Microprocessor – SY – 2007-2008 (MSK-9860174297 / 9324258878) 1

Chapter-1 Basic of Microprocessor

Chapter Topics Hours Marks

No
1. Basics of Microprocessor 06 08
1.1 Evolution of Microprocessor and types
1.2 Silent features of 8085 Microprocessor,
architecture of 8085 (Block diagram), register
organization, limitations of 8-bit Microprocessor.
(Refer chapter 1)
2. 16-bit Microprocessor 8086 08 16
2.1 Silent features of 8086 Microprocessor,
architecture of 8086 (Block diagram, pin
description), register organization, concepts of
pipelining, memory segmentation and memory
address generation.
2.2Minimum and Maximum Mode operation and
diagram (Refer chapter 2)
3. 8086 Instruction set 12 16
3.1 Machine Language Instruction format,
addressing modes.
3.2 Instruction set (Arithmetic, logical, data
transfer, bit manipulation, string, program control
transfer, process control) (Refer chapter 3)
4. The art of assembly Language Programming 14 16
4.1 Program development steps defining
problem, algorithms flowchart, initialization
checklist, choosing instructions, converting
algorithms to assembly language programs.
4.2 Assembly Language Programming Tools
Editors, Assembler, Linker, Debugger.
4.3 Assembler directives, model of 8086
assembly language programming,
programming using assembler.(Refer chapter 4)
5. Procedureand Macro 06 12
5.1 Defining Procedure (Directives used, FAR
and NEAR, CALL and RET instructions)
5.2 Defining Macros.
5.3 Assembly Language Programs using
Procedure and Macros.
(Refer chapter 5)
6. System Interfacing 04 08
6.1 Interfacing Techniques (I mapped I/O,
Memory mapped I/O, memory and I/O
addressing, 8086 addressing, and address
decoding, memory interfacing as Even and Odd
bank) (Refer chapter 6)
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Chapter-1 Basic of Microprocessor
Chapter No-1
Basic of Microprocessor
With the rapid advances in semiconductor technology it became possible to
fabricate whole CPU of a digital computer on a single chip using LSI or VLSI
technology. The term LSI refer to ICs containing component usually transistor in the
range of 1000-10,000.
A VLSI chip contain more then 10,000 transistor. A CPU built into a single LSI
or VLSI chip is called a microprocessor.
A digital computer whose CPU is a microprocessor is called as microcomputer.
A microprocessor combined with memory and input/output devices forms a
microcomputer.
When all the functional components of the CPU are fabricated on a single
silicon chip using microelectronics technology ie LSI or VLSI is called
MICROPROCESSOR.

MicroComputer :-
Features
1. It is a low speed computer.
2. The storage capacity is also less.
3. It consists of only one CPU. This CPU is a single chip device which is called a
microprocessor. -
4. Microcomputer is also called a microprocessor based system.
5. The word length for a microcomputer is not fixed.
6. It is a software controlled d system because, without the software it is a dead
7. machine.
8. It is available in two types (9 Single board, and (II) Multi board.
9. It consists of semiconductor chips and electromechanical devices like the floppy
disk drive, the hard disk drive, etc.
In applications point of view, the microcomputer is classified into the following
categories
(i) Dedicated controllers,
(ii) Personal computers and work stations,
(iii) Real time controllers, and
(iv) Communication system controllers.

Microcomputer Architecture and Organization

Microcomputer consists of three basic blocks as shown in Fig. viz. CPU (Central
Processing Unit), Memory Unit and Input/Output Unit.

Fig. Block Diagram of Microcomputer Architecture

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Chapter-1 Basic of Microprocessor

Central Processing Unit :

It is the heart of the microcomputer. In a microcomputer, the CPU is single chip
device, hence this single chip CPU is also called microprocessor.
 It controls all other units of the microcomputer.
 CPU is a synchronous sequential circuit, hence it operates with reference to
clock signal., It is also program controlled device.
 The CPU (microprocessor) fetches, decodes and executes instructions.
 It performs arithmetic, logical, data transfer and decision making operations.
 It generates all necessary control signals and controls other units. It handles
binary information. Some microprocessors can handle BCD and ASCII
informations also. It provides an instructions set, and hence, the user or
system designer must use valid instructions (instructions available in
instruction set) to operate a microprocessor. It reduces system implementation
time and improves reliability of the final product.
Main Memory Unit :
It consists of semiconductor memory chips like RAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM,
EEPROM, etc. It is able to store program and data.
 ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM are non-volatile memory chips, hence they are
used for permanent data storage.
 RAM is volatile memory, hence, it is used for temporary storage of data.
The main memory must be divided into three sections, viz.
Program Memory,
Data Memory and
Stack Memory. This is necessary for reliable software design. Some microprocessors
can distinguish between program, data and Stack memories and hence the software
design becomes simple.

Program Memory
It is used to store all programs (system software and user software). It consists
of ROM and RAM chips.
 ROM is used to store system programs.
 RAM is used to store user or application programs. In PC system, RAM is also
used to store disk operating system software temporarily.

Data Memory : It is used to store data (operands and results). It consists of ROM and
RAMS chips.
 ROM is used to store fixed data like look up tables, codes constants, etc.
 RAM is used to store variable data.
 RAM can be used as a scratch pad
memory.

Stack Memory
It is used by the CPU to store contents of
registers temporarily. It contains only RAM
chips. It operates in LIFO mode (Last In First
Out mode) i.e. it can read saved byte first. This
is the property of the Stack as shown in Fig.
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Chapter-1 Basic of Microprocessor
Memory unit consists of memory locations. So, each location is used to store one
word of program or data. In a microcomputer, the secondary memories like floppy
disk, hard disk are not treated as memory units, but are treated as I/O peripherals.

I/O unit
It is used to interface external peripherals to the microprocessor. It provides I/O ports
and interface circuitry.
 I/O ports are used to transfer binary information between the microprocessor
and the peripherals.
 The interface circuitry converts voltages and currents of the external peripheral
into digital form or vice versa.
 The microprocessor may communicate with external peripherals via two or
more I/O ports.
 The I/O unit can be implemented b using buffers, latches and LSI or VLSI
interface chips.
 Input unit is used by I/O peripherals like keyboard while the Output unit is
used to interface output peripherals like display.
There are two types of I/O units viz, general purpose and special purpose.
I. The general purpose I/O unit is used to interface any type of peripherals while
II. special purpose I/O unit is used to interface specific types of peripherals,
example is printer interface unit which is used to interface a printer. So, the
I/O unit is an important part of the microcomputer.

System bus
It is a group of conductors. It is used to transfer information (electrical signal )
between two units. It consists of Data Bus, Address Bus and Control Bus.

Data bus : It is a bidirectional bus. It is used to transfer data between two units. The
length of a microcomputer depends upon the width of the Data Bus (number of data
lines). It has three levels, viz. Logic 0, logic 1 and HIGH IMPEDANCE.

Control bus : It consists of input and output control signals. The main control
signals are Read and Write. These signals are used to control the operation of the
microcomputer. It is also used to synchronize all operations.

There are two types of modules present in a microcomputer viz.

 Bus Master and
 Bus Slave.
Bus Master
It is a device which controls the system bus. It generates address and control
signal for bus slaves.
In a microcomputer, microprocessor, special purpose processors and DMA
controllers functions as bus master.
A Bus Master operates with reference to a clock signal. It controls all the
timings and events of a microcomputer.

Bus Slave
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Chapter-1 Basic of Microprocessor
It is a device which responds to the Bus Master. It accepts address and control
signals from the Bus Master. It does not control timings and events of the
microcomputer, examples are memory unit and I/O unit.
In a single board microcomputer, all units are mounted on one PCB, while in a
multiboard computer, CPU, some part of the memory and I/O are mounted on the
main board (mother board)and additional memories and special purpose I/O
interfaces are mounted on small PCBs adaptor cards).

Characteristics Microcomputer
Most of the characteristics of a microcomputer depend upon the following
parameters of the microprocessors
Word Length
The word length of a microcomputer depends upon the width of the Data Bus.
 The word length of a memory unit depends upon the number of data
lines provided by the microprocessor.
 The word length of the I/O unit is not fixed. It varies from peripherals to
peripherals, for example we can connect an 8 bit I/O unit to a 16 bit
microcomputer. Nowadays, the basic unit of word length is bytes.
Processor to memory band width : This parameter decides the speed of
microcomputer. ,.I
 It is the number of bytes to be transferred between.,a microprocessor and
the memory.
 This parameter depends upon the memory access time of a
microprocessor, band width of the PCB (maximum frequency of PCB) and
word length.
 This bandwidth should be maximum. The band width is measured in
terms bytes/second.

Processor to I/O band width : It is the number of bytes to be transferred between

the processor and I/O unit. This parameter is not fixed.
 This parameter depends upon the I/O access time of a microprocessor,
bandwidth
 adaptor cards and word length of I/O interfaces.
 The actual value of this parameter depends upon the speed of the
peripherals. The unit of this parameter is bytes/second.

Throughput : It is the number of tasks to be executed in one second. The task is a

set of programs including I/O programs.
This parameter depends upon the system software, process scheduling,
microprocessor speed, bandwidth (processor to memory and processor to I/O), word
length, etc.

Memory storage capacity : The maximum size of memory unit depends upon the
number of address lines provided by the microprocessor,
Example
N = 2K where N is the number of memory locations and k is the number of address
Lines.

I/O unit capacity : The maximum size of the VO unit depends upon the number of
I/O address bits available in I/O instructions,
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Chapter-1 Basic of Microprocessor
N = 2P where N is the number of I/O ports and P is the number of address bits
present in at I/O instruction.

Power consumption : It is the power consumed by all units of the microcomputer.

This parameter depends upon the complexity of the system and simultaneous
operations of the system. To save power, the microcomputer should be operated in a
stand by mode.

Q.What architecture means and list various functions performed by

Architecture & Its Operation ?
Ans. A micro-processor is a semiconductor chip or a chip set that implements the
central processor of the computer. It is the heart of a microcomputer .
Microprocessor consist of at a minimum an ALU ( arithmetic and logic unit) and a
control unit(CU).Thus a central processing unit (CPU) built into a single LSI or VLSI
chip is called a microprocessor. Or When all the functional component of CPU are
fabricated on the single silicon chip using microelectronics technology is called as
microprocessor.
The microprocessor is a programmable logic device designed with flip-flop,
registers and timing elements. A microprocessor has a set of instructions designed
internally to manipulate data and communicate with peripherals, the process of data
manipulation and communication is determined by logic design of microprocessor
called the architecture logic

Design of microprocessor called the architecture. In addition to internal operation

microprocessor can respond to external signals that is it can be interrupted, reseted
or asked to wait, so as to Synchronize with slower peripherals. The various functions
performed by microprocessor can be classified in these general categories: -
1> Microprocessor initiated signal.
2> Internal data operation.
3> Peripheral or externally initiated operations.
Q.List the operations initiated by Microprocessor ?
Ans. A microprocessor unit can perform primarily four operations: -
1. Memory read i.e. read data from memory
2. Memory writes i.e. writes data to memory
3. I/O read i.e. accepting data from input device
4. I/O writes i.e. sending the data to output device
All this operations are part of communication process between microprocessor
and peripheral device including memory to communicate with a device (peripheral or
memory) the microprocessor need to perform following steps.
1. Identify the device with its address
2. Transfer the data
3. Provide timing signal
The CPU performs the above following functions using three sets
communication lines called as buses (group of wires carrying information) those three
sets are
a. Address bus (A- bus )
b. Data bus ( D-bus )
c. Control bus (C-bus )
This address , data , control bus as a group is called as system bus.

Application of Microprocessor
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Microprocessors are used in Dedicated Controllers, Personal Computers, low to
moderate speed data communication peripherals, Instrumentation point of sale
terminals, replacement of microcomputers and replacement of random logic, etc.
Application of up are
1.Microprocessor based dedicated systems
2.Personal computer and Workstation
3.Ciommunication system
4.Automobiles
5.Medical instruments
6.Peripherals
7.Replacement of random logic
8.Telex system

Evolution of Microprocessor
Before 1950, the CPU of the microcomputer was implemented by using discrete
components like transistors, diodes and resistors, etc. The first IC appeared on the
scene at the end of 1950s in the form of logic gates. This type of IC is called a Small
Scale Integrated circuit (SSI).
But the IC designer could fabricate many more logic gates on one chip by 1960.
Hence, Medium Scale Integrated (MSI)chips and Large Scale Integrated (LSI) chips
came into the Nowadays, IC manufacturers are manufacturing VLSI (Very Large Scale
Integrated circuits) and ULS1 (Ultra Large Scale Integrated circuits) ICs.
In 1971, Intel introduced a group of four LSI devices that made up a simple but
complete computer MCS-4.
The MCS-4 consists of 4 bit CPU namely 4004. The other components in the
set were a 4001 ROM, a 4002 ROM and a 4003 shift register. The 4004 consists of an
ALU and a control unit. It provides only 45 instructions. The 4001 contains 4 bit I/O
ports.
After the MCS-4, three other General Purpose microprocessors were introduced
viz, the Rockwell International 4 bit PPS-4, the Intel 8 bit 8008 and National
semiconductor 16 bit zmp-16.

The microprocessors introduced between 1971 and 1973 were the first generation
systems. They were designed using the PMOS technology.
In the mid of 1970s, the Intel introduced 8080 microprocessor.
After 1973, the second generation microprocessors such as the Motorola 6800
and 6809, Intel 8085 and Zilog Z80 evolved. These processors were fabricated using
the NMOS technology.
The 8085 is improved version of 8080. The 8085 and Z-80 were designed as
upward compatible with the 8080 (i.e. we can execute 8080 programs on 8085 and Z-
80, reverse is not possible).
After 1978, the third generation microprocessors were introduced. These
processors were 16 bits wide, examples are the Intel 8086, 80186, 80286 and the
Motorola 68000/68010.
These microprocessors were designed using the HMOS (High density MOS)
technology. The HMOS is four times faster than NMOS. The density of HMOS is also
doubled.
In 1980, the fourth generation microprocessors evolved. Intel introduced the
first 32 bit viz. Intel 486.
In 1985, Motorola M6 68020/68030/68040 and the Intel 80386/80486 were
introduced.
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Chapter-1 Basic of Microprocessor
They provide cache memory features. Also, Intel and Motorola introduced a 32 bit
RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) microprocessor (Intel 80960 and Motorola
88100) with simplified instruction sets.
In 1993, the IBM/Apple introduced the Power PC 603 processor having (64 bit
Data Bus).
In 1998, Intel introduced the Pentium and Celeron processors.
Nowadays, Intel processors like Pentium I Pentium III and Pentium IV have captured
the whole market of microprocessors.

Salient Features of 8085

 8 bit microprocessor, i.e. 8085 mP can read or write or perform arithmetic and
logical operations on 8 bit data at a time.
 Single chip NMOS device implemented with 6200 transistors.
 Requires a single +5 Volt power supply.
 Provides on-chip clock generator, so 8085 uP does not require external clock
generator, but require external tuned circuit like RC, LC or crystal.
 Requires 2 phases, 50% duty cycle TTL clock.
 On chip bus controller
 Provides 74 instructions with five addressing modes.
 Maximum clock frequency is 3 MHz and minimum clock frequency is 500 KHz.
 Provides 16 address line, so 8085 uP can access 216 = 64 Kbytes of memory.
 Provides 5 level hardware interrupts and 8 software interrupts.
 Can generate 8 bit I/0 address, so 2 8= 256 input and 256 output port can be
accessed.
 Provide two serial I/O lines, so serial peripheral can be interfaced directly with
8085 uP.

Functional Description
8085 is an 8-bit general purpose µp capable of addressing 64-kbytes of
memory and 256 I/O device. This device has 40 pins, require +5v supply and can
operate with 3.125mhz single phase clock . figure shows the logic or functional pin
out of 8085 µp. All 40 signals are classified into 6 groups those are
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Chapter-1 Basic of Microprocessor

Functional Layout of 8085 Microprocessor

1.Address bus
2.Multiplexed address data bus
3.Control and status signal
4.Power supply and frequency signal
5.Interrupt and peripheral initiated signal
6.Serial IO signal

I> Address Bus (A8-A15)

8085 has 8 address lines A8-A15 which are unidirectional and this address
lines used as higher order address bus.

II>Multiplex Address/Data Bus (AD0-AD7)

This signal lines are bi-directional this serve dual purpose the can be used as
lower order address bus A0 to A7 and 8 bit data bus D0 to D7 .in early part of
execution cycle , this lines are used as address bus and during later part of cycle
,this lines are used ad data bus. Thus address/Data bus operate in timeshare mode.
this technique is called as multiplexing. Multiplexing means many into one
operation.
The lower order address bus and data bus can be separated using the signals
ALE and latch. so that separate address bus A0 – A7 can be generated.
III>Control And Status Signal
This group includes two control signals
1> Read(RD)
2> Write(WR)
and three status signals
1> S1
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Chapter-1 Basic of Microprocessor
2> S0
3> IO/ M
These signals are used to identify the nature of operation along with special
signal ALE to indicate beginning of operation.
ALE (Address Latch Enable/Pin 30)
This positive going pulse generated every time the 8085 starts the operation It
indicates that the bits AD0-AD7 has valid address on it. This signal is used to latch
this address, so that separate set of address lines A0-A7 can be generated.
RD (pin 32)
This is a read control signal which is active low (negative going). A low level on
RD indicates that the selected memory or I/O device to perform read operation and
the data bus is available for data transfer.
WR (pin 31 )
This is a write control signal which is active low (negative going). A low level on
WR indicates that data on the data Bus is to be written in selected memory or I/O
location
IO/M ( pin 34 )
This is status signal use to differentiate between memory and I/O operation.
When this signal is low it indicates memory operation and when this signal is high it
indicates I/O operation
These three control lines, RD, WR and IO/M functions together. TABLE show the
truth table
Truth table for memory and I/O control
IO/M WR RD Action
0 1 0 Memory read
0 0 1 Memory write
1 1 0 I/o read
1 0 1 I/o write
X 0 0 Illegal
X 1 1 No memory or I/O access
Example :- During memory write, IO/M goes low(0), RD goes high (1), and WR goes
low(0). Remember that RD and WR never be active simultaneously. The last line of
the truth table indicates that the microprocessor is not currently accessing memory
or I/O.
S1 , S0 (PIN 33 , 29) : S0 and S1 are status output pins. They indicate to the
outside world the current operation being performed by the 8085. Using S0, S1 and
IO/M, advance information of the 8085

IO/M S1 S0 Status
0 0 1 Memory write
0 1 0 Memory read
1 0 1 I/o write
1 1 0 I/o read
0 1 1 Opcode fetch
1 1 1 Interrupt acknowledge
* 0 0 Halt
* X X Hold
* X X Reset
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Chapter-1 Basic of Microprocessor
* - tri state (high impedance) X - unspecified
Activities can be decoded. Table shows the machine cycle status. Most 8085 circuits
do not make use of the status pins. i.e rarely used
IV) Power Supply And Clock Frequency Signals
To make µp compatible with TTL power supplies, the 8085 requires only a VCC
of +5v and ground. Ground is called VSS (substrate voltage) because the 8085 is a
MOS device.
VCC ( pin 40) : +5 volt power supply
VSS ( pin 20) : Ground reference .All signals are measured or checked with respect
to this pin.
X1 ,X2 (PIN 1,2 ):The 8085 does not require an external clock generator ,crystal is
connected between the X1 and X2 inputs of the 8085. The input frequency of the
crystal is divided by 2 to produce the internal reference frequency. The CLK OUT is a
same frequency of the 8085's internal clock. It is used to synchronize the rest of
system to the 8085. Maximum operating clock frequency of 8085 is 3.125 Mhz.
Which can be obtain by connecting crystal of 6.25 Mhz between X1 and X2.
V) Externally Initiated Signals Including Interrupt Signals
8085 has five hardware interrupt signals that can be used to interrupt the
program execution .these signals are
1.Trap
2.RST 7.5
3.RST 6.5
4.RST 5.5
5.INTR /INTA
And three externally initiated signal those are
1.Ready
2.Reset ( Reset in and Reset out)
3.Hold / HLDA
TRAP ( PIN 6 )
Trap is highest priority , Nonmaskable interrupt .when trap is received , µp
starts the program execution from location (4.5 * 8 )h. i.e why trap is called as
vectored interrupt.
RST 7.5 , 6.5 , 5.5 ( pin 7,8,9)
This are restart interrupts or vectored interrupt when recognized by µp ,µp
start program execution from fixed memory location listed below. This are maskable
interrupts and has priority lower than trap ,but among themselves RST 7.5 has
highest priority followed by 6.5 and 5.5.
INTR ( PIN 10 )
Interrupt request signal used as general purpose interrupt .it has lowest
priority and it is maskable interrupt.
INTA (PIN 11 )
This is active low signal. This signal is acknowledgement sent by µp when INTR
is recognized .interrupt acknowledge is used instead of RD during the instruction
cycle after an INTR is accepted.
READY ( PIN 35 )
It is used by µp to sense whether a peripheral is ready for data transfer. If
ready is high during a read or write cycle, it indicates that the memory or peripheral
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Chapter-1 Basic of Microprocessor
is ready to send or receive data. If ready is low, the CPU will wait till ready to go high
before completing the read or write cycle .Basically this signal is used to delay the µp
read / write cycle and to interface slower peripherals.
RESET Signal
Reset in ( PIN 36 ) : This signal may activated by reset button or other source.
When reset in is at an active-low level, the internal operation of microprocessor stops.
During reset the program counter is set to 0000h. It also sends a high signal to reset
out. When reset in goes to inactive-high level, the 8085 will fetch an instruction from
memory location 0000h. When 8085 is reset the following events occur :
1. Program counter is reset to 0000h.
2. The instruction register is cleared.
3. Interrupts are disabled.
4. The RST7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5 are masked.
5. All tri-state bus lines except ALE are floated.
Reset out(PIN 3) : A high signal on reset out indicates that the CPU is being reset ,i.e
the program counter, instruction register and so on are being reset to zero. The reset
out signal goes to peripheral chips and is used to reset other devices in the system.
Hold ( pin 39 )
This is an externally initiated signal. HOLD indicates that another peripheral
device such as DMA controller is requesting the use of Address and Data buses. The
CPU, upon receiving the Hold request, will relinquish(release) the use of the bus as
soon as the completion of the current bus transfer. It floats Address, Data bus, RD ,
WR, IO/M and ALE Control signals. Internal processing can continue. The processor
can regain the bus only after the hold is removed.
HLDA (pin 38 )
Hold acknowledge indicates that the CPU has received the hold request and that it
will relinquish the bus in the next clock cycle. HLDA goes low after the hold request is
removed.
Serial I/O Signals
The 8085 has two signal for implementing the serial transmission
1.SID ( serial input data )
2.SOD (serial output data )
SID (pin 5 ) : This is a serial input data line. The data on this line is loaded into bit 7
of accumulator whenever a RIM instruction is executed.
SOD (pin 4 ):This is a serial output data line. The output sod is set or reset as
specified by SIM instruction.
Architecture of 8085
8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor , it has 40 pins fabricated on single LSI chip .
8085 operates with single +5V DC supply and its clock speed is about 3.125Mhz
.The architecture shows following functional units :-
1> Timing and Control Unit
2> Arithmetic and Logic Unit
3> Address and Data buffer
4> Instruction Register and Decoder
5> CPU Register Array
6> Interrupt Control and
7> Serial Control
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Figure shows architecture of 8085 .

Timing and Control Unit :
Timing and control unit generates timing and control signals which are
necessary for the execution of the instruction . This unit synchronizes all the µP
operations with the clock and generate signals necessary for communication between
the microprocessor between peripherals. It also generates RD and WR indicating
availability of data on data bus
Address and Data Buffer
The 8085 contains unidirectional address bus buffer and a bi-directional data
bus buffer. These buffers isolate the internal bus system of the 8085 from the
external system bus and provide enough current gain to drive few memory and I/O
chips.
Arithmetic and Logic Unit
The ALU carries out the arithmetic and logic operations i.e computing function.
The arithmetic operation performed are addition, subtraction, increment,decrement
etc.
The logical operation performed are AND, OR, EXOR, Complement ,shift
Compare etc . ALU consist of
1. Accumulator
2. Temporary Register
3. Flag register
Accumulator
Accumulator is a 8 bit register. The results of nearly all arithmetic and logical
operations on data are stored in the accumulator.. Also accumulator is used as one of
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Chapter-1 Basic of Microprocessor
the source register for arithmetic and logical operation .It is also called as register A.
It is the only register for which there are rotate instructions. It is used to enable and
disable the interrupt system. It is only register to have data transfer between input
and output devices. It is accessible to user through instruction.

Temporary Register
Temporary register is 8 bit register. This register stores the operands of
arithmetic and logic operation for short period of times. This register is not available
to the programmer.
Flag Register
The flag register contains five single bit flags, and three unused bits The flags
are affected by the arithmetic and logic operation in ALU. In most of these operation
result is stored in accumulator , therefore the flags generally reflects data condition
in the accumulator with some exception. The five flags are
1. S - Sign Flag
2. Z – Zero Flag
3. Ac-Auxiliary carry Flag
4. P – Parity Flag
5. C – Carry Flag

S Z X AC X P X CY
Carry Flag
Parity Flag
Auxiliary Carry Flag
Zero Flag
Sign Flag
The description and condition of flag are as follows :
Carry Flag(CF) :- The carry flag is set when the result of an operation produces a
number that will not fit into the 8 bit accumulator. Thus the carry flag reflects the
final carry out of the most significant bit of any arithmetic operation .The carry flag
also serves as a borrow for subtraction.
Zero Flag (ZF) :- The zero flag is one of he most useful flag. The zero flag is set if ALU
operation results in 00H. Flag is reset if the result is not 00H.This flag is modified by
the result in the accumulator as well as the other register.

Parity Flag (PF) :- The parity flag is set to 1 if an arithmetic or logic instruction
generates an even number of 1s in accumulator i.e even parity . The flag is 0 if the
arithmetic or logic instruction containing an odd number of 1s, in accumulator i.e
odd parity. The parity flag is the least used of all the flags.

Sign Flag (SF) :- The sign flag is set to the condition of the most significant bit of the
accumulator following the execution of arithmetic or logical instruction. This flag is
used with signed numbers.
In a given byte, if bit 7 is 1, the number is viewed as a negative number and if
bit 7 is 0, the number will be considered positive. In arithmetic operations with
signed numbers, bit 7 is reserved for indicating the sign, and the remaining seven
bits are used to represent the magnitude of a number. Thus a set sign flag represents
a negative number, whereas a reset flag means a positive number.
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Chapter-1 Basic of Microprocessor
Auxiliary Carry (AcF) :-In arithmetic operation if a carry is generated in the digit d3
and passed to digit d4 then Ac flag is set. This flag is commonly used in BCD
arithmetic. This flag is not available for the programmer to change the sequence of
program with a jump instruction.

Instruction register and decoder

During the fetch cycle, the op-code of an instruction is stored in the instruction
register. This op-code then transferred into the instruction decoder and machine
cycle encoder. The decoder decodes the instruction and establishes the sequence of
the events to follow. The instruction register is not programmable and it is not
available to the programmer.
CPU Registers Array
The are various type of registers in Intel 8085.This register are used for
storage ,manipulation of data and instruction. The different registers are
1.Temporary register ( W & Z )
2.General purpose register (B,C,D,E,H,& L)
3.Program Counter (PC)
4.Stack Pointer (SP)
5.Accumulator (A)
6.Instruction Register (IR)
7.Flag Register

Fig : Cpu Array Register

Temporary Register
Other than one 8 – bit temporary register there are two more register W and
Z .These register are used to hold temporary data during execution of some
instruction. This register are non programmable and cannot be accessed through any
instruction.
General purpose register
The 8085 has six general-purpose registers. These registers are identified as B,
C, D, E, H and L. These are 8 bit registers: CPU can either load a register from the 8
bit internal data bus or output the register contents to this data bus. These registers
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Chapter-1 Basic of Microprocessor
can be combined to form register pairs BC , DE , and HL .Register pairs are used to
perform some 16 bit operations.
This register are programmable i.e the programmer can use them to load ,
transfer data from memory to register and memory.
Program Counter (PC)
The program counter is used to hold an 16 bit address. The contents of the
program counter always points to the memory location from where the next
instruction or data byte is to fetched. The program counter is incremented
automatically after each instruction or data byte is fetched from memory. After
resetting the content of PC = 0000H
Stack Pointer (SP)
The stack pointer is a 16 bit register. The stack pointer contains the address of
the last data byte written into read/write memory called the stack. Stack pointer is
always loaded with the maximum address of memory .While storing the data stack
pointer decrements by two and while retrieving the data the stack pointer is
incremented by Two.
Interrupt Control
The 8085 has five hardware interrupt inputs as TRAP, RST7.5, RST6.5,
RST5.5, and INTR. Also the 8085 has interrupt acknowledgment output line as INTA .
When interrupt occurs it is to be acknowledge or not to be acknowledge , when
generate INTA signal is decided by Interrupt control.
Serial I/O control
Serial communication is basically used to reduce number wires in long
distance communication. For serial communication 8085 has two signal
1. SID
2. SOD
The serial input data enters the 8085 from SID input. The SOD output is where the
serial data leaves the 8085.The serial transmission is controlled by Serial I/O control.

Limitation of a 8 bit Microprocessor

 In 8 bit microprocessor, microprocessor can perform any arithmetic or logical
operation only on 8 bit data at a time. For multi-byte numbers, microprocessor
takes more time, as ALU is 8 bit.
 Due to the 16 address lines, we can address only up to 64kbyte of memory, so
we can not use Intel 8085 in IBM Standard PC Because, in IBM architecture
standard, minimum 640kbyte of memory is required.
 8085 has multiplexed address and data bus, so extra hardware is required to
separate address signals from the data signals. It is required compulsorily,
because other device in the microprocessor based system have separate
address lines and data lines.
 8085 reads one instruction at a time. Unless first instruction gets executed
completely, microprocessor can not read second instruction from memory as
8085 has only one instruction register. So, pipelining of the instruction
execution can not be achieved.
 Flag register has limited flags. There is no flag in flag register to indicate
overflow condition of result’ of arithmetic operation on signed magnitude
numbers. In signed magnitude number, most significant bit is sign bit.
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Chapter-1 Basic of Microprocessor
 Interrupts are very limited in 8085. Normally in large microprocessor based
system, more interrupts are required to perform data transfer between I/O and
microprocessor in interrupt driven I/O
 0perating frequency is less, so the speed of execution is slow.
 While reading or writing 16 bit or more bytes of data from the memory or I/O
device, the microprocessor needs more operation [machine] cycles. So, data
transfer speed is slow.
 Using 8085, we can not design multi-processor system.
 Due to limited 8 bit size of the all register, we can store limited data bytes in
the microprocessor memory.
 There is no memory management unit.
 Only 256 input and 256 output devices can be interface with 8085, as I/0
address is 8 bit.
 The word length is 8 bit, hence the processing speed is slow.
 The resolution is less.
 Most of the 8 bit microprocessors are non-pipelined, hence the performance is
less.
 The instruction set is limited, hence the processing power is less.
 Processor to memory bandwidth is less.
 Processor to I0 bandwidth is less.
 It provides very few addressing modes, hence the instruction set is not flexible.
It very to design a compiler for an 8 bit microprocessor.
 It cannot be used in scientific calculations.
 It doesnot handle real numbers.
 It is used for control applications only.
 It is not used in work-stations and servers.
 It cannot be used in multiprocessor systems.

Question Bank
1. Describe the function of following blocks of 8085.
a) General purpose register
b) ALU
c) Timing and control unit
d) Instruction decoder and machine cycle encoding.
e) Instruction register
f) FLags
2. What is de-multiplexing of the address and data bus? Which signal is
used to de-multiplex the address and data bus.
3. State the vector addresses of all hardware interrupts of 8085
microprocessor.
4. Draw the format of the flag register of 8085 microprocessor and describe
the condition which set and reset these flags.
5. Describe INTR interrupt.
6. List maskable and non-maskable interrupts of 8085 microprocessor.
7. Explain why
a) 8085 microprocessor is 8 bit CPU ?
b) Memory capacity of 8085 microprocessor is 64K bytes?
c) RESET IN signal is essential for microprocessor?
d) First instruction is executed after rest operation from the memory
location 0000H ?
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Chapter-1 Basic of Microprocessor
8. Draw the flag register format and explain in brief various flags related to
8085.
9. Describe TRAP interrupt. State its priority and triggering level.
10. Draw the neat labeled architecture of 8085 indicating different signals of
the all the blocks.
11. Describe the function of SID and SOD pins of 8085 microprocessor.
12. List all registers of the 8085 microprocessor and categorize them into 8
bit and 16 bit registers.
13. State the function of RESET IN and READY pins of 8085 microprocessor.