EXPERIMENT 2

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS,
SYSTEMATIC POSITION AND AGE
OF FOSSIL GENERA PERTAINING
TO BIVALVES

Outline of Experiment________________________________________
2.1 Introduction 2.4 Common Genera
Expected Learning Skills 2.5 Laboratory Exercises
2.2 Requirements 2.6 Results and Discussion
2.3 Bivalves: Systematics, General 2.7 Reference
Morphology and Age Range
2.8 Further/Suggested Readings

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous experiment, you have made line drawing and described morphological characters
along with palaeoecology and stratigraphic range of various genera of brachiopods. Every genus of
brachiopods displays a set of distinctive morphological characters, on which basis they can be
differentiated from each other. You are aware that brachiopods are marine animals; hence, their
occurrence in a sedimentary bed is an indicative of marine environment of deposition for that bed.
In this experiment, you will work with some common genera of bivalves. Bivalvia is the second
largest class of molluscs. They consist of a twin-valved shell (i.e., shell made up of two almost
similar valves) that gives them a superficial resemblance to brachiopods, but varies in shell
morphology and symmetry. In many bivalves, the valves are virtually mirror images of each other,
but a very few forms like oysters and rudist bivalves have one valve larger than the other. Bivalves
have also been described as ‘pelecypods’ and ‘lamellibranchs’. They represent a wide range of
adaptation that is from marine to freshwater and from infaunal burrowers, epifaunal to active
swimmers. As a consequence, a genus of marine environment possesses different morphological
characters as compared with those of non-marine genera.
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Expected Learning Skills__________________________
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 list the systematic positions of some common genera of bivalves;
 identify and describe their morphology characters;
 prepare their line drawing with labeling of morphological features; and
 write their stratigraphic/geological and palaeoecological range.

2.2 REQUIREMENTS
To perform this experiment successfully, following are the requirements:
 Pen, pencil, eraser, sharpener, scale, stencil and hand lens.
 Practical note-book.
 Fossil specimens of bivalves.
Instructions: You are required to study Unit 14 of BGYCT-137 course
(Stratigraphy and Palaeontology) before performing this experiment.
Bring this practical manual along with Block 4 of BGYCT-137 course
while attending the Practical Counselling session.

2.3 BIVALVES: SYSTEMATICS, GENERAL

MORPHOLOGY AND AGE RANGE
2.3.1 Systematic Palaeontology/Taxonomic Hierarchy
Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Mollusca
Class Bivalvia
Subclass Palaeotaxodonta
Cryptodonta
Pteriomorphia
Palaeoheterodonta
Heterodonta
Anomalodesmata
2.3.2 General Morphology
The soft parts of bivalves are covered by hard exo-skeleton, which is made up
of two valves. In most cases, the valves are equal in size, asymmetrical in
outline and essentially mirror images of each other. The two valves are named
as the right and left valves (Fig. 2.1), because they are located to the right
and left sides of the animal. Each valve has a nose-like pointed apex, which is
known as beak. Beak usually curves toward the anterior (i.e., front) end of
valves. Umbo (plural umbones) is the region of maximum curvature of each
valve close to the beak and situated on the dorsal margin of the shell (Fig.
2.1). In most of the bivalves, the two valves are joined together along their
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dorsal margin by means of elastic ligaments and by an interlocking
mechanism of teeth and sockets.

Fig. 2.1: Dorsal view of the shell showing the external morphology of a bivalve.

Orientation of the bivalve shell

If you place the beaks of the shell uppermost in your front, the valve appears
on the right side is right valve and that on the left is left valve. The margin
closest to the beak is anterior of the shell and opposite margin is posterior.
The margin of the shell near the hinge is dorsal and the opposite margin is
ventral (Fig. 2.1).
If you see the internal surface of the valves, you can find the following
features: muscle scars, pallial line, pallial sinus, teeth and sockets. Muscle
scars are one of the important features of the bivalve morphology. Indeed,
these are the impressions or attachment sites left by the soft (fleshy) adductor
muscles and commonly referred to as adductor impressions or adductor
scars. Many bivalves have two adductor scars; one on the posterior margin,
known as posterior adductor scar and the other on the anterior margin
described as anterior adductor scar (Fig. 2.2).

Fig. 2.2: Left valve of a bivalve showing internal (interior) bivalve morphology.
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The portion of the dorsal margin of valves, where teeth and sockets occur is
known as hinge line or cardinal margin. The area lying between the hinge
line and the umbo of each valve is called hinge area. In some cases, the
hinge area is divided into a lunule and an escutcheon (Fig. 2.1). Lunule is a
heart-shaped area that occurs in front of the beak and escutcheon is an
elongated depression present posterior to the beak. The teeth present below
the beak are termed as cardinal teeth and those that occur in front or towards
the posterior side of the cardinal teeth are the lateral teeth (Fig. 2.2).
In bivalves, the term dentition is used to describe the arrangement of teeth,
sockets and other closely related features. There are three types of dentitions
present in the bivalves: taxodont, schizodont and heterodont (Fig. 2.3).
a) Taxodont: it is a primitive type of dentition, where teeth are numerous,
more or less equal in size and arranged in a subparallel pattern.
b) Schizodont: it includes two or three thick teeth with prominent grooves.
c) Heterodont: it comprises both cardinal and lateral teeth, which are not
uniform, and less in number.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.3: Internal view of valves of bivalves showing different types of dentition:
a) Taxodont; b) Schizodont; and c) Heterodont dentitions.

The bivalve shells lacking dentitions are termed as edentulous shells.

Turning to the outside surface of the valves, you can see that in some cases it
is smooth while in others it is ornamented with fine growth lines. The growth
lines are concentric about the umbones and show the earlier positions of the
edge of a valve. The outer surfaces may also be ornamented with other
surface features such as radial ribs, concentric ridges and spines.
2.3.3 Geological History
Like brachiopods, bivalves also have a very long geologic history. The earliest
bivalves are known from the early Cambrian, but they became diverse during
the Ordovician. The non-marine bivalves first arose in the Devonian and
became abundant in the Carboniferous. Some of the groups of bivalves are
surviving till date.

2.4 COMMON GENERA

2.4.1 Pecten
Systematic Palaeontology
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
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Class Bivalvia
Order Pectinida
Family Pectinidae
Genus Pecten
Morphological Description: The shell of Pecten shows trigonal to subcircular
outline. The shell is gently convex and equilateral to nearly equivalve. Its right
valve is convex and the left valve is flat. It has a straight hinge line with wing-
like expansions. Well developed radial ribs and costae are present on the
external surface of the shell. It has well developed ears, a central pit for
ligament and large adductor impressions (Fig. 2.4a).

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.4: Photographs showing external views: a) Pecten; and b) Inoceramus.
(Courtesy: Prof. R. Nagendra, Anna University, Chennai)

Stratigraphic Range: Carboniferous to Recent.

Palaeoecology: The genus, Pecten is a free-swimming suspension feeder
and occurs in a variety of environments ranging from marine, marginal marine
to freshwater.
2.4.2 Inoceramus
Systematic Palaeontology
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Bivalvia
Order Pterioida
Family Inoceramidae
Genus Inoceramus
Morphological Description: The shells of Inoceramus are ovate, circular,
inequivalved to inequilateral in shape. Hinge line is usually long, which may be
straight or oblique. It possesses taxodont dentition, ears and prominent
umbones. It is a monomyarian bivalve. It has transverse ligament area and
feebly present adductor scars. The external surface of shells bears prominent,
broad, rounded and curved concentric ribs. The margins of the shell are
usually rounded (Fig. 2.4b).
Stratigraphic Range: Jurassic to Cretaceous.
Palaeoecology: The genus was a mobile epifaunal suspension feeder.
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2.4.3 Ostrea
Systematic Palaeontology
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Bivalvia
Order Ostreoida
Family Ostreidae
Genus Ostrea
Morphological Description
The shells of Ostrea have various shapes, ranging from triangular, irregular,
inequilateral to inequivalve (Fig. 2.5). Ostrea is a monomyarian bivalve, which
means the genus has only a single large adductor muscle scar. Its left valve is
convex, bears prominent umbo and radiating ribs. The right valve is smooth
and its shapes vary from subquadrate, concave to flat. The hinge line is short
and bears no teeth. The shell generally has a broad triangular to elongate
ligamental pit.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.5: Photographs of genus Ostrea: (a-b) Internal views of the shells and (c)
External view of the shell. [Courtesy: Prof. R. Nagendra, Anna University,
Chennai for (a) and Mr. A. A. Quarshi, Srinagar for( b) and (c)]

Stratigraphic Range: Triassic to Recent.

Palaeoecology: The genus, stationary epifaunal suspension feeder
2.4.4 Gryphaea
Systematic Palaeontology
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Bivalvia
Order Ostreoida
Family Gryphaeidae
Genus Gryphaea
Morphological Description: It is a monomyarian bivalve. The shells of
Gryphaea are irregular, inequivalve to inequilateral. The left valve is large and
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convex in shape. The right valve is flat and concave. The umbo of the left
valve is incurved whereas it is weakly projected in the right valve. The external
surface of the shell is smooth (Fig. 2.6a and 2.6b).
Palaeoecology: The genus, Gryphaea was a stationary epifaunal suspension
feeder.
Stratigraphic Range: Triassic to Cretaceous.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.6: Photographs showing: (a-b) Gryphaea external and internal views; and
c) Alectryonia external view. (Courtesy: Prof. R. Nagendra, Anna
University, Chennai for a and c)

2.4.5 Alectryonia
Systematic Palaeontology
Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Mollusca
Class Bivalvia
Order Ostreoida
Family Ostreidae
Genus Alectryonia
Morphological Description: It is an edentulous (no teeth) bivalve, which is
irregular, inequivalved and inequilateral in shape. The left valve is convex and
the right valve is concave. It has a simple hinge area. The external surface of
both valves is highly uneven with angular folds. The margins of the valve are
highly toothed or zig-zag (Fig. 2.6c).
Palaeoecology: The genus, stationary epifaunal suspension feeder
Stratigraphic Range: Triassic to Recent
2.4.6 Cardita
Systematic Palaeontology
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Bivalvia
Order Carditoida
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Family Carditidae
Genus Cardita
Morphological Description: The shell possesses various forms, ranging from
oblong, elongated to trapezoidal and is inequilateral. The radial ribs and typical
radiating lines are present on the external surface of the shell. The shell has
prominent anterior umbones. Dentition is heterodont with oblique cardinal
teeth and small anterior lateral teeth. It is an anisomyarian bivalve, i.e., the
posterior muscle scar is larger than the anterior muscle scar. It has a simple
pallial line and external ligament (Fig. 2.7).

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.7: Photographs of genus Cardita: a) External; and b) Internal views of the
shell. (Courtesy: Mr. A. A. Quarshi, Srinagar)

Stratigraphic Range: Palaeocene to Recent.

Palaeoecology: The genus is a mobile infaunal suspension feeder.

2.4.7 Arca
Systematic Palaeontology
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Bivalvia
Order Arcoida
Family Arcidae
Genus Arca

Morphological Description: The shells of Arca are equivalved, inequilateral,

elongate to sub-rectangular in shapes. They have taxodont dentition and
straight hinge line. The shell has prominent anterior umbones and simple
pallial line. Hinge line bears many small and transverse teeth. Arca is an
isomyarian bivalve. Shell margins are usually smooth, but sometimes, they
may be dentated. The radiating ribs and concentric lines are present on the
external surface of the shell.
Stratigraphic Range: Jurassic to Recent.
Palaeoecology: The genus is a stationary epifaunal suspension feeder.

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(a) (b)
Fig. 2.8: Photographs of genus Arca: a) External; and b) Internal views of the
shell. (Courtesy: Mr. A. A. Quarshi, Srinagar).

2.4.8 Unio
Systematic Palaeontology
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Bivalvia
Order Unionoida
Family Unionidae
Genus Unio
Morphological Description: The shells of Unio are transversely oblong,
inflated, subequilateral, oval to elongate in shapes. Unio shells are thick and
their external surface is either smooth or ornamented with striae, tubercles,
and ridges. They have anterior umbones and elongated ligament. They usually
have a simple pallial line, heterodont dentition and deep anterior adductor scar
(Fig. 2.9).

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.9: Photographs of genus Unio: a) Internal; and b) External views of the
shell. (Courtesy: Mr. A. A. Quarshi, Srinagar)

Stratigraphic Range: Triassic to Present.

Palaeoecology: The genus lives in freshwater.

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2.4.9 Trigonia
Systematic Palaeontology
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Mollusca
Class Bivalvia
Order Trigoniida
Family Trigoniidae
Genus Trigonia
Morphological Description: The shell is trigonal to slightly inequilateral in
shape. It has gently rounded anterior margin and angular posterior margin. It
possesses schizodont dentition, anterior umbones, strong teeth and deep
adductor impressions. The external surface of the shell is ornamented with
concentric costae. The shells of Trigonia usually posses transversely ridged to
smooth escutcheon area and simple pallial line (Fig. 2.10).

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.10: Shell of Trigonia: a) Dorsal; and (b-c) External views. (Source: modified
after Pugaczewska, 1976)

Stratigraphic Range: Triassic to Cretaceous.

Palaeoecology: The genus Trigonia was a mobile infaunal suspension feeder.

2.5 LABORATORY EXERCISES

The fossil specimens of bivalves, belonging to the genera described in Section
2.4, will be provided to you for study. You will have to perform the following
activities:

i. Draw the sketch of the specimen on your practical note-book.

ii. Label its various morphological features (refer Figs. 2.1 to Fig. 1.3 for
labeling various morphological features).

iii. Write its systematic position or palaeontology.

iv. Briefly, describe the morphology of the shell.

v. Write the stratigraphic range and palaeoecology of the genus under study.

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Format for Studying Fossil Specimens
Fossil No.: …………….. Date: ………………
Systematic Palaeontology
Kingdom
Subkingdom
Phylum
Subphylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Systematic Palaeontology: It includes taxonomic hierarchy of the
genus.
Morphological Description: It includes sketches of the specimen as
well as labeling and description of its morphological features.
Stratigraphic Age: It includes the age range of the genus.

1.6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Based on the morphological study, the given fossil specimens have been
identified as Pecten, Inoceramus, Ostrea, Gryphaea, Alectryonia, Cardita,
Arca, Unio and Trigonia.

1.7 REFERENCE
 Pugaczewska, H. (1976) Trigoniidae of the Dogger of Leczyca (Central
Poland), Acta Paleontologica Polonica, 1: 79-96.

1.8 FURTHER SUGGESTED READINGS

 Shah, S.K. (2013) Elements of Palaeontology, Geological Society of India,
Bangalore.
 Woods, H. (2004) Palaeontology Invertebrate, CBS Publishers and
Distributors Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
 https://paleobiodb.org/classic

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