Air Pollution and Control
Lecture 51: International Environmental Treaties to Reduce Air Pollution and GHG
Emissions
Prof. Bhola Ram Gurjar
Department of Civil Engineering
1
Content
• Introduction
• Importance of the International Treaties/Agreements
• Major International Treaties
o Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution, 1979
o Vienna Convention 1985
o Helsinki Protocol, 1985
o Montreal Protocol, 1987
o Sofia Protocol, 1988
o Geneva protocol, 1991
o Earth summit, 1992
o United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992
o Kyoto Protocol, 1997
o Gothenburg Protocol, 1999
o Stockholm Convention, 2001
o Paris Agreement, 2016
• Conclusions
2
Introduction (1/2)
• Globally, air pollution is the fourth-
highest risk factor for premature
death after high blood pressure,
tobacco, and dietary risks.
Source: State of Global Air 2020 Report
3
Introduction (2/2)
• What are international environmental Treaties?
International environmental treaties are
agreements signed by countries to control,
mitigate or manage anthropogenic (human
induced) impacts on the environment in order to
protect it.
Source: https://ironline.american.edu/blog/beginners-guide-environmental-agreements/ Image: https://www.referenceforbusiness.com/
4
Importance of the International Treaties/Agreements
• The fast industrialization and urbanization across the
world have resulted in numerous environmental
problems, e.g., climate change, ozone depletion, global
warming, deforestation, acid rain, etc.
• Such environmental issues or problems are
transboundary in nature and usually have a global
scope.
• They can only be properly handled through
international collaboration, which requires all countries
to work together to achieve common objectives.
Source: (Altamirano-Cabrera et al., 2013) Image: https://www.siliconrepublic.com/
5
Major International Treaties/Agreements
Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution, 1979
Vienna Convention 1985
Helsinki Protocol, 1985
Montreal Protocol, 1987
Sofia Protocol, 1988
Geneva protocol, 1991
Earth summit, 1992
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992
Kyoto Protocol, 1997
Gothenburg Protocol, 1999
Stockholm Convention, 2001
Paris Agreement, 2016
6
Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution, 1979
(1/2)
• In 1960s, when scientists investigated the sources
of acid rain in the Northern Hemisphere, they
discovered that it was damaging forests, causing fish
to die in lakes, and putting entire ecosystems at risk.
• Air pollutants, a significant portion of which was
released thousands of kilometers away, were
discovered to be the cause of such harmful effects.
• In order to solve this problem (acid rain), The United
Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)
Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air
Pollution was signed in 1979.
Source: https://unece.org/convention-and-its-achievements Image: https://blankworldmap.net/
7
Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution, 1979
(2/2)
• It includes 32 countries in the European region, the
United States and Canada, the agreement initially aimed
to tackle acid rain.
• The Convention entered into force in 1983.
• This was the first international treaty to deal with air
pollution on a broad regional basis.
UNECE: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
Source: https://unece.org/convention-and-its-achievements
8
Effects of Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air
Pollution, 1979 (1/2)
• Emissions of a series of harmful substances have
been reduced by 40 to 80% between 1990-2012
in Europe.
• The drop in emissions has reduced the
deposition of acidifying compounds to levels
below critical loads of acidity in large parts of
Europe.
Source: https://unece.org/convention-and-its-achievements, world resource institute
9
Effects of Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air
Pollution, 1979 (2/2)
• The Convention delivered concrete results, i.e.,
Emissions of PM and sulphur dropped by 30-80%
in Europe and 30-40% in North America between
1990-2012.
• Nitrogen oxide pollution levels in UN Economic
Commission for Europe (UNECE) countries have
been reduced by almost 80% between 1990-2012.
Source: https://unece.org/convention-and-its-achievements, world resource institute
10
Vienna Convention, 1985 (1/2)
• The Vienna Convention is the first international
agreement dedicated to protecting the ozone
layer. The Convention was signed in 1985.
• It was the first convention of any kind to be
signed by every country involved, taking effect
in 1988 and reaching universal ratification in
2009.
Source: https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/corporate/international-
affairs/partnerships-organizations/ozone-layer-protection-vienna-convention.html Image: https://www.reparationlaw.com/
11
Vienna Convention, 1985 (2/2)
• The Convention commits all countries to protect
human health and the environment resulting from
modifications to the ozone layer.
• The objectives were to promote cooperation by means
of systematic observations, research, and information
exchange on the effects of human activities on the
ozone layer.
• To adopt legislative or administrative measures against
activities likely to have adverse effects on the ozone
layer.
Source: https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/corporate/international-
affairs/partnerships-organizations/ozone-layer-protection-vienna-convention.html Image: https://www.discovermagazine.com/
12
Effect of Vienna Convention, 1985
• A key result of the Vienna Convention has been the
Montreal Protocol (1987), which plays a significant role
in restoring the ozone layer.
• Assuming continued full compliance with the phase-
out of ozone-depleting substances under the Montreal
Protocol, the ozone layer is expected to eventually
recover over most of the globe.
• This recovery is expected to occur before mid of the
21st century in mid-latitudes and the Arctic, and
somewhat later for the Antarctic ozone hole.
Source: https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change Image: https://www.timetoast.com
13
Helsinki Protocol, 1985 (1/2)
• The Protocol was drawn up within the framework of the
Economic Commission for Europe and was adopted on 8
July 1985 for the Convention on Long-Range
Transboundary Air Pollution.
• It came into the force on 2 September 1987.
• This protocol required at least reducing SO2 emissions by
at least 30% compared to 1980 levels as soon as possible
by 1993 considering the efforts of several nations to
decrease sulphur emissions.
Source: https://unece.org/environment-policy/air/protocol-further-reduction-sulphur-emissions Image: https://unece.org/
14
Helsinki Protocol, 1985 (2/2)
• Parties required to take the most effective
measures for the reduction of sulphur
emissions, such as including efforts to
increase energy efficiency, the use of
renewable energy, measures to reduce the
sulphur content of fuels, and applying best
available control technologies.
Source: https://unece.org/environment-policy/air/protocol-further-reduction-sulphur-emissions
15
Effect of Helsinki Protocol, 1985
• Countries that ratified the Helsinki
protocol experienced a sharp decline in
emissions in the post-treatment period.
Using the baseline year as the
intervention date (1980),
• After five years of the intervention of
the protocol, SO2 emissions were
reduced to 20–23%.
Source: E. Isaksen, 2020
16
Montreal Protocol, 1987 (1/2)
• The Montreal Protocol is a global agreement that aims to
protect the Earth's ozone layer by phasing out the ozone
layer depleting substances. This phase-out plan includes
both the production and consumption of ozone-depleting
substances.
• This agreement was signed in 1987 and entered into force
in 1989. The parties to the Protocol meet once a year to
make decisions to ensure the successful implementation of
the agreement.
• This protocol, ratified by 197 nations and is the first
agreement in UN history to achieve universal adoption. It
is widely recognized as the most excellent effective global
environmental action.
Source: https://ozone.unep.org/treaties/montreal-protocol
17
Montreal Protocol, 1987 (2/2)
• The Protocol was amended six times since it came into
force.
• The most recent amendment was the Kigali
Amendment, which called for the phase-down of
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) in 2016.
A batch of ozone-depleting chemicals was replaced with HFCs.
They are potent greenhouse gases and thus contributors to
climate change, even though they do not damage the ozone layer.
Source: https://ozone.unep.org/treaties/montreal-protocol, https://www.epa.gov/ozone-layer-protection Image: https://www.danfoss.com/
18
Effect of Montreal Protocol, 1987 (2/2)
• This treaty protects and restores the
ozone layer by phasing out the
production and consumption of
certain ozone-depleting substances
(ODS), including CFCs, halons, methyl
bromide, and
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs).
• Assuming continued international • The ozone layer is on
compliance with the Montreal the path to recovery,
Protocol, Antarctic ozone levels are which benefits human
expected to return to pre-1980 levels health and the
by 2050. environment
Source: EPA Report, 2017
19
Sofia Protocol, 1988 (1/2)
• The Protocol was drawn up within the
Economic Commission for Europe framework
and was adopted on 31 October 1988 for the
Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air
Pollution.
• It came entered into force on 14 February
1991.
Source: https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=XXVII-1-c&chapter=27&clang=_en
Image: https://www.dreamstime.com/
20
Sofia Protocol, 1988 (2/2)
• According to this protocol, nitrogen oxide
emissions or transboundary fluxes must be
controlled.
• Parties requested to introduce pollution control
measures for the significant existing stationary
sources and apply national emissions standards
to primary new stationary and mobile sources,
based on the best available economically
feasible technologies.
Source: https://unece.org/environment-policy/air/protocol-concerning-control-emissions-nitrogen-oxides, (P Bhave & Kulkarni, 2015) Image: www.shutterstock.com/
21
Sofia Protocol, 1988 (2/2)
• The general reference year was 1987.
• Five years after the intervention, NOx
emissions were around 11% lower, while
this difference was 17–18% ten years after
the intervention.
Source: E. Isaksen, 2020
22
Geneva protocol, 1991 (1/2)
• On November 18, 1991, the protocol concerning the
control of emissions of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), or their transboundary fluxes was adopted in
Geneva (Switzerland), and It entered into force on 29
September 1997.
• It targets the reduction of VOCs, a major air pollutant
responsible for the formation of ground-level ozone.
Source: (P Bhave & Kulkarni, 2015)
23
Geneva protocol, 1991 (2/2)
This Protocol specifies three emissions reduction
objectives:
• By 1999, emissions of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) will have decreased by 30%, based on a year
between 1984 and 1990.
• The same reduction as within a Tropospheric Ozone
Management Area to maintain total national
emissions below 1988 levels by 1999.
• Finally, if emissions in 1988 did not exceed certain
defined levels, Parties may choose to stabilize
emissions at that level by 1999.
Source: (P Bhave & Kulkarni, 2015) Image:https://www.coatingsworld.com/
24
Effect of Geneva protocol, 1991
Five years after the intervention VOCs
emissions were 15–18% lower, while
this difference was 19–21% ten years
after the intervention
Source: E. Isaksen, 2020
25
Earth summit, 1992 (1/3)
• The United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED), also known as the Earth
Summit, was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992 to
integrate global economic development with
environmental conservation.
• As of 1992, the Earth Summit was the greatest
meeting of the world’s leaders, with 117 heads of
state and delegates from 178 nations.
Source: https://www.un.org/en/conferences/environment/rio1992 Image: https://intervention.ng/
26
Earth summit, 1992 (2/3)
• The agreed primary documents of the Earth Summit:
The Convention on Biological Diversity was a legally
binding agreement requiring countries to identify
their plants and wild animals and protect
endangered species.
The UNFCCC, or Global Warming Convention, was a
binding treaty that requires nations to reduce GHG
emissions.
UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
Source: https://www.un.org/en/conferences/environment/rio1992
27
Earth summit, 1992 (3/3)
Rio declaration established 27 broad, non-binding
principles for environmentally sustainable development.
Agenda 21 established worldwide initiatives for
environmental cleanup and development.
The Statement of Principles on Forests, aimed at
protecting the world’s fast-disappearing tropical
rainforests, was a nonbinding statement that encourages
countries to monitor and analyze the impact of
development on their forest resources and takes actions
to mitigate the damages.
Source: https://www.un.org/en/conferences/environment/rio1992
28
UNFCCC, 1992 (1/3)
• In 1992, countries joined an international treaty,
the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC), at the United
Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (Earth Summit) to address the
problem of climate change.
• The UNFCCC entered into force on March
21, 1994, ratified by 197 countries.
Source: KF Kuh, 2018
29
UNFCCC, 1992 (2/3)
• The parties announced a goal of stabilizing GHG
concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would
prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the
climate system.
• Developed countries agreed to adopt national policies
to mitigate climate change and return to their 1990
levels of anthropogenic emissions of GHGs.
• Developing countries were expected to contribute to
climate mitigation because of their superior capacity to
undertake mitigation and more significant contribution
to the problem of climate change.
Source: KF Kuh, 2018
30
UNFCCC, 1992 (3/3)
• The UNFCCC instituted a process for the countries
to generate and share data about domestic GHG
emissions.
• Under the UNFCCC, all parties were required to
submit national GHG inventories, and developed
countries must submit more detailed descriptions
of mitigation policies and projections of the
estimated impacts of these policies on GHG
emissions.
Source: KF Kuh, 2018
31
Kyoto Protocol, 1997 (1/6)
• The Kyoto Protocol was signed as an international
agreement linked to the UNFCCC, which commits
its Parties by setting internationally binding
emission reduction targets for GHGs. It was
adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on December 11, 1997,
and entered into force on February 16, 2005.
• Recognizing that the current high levels of GHG
emissions in the atmosphere are primarily due to
various industrial activities in developed countries,
during the first commitment period (2008-2012),
developed nations committed to reducing
emissions of six GHGs (CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs,
and SF6) by at least 5% relative to 1990 levels.
Source: S.G.Poulopoulos, 2016, P Bhave & Kulkarni, 2015 Image: https://carbonoffsetadvisory.com/
32
Kyoto Protocol, 1997 (2/6)
• The Kyoto Protocol was amended on
December 8, 2012, in Doha, Qatar.
• Parties committed to reduce GHG emissions
by at least 18% below 1990 levels during the
second commitment period (2013-2020).
Source: S.G.Poulopoulos, 2016, P Bhave & Kulkarni, 2015 Image: https://pba.umich.edu/
33
Kyoto Protocol, 1997 (3/6)
The Protocol offers three market-based mechanisms to its Parties.
International Emissions Clean Development
Joint implementation
Trading Mechanism
Source: S.G.Poulopoulos, 2016
34
Kyoto Protocol, 1997 (4/6)
1. International Emissions Trading
• Emissions trading, as specified in Article 17 of the
Kyoto Protocol.
• Emission trading allows countries to sell their excess
emission units (1 unit equivalent to 1 ton of CO2) Sweden currently has the highest carbon
to those countries that are over their targets. price in the world at US$ 139.
• A new commodity was created in the form of
emission reductions. Since CO2 is the principal
GHG, people speak simply of trading in carbon.
Source: S.G.Poulopoulos, 2016, https://www.orfonline.org/ Image: https://textilelearner.net/
35
Kyoto Protocol, 1997 (5/6)
2. Clean Development Mechanism
• This mechanism, as defined in Article 12 of the Kyoto
Protocol.
• This mechanism allows a country with an emission-
reduction or emission-limitation commitment under
the Kyoto Protocol to implement an emission-
reduction project in developing countries.
Source: S.G.Poulopoulos, 2016 Image: https://www.neoenergia.com/
36
Kyoto Protocol, 1997 (6/6)
3. Joint implementation
• This mechanism, as defined in Article 6 of the
Kyoto Protocol.
• This mechanism allows a nation with an
emission reduction under the Kyoto Protocol
to earn emission reduction units from an
emission-reduction or emission-removal
project.
Source: S.G.Poulopoulos, 2016 Image: https://energies2050.org/
37
Kyoto Protocol, 1997 (6/6) • The result of this protocol provides
evidence that it has succeeded in
reducing the GHG emissions of the
industrialized countries that ratified the
protocol.
• The estimated reduction in GHG
emissions is approximately 7% less than
the Non-Kyoto protocol scenario.
Source: N. Maamoun, 2019
38
Gothenburg Protocol, 1999 (1/3)
• The protocol was adopted in Gothenburg (Sweden) on
30 November 1999 to abate acidification,
eutrophication, and ground-level ozone.
• With the 2010 emissions target, the Protocol required
parties to control and reduce emissions of four
pollutants: SO2, NOx, volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), and NH3.
• The Protocol also sets tight limit values for specific
emission sources (e.g., combustion plant, electricity
production, dry cleaning, and cars).
Source: https://unece.org/environment-policy/air/protocol-abate-acidification-eutrophication-and-ground-level-ozone Image: https://antonantonio.blogspot.com/
39
Gothenburg Protocol, 1999 (2/3)
• VOCs emissions from such products as paints or
aerosols also must be cut. Finally, farmers have to
take specific measures to control ammonia emissions.
• Parties must report on their emissions once a year. In
addition, the Protocol requires Parties to provide
projections of their future emissions.
• The Protocol was amended in 2012 to include
national emissions reduction commitments to be
achieved by 2020 and beyond.
Source: https://unece.org/environment-policy/air/protocol-abate-acidification-eutrophication-and-ground-level-ozone Image: https://samrajpolytexltd.com/
40
Gothenburg Protocol, 1999 (3/3)
• The revised Protocol was also the first binding agreement
to include emission reduction commitments for fine
particulate matter (PM).
• Reducing particulate matter (including black carbon)
through the implementation of the Protocol was thus a
significant step in reducing air pollution.
• In 2012, European Union (EU) Member States were jointly
required to reduce SO2 emissions by 59 %, NOx emissions
by 42 %, VOCs by 28 %, NH3 by 6 %, and particulate
matter by 22 % up to 2020.
Source: https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10038773/1/reel12219.pdf
41
Stockholm Convention, 2001 (1/4)
• The Stockholm Convention was a global treaty
to protect human health and the environment
from persistent organic pollutants (POPs).
• POPs (disposal of agrochemicals and industrial
chemicals) are chemicals that remain intact in
the environment for long periods.
Source: https://www.unido.org Image: https://vajiramias.com/
42
Stockholm Convention, 2001 (2/4)
• POPs are hazardous to humans and wildlife because
they circulate worldwide and can accumulate in the
fatty tissue of living organisms.
• The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic
Pollutants was adopted on 22 May 2001.
• Over 152 countries ratified the Convention and it
entered into force, on 17 May 2004.
Source: https://www.unido.org Image: https://bionine.wordpress.com/
43
Stockholm Convention, 2001 (3/4)
Five essential aims of the Stockholm Convention are:
• Eliminate dangerous POPs, starting with the 12 worst
[aldrin, chlordane, dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane
(DDT), dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene,
mirex, toxaphene, Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB),
Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD),
Polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF)].
• Support the transition to safer alternatives.
• Target additional POPs for action.
• Cleanup old stockpiles and equipment containing POPs.
• Work together for a POPs-free future.
Source: https://www.unido.org
44
Stockholm Convention, 2001 (4/4)
• It sets up a system for tackling additional chemicals
identified as unacceptably hazardous.
• Ultimately, the Convention promises to alter our
economy's dependency on harmful chemicals by
pointing the way to a future free of dangerous
POPs.
• The Convention currently regulates 29 POPs and
requires parties to implement a variety of controls
to reduce and, where possible, eliminate
POPs emissions.
Source: https://www.unido.org
45
Recall Lecture:- Global and Regional
Paris Agreement, 2016 (1/3) Environmental Issues: Climate Change
• The Paris Agreement is a legally binding
international treaty on climate change.
• It was adopted by 196 Parties at COP
(Conference of Parties) 21 in Paris, on 12
December 2015 and entered into force on 4
November 2016.
• Its goal is to limit global warming to well below
2oC, preferably to 1.5oC, compared to pre-
industrial levels.
Source: https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement Image: https://digital4planet.org/
46
Paris Agreement, 2016 (2/3)
• The agreement aims to improve nations' ability to
deal with the effects of climate change and align
financing flows with low GHG emissions.
• The Agreement also provides an enhanced
transparency framework for action and support.
• The Paris Agreement works on a 5- year cycle of
increasingly ambitious climate action by countries.
Source: https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement Image: https://www.statista.com/
47
Paris Agreement, 2016 (3/3)
• This agreement requires all Parties to put
forward their best efforts through nationally
determined contributions (NDCs) and
strengthen these efforts in the years ahead.
• This includes requirements that all Parties
regularly report on their emissions and
implementation efforts.
• The Agreement established a vision of fully
implementing technological development and
transfer to improve resilience to climate change
and lower GHG emissions.
Source: https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement Image: https://www.businessinsurance.com/
48
Effect of Paris Agreement, 2016
• This Agreement strongly emphasizes climate-related
capacity-building for developing nations, supported
by developed countries.
• Low-carbon solutions came as a result of the
agreement. Carbon neutrality targets are being set
by an increasing number of countries, regions, cities,
and companies.
• Zero-carbon solutions could be competitive in
industries accounting for more than 70% of global
emissions by 2030.
Source: https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement Image: https://ec.europa.eu/
49
Conclusions
• Air pollution and GHG emissions are global environmental issues
that need focused attention and collective efforts to deal with.
• Various attempts have been made globally in the form of
international treaties to reduce air pollution and GHGs.
• The discussions and efforts have focused on international
treaties aimed at reducing air pollution and improving air quality
through technical interventions and resource sharing with other
countries.
• There are evidences that these treaties are resulting into success
stories.
50
References
• P Bhave, P., & Kulkarni, N. (2015). Air Pollution and Control Legislation in India. Journal of The Institution of Engineers (India): Series A, 96(3), 259–265.
• Altamirano-Cabrera, J. C., Wangler, L., Weikard, H. P., & Kroll, S. (2013). Political Economy of International Environmental Agreements. In Encyclopedia of Energy, Natural Resource,
and Environmental Economics (1st ed., Vols. 3–3). Elsevier Inc.
• Altamirano-Cabrera, J. C., Wangler, L., Weikard, H. P., & Kroll, S. (2013). Political Economy of International Environmental Agreements. In Encyclopedia of Energy, Natural Resource,
and Environmental Economics (1st ed., Vols. 3–3). Elsevier Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-375067-9.00021-8
• Byrne, A. (2017). Trouble in the air: Recent developments under the 1979 convention on long-range transboundary air pollution. Review of European, Comparative and International
Environmental Law, 26(3), 210–219. https://doi.org/10.1111/reel.12219
• Health Effects Institute, & Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation´s Global Burden of Disease project. (2020). State of Global Air (p. 28).
https://www.stateofglobalair.org/resources
• Khodadoust, A., Miller, D., Politovich, M., & Vaughan, W. (2001). Atmospheric environment. In Aerospace America (Vol. 39, Issue 12). Elsevier B.V.
• Kuh, K. F. (2017). The law of climate change mitigation: An overview. In Encyclopedia of the Anthropocene (Vols. 1–5). Elsevier Inc.
• P. L., Elements, K. E. Y., & Results, E. (2020). Compendium Of Canada ’ S Engagement In International Environmental Agreements and Instruments Intergovernmental Platform on
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. January.
• https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/corporate/international-affairs/partnerships-organizations/ozone-layer-protection-vienna-convention.html
• https://www.un.org/en/conferences/environment/rio1992
• https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement
• https://unece.org/environment-policy/air/protocol-abate-acidification-eutrophication-and-ground-level-ozone
51
Thank You
52
