dx is the temperature gradient (slope
of temperature curve on a T-x diagram).
• Heat is conducted in direction of decreasing
temperature: temperature gradient is
negative when heat is conducted in positive
x-direction (negative sign ensures that heat
transfer in positive x-direction is a positive
quantity).
9
 Generalized Fourier’s Law
• Consider a medium in which temperature distribution is 3D.
• Heat flux vector at a point P on an isothermal surface must
be perpendicular to surface, and it must point in direction of
decreasing temperature.
• n is normal of isothermal surface at point P.

10
 Generalized Fourier’s Law
• Rate of heat conduction at that point can be
expressed by Fourier’s law:

• In rectangular coordinates:

• are unit vectors.

• are magnitudes x, y, z of heat
transfer rates in x-, y-, and z-directions:

11
 Example I
The inner and outer surfaces of a 4-m  7-m brick wall of
thickness 30 cm and thermal conductivity 0.69 W/m·°C are
maintained at temperatures of 20°C and 5°C, respectively.
Determine the rate of heat transfer through the wall, in W.

12
 Solution
Solution: A 4-m  7-m brick wall of thickness 30 cm is considered. The
rate of heat transfer through the wall, is to determined in W.

Assumptions: 1D conduction HT and constant properties can be used for

the brick wall at the average temperature (Tavg).

Properties: The thermal conductivity of the brick wall is 0.69 W/m·°C.

Analysis: The thickness of the brick wall is very small compared to the
wall length and width and it can be considered as 1D conduction in x-
direction T = T(x). So, the rate of heat transfer through the wall can be
determined as follow:
T   2  20  5 C
o

Qcond  kA   0.69 W / m. C  4  7 m 
o
 966 W
x    0.3 m
13
 Example II
• An aluminum pan whose thermal conductivity is 237 W/m·°C
has a flat bottom with diameter 20 cm and thickness 0.4 cm.
Heat is transferred steadily to boiling water in the pan through
its bottom at a rate of 800 W. If the inner surface of the bottom
of the pan is at 105°C, determine the temperature of the outer
surface of the bottom of the pan.

14
 Solution
Solution: A 20 cm in diameter flat bottom of an aluminum pan with a
thickness of 0.4 cm is considered. The temperature of the outer surface of
the bottom of the pan is to be determined.
Assumptions: 1D conduction HT and constant properties can be used for
the flat bottom of an aluminum pan at the average temperature (Tavg).

Properties: The thermal conductivity of the aluminum pan is 237 W/m·°C.

Analysis: The bottom section surface area of the aluminum pan is very
large relative to its thickness and can be considered a large plane wall. So,
it can be considered as 1D conduction in x-direction T = T(x). So, the rate
of heat transfer through the wall can be determined as follow:

 T T
Qcond  kA  kA
x L
15
 Solution
The area of the flat bottom of the aluminum pan is given by:
2
 
A  r    0.1 m   0.0314 m D = 0.2 m THEN, r = 0.1 m
2 2

 
Under steady state conditions, the rate of heat transfer through the bottom
of the pan by conduction is given by:

 T T
Qcond  kA  kA
x L
Substituting:
  2  T2  105 C
o
800 W   237 W / m. C  0.0314 m 
o

   0.004 m
Solving for T2 gives:
T2  105.43 C
o

16
 Test Yourself
The inner and outer surfaces of a 0.5-cm thick 2-m  2-m window
glass in winter are 10°C and 3°C, respectively. If the thermal
conductivity of the glass is 0.78 W/m·°C,
1- Determine the rate of the heat transfer through the window.
2- Determine and the amount of heat loss, in kJ, through the glass
over a period of 5 hours.
3- What would your answers be if the glass were 1 cm thick?
4- Reconsider the example Using EES (or other) software, plot the
amount of heat loss through the glass as a function of the window
glass thickness in the range of 0.1 cm to 1.0 cm. Discuss the results.

Answers: (1) Q = 4368 W, (2) = 78624 kJ

17
 Heat Generation
• Temperature of a resistance wire rises rapidly when electric
current passes through it as a result of electrical energy being
converted to heat at a rate of I2R, where I is current and R is
electrical resistance of wire.

• Heat can be generated in the fuel element of nuclear reactor as a

result of nuclear fission that serves as the heat source for the
nuclear power plants.

• Chemical reactions that may occur through out the medium.

Exothermic rxns: heat sources. Endothermic rxns: heat
sinks.
20
 Heat Generation
• Heat generation is a volumetric phenomenon (occurs
throughout body of a medium).
• Rate of heat generation in a medium is specified per unit
volume and is denoted by ġ: [W/m3] or [Btu/h·ft3].
• Total rate of heat generation in a medium of volume V can
be determined from:

• Uniform heat generation: Ġ = ġ·V, where ġ is the constant

rate of heat generation per unit volume.

21
 Example III
The resistance wire of a 1200-W hair dryer is 80 cm long and
has a diameter of D = 0.3 cm. Determine:
1- The rate of heat generation in the wire per unit volume, in
W/cm3.
2- The heat flux on the outer surface of the wire as a result
of this heat generation.

22
 Solution
Solution: the power consumed by the resistance wire of a hair dryer is
given. The heat generation and the heat flux are to be determined.
Assumptions: Heat is generated uniformly in the resistance wire.
Analysis: A 1200-W hair dryer converts electrical energy into heat in the
wire at a rate of 1200-W. Therefore, the rate of heat generations in a
resistance wire is equal to the power consumption of a resistance heater.

(1) Then the rate of heat generation in the wire per unit volume is
determined by dividing the total rate of heat generation by the volume of
the wire.
E gen E gen 1200 W
g     3

Vwire D 2 / 4 L  
212 W / cm
2

   0.3 cm  / 4  80 cm 

    
 
23
 Solution
(2) Similarly, the heat flux on the outer surface of the wire as a result of
this heat generation is determined by dividing the total rate of heat
generation by the surface area of the wire.

E gen E gen 1200 W

Q s     15.9 W / cm 2

Awire DL   
  0.3 cm  80 cm 
  

Discussion: Note that heat generation is expressed per unit volume in

W/cm3 whereas heat flux is expressed per unit surface area in W/cm2.

24
1D Heat Conduction Equation

• Cases considered:

• Large Plain wall.

• Long cylinder.

• Sphere.

25
 Heat Conduction Equation in a Large
Plane Wall
• Formulated using a thin element of thickness ∆x in a large plane
wall.

26
Heat Conduction Equation in a Large
Plane Wall
• Assume density of wall is ρ, specific heat is C, and area of
wall normal to direction of heat transfer is A.
• An energy balance on this thin element during a small time
interval Δt can be expressed as:

• Or:

27
Heat Conduction Equation in a Large
Plane Wall
• But change in internal energy and rate of heat generation within
element can be expressed as:

• Substituting back:

• Dividing by A∆x gives:

28
Heat Conduction Equation in a Large
Plane Wall
• Taking the limit as ∆x → 0 and ∆t → 0 yields:


• Since, from definition of the derivative and Fourier’s law of
heat conduction:

• Since A is constant for plain wall, Then for variable

conductivity:

29
Heat Conduction Equation in a Large
Plane Wall
• For constant conductivity:

• α = k/ρC is thermal diffusivity of material and represents

how fast heat propagates through.

• Special cases:

30
 Example IV
Consider a large plane wall of thickness L = 0.4 m, thermal conductivity k
= 2.3 W/m·°C, and surface area A = 30 m2. The left side of the wall is
maintained at a constant temperature of T1 = 90°C while the right side loses
heat by convection to the surrounding air at T∞ = 25°C with a heat transfer
coefficient of h = 24 W/m2·°C. Assuming constant thermal conductivity
and no heat generation in the wall:
(a) Express the differential equation and the boundary conditions for steady
one-dimensional heat conduction through the wall,

(b) Obtain a relation for the variation of temperature in the wall by solving
the differential equation

(c) Evaluate the rate of heat transfer through the wall.

31
 Solution (a)
Taking direction normal to surface of wall to be the x direction
with x = 0 at the left surface, the mathematical formulation of this
problem can be expressed as:

The differential equation is:

the B.Cs are:

32
 Solution (b)

i.e. C2 = 90oC

T(x) = 90 – 131.1x
33
Solution (c)

34
 Heat Conduction Equation in a Long
Cylinder
• Thin cylindrical shell element of thickness ∆r in a long cylinder.
• Density of cylinder is ρ, specific heat is C, and length is L.
• Area of cylinder normal to direction of heat transfer at any
location is A = 2πrL where r is value of radius at that location.
• A depends on r (varies with location),

35
 Energy Balance
• Energy balance on this thin cylindrical shell element during a
small time interval ∆t can be expressed as:

36
 Energy Balance
• Substituting back:

• dividing equation above by A∆r gives:

• Taking the limit as ∆r → 0 and ∆t → 0 yields:

37
 Energy Balance/Fourier’s Law
• Definition of derivative and Fourier’s law of heat conduction:

• A= 2rL, and the 1D transient heat conduction equation in a

cylinder becomes:

• Thermal diffusivity is α = k/ρC.

38
 Conduction Equation under Specific
Conditions
• General equation:

• Specific conditions:

39
 Example V
The top and bottom surfaces of a solid cylindrical rod (D = 0.05
m and L = 0.15 m) are maintained at constant temperatures of
20°C and 95°C while the side surface is perfectly insulated.
The rate of heat transfer through the rod is to be determined for
the cases of copper, steel, and granite rod.

40
 Solution
Solution: Solid cylindrical rod with top and bottom surfaces are
maintained at constant temperatures while the side surface is perfectly
insulated. The rate of heat transfer through the rod is to be determined for
the cases of copper, steel, and granite rod.

Assumptions:
1- Heat conduction one-dimensional.
2- Steady state.
3- Thermal conductivity is constant.
4- There is no heat generation.

Analysis: The rate of heat transfer through the rod is given by Fourier’s
law as follows:

41
 Solution

Substituting the values of the variables for each case gives:

42
 Example VI
Chilled water flows in a pipe that is well insulated from outside.
The mathematical formulation and the variation of temperature in
the pipe are to be determined for steady one-dimensional heat
transfer.

43
 Solution
• Noting that heat transfer is one-dimensional in the radial r
direction, the mathematical formulation of this problem can be
expressed as:

The differential equation is:

And the B.Cs are:

44
Solution II

45
Heat Conduction Equation in a Sphere
• Sphere with density ρ, specific heat C, and outer radius R. The
area of the sphere normal to the direction of heat transfer at
any location is A = 4πr2, where r is the value of radius at that
location.

• Considering a thin spherical shell element of thickness ∆r:

46
1D Transient Heat Conduction Equation
for a Sphere

• Where thermal diffusivity is α = k/ρC.

47
 Conduction Equation under Specific
Conditions
• General equation:

• Specific conditions:

48
 Combined One-Dimensional
Heat Conduction Equation
• 1D transient heat conduction equations for plane wall, cylinder,
and sphere reveals that all three equations can be expressed in a
compact form as:

• where n = 0 for a plane wall, n = 1 for a cylinder, and n = 2 for

a sphere. In the case of a plane wall, it is customary to replace
the variable r by x. This equation can be simplified for steady-
state or no heat generation cases as described before.

49
GENERAL HEAT
CONDUCTION
EQUATION
 General Conduction Equation

• Rectangular coordinates.
• Cylindrical coordinates.
• Spherical coordinates.

51
 Rectangular Coordinates
• Small rectangular element of length ∆x, width ∆y, and height ∆z.
Assume the density of the body is ρ and the specific heat is C. An
energy balance on this element during a small time interval ∆t can be
expressed as:

52
 Rectangular Coordinates

• Note that element volume is

Velement = ∆x∆y∆z.
• Change in energy content of
element and rate of heat
generation within element can
be expressed as:

53
 Rectangular Coordinates
• Substituting into the equation:

• Dividing by the volume (∆x∆y∆z):

• Note: heat transfer areas of element in x, y, and z directions are

Ax = ∆y∆z, Ay = ∆x∆z, and Az = ∆x∆y, respectively, and taking
the limit as ∆x, ∆y, ∆z and ∆t → 0 yields:

54
 Rectangular Coordinates

• Was obtained from:

55
 Constant Thermal Conductivity :
Fourier-Biot Equation

• where α = k/ρC is thermal diffusivity of material.

56
Special Conditions

57
 Cylindrical Coordinates
• General heat conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates:
obtained from energy balance on a volume element in
cylindrical coordinates by following steps just outlined.

58
 Cylindrical Coordinates
• Equation obtained by coordinate transformation using the
following relations between rectangular and cylindrical
coordinate systems:
x = r cos ϕ y = r sin ϕ z=z
• After lengthy manipulation:

59
 Spherical Coordinates
• Equation obtained by coordinate transformation into rectangular
using a spherical element and following relations:
x= r cosϕ.sinθ y = r sinϕ.sinθ z = cos θ
• After lengthy manipulations:

60
Boundary & Initial
Conditions
 BC & IC
• Conduction equations developed using an energy balance on
differential elements inside medium: remain the same
regardless of thermal conditions on surfaces of medium.
• Mathematical expressions of thermal conditions at boundaries
are called boundary conditions.
• Solving a differential equation: process of removing derivatives
(integration process), and thus solution of a differential equation
typically involves arbitrary constants.
• To obtain a unique solution to a problem: need to specify
conditions (e.g. value of function or its derivatives at some
value of the independent variable).

62
 BC & IC
• Number of boundary conditions that needs to be specified in a
direction is equal to order of differential equation in that
direction.
• Heat conduction equation is second order in all directions
along which heat conduction is significant. General solution of
a second-order linear differential equation involves two
arbitrary constants for each direction.

63
 BC & IC
• Temperature at any point on wall at specified time depends on
condition of wall at beginning of heat conduction process.
• Such condition (at t = 0), is called initial condition,
(mathematical expression for temperature distribution of the
medium initially).
• Need only one initial condition for a heat conduction problem
regardless of dimension since conduction equation is first order
in time (it involves the first derivative of temperature with
respect to time).
• In rectangular coordinates, the initial condition can be specified
in the general form as:
T(x, y, z, 0) = f(x, y, z) T(x, y, z, 0) = Ti
64
 Examples of BC & IC
• Specified temperature.
• Specified heat flux.
• Special case: Insulated boundary.
• Special case: Thermal symmetry.
• Convection.
• Radiation boundary conditions.

65
Specified Temperature Boundary Condition
• Easiest way to specify thermal conditions on surface is to
specify temperature.
• For one-dimensional heat transfer through plane wall of
thickness L, specified temperature boundary conditions can be
expressed as:
T(0, t) = T1
T(L, t) = T2

66
Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition
• If heat flux Ǭ (heat transfer rate per unit surface area, W/m2)
on a surface is known: This information can be used as one of
BCs.

• Heat flux in positive x-direction anywhere in medium,

including boundaries, can be expressed by Fourier’s law of
heat conduction as:

• Set specified heat flux equal to -k(∂T/∂x) at that boundary.

67
Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition
• Sign of specified heat flux is determined by inspection:
positive if heat flux is in positive direction of coordinate axis,
and negative if it is in opposite direction.

• For a plate of thickness L subjected to heat flux of 50 W/m2

into medium from both sides. Specified heat flux boundary
conditions can be expressed as:

68
Special Case 1: Insulated Boundary
• Surfaces insulated to minimize heat loss
(or heat gain) through them.
• Insulation reduces heat transfer but does
not totally eliminate it unless t = ∞. But
heat transfer through properly insulated
surface can be taken to be zero.
• Well-insulated surface modeled as surface
with heat flux of zero. Boundary
condition on a perfectly insulated surface
(at x = 0, for example) can be expressed
as:

69
Special Case 2: Special Case: Thermal
Symmetry
• Heat transfer problem will possess thermal
symmetry about the center plane at x = L/2.
• Direction of heat flow at any point will be
toward surface closer to point, and there
will be no heat flow across the center plane.
• Center plane viewed as an insulated
surface, and thermal condition at this plane
of symmetry can be expressed as (zero
heat flux):

70
 Convection Boundary Condition
• Convection boundary condition is based on a surface energy
balance expressed as:

• 1D HT in x-direction in a plate of thickness L, convection

boundary conditions on both surfaces can be expressed as both:

71
 Interface Boundary Condition
The boundary conditions for the interface are based on the
requirements that:
1- Two bodies in contact must have the same temperature at
the area of contact.
2- An interface (surface) cannot store energy, and thus the
heat flux on the two sides of an interface must be the same.

72
 Variable Thermal Conductivity
The thermal conductivity of a material, in general, varies with
temperature.

When the variation is mild, we use an average value and treat

as a constant.

When the variation with temperature is large, it is necessary to

account for this variation.

When the variation of the thermal conductivity with

temperature is known then:

73
 Variable Thermal Conductivity
 The rate of steady heat transfer through
wall plane, cylindrical layer, or spherical
layer with variable thermal conductivity
is given by:

74
 Example VII
Consider a large plane wall of thickness L = 0.3 m, thermal conductivity
k = 2.5 W/m·°C, and surface area A = 12 m2. The left side of the wall at
x = 0 is subjected to a net heat flux of q0 = 700 W/m2 while temperature
at that surface is measured to be T1= 80°C. Assuming constant thermal
conductivity and no heat generation in the wall.
(a) Express the differential equation and the boundary conditions for steady
one-dimensional heat conduction through the wall.

(b) Obtain a relation for the variation of temperature in the wall by solving the
differential equation.

(c) Evaluate the temperature of the right surface of the wall at x = L.

75
 Solution (a)
Solution: Steady 1-dimensionsl heat conduction in a large plane wall is
considered. The DE and the BCs, the variation of temperature in the wall, and
the temperature of the right surface of the wall at x = L, are to be determined.

Assumptions:
1- Heat conduction one-dimensional.
2- Steady state.
3- Thermal conductivity is constant.
4- There is no heat generation.

The differential equation

(1)
(2) The B.Cs
76
 Solution (b)

 T x   280 x  80
77
Solution (c)

78
 Example VIII
Consider a compressed air pipe of length L = 6 m, inner radius r1 = 3.7 cm, outer
radius r2 = 4.0 cm, and thermal conductivity k = 14 W/m·°C equipped with a 300-
W strip heater. Air is flowing through the pipe at an average temperature of -
10°C, and the average convection heat transfer coefficient on the inner surface is
h = 30 W/m2·°C. Assuming 15 percent of heat generated in strip heater is lost
through the insulation,
(a) Express the differential equation and the boundary conditions for steady one-
dimensional heat conduction through the pip.
(b) Obtain a relation for the variation of temperature in the pipe material by
solving the differential equation.
(c) Evaluate the inner and outer surface temperatures of the pipe.

79
 Solution (a)
Solution: Steady 1-dimensionsl heat conduction in a cylinder is considered.
The DE and the BCs, the variation of temperature in the in the pipe
material, and the inner and outer surface temperatures of the pipe, are to be
determined.
Assumptions:
1- Heat conduction one-dimensional.
2- Steady state.
3- Thermal conductivity is constant.
4- There is no heat generation.

80
 Solution (a)

The differential equation

(1)
The B.Cs
(2)

81
 Solution (b)

 r 
 T r   10  0.483 ln  12.61
 r1 

82
Solution (c)

83
 Test Yourself
Reconsider previous problem: Using the relation obtained for the
variation of temperature in the pipe material, plot the temperature
as a function of the radius r in the range of r = r1 to r = r2, and
discuss the results. Use the EES (or other) software).

84
 Example IX
In a food processing facility, a spherical container of inner radius r1 =
40 cm, outer radius r2 = 41 cm, and thermal conductivity k = 1.5
W/m·°C is used to store hot water and to keep it at 100°C at all times.
To accomplish this, the outer surface of the container is wrapped with
a 500-W electric strip heater and then insulated. The temperature of
the inner surface of the container is observed to be nearly 100°C at all
times. Assuming 10 percent of the heat generated in the heater is lost
through the insulation,
• (a) express the differential equation and the boundary conditions for
steady one-dimensional heat conduction through the container,
• (b) obtain a relation for the variation of temperature in the container
material by solving the differential equation, and
• (c) evaluate the outer surface temperature of the container. Also determine
how much water at 100°C this tank can supply steadily if the cold water
enters at 20°C.
85
 Solution (a)
Solution: Steady 1-dimensionsl heat conduction in a sphere is considered.
The DE and the BCs, the variation of temperature in the in the pipe
material, the outer surface temperature of the container, and how much
water this tank can supply are to be determined.
Assumptions:
1- Heat conduction 1-
dimensional.
2- Steady state.
3-Thermal conductivity
is constant.
4-There is no heat
generation.

86
 Solution (a)

The differential equation

(1)
The B.Cs
(2)

87
 Solution (b)

 1
 T r   100  23.87 2.5  
 r 88
Solution (c)

89