“DESIGN OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEM USING SOLAR PANEL:

A REVIEW”

A
Status paper Report

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
In
Food Technology and Management

Submitted by
Sudhir Ranjan Verma
Roll No. 421014

Under the Guidance

of
Dr. Prarabdh Badgujar

Department of Food Science and Technology

NationalInstitute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and
Management
Hsiidc Industrial Estate Kundli, Sonipat, Haryana (131028)
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................................3
SOLAR ENERGY........................................................................................................................................3
Types of solar cells...............................................................................................................................3
WORKING OF SOLAR ENERGY..............................................................................................................7
Applications.........................................................................................................................................7
COMPONENTS...........................................................................................................................................11
The basic transcritical CO2 refrigeration cycle...........................................................................................14
Configuration of the solar thermoelectric refrigerator..............................................................................16
Thermodynamic design procedure............................................................................................................18
SIMULATIONS OF PV SYSTEMS..................................................................................................................22
3.1. Simulation of grid-connected PV system using PV*SOL..................................................................22
3.2. Simulation of grid-connected PV system using SolarGIS.................................................................23
3.3. Simulation of grid-connected PV system using PVGIS....................................................................23
3.4. Simulation of grid-connected PV system using SISIFO....................................................................24
REFERNCES................................................................................................................................................26
INTRODUCTION
SOLAR ENERGY
Energy comes from the sun in the form of heat and radiation. A variety of constantly evolving
and developing technologies, including as solar thermal energy, solar architecture, solar heating,
molten salt power plants, and artificial photosynthesis, are used to harness the sun's radiant light
and heat as a natural source of energy. The vast amount of solar energy that is available makes it
a very alluring source of electricity. About 30% of solar radiation is reflected back to space, with
the remaining energy being absorbed by the ocean, clouds, and land surfaces.

Types of solar cells

 First Generation Solar Cell
Solar cells of the first generation, manufactured on silicon wafers. It is the most
established and well-liked technology because of its excellent power efficiency. The
silicon wafer-based technology was further divided into the following two subgroups:
 Single/ Mono-crystalline silicon solar cell.
 Poly/Multi-crystalline silicon solar cell.
 Second Generation Solar Cells
Solar cells with a thin film Most second-generation solar cells, including a-Si and thin-
film solar cells, are more affordable than first-generation silicon wafer solar cells.
Classification of thin-film solar cells as
 Amorphous Silicon Thin Film (a-Si)
 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) Thin Film Solar Cell
 Copper Indium Gallium Di-Selenide (CIGS) Solar
 Third Generation Solar Cells
Third generation cells are the new promising technologies but not commercially
investigated in detail by the researchers. Few of the developed 3rd generation solar cell
types are as follows:
 Nano crystal-based solar cells
 Polymer-based solar cells
 Dye-sensitized solar cells
 Concentrated solar cells
FIRST GENERATION SOLAR CELLS
Single-crystal silicon

At 1425 degrees Celsius, high-purity silicon for semiconductors that has only a few parts per
million of impurities is melted in a crucible that is often composed of quartz. Molten silicon can
be doped with certain proportions of dopant impurity atoms, such as boron or phosphorus, to
change it into p-type or n-type silicon, which has different electrical characteristics. A seed
crystal mounted on a rod that has been carefully aligned is dipped into the molten silicon. The
rod of the seed crystal is progressively dragged upward and turned. It is possible to remove a
sizable, single-crystal, cylindrical ingot from the melt by carefully regulating the temperature
gradients, pulling rate, and rotational speed. By looking into and viewing the temperature and
velocity fields during the crystal development process, undesirable instabilities in the melt can
be prevented. This procedure is typically carried out in an inert environment, such argon, in an
inert chamber, like quartz. In the PV industry, single-crystal silicon cells are most prevalent. The
Czochralski (CZ)process is the primary method for making single-crystal silicon. In a quartz
crucible, high-purity polycrystalline is melted. This polycrystalline molten mass is used to
submerge a single-crystal silicon seed. An ingot made up of a single crystal is created as the seed
is slowly removed from the melt. The ingots are then sawed into thin wafers about 200-400
micrometers thick (1 micrometer = 1/1,000,000 meter). The thin wafers are then assembled into
modules and arrays after being polished, doped, coated, linked, and integrated. The molecular
structure of silicon in a single crystal is constant. Higher energy conversion efficiency—defined
as the ratio of the electric power generated by the cell to the amount of available solar power, or
power-out divided by power-in—is achieved by its high uniformity as compared to non-
crystalline materials. The more power a PV cell produces for a given area of solar exposure, the
greater its conversion efficiency. Commercial single-silicon modules have conversion
efficiencies between 15 and 20 percent. Single-silicon modules are not only very reliable for
outdoor power applications, but also energy efficient. Wafering, a time-consuming and
expensive batch operation in which ingots are cut into thin wafers with a thickness no less than
200 micrometres thick which accounts for about half of the manufacturing cost. The entire wafer
will crack during wafering and subsequent processing if the wafers are excessively thin. A PV
cell requires a substantial amount of raw silicon due to this thickness requirement, and half of
this pricey material is lost during wafering as sawdust.

Polycrystalline silicon

The electronics and solar photovoltaic industries use polycrystalline silicon, also known as
polysilicon or poly-Si, which is a very pure polycrystalline type of silicon. Polycrystalline
PV cells, which are made of tiny grains of single-crystal silicon, are less energy-efficient
than those made of single-crystal silicon. In polycrystalline silicon, the grain boundaries
obstruct the flow of electrons and lower the cell's power output. A polycrystalline silicon
 commercial module has an energy conversion efficiency of between 10 and 14 percent.
Cutting thin wafers from blocks of cast polycrystalline silicon is a standard method for
making polycrystalline silicon solar panels. The "ribbon growth" method is another more
sophisticated technique, in which silicon is directly generated as thin ribbons or sheets with
the appropriate thickness for manufacturing PV cells. The cost of manufacturing is lower
because no sawing is required. The most often used method of ribbon growth is EFG (edge-
defined film fed growth). Polycrystalline silicon is more durable than single-crystalline
silicon and may be sliced to a thickness that is one-third that of single-crystalline silicon.
Additionally, it has less stringent growth requirements and a little cheaper wafer cost.
However, their lower manufacturing cost is offset by the lower cell efficiency.

SECOND GENERATION SOLAR CELLS

Thin Film Materials
A thin semiconductor layer of PV materials is placed on an inexpensive support layer, such
as glass, metal, or plastic foil, to create a thin-film PV cell. The deposited layer of PV
materials is extremely thin, ranging from a few micrometres to even less than a micrometre,
because thin-film materials have a higher light absorptivity than crystalline materials (a
single amorphous cell can be as thin as 0.3 micrometers). With a lifetime of 20 years or more
is typically anticipated, accelerated life testing of thin film modules under laboratory settings
found a somewhat faster degradation than with traditional PV. Layers of material that are
thinner result in significant cost savings. Additionally, the direct-spraying of PV components
onto glass or metal substrate using deposition processes is less expensive. As a result, mass
production is made simpler and the manufacturing process is quicker than the crystalline
silicon ingot-growth method. Due to their non-single crystal structure, thin film PV cells
have a poor cell conversion efficiency, which necessitates higher array sizes and raises area-
related costs like mountings. The PV industry, which accounts for 4% of all US PV module
shipments, is excited about the promise of thin-film technology to produce inexpensive PV
electricity.

Materials used for thin film PV modules are as follows

Amorphous Silicon (a-Si)
Since its discovery in 1974, amorphous silicon has dominated the thin-film PV industry. It is
primarily used in consumer electronics goods, which have lower power output and
production costs. Amorphous silicon is a noncrystalline type of silicon, meaning that the
structure of its silicon atoms is disorganised. The high light absorptivity of a-Si, which is
around 40 times greater than that of single-crystal silicon, is a considerable benefit. As a
result, only a thin coating of a-Si is required to create PV cells (about 1 micrometre thick as
compared to 200 or more micrometres thick for crystalline silicon cells). Additionally, a-Si
may be deposited on a variety of inexpensive substrates, including as steel, glass, and plastic,
 and the production method requires lower temperatures, requiring less energy. As a result, as
compared to crystalline silicon cells, the total cost of materials and the cost of production are
lower per unit area. Despite the anticipated economic benefits, a-Si still faces two significant
obstacles. The first is the low cell energy conversion efficiency, which ranges from 5 to 9
percent, and the second is the outdoor dependability issue, where the efficiency deteriorates
after a few months of exposure to sunlight, losing 10 to 15 percent. In 1995, the average cost
of an a-Si module was $7 per watt. The cost of a solar module is currently $2 per watt.
Because of their lower performance compared to traditional crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar
cells, amorphous silicon (a-Si) has been used as a photovoltaic solar cell material for devices
that require very little power, such as pocket calculators. This is because their simpler and
less expensive deposition onto a substrate more than offsets their lower performance.

THIRD GENERATION SOLAR CELLS

Solar cells from the third generation are becoming cutting-edge PV technologies. They are
still mostly in the research stage. They typically consist of hot carrier cells, tandem/multi
junction cells, quantum dot cells, dye-sensitized solar cells, polymer solar cells, and cells
with multiple junctions or tandems. The bulk heterojunction organic photovoltaics (OPV)
and dye-sensitized solar cells will be the major topics of this article (DSSC).
WORKING OF SOLAR ENERGY
PV cells direct current (DC) power from sunlight. Charge controllers control the power from
solar panels that are reversed back to them and cause harm to the panels. When there is no
sunlight, a battery system is employed to store electricity. To convert Direct Current (DC) from
this system's associated inverter into Alternating Current (AC).

A. Solar Cell (Photovoltaic Cell)

Solar energy was directly turned into electricity by the cells. It is made up of a variety of
semiconductor materials. Positive charge and negative charge are the two sorts. Solar cells with
high conversion efficiency and low cost are created using this cell technology. When a solar-
powered cell absorbs photons, silicon atoms' electrons are broken loose and dragged away by a
grid of metal conductors, which forces an electric current to flow. PV solar cells contain a variety
of compounds.

B. Photovoltaic Module

A PV module care made up of solar cell circuits sealed in an environmentally protective laminate
and above that are the fundament building blocks of PV system. They generally size from 60W
to 170W. Usually a number of PV modules are arranged in series and parallel to meet the energy
requirement that is there.

C. Photovoltaic Panel

One or more PV modules are included in this device, which is pre-wind and field unstable. PV
cells are connected in series on this panel. Individual PV cells are linked to form solar panels.

D. Photovoltaic Array

It contains a number of PV cells connected in parallel and series. While the current in the array
is increased by a parallel connection, the voltage of the module is increased by series
connections. In bright sunlight, it can produce 180W at its maximum. The area of the array's total
surface area determines how much solar electricity it will generate.
APPLICATIONS

Building integrated systems

Building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) systems offer advantages in cost and look as they
replace traditional materials in new construction by incorporating photovoltaic qualities into
building materials including roofing, siding, and glass. In addition, the BIPV installations have
more visually pleasing architecture than roof-mounted PV buildings. Yoo et al. proposed a
building design that would allow solar energy to enter the building during the heating season to
provide daylight while shading the building in the summer to reduce cooling loads. They also
conducted an analysis of the system performance and evaluated the system efficiency and power
output. Using a computerised renewable energy technologies (RETs) assessment tool, Bakos et
al. reported the installation, technical characteristics, operation, and economic evaluation of a
grid-connected building integrated photovoltaic system (BIPV). In order to connect PV power
supply with building energy demand, Ordenes et al. ran simulations using the software
programme EnergyPlus and evaluated the potential of seven BIPV technologies deployed in a
home prototype simulated in three distinct Brazilian towns. In order to control their temperature
(heating or cooling) by interacting with the sun, Xu et al. designed and assessed the efficacy of
Active Building Envelope (ABE) systems, a new enclosure technology that combines
photovoltaic (PV) and thermoelectric (TE) technologies. Chow et al. described effectiveness of
cooling by means of a natural ventilating air stream numerically based on two cooling options
with an air gap between the PV panels and the external facade: (i) an open air gap withmixed
convective heat transfer, and (ii) a solar chimney with buoyancyinduced vertical flow and found
that effective cooling of a PV panel can increase the electricity output of the solar cells. When
compared to a typical BIPV roof, Wong et al. recommended semi-transparent PV top light
material for residential use with a 50% radiation transmission rate that might reduce heating and
cooling energy usage by up to 5.3 percent. For the purpose of evaluating the yearly solar tilted
planes irradiation on building envelopes for BIPV applications in Taiwan, Cheng et al. devised
an empirical methodology. In order to maximise the advantages of the distributed nature of PV
generation, Ricardo Ruther et al. researched the behaviour of grid linked, building integrated
photovoltaic (BIPV) solar energy conversion in the urban context of an ametropolitan area in a
Brazilian state capital. Jardim et al. studied the behaviour of grid-connected, building integrated
photovoltaic solar energy conversion in the built environment of a metropolitan area in Brazilian
state capital, aiming at maximising the benefits of the distributed nature of PV generation .

Desalination plant

Lamei et al. discussed the price of electricity at which solar energy can be used cost-effectively
for RO (Reverse Osmosis) desalination that is independent of RO plant capacity and proposed an
equation to estimate the unit production costs of RO desalination plants that can be used to
calculate unit production costs for desalinated water using photovoltaic (PV) solar energy based
on current and future PV module prices. By integrating solar power generation (PV) and wind
energy conversion (WEC) into a grid-connected power supply for a reverse osmosis (RO)
desalination plant with power recovery, Kershrnan et al. studied an experimental plant for
seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination powered by renewable energy sources (RES) at
Libya's Mediterranean coast. Hasnain et al. suggested a straightforward single-effect solar still
plant with a 5.8 m3 per day capacity for the treatment of reject brine from Sadous PV-powered
RO desalination plant that can be configured as a 100 percent solar powered desalination system
for any location and quality of brackish water. They discovered that the single effect solar stills
for small scale plants is more viable to use in remote areas, where the land value is negligible as
solar stills are simple. To demonstrate the financial viability of the combination, El-Sayed
modelled desalination using spiral-wound RO membrane modules powered by solar to power
photovoltaic converter panels. Weiner et al. presented the designing, erection and operation
process of a stand-alone desalination plant powered by both solar photovoltaic and wind energy.

Space

In the area of space solar arrays and concentration, Habraken et al. presented a trade-off study
that establishes the parameters to determine whether a given concept (cell type, concentrator)
becomes appropriate as two different trough concentrators, a linear Fresnel lens concentrator,
and rigid arrays are compared, and the thermal and optical behaviours are examined. The
"European Sail Tower SPS" is a new design for an Earth-orbiting Solar Power Satellite (SPS)
created by Seboldt et al. It has a large, tower-like orbital system that is extremely light and
capable of supplying Europe with a sizable amount of electrical power produced by photovoltaic
cells and then transmitted to Earth via microwaves. Girish studied the possibility of nighttime
photovoltaic power generation in planetary bodies like moon using reflected light energy flux
from nearby planetary objects based on latest low-intensity low-illumination (LILT) solar cell
technology.

Solar home systems

By introducing solar home systems, Bond et al. described the solar photovoltaic (PV)
technology's current experience and difficulties in East Timor (SHS). In order to significantly cut
GHG emissions and contribute to climate protection, Posorski et al. proposed Solar Home
Systems (SHS) that are commercially available and used them to cost-effectively replace
kerosene and dry cell batteries.

Pumps

For growing orchards in arid regions, Pande et al. designed and created a Solar Photovoltaic
Operated (PV) pump drip irrigation system while taking into account various design factors,
including pump size, water requirements, the diurnal variation in the pump's pressure due to
change in irradiance, and pressure compensation in the drippers. Meah et al. suggested various
regulations to make solar photovoltaic water pumping (SPVWP) system an appropriate
technology for the relevant application location because it has demonstrated its benefits in
developed nations in terms of technology, economy, and the environment. Short et al. looked
into some of the problems associated with solar water pumping projects, discussed the
advantages and disadvantages they may have for the neighbourhood, and offered a brand-new
design for a pump, considering the steps that could be taken to ensure future sustainability.
Despite having a poor overall operational efficiency of only 1.6 percent, Chandratilleke et al.
examined the performance of a water pumping system made up of a 1.14 kW photovoltaic array
and an 860 W centrifugal pump and found it suitable for medium (1-4 m3/h) delivery flow-rate
applications. Badescu examined the performance of a sophisticated time-dependent solar water
pumping system made up of four fundamental components: a centrifugal pump, a PV array, a
battery, and a DC motor.
COMPONENTS
Peltier unit

This device makes the refrigerator's cooling function possible. Every time an electrical current
passes through two conductors that aren't compatible with one another, the Peltier cooler effect
takes place. Depending on which way the current is flowing, the junction of the two conductors
will either absorb or release heat. Because they can be more easily tailored for pumping heat,
semiconductors (often Bismuth Telluride) are the preferred material in thermoelectric technology
for producing the Peltier effect. This kind of material allows for the creation of a Peltier device,
or thermoelectric module, in its most basic form, which revolves around a single semiconductor
"pellet" that is soldered to electrically conductive material on both ends (usually plated copper).
The copper connecting pathways to the power supply serve as the second dissimilar material
needed for the Peltier effect in this setup. It is crucial to remember that heat will travel across the
circuit in the direction of charge carrier movement (actually, it is the charge carriers that transfer
the heat).

Peltier Unit

Cooling fan

Each heat sink has a cooling fan attached on it for the refrigerator. A cooling fan's primary
function is to remove heat from the heat sink by drawing in fresh air..
 Cooling Fan

Heat sink

The heat sink is a passive heat exchanger that cools a device by dissipating heat into the
surrounding medium most generally air. Majorly heat sink is made up of aluminum.

Heat sink made of Aluminium

Battery

The refrigerator operates on one battery at a time. If more chilling is needed, a second battery
connection is also available in the refrigerator. The solar panel supplies energy to the battery to
charge it. The cooling fan and the Peltier unit are both run off of the battery's output.

A commercial Battery
Insulation (Ex: Thermacol)

The main purpose of insulation is to increase the efficiency of the refrigerator system. It does not
alow the heat to escape from the system and hence maintaning the temperature difference inside
and outside. Thermacol is known for its economic value and good insulation property as it does
not allow the inner temperature of cooling medium to go down. Hence it is also an economic
source of insulation.

Solar panel

A collection of photovoltaic cells arranged in a framework for installation is known as a solar

cell panel, solar electric panel, photo-voltaic (PV) module, or solar panel. Solar energy is
harnessed by solar panels to provide direct current power.

Solar Panels
The basic transcritical CO2 refrigeration cycle

. Basic transcritical CO2 cycle (a), and lgP–h diagram (b).

Since there is no saturation condition and the pressure is independent of temperature in the
transcritical CO2 cycle, the "condenser" in a traditional vapour compression cycle is substituted
by a gas cooling device known as a "gas cooler." In this cycle, the majority of the heat rejection
occurs above the critical point in the supercritical region. However, the refrigerant evaporates at
low pressure, which is a similar scenario to the normal subcritical cycle, and thus causes the heat
to be absorbed. The lgP-h diagram for the fundamental transcritical CO2 cycle was created based
on the following hypotheses: no pressure drop, a gas cooler output temperature of 32°C, an
evaporation temperature of 5°C, a superheat of 0°K, an isentropic compression process, and an
isenthalpic expansion. As can be observed, the high-side pressure is approximately 10 MPa,
which is typically 5–6 times greater than the pressure of traditional refrigerants. This results in
high costs and poses a risk to the dependability and safety of the system. The transcritical CO2
cycle is theoretically less effective under the same circumstances than a typical vapour
compression cycle. Two processes, namely throttling loss and heat rejection loss, are in charge of
the additional thermodynamic losses of the transcritical CO2 cycle, presuming equal evaporating
temperature, equal gas cooler outlet temperature, and equal condensing temperature. The
substantially higher average CO2 temperature during the gas cooling process contributes to the
greater heat rejection loss. The entropy increase in the throttling process is greater when
temperatures are known because there is a greater pressure difference before and after the CO2
expansion device, which has a significant impact on the throttling loss. However, the transcritical
CO2 cycle operates at a compression ratio of roughly three in the cooling application due to the
significant pressure differential, compared to eight for conventional cycles. An efficient
compressor often has a lower compression ratio. It should be noted that because CO2 has greater
heat transfer properties than water, the approach temperature between the temperature at the gas
cooler outlet and the temperature at the heat sink can be considerably lower. Even with these
advantages, the transcritical CO2 cycle performs poorly at high ambient temperatures. Martin
and Yin showed that a CO2 air cooling system's COP (coefficient of performance) is poorer in
situations of 10% usage at high ambient temperature (above 30C). The results of semi-theoretical
models used by Brown et al. to compare the performance merits of CO2 and R134a mobile air
conditioning systems show that the COP of CO2 was lower by 21% at 32.2 C and by 34% at
48.9 C. At high speeds and outside temperatures, the COP gap was considerably more
pronounced. Additionally, the CO2 mobile air conditioning system exhibited equivalent cooling
capacity compared to a traditional R134a system, but with COP reductions of 26% and 10% at
outdoor temperatures of 27 C and 45 C, respectively. The literature assessment cited above
highlights the transcritical CO2 refrigeration cycle's primary difficulties, namely its high
working pressure and low energy efficiency at high ambient temperatures. As a result, scientists
have devoted themselves to finding technological solutions to problems.
Configuration of the solar thermoelectric refrigerator
The diagram below depicts a prototype of a solar cell-driven, thermoelectric refrigerator that is
primarily made up of an array of solar cells, a controller, a storage battery, a rectifier, and a
thermoelectric refrigerator. During the day, solar cells absorb solar energy and use the
photovoltaic effect to convert it into electricity that powers thermoelectric refrigerators. If
enough electricity is produced, the excess energy can be stored in batteries in addition to
powering the refrigerator. The storage battery may serve as a backup if the solar cell is unable to
generate enough electricity, as can be the case on days that are cloudy or wet. The controller,
which doubles as an auto-switcher, helps keep the energy conversion process running as
efficiently as possible. The refrigerator is powered at night by the storage battery and a backup
AC rectifier. A thermoelectric cooling module makes up the thermoelectric refrigerator. The
module's hot side is placed outside, and its cold side is placed inside the refrigerator. To
discharge heat more effectively, the hot side is connected to a fin-type heat exchanger. In the
module, the current flows from N type element to P type element at the cold junction and from P
type element to N type element at the hot junction, with simultaneous heat rejection to the
outside.

Schematic of solar cell driven, thermoelectric refrigerator (prototype)

For practical application, weight and cost of the unit are concerned very much. Two principles to
design a portable solar thermoelectric refrigerator for outdoor use are as follows.

(1) The refrigerator as a whole should be as light as possible in order to be taken away easily.

(2) Under the precondition of good performance, the thermoelectric refrigerator should be cost
economic.

The thermoelectric cooling module and electric power supply are absolutely necessary for the
thermoelectric refrigerator mentioned above. Solar cells and storage battery backup are the
components that can be modified because the storage battery is the heaviest and the solar cells
are the most expensive. The following operation method should be one of the options you should
think about in order to simultaneously satisfy the two principles. Here, the distinction between
daytime and midnight use is made: Solar cells and a thermoelectric refrigerator form a system
without a storage battery that is only utilised outside during the day. Without solar panels, a
system consisting of a storage battery, rectifier, and thermoelectric refrigerator is only used at
night when the owner is typically asleep and AC power is available. Thus, the least quantity of
solar cells are needed, and the taken unit weighs the least amount. The storage battery is still
being charged by an AC rectifier and should only be used outdoors on cloudy or wet days.
Thermodynamic design procedure
The simple adsorption cycle depicted in the picture below illustrates all the heat transfer for a
whole cycle. The isosteric heating, desorption, isosteric cooling, and resorption processes are all
part of how it works.

A simple adsorption refrigerator.

P–T–X diagram of an adsorption system showing the theoretical refrigeration cycle

First law considerations

The assumptions made for this analysis are that the specific heat and density of the adsorbed
refrigerant are those of the bulk liquid adsorbate. Applying the steady flow energy equation to
the above figure for each stage of the refrigeration cycle, the energy transfers are as follows

Collector/generator/adsorber

The quantity of energy used to generate refrigerant vapour from the adsorbent during the
generation process is given by Eq. (2)
Evaporator

The quantity of heat transferred in the evaporator during refrigeration process is given by Eq.
(12) below.

Condenser

The quantity of heat dissipated by the hot refrigerant vapour to change to liquid form is:

Refrigerator coefficient of performance

For a batch refrigeration process, as in the case of the intermittent adsorption cycle, the
assessment parameter is the coefficient of performance (COP) defined as

where Qe and Qg are the heat transferred during refrigeration and the heat used to generate
refrigerant during generation, respectively.

Eqs. (1)–(14) may be solved once the operating conditions such as Te, Tc, L and X are specified.
In order to completely evaluate these equations for particular adsorbent/adsorbate pair,
information on the adsorbent properties is required. With the help of that we can design the a
refrigerator easily.
Second law considerations

Thermodynamic efficiency

The thermodynamic efficiency relates the actual performance of a system to its expected
maximum performance as determined from its ideal Carnot cycle. It is obtained from a relation
proposed by Pons et al.
SIMULATIONS OF PV SYSTEMS
Simulation of grid-connected PV system using PV*SOL
The software PV*SOL aids in the selection of the PV system by homeowners and system
designers. The required data is evaluated by the program, which then determines the solar yield.
This software can be used to calculate the roof's orientation and inclination. The necessary size
of the module array or the peak power is input after selecting one of the three types of solar PV
modules—monocrystalline, polycrystalline, or thin film. For regular maintenance and to prevent
shading effects, the total area needed for installation is 1.3–1.5 times larger than the area covered
by PV modules. The software uses a map to automatically locate the solar PV system. As an
alternative, any place on earth can be manually entered. The climate database in PV*SOL
program is used. The simulation itself is quite a complex process.

The main steps involved in the simulation are given below http: //pvsol-online.valentin-
software.com/#/.

1. Start quick design via File > New project > ‘‘Start new project with quick design’’ > OK.

2. Enter the project name at first.

3. Click on the Climate data to set the location.

4. Then Click on the PV module to select any PV module from the database.

5. Azimuth and the Inclination need to be entered of the PV modules.

6. Type the required system output or a predetermined number of modules.

7. In light of this, choose an inverter from the database by clicking on it, or by clicking on
Inverter Combinations, Inverter Combinations — Configuration Selection.

8. Calculated sizing: below the chosen configuration, installed power, total number of modules,
and gross PV area.

9. Along with the input parameters in the rapid design, all other parameters are filled out with
realistic standard values.

10. Toggle to simulation.

11. You receive a summary of the project report after the simulation. You can print this one-
page report out.

With the climate-data for the location and the characteristics determined for the solar PV system,
the expected annual yield of the system is calculated using a detailed hourly simulation. The
simulation uses the PV*SOL calculation model on the Valentin Software server in order to
calculate the system quality and yield from the following results:

• Annual irradiation on the horizontal plane (kWh/m2

• Annual radiation on the inclined surface (kWh)

• PV yield (kWh)

• Performance ratio

Simulation of grid-connected PV system using SolarGIS

The SolarGIS software is a map-based online simulation software tool for designing and
optimization of photovoltaic systems with local geographical data at high accuracy and spatial
resolution to site specifications. To simulate a Solar PV system in SolarGIS software following
are the steps followed https://solargis.info/ pvplanner/.

1. In order to do this go to https://solargis.info/pvplanner/ for online simulation.

2. Select the "search" option, which enables the user to select the desired place.

3. Type the location's coordinates for the site of interest.

4. Select "Continue" to go to the simulation page.

5. Enter the information on the PV system's needed installed capacity.

6. Type in the different materials used in modules, the inverter's Euro efficiency, and DC/AC
losses.

Step 7: Enter the site's inclination, mounting plan, and solar radiation availability.SolarGIS
provides results of PV electrical potential, losses at various stages, performance ratio, site
horizon, sun path, and local air temperature throughout the course of the whole year using
location, climatic data, and PV system specifics. A report that can be utilised for upcoming
planning and installation is offered in PDF and Excel formats.

Simulation of grid-connected PV system using PVGIS

PVGIS is an online simulation tool used to compute various solar PV system characteristics.
The software assesses the daily radiation, energy output, annual yield, and overall system losses
based on the data inputs. The simulation is performed in the following manner
https://photovoltaic-software.com/pvgis. php.

1. Start the online simulation program "PVGIS".

2. Type "Climate SAF-PVGIS" when entering radiation databases.

3. Decide which PV technology will be incorporated into the system.

4. Enter the installation's system capacity required.

5. Type in the allowed overall system losses.

6. Select the tracking options, azimuth and inclination angles, and mounting configuration.

7. To conduct the simulation, click compute.

8. A report is created with information on the average daily and monthly energy output, the
average daily and monthly total of the global radiation absorbed by the modules per square
metre, and the total PV system losses.

Simulation of grid-connected PV system using SISIFO

This is an online web-based facility for simulation of PV system. Following are the steps
performed to simulate the PV system https: //www.sisifo.info/es/default.

1. Go online and enter the following URL https://www.sisifo.info/.

2. Enter the project name, location, local latitude, local longitude, and local altitude in the site
input.

3. Input the meteo data type and meteo sky type for metrological purposes.

4. Select the PV module's specifics, including the cell material, power model, power-to-
temperature coefficient, and mounting style.

5. Enter system information such as the nominal system power, the nominal PV power per
inverter, the nominal PV power per transformer, the actual power-nominal power ratio, and the
nominal PV power per bypass diode and bypass diode, respectively.

6. Select a simulation structure from the static and tracking options.

7. Enter physical characteristics such as the E-W-tracker separation ratio, the maximum rotating
angle orientation, the axis inclination, the N-S-tracker separation ratio, the module inclination,
and the backtracking option.option.

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