UPLB Department of Science and Technology Scholars’ Society

University of the Philippines Los Baños, UP College, Laguna 4031

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Science English Mathematics Enrichment Program

General Compilation of Handouts

Science

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GENERAL SCIENCE
SCIENCE
 product of human intelligence
 Systematized body of knowledge and facts about nature
 A logical, uniform system of thought

SIX MENTAL SKILLS SCIENTIFIC METHOD

a. Observe – the use of all senses  A process of gaining knowledge through objective procedures
b. Infer – ability to arrive at a conclusion without visual observation 1. Observation
c. Measure – ability to discern what is important or irrelevant 2. Identifying the problem
d. Classify – segregation of unrelated observations 3. Formulating the hypothesis
e. Experiment – a test carried out to verify or reject a claim 4. Experimentation
f. Communicate – to relay information esp. the results of a study 5. Conclusion
6. Formation of law
7. Continual re-examination

WAYS OF ARRIVING AT ARRIVING AT A CONCLUSION

A. Deductive Reasoning
Analysis of specific cases using general principles
B. Inductive Reasoning
Method of discovering general principles by careful examination of specific
cases

 HYPOTHESIS - tentative explanation for a phenomenon

 THEORY - a hypothesis that has survived repeated challenges and accumulated
substantial report; may be modified or discarded
 LAW OR PRINCIPLE – formal statement of the way in which events occur under given
situation; factual and always correct
 TECHNOLOGY – application of science INDUCTIVE DEDUCTIVE

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ATMOSPHERE

 Atmosphere – all the air surrounding the earth, consisting of oxygen,  The water in the atmosphere
nitrogen, and other gases. 1. Hydrology – the study of earth on and within the earth
- Blanket of air surrounding the earth 2. Humidity – moisture content of the atmosphere
 Atmospheric gases: 3. Dew point –the temperature at which condensation of water
1. Nitrogen – most abundant (78% of the atmosphere) molecules occurs
2. Oxygen – 20% 4. Dew – the water droplets formed on the surface caused by
condensation
Others: 5. Frost – at a very low temperature or at 0ºC, water vapour will
a. Methane – given off by decaying living things condense on surfaces as a solid
b. Carbon dioxide – gas exhaled by man, animals, and given-off by 6. Cloud – very tiny droplets of water also condense in the sky
factories and vehicles 7. Cumulus – if the cloud is piled up or accumulated, which is about
300 to 1,000 m above the earth’s surface. This is formed by the rapid
 Layers of atmosphere rising of moist air over a small area and is usually noticed during fair
1. Troposphere – layer of the atmosphere that is closest to the earth’s weather
surface. It is the general conditions of the atmosphere (weather and 8. Stratus – which is 2 to 7 km, the spread-out that looks like gray
climate) occur here. The topmost part is called the tropopause. sheets at low levels
2. Stratosphere – minimal change of temperature is observed in this 9. Cirrus - a cloud that looks like fibers of hairs
layer. This is consists of a special kind of oxygen- the ozone layer, 10. Fog – is also a cloud forms near the surface of the earth
which prevents the ultraviolet rays of the sun from reaching the 11. Cumulo-nimbus – nimbus means stormy
earth’s surface. 12. Precipitation – any form of water that condenses and fails back to
3. Mesosphere – a region in which the temperature drops steadily up the earth’s surface
to an altitude which is approximately 70-85 km above the 13. Hydrologic cycle - the continuous cycle of water
Stratosphere. The uppermost part is the mesopause.  Air pressure – force exerted by air on a given area. Measured in the SI or
4. Ionosphere – the topmost layer of the atmosphere. This layer is metric in Kg per cm(K/cm2). It changes as altitude changes.
consist of charged particles called ions, which reflect back radio  Remember:
waves sent from one place of the earth to another  Newton – unit of force
a. Thermosphere – which approximately 600 km in thickness  Pascal – the unit of pressure
that has a temperature that rises steadily  Pressure – the amount of force exerted per unit area
b. Exosphere – the outmost region of the atmosphere which
can be described on the basis of its temperature and
behaviour of neutral gases.

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 Wind – the horizontal movement of the air on the surface of the earth  Anemometer – an instrument used to measuring the wind speed
 South wind – wind coming from the south  Weather balloon – used to measure the wind speed
 North wind – wind coming from the north  Low Pressure Area – areas with rapidly decreasing pressure indicates an
 Breeze – a gentle wind approaching storm
 Sea breeze – a breeze that originates from the ocean  High Pressure Area – this indicates clear skies and a dry condition
 During the night, the land cools faster than water; therefore, the  Weather - the state of the atmosphere with regard to temperature,
warm air pushed upward and the cooler air moves towards the land cloudiness, rainfall, wind, and other meteorological conditions
 Monsoon – the changing direction of winds from season to season  Climate - the average weather or the regular variations in weather in a region
 Wind vane – an apparatus that shows where the wind is coming over a period of years
from
GEOLOGY

 Diastrophism – this pertains to the movement of all solid parts of the earth ii. Theory of Seafloor Spreading – five years after Wegener
A. Direction of forces and movements they produce discovery a brake or rift was found at the middle of the
i. Upward forces – cause the local or widespread rising or ridge running along its length where ballistic magma wells
uplift of the crust out to the surface. This ballistic magma solidified forming
ii. Downward forces – cause the local or widespread sinking a new crust it pushes the old crust causing the ocean floor
subsidence of the crust to spread
iii. Sideward force – cause the horizontal motion of the crust iii. Plate Tectonic Theory – it proposed that the lithosphere is
called thrust. Large masses of rocks slide and slip against divided into six more plates. The plate may be composed
each other into new positions of the continental crust on top of the oceanic crust alone.
B. Effects of diasrophism These plates are slowly, but nevertheless continually in
i. Folding – occurs when the crust crumples or wrinkles due motion.
to compressions or pushes from opposite directions. As  3 plate boundaries
the crust is crumpled, the rock strata become tilted. 1. Spreading or divergent boundary – an area where two plates move
ii. Faulting – occurs when the rock masses of the crust are apart leaving a gap between them. The gap formed is immediately
pulled apart forming cracks or fractures on the crust. The filled up with molten material that wells up from lower mantle
rock layers slide and slip against each other along the 2. Colliding or convergent boundary – an area where two plates move
breaks toward each other. As the plates collide, the leading edges of one
C. Causes of diastrophism plate is bent downward allowing it to slide beneath the other
i. Continental Drift Theory – proposed by Alfred Wegener, 3. Fracture or transform boundary – this is the area where two plates
according to him 200 years ago, there was only a single move past each other, sliding scraping and deforming the edges of
super continent called Pangaea situated at the center of the continents
the equator. It broke up into pieces which slowly moved
away from each other. The pieces formed the continents
today.

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 Volcanism – the building up of landforms due to volcanic activities is rapid and  Tidal wave – large mass of water displaced by an earthquake and
process is dramatic may be destructive
A. Classification of volcanoes:  Intensity – Of an earthquake is measured in terms of its effect to a
i. Quiet – exhibit non-explosive eruptions. But they discharge man, its damage to manmade structures and changes in natural
fluid lava and gases into the lower levels, destroying crops objects and land surfaces
and burying everything in their path  Magnitude – measure the energy released by the earthquake. It
ii. Explosive – erupts violently provides information about the severity of earthquake apart from
iii. Intermediate – volcanoes are sometimes quiet, and damage it caused
sometimes explosive or a combination or both  Richter Scale - a scale from 1 to 10 used to measure the severity of
 Earthquakes – any movement or shaking of the ground earthquakes according to the amount of energy released, with a
A. Tectonic – earthquake caused by the movement of tectonic plates higher number indicating stronger tremors
or shifting of faults  Mercalli Scale - a scale for measuring the intensity of earthquakes,
B. Volcanic – earthquake caused by the movement of molten magma ranging from 1 to 12, in which 1 denotes a weak earthquake and 12
from deep under the earth’s crust up one that causes complete destruction
 Terms  Seismograph - an instrument that detects the presence of an
 Epicentre – point up on earth’s crust where an earthquake earthquake and measures and records its magnitude
originates  Seismogram - a record of an earthquake made by a seismograph

Kinds of Rocks:

1) Igneous rocks – heavy, unlayered, dark rocks formed by the cooling and hardening of molten materials called magma
 Lava – magma that reaches earth’s surface
 Igneous intrusive – formed from magma that did not reach surface of the earth. These are generally light-colored and have large crystals
 Extrusive igneous rocks – formed from lava that cooled down and solidified on the surface of the earth. Rapid cooling caused small crystals to form
2) Sedimentary rocks – formed by the accumulation and consolidation of mineral and particulate matter deposited by the action of water, wind, glacial ice.
 Fragmental rocks – are composed of mineral particles produced by mechanical disintegration, transported and deposited in layers. (shale to slate)
3) Metamorphic rocks – the hardest kinds of rocks produced by the hardening of igneous and sedimentary rocks

Moh’s scale of hardness

1. Talc 6. Orthoclase
2. Gypsum 7. Quartz
3. Calcite 8. Topaz
4. Fluorite 9. Corundum
5. Apatite 10. Diamond

 Weathering – the process of breaking down rocks into smaller particles to become soil. A prerequisite of erosion
 Erosion – the rock masses that crumble are further loosened and transported from one place to another by another natural process

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ECOLOGY

 Ecosystem – refers to the environment where living and non-living  Ecological relationship
components exist and interact with each other A. Symbiosis – refers to any intimate or close association of two
 Biosphere – layer of the earth that supports all life forms organism of different species
 Biotic – living component of an ecosystem a. Mutualism – association between two or more species in
 Abiotic – non-living component of an ecosystem which all derived benefits in feeding or in some other way
 Interaction of living things b. Commensalism – co-action in which two or more species
o Producers – primary source of food in the ecosystem. These are mutually associated in activities centering on food;
composed the green plants that can produce their own food one organism is benefited while the others are neither
o Consumers – composed the animals that depend on green plants benefited nor harmed
for food c. Parasitism – relation between two or more species
 Herbivore wherein the parasites benefit at the expense of he host
 Carnivore d. Predation – one organism feeds one another
 Omnivore e. Competition – a relationship in which the organism
o Decomposers – final consumers who feed on decaying or dead compete with one another for the same food within their
organic matters habitat

 The cycling of nutrients:

o Carbon cycle
o Oxygen cycle
o Nitrogen cycle
o Water cycle
 Evaporation
 Condensation
 Precipitation

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ASTRONOMY
Universe – the vast gaseous space where galaxies, stars, planets, moons, and other heavenly bodies suspended and move with perfect orderliness

 Big-bang Theory – by Edwin Hubble. He proposed that the primordial mass  Oscillating Universe Theory – Fred Hoyle proposed this theory after he
of the universe was once concentrated in an extremely hot and dense discarded Steady State Theory, he proposed that the universe is expanding
fireball called YLEM. It proposed that the universe is expanding. as in big-bang theory but its expansion would slow down and would
 Steady State Theory – that there is no beginning nor end to the universe. As eventually come to a halt because of mutual gravitational attraction.
galaxies recede due to expansion of the universe, new materials are
constantly being produced in an empty space left behind.

 Solar system – composed of the sun and all bodies that revolve around it
 Two groups:  Moon – it is the earth’s satellite, its distance from earth is 384,000 km.
1. Composed of four solid planets – Mercury, Venus, Earth, o Diameter: ¼ of the earth’s
Mars o Pull of gravity: 1/6 of the earth’s
2. Composed of gas planets – Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and  Solar Eclipse – a partial/total hiding of the sun when the moon comes
Neptune between it and the earth
 Laws of planetary Motion:  Lunar Eclipse – a partial or total hiding of the moon when the earth’s
1. Ptelomaic System – earth is the center of the universe shadow is casted upon it
(Geocentric Universe)  Shadow
2. Copernican System – sun is the center of the universe o Umbra - the darkest portion of the shadow cast by an astronomical
(heliocentric Universe) object during an eclipse, especially that cast on Earth during a solar
3. Johannes Kepler – formulated three laws concerning the eclipse
motion of planets (Kepler’s law): o Penumbra - a partial outer shadow that is lighter than the darker
 The planet orbit the sun in elliptical paths inner shadow umbra, e.g. the area between complete darkness
 The closer a planet comes to the sun, the more and complete light in an eclipse
rapidly it moves
 The ratio of the cube of a planet’s mean distance  Revolution – movement of the earth around the sun along its orbit
from the sun to the square of its orbital period is  Rotation – rapid movement of earth around its own axis
constant  23.5 degrees – tilt of the earth from the vertical
 Theories of the origin of solar system:  Galaxies – groups of billions of star and their planets, gases and dusts held
1. The Planetisimal Theory – sun collided with another star. together by gravity
2. The Companion Star Theory – the sun has a companion
star that exploded when it collides with the sun.
3. The Nebular Hypothesis – the universe came from a
saucer shape nebula eventually cooled causing it to spin
in space.

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 Sun  Incredible space Objects

o Atmospheric Layers o Neutron star – very dense compact mass of neutrons; star which
 Photosphere – light we see from the sun collapsed under its own gravity
 Sunspot – black patches which can be seen o Black holes – areas in space with strong gravitational pull that no
during sunset matter or energy can escape from it
 Chromosphere – the color sphere which gives pinkish  Asteroid - an irregularly shaped rock that orbits the Sun, mostly occurring in
color to the sun during solar eclipse a band asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter
 Corona – outermost layer of the suns atmosphere which,  Comet - an astronomical object that is composed of a mass of ice and dust
like the chromosphere, is only visible during solar eclipse and has a long luminous tail produced by vaporization when its orbit passes
 Reversing Layer – lowest layer of the sun’s atmosphere close to the Sun
which absorbs solar wavelengths  Meteor - a mass of rock from space that burns up after entering the Earth's
 Stars – mostly composed of 72% hydrogen, 25% helium and 3% other atmosphere
materials (carbon, iron, nickel)  Meteorite - a piece of rock that has reached Earth from outer space
 Meteoroids - a mass of rock in space, often a remnant of a comet, that
becomes a meteor when it enters the Earth's atmosphere and a meteorite
when it falls to Earth

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BIOLOGY
Biology
LIFE – property of matter that results from the coupled cycling of bioelements in an aqueous solution, ultimately driven by radiant energy to attain maximum complexity

I. Chemical Context of Life

A. Matter – anything that occupies space, has mass and inertia.
 Solid – has definite shape due to compact arrangement of atoms; subdivided into two types: true solid and amorphous solid; true solid has crystal lattice
structure; amorphous solid has no crystal lattice structure.
 Liquid – is fluid; it assumes the shape of its container up to the extent of its volume; the atoms of liquid are arranged a little farther away from each other.
 Gas – is fluid; it completely assumes the shape of its container; atoms are arranged far from each other.
B. Atoms and Molecules
 Atoms are the smallest particles of an element that possess the characteristics of the element. It is composed of subatomic particles: proton (+), electron
(-), neutron (neutrally charged particles)
 Molecules are the smallest particles of the compound that retains its characteristics.
II. Macromolecules – are mostly polymers; they are formed by chains of identical or similar building blocks called monomers.
 Carbohydrates are sugars and their derivatives. They are of three types: monosaccharide, disaccharides and polysaccharides. Monosaccharide is the
simplest of carbohydrates used to form more complex ones (glucose & fructose, galactose); disaccharides consist of two monosaccharides connected by
glycosidic bond (ex. maltose=glucose+glucose; sucrose=fructose+glucose; lactose=galactose+glucose); polysaccharides are macromolecules that may
consist of a thousand of monosaccharides connected by glycosidic bonds (ex. starch & glycogen); biomolecules which provide 4kcal of energy per gram;
has an empirical formula Cx(H2O)y, hence the term “hydrates of Carbon”
 Lipids are mostly hydrophobic molecules with diverse function (ex. steroids such as cholesterol & sex hormones); includes fats and oils; fatty acids are its
building blocks; provides 9kcal per gram; enables the body to utilize vitamins A, D, E & K.
 Proteins are molecular tools for cellular functions consist of one or more polypeptide chains; amino acids are its building blocks; 4kcal per gram
 Nucleic acids store and transmits hereditary information; known as the informational biopolymers; nucleotides as building blocks; nucleic acids are
composed of a sugar unit, a phosphate group and nitrogen base; nitrogen bases are classified as either pyrimidines (6-membered ring of C and N atoms)
or purines (5-membered ring focused to a 6-membered ring)

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The Cell
1665
Robert Hooke – an English scientist. He discovered cells while looking at a thin slice of cork. He described it as a tiny compartments or honeycomb-like. Moreover, he
thought that cell only existed in plants and animals.
1673
Anton van Leeuwenhoek – he used a handmade microscope to observe pond scum and discovered single-celled organisms. He refers to these as "animalcules
Between the Hooke/Leuwenhoek discoveries and the mid-19th century, very little cell advancements were made. This is probably due to the widely accepted, traditional
belief in Spontaneous Generation.
Louis Pasteur – he disproved the idea of Spontaneous Generation
1838
Matthias Schleiden – a German botanist, concluded that all plants are made up of cells
1839
Theodor Schwann – a German physiologist, who was a close friend of Schleiden, stated that all animal tissues are composed of cells
1858
Rudolf Virchow – a German physician, after extensive study of cellular pathology, concluded that cells must arise from preexisting cells

The Cell Theory Modern Cell Theory

1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells. 1. The cell contains hereditary information (DNA) which is passed on
2. The cell is the basic unit of life in all living things. from cell to cell during cell division.
3. All cells are produced by the division of preexisting cells. 2. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition and metabolic activities.
3. All basic chemical & physiological functions are carried out inside the cells.
4. Cell activity depends on the activities of sub-cellular
structures within the cell(organelles, nucleus, plasma
membrane)

Cell Structure & Functions

Cytosol – the fluid inside the cell where the organelles and other cell components are suspended (e.g. enzymes, metabolic intermediates, and inorganic salts)
Nucleus – where the genetic material of the cell is located and where RNA and DNA are synthesized
Ribosomes – where protein synthesis takes place
Lysosome – functions for intracellular digestion, possesses hydrolytic digestive enzymes; also acts against foreign materials by engulfing and degrading them
Peroxisome – destroy peroxides which cause oxidation in the cell; possesses oxidative enzymes
Mitochondrion (pl. Mitochondria) – powerhouse of the cell; where cellular respiration takes place
Endoplasmic Reticulum – processes and transports proteins within the cell; possesses detoxifying enzymes. It is of two types namely:
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – with ribosomes; synthesis, modification, and transport of secretory proteins
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – without ribosomes; synthesis of lipids and hormones
Golgi apparatus – modification and packaging of secretory proteins; involved in the synthesis and secretion of glycoproteins

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Cytoskeleton – mechanical support for the cell and is involved in cell motility, cell migration, change in cell shape, movement of organelles within the cell, and separation of
chromosomes during cell division
Cell Wall – provides rigidity, support and protection against mechanical rupture of the cell; present in plants only and some prokaryotes Vacuole – reservoir for food and
waste products in plants
Plastids – found only in plants; storage of metabolically important substances such as starch (amyloplasts), oils (elaioplasts), proteins (proteinoplast), and colored pigments
(chromoplasts)
Chloroplasts – type of plastid which contains green pigment chlorophyll responsible for photosynthesis

Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells

 Prokaryotes are organisms without a cell nucleus, or any other  Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells are organized into complex
membrane-bound organelles. Most are unicellular, but some structures by internal membranes and a cytoskeleton. The most
prokaryotes are multicellular. distinguishing character of the eukaryotes that distinguishes them from
prokaryotes is the presence of true nucleus.

Characteristic Prokaryotic Eukaryotic

size of cell typically 0.2 to 2.0 µm in diameter typically 10 to 1000 µm in diameter
nucleus no nuclear membrane or nucleoli true nucleus consisting of nuclear membrane and nucleoli
membrane-enclosed organelles absent present
flagella consist of two protein building blocks complex; consist of multiple microtubules
cell wall usually present; chemically complex (e.g. bacterial cell wall when present, chemically simple (includes cellulose and chitin)
includes peptidoglycan)
plasma membrane no carbohydrates and generally lack sterols sterols and carbohydrates serve as receptors
cytoplasm no cytoskeleton or cytoplasmic streaming cytoskeleton and cytoplasmic streaming
ribosomes smaller size (70S) larger size (80S); smaller size (70S) in organelles
chromosome (DNA) usually single circular chromosome; typically lacks histones multiple linear chromosomes with histones
cell division binary fission includes mitosis
sexual recombination none; transfer of DNA only includes meiosis

Cell Types (Animal and Plant Tissues)

Anatomically complex living things like animals and plants have lots of different cell types that specialize in their form and function. A tissue is a combination of
similar cells that work together to perform a particular function. In an animal, a tissue might form a protective lining or facilitate movement by contracting. In plants,
a tissue might conduct water or carry out photosynthesis.

Types of Animal Tissues

Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces and lines the inside of body cavities, organs, and glands. It performs three important functions: protection from physical injury, sun
radiation, and infection; control of permeability to avoid fluid loss from underlying tissues; and secretion of needed substances by specialized clusters of epithelial cells that
form glands. Epithelial cells are packed closely together allowing little or no intercellular material between them.
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Connective tissue forms a framework upon which epithelial tissue rests and within which nerve tissue and muscle tissue are embedded. Blood vessels travel through
connective tissue. Connective tissue functions not only as a mechanical support for other tissues but also as an avenue for communication and transport between other
tissues.
Muscle tissue consists of specialized cells containing protein filaments. The proteins that make up the filaments are mostly myosin and actin which are arranged in parallel
bundles. The protein filaments enable the cells to shorten in length (contract). Contraction of many cells in a coordinated manner allows for the fluid movement of body
parts.
Nervous tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It is responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities. It stimulates muscle contraction, creates
an awareness of the environment, and plays a major role in emotions, memory, and reasoning. To do all these things, cells in nervous tissue need to be able to communicate
with each other by way of electrical nerve impulses. The cells in nervous tissue that generate and conduct impulses are called neurons or nerve cells.

Types of Plant Tissues

Parenchyma tissue is the name of the generalized cell type which makes up the fundamental or ground tissue of the primary plant body and is also present in vascular tissue.
It is generally living at maturity and has relatively thin primary cell walls of even thickness. Most of an herbaceous plant’s body is made up of parenchyma.
Collenchyma tissue is the name for elongated cells with irregularly thickened primary walls usually rich in pectin and water. The cells are living at maturity and form tissues
that support growing regions of the plant. Collenchyma typically forms strands or layers under the outermost cell layer (the epidermis) in stems and leaves and provides
strength and plasticity.
Sclerenchyma tissue is made up of cells that support other cells and are typically dead at maturity. The cell walls typically include secondary cell walls that are reinforced
with not only cellulose but lignin. Sclerenchyma cell walls are very thick and form the hardest plant structures including wood and woody structures like nut shells. There
are several types of sclerenchyma cells including types that are solitary cells or cells occurring in small clusters (sclerids). The mature xylem and phloem cells that make up
the important vascular tissues of plants also contain sclerenchyma cells called fibers.

Cell Modification
Cilia is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Cilia are slender protuberances that project from the much larger cell body
Types:
Motile cilia are usually present on a cell's surface in large numbers and beat in coordinated waves. For example, motile cilia are found in the lining of the trachea
(windpipe), where they sweep mucus and dirt out of the lungs. In female mammals, the beating of cilia in the Fallopian tubes moves the ovum from the ovary
to the uterus
Non-motile cilia (primary cilia) usually occur one per cell; all mammalian cells have a single non-motile primary cilium. For example, sensory organs like eye and nose
Flagella is a tail-like projection that protrudes from the cell body of certain prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and functions in locomotion.
Microvilli are microscopic cellular membrane protrusions that increase the surface area of cells

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Cell Cycle

 Mitosis retains the original chromosome number during cell division. The daughter cells are somatic cells necessary for growth.
One mother cell (2n) produces 2 daughter cells (2n).
 Meiosis reduces the original chromosome number during cell division. The daughter cells are gametes (haploid) necessary in the
formation of zygote (2n). One mother cell (2n) produces 4 daughter cells (n)
Stages of Cell Division
 Prophase is when chromosomes are short, thick and coiled; nucleolus and  Telophase occurs when
nuclear membrane are no longer visible after this stages chromosomes uncoil and lengthen
 Metaphase starts when chromosomes that are now shorter and thicker after reaching the ends of the cell;
align at the equatorial plate and middle plane of the cell nucleolus and nuclear membrane
 Anaphase is characterized by sister chromatids move to the opposite ends reappear; cytokinesis takes place; 2
of the cell; chromosome number is considered as double daughter cells are formed
Meiosis
 Meiosis I – reductional division; results are 2 haploid (n) cell  Meiosis II – equational division; results are 4 haploid (n) cells; like Mitosis

Transport Mechanisms

 Simple diffusion is the movement of molecules and ions across a  Endocytosis is a type of bulk/vesicular transport towards inside the cell
concentration gradient towards a lower concentration where vesicles are formed in order to move the molecules or ions
 Facilitated transport is the movement of molecules and ions, through a across the cell membrane
carrier, across a concentration gradient towards a lower concentration  Exocytosis is a type of bulk/vesicular transport towards outside the cells
 Active transport is the movement of molecules and ions, through a where vesicle fuses with plasma membrane in order to transport the
carrier across a concentration gradient towards a higher concentration molecules or ions across the cell membrane
with the expenditure of energy

Biological Molecules
 Macromolecules are mostly polymers; they are formed by chains of identical or similar building blocks called monomers
 Carbohydrates are sugars and their derivatives. They are of three types: monosaccharide, disaccharides and polysaccharides. These biomolecules provide 4kcal of
energy per gram. It has an empirical formula Cx(H2O)y, hence the term “hydrates of Carbon”
o Monosaccharide is the simplest of carbohydrates used to form more complex ones (glucose & fructose, galactose)
o Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharides connected by glycosidic bond (ex. maltose=glucose+glucose; sucrose=fructose+glucose;
lactose=galactose+glucose)
o Polysaccharides are macromolecules that may consist of a thousand of monosaccharides connected by glycosidic bonds (ex. starch & glycogen)
 Lipids are mostly hydrophobic molecules with diverse function (ex. steroids such as cholesterol & sex hormones); includes fats and oils; fatty acids are its building
blocks; provides 9kcal per gram; enables the body to utilize vitamins A, D, E & K.
 Proteins are molecular tools for cellular functions consist of one or more polypeptide chains; amino acids are its building blocks; 4kcal per gram

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 Nucleic acids store and transmits hereditary information; known as the informational biopolymers; nucleotides as building blocks; nucleic acids are composed of a
sugar unit, a phosphate group and nitrogen base; nitrogen bases are classified as either pyrimidines (6-membered ring of C and N atoms) or purines (5-membered ring
focused to a 6-membered ring)

Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C), Thymine (T), Uracil (U) Enzymes are very efficient catalysts for biochemical reactions. They speed up
Purines: Adenine (A), Guanine (G) the reaction by providing an alternative reaction pathway of lower activation
Specific Base Pairings:
energy
 A=T Factors affecting enzyme activity
 A=U  pH
 C=G  temperature
 substrate

Energy Transformation
ATP is the energy currency of all cells (including plants and animals). It supplies the cells with energy. It is a type of nucleic acid (like DNA and RNA) which contains high energy
phosphate bonds that store and release energy.
ADP-ATP Cycle
Cells break phosphate bonds between the last two phosphate groups in a molecule of ATP as needed to supply energy for most cellular functions, when this happens a molecule of
ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and a phosphate become available for reuse. When any of the phosphate bonds are broken or formed, energy is involved.
 Energy is released each time a phosphate is removed from the molecule.
 Energy is stored each time a phosphate attaches to the molecule
To constantly supply the cell with energy, the ADP is recycled, creating more ATP which carries much more energy than ADP.

Steps

 To supply cells with energy, a “high energy” bond in ATP is broken.  As the cell requires more energy, ADP becomes ATP when a free
ADP is formed and a phosphate is released back into the cytoplasm. phosphate attaches to the ADP molecule. Then energy needed to create
ATP → ADP + phosphate + energy an ATP molecule is much less than the amount of energy produced when
the bond is broken.
ADP + phosphate + energy → ATP

Photosynthesis is the process by which the plant is able to use light (“photo”) Cellular respiration is the process by which food energy (glucose) is broken down to
energy to make (“synthesis”) food in the form of carbohydrates (glucose). form usable energy (ATP). It is important in most cells because it converts energy to a
Chlorophyll in the "green" part of the leaves captures energy from the sun and this form that is directly usable by our cells (ATP). It occurs in the mitochondria.
powers the building of food from very simple ingredients - carbon dioxide and C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
water. It is in the leaves that most photosynthesis takes place.
6 CO2 + 6 H2O → C6H12O6 + 6 O2

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CHEMISTRY
Chemistry
Study of matter, its composition, properties, the changes it undergoes, and the energy involved on those changes.

Laws of Chemical Combination

1. Law of conservation of mass- total mass of the products of a chemical reaction is the
same as the total mass of the reactants entering into the reaction.
2. Law of constant composition all samples of a compound have the same composition.
3. Law of multiple proportions- if two elements form more than a single compound, the
masses of one element combined with the fixed mass of the second are in the ratio of small
whole numbers.

Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

 London Dispersion Forces/ Van der Waals
Present in all substances whether it be polar or non-polar
 Dipole-dipole interactions
Present in polar substances only
 Hydrogen Bonding
Strongest form of IMFA; exists between a Hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom (N, O, F)
Implications of Higher IMFA:
 Higher boiling point  Higher melting point
 Higher surface tension  Higher latent heat of fusion, vaporization, sublimation

Matter

 The general term for the material things around us.  The physical material of the universe.
 Refers to anything that occupies space and has mass.  Occurs commonly in three physical forms called states.

States of Matter
1. Solid-definite shape and a definite volume. It cannot be compressed to any appreciable extent.
2. Liquid-has a distinct volume independent of its container, and assumes the shape of the portion of the container it occupies. It cannot be
compressed to any appreciable extent.
3. Gas-has no fixed volume or shape; rather, it uniformly fills its container. It can be compressed or expand to occupy smaller or
larger volume.

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Properties of Matter
1. Physical Properties- can be observed without changing the identity 3. Intensive Properties- do not depend on the
and composition of a substance. amount of sample being examined. E.g.
E.g. color, odor, hardness, density, boiling point, melting point color, boiling point, pressure, molecular
2. Chemical Properties-describe the way a weight and density.
substance may change, or react, to form 4. Extensive Properties- depend on the
other substances. amount of sample. E.g. Mass and Volume.
E.g. flammability
Properties of Liquids
 Viscosity-the resistance of a liquid to flow  Boiling Point-the temperature at which its vapor pressure equals the
 Surface Tension-the energy required to increase the surface area of a liquid external pressure, acting on the liquid surface
by a unit amount  Molar heat of vaporization-the energy required to cause the transition of a
 Vapor Pressure-the pressure exerted by the vapor in the space above the given quantity of the liquid to the vapo
liquid
Types and Properties of solids
 Structures of Solids
o Crystalline-solids in which atoms are arranged in an orderly repeating pattern
o Amorphous-lack the order found in crystalline solids; they do not have a well-defined shapes of crystals
 Types of Solids
o Metallic solids-held together by a delocalized “sea” of collectively o Covalent-Network Solids- held together by an extended network of
shared valence electrons covalent bonds
o Ionic Solids-held together by the mutual electrostatic attraction o Covalent-Molecular Solids-are held together by the intermolecular
between cations and anions forces

Classifying Matter

 Pure Substance- matter that has distinct properties and a fixed composition that does not vary from sample to sample.
o Elements- substances that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances. E.g. Fe, Al and Mg
o Compounds-are substances composed of two or more elements; they contain two or more kinds of atoms and is formed upon interaction of elements.
 Mixture-a combination of two or more pure substances in which each pure substance retains its individual chemical properties.
o Homogeneous mixtures- are mixtures that are uniform throughout, also denoted as solutions.
o Heterogeneous mixtures-are mixtures that do not have the same composition, properties, and appearance throughout.
 Colloid-exhibits Brownian motion
 Suspension- a mixture containing solid particles which are larger than one micrometer in size.
Methods of separating mixtures
Separations of mixtures are carried out by taking advantage of differences in properties of components.
 Filtration-separation method that uses a membrane considering the particle size of the mixture.
 Distillation-separation method used for homogeneous mixture; employs the ability of substance to form gases.
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Physical Properties of Solution

Types of Solution
 According to physical state  According to degree of saturation
o Solid in solid o Saturated-contains the maximum amount of solute that can
o Liquid in Liquid normally dissolve in a specific amount of solvent at given
o Gas in Gas temperature
o Gas in Liquid o Unsaturated-holds lesser amount of solute compared to the
 According to amount of solute maximum amount
o Concentrated-dissolved large amounts of solute o Supersaturated-solvent holds a greater amount of solute than the
o Diluted-small amounts of solute are dissolved maximum at a particular temperature
 According to ability to conduct electricity
o Electrolytes-contain ions as solute and can conduct electricity
o Non-electrolytes-contain substances that do not ionize in solution
and cannot conduct electricity
Factors affecting solubility
 Pressure - it mostly affects the solubility of gases; the solubility of a gas in any solvent is increased as the partial pressure of the gas above the solvent increases
 Temperature
o Solubility of most solid solutes in water increases as the solution temperature increases
o Solubility of gases in water decreases with increasing temperature

Colligative properties
Properties that depend on quantity of solute particles
 Vapor Pressure lowering  Freezing point Depression
o Vapor pressure-pressure exerted by the vapor when it is at o FPpure solvent >FPsolution
equilibrium with the liquid o Kf, molal freezing point depression constant or cryoscopic
o Volatile-substance with measurable vapor pressure constant (°C/m)
o Nonvolatile-substance without measurable vapor pressure o i, van’t Hoff factor
o Expressed by Raoult’s Law: ΔTf = Tf(solution) - Tf(solvent) = -iKfm
Psolution = (Xsolvent)(P°solvent)
 Boiling point Elevation
o BPsolution>BPpure solvent
o Kb, molal boiling point elevation constant or ebulloscopic constant
(°C/m)
o i, van’t Hoff factor
Tb = Tb(solution) - Tb(solvent) = iKbm

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PHYSICS
Physics

 derived from “ta phusika” meaning “natural things”

 Physics is the “knowledge of nature”.
 Physics, the most fundamental science, is concerned with the basic principles of the Universe
 It is the foundation upon which the other sciences - astronomy, biology, chemistry and geology – are based.

BRANCHES OF PHYSICS MECHANICS – study of motion

Mechanics Vf =Vi +at KINEMATICS deals with the description of motion.
Thermodynamics DYNAMICS deals with causes of motion
1
Electricity and Magnetism Δx=Vi t+ at
Optics 2 Position
Modern Physics Vf2 =Vi 2 +2aΔx • the point occupied by an object relative
Relativity Vf = final velocity to a reference point;
Quantum Mechanics Vi = initial velocity • vector (magnitude & direction)
Condensed-matter physics a = acceleration
Nuclear physics t = time Distance
Δx  (x f -x i )  difference between
Astrophysics • total length from one position to
the initial and final position
another
PHYSICAL QUANTITY any number that is used to describe a physical phenomenon UAM KINEMATICS • SCALAR
quantitatively. EQUATIONS
 Example : length, time, speed

Fundamental Quantities – quantities that exist by themselves. Displacement

 Time, Length, Mass, Temperature, Luminous Intensity, Electric
 Vector
Current, Amount of Substance
 shortest distance from initial position to final position
Derived Quantities – quantities that are dependent on other quantities.  For 1D:sign (+/-) signifies direction
 Velocity – Length and Time
 Area – Length x Length SPEED
Scalar Quantities- quantities with magnitude only • time rate change of distance
Vector Quantities- quantities with both magnitude and direction. • scalar
• Units: m/s, km/hr or cm/s
• Average Speed = Distance / Time
VELOCITY
• Time rate change of displacement (position and/or direction)
• Vector
• Average Velocity = Displacement / Time
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Acceleration Force is a push or a pull. It is an interaction between two bodies or between a body
• Time rate change in velocity (magnitude and/or direction) and its environment.
• Units: m/s2, km/hr2 1. Weight, W
This is the force due to gravity
Uniformly Accelerated Motion (UAM) Always directed downwards (or towards the center of the earth/heavenly body)
Motion wherein acceleration is a non-zero constant 2. Applied Force, Fa
FREEFALL Forces that are applied to systems by force loads, and can't be classified as other
An important example of constant acceleration where objects move freely Types of forces:
under the influence of gravity. Push or Pull
g = 9.8m/s2 3. Tension, T
It is a force that arises from pulling using strings.
Projectile Motion It is always directed away from the object being pulled.
Motion which is determined entirely by the effect of gravity. 4. Normal Force, N
Projectile- object being launched or projected This force is always directed perpendicular to the surface of contact.
Trajectory - path of projectile motion; usually a parabola The normal force acts as a balancer or support.
5. Frictional Force
Newton’s Laws of Motion Always directed parallel to the surface of contact.
1. Law of Inertia Always directed against the direction of motion
When the net external force acting on an object is zero, the acceleration of the Two types: Static (Fs) and Kinetic (Fk)
object is zero. F = ma = 0 6. Spring Force
At rest – continue to be at rest Force related to the ability of a spring (or any elastic material) to return to its
Moving – continue moving at same velocity original state
Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist change in motion
Uniform Circular Motion (UAM)
2. Law of Acceleration Motion wherein the object moves along a circular path with constant speed
The rate of change of momentum with time is proportional to the net applied It accelerates towards the center (centripetal).
force and is in the same direction. ac = v2/r =4π2r/t2
It is the force that causes acceleration. Fc = mv2/r
F = ma Work and Energy
Describes motion of a body that is not in equilibrium. W = Fd unit: Joule
The direction of acceleration is the same as the direction of the NET force. W = ΔU
Potential Energy (PE) – energy at rest
3. Law of Interaction It is associated with the position.
Newton's third law states that when two bodies interact, they exert forces on each U = PE=mgh
other that at each instant are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. These Where: m = mass of the object
forces are called action and reaction forces. g = 9.8 m/s2 = constant
F a on b = -F b on a h = height of the object
Kinetic Energy (KE) – energy associated with motion.
KE = ½ mv2

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Momentum Mechanism of Heat Transfer

p= mv • Conduction- transfer of energy by direct contact
Elastic Collision: KE is conserved • Convection- transfer of energy due to movement of mass
Inelastic Collision: KE is not conserved • Radiation- transfer of energy by means of electromagnetic radiation (EM)
Electric charge
TORQUE is the tendency of an object to rotate. • The charged particles — electrons and protons — have the same magnitude
Fluids of charge, which is
- no definite shape and flow e = 1.6 × 10-19 C
- liquids and gases • Insulator - hold their electrons very tightly
Liquid – e.g., wood, plastic
Flows under gravity until they occupy the lowest possible regions of their container • Conductor – loosely held electrons, which move through them easily
Gas Conservation of Charges
Expands to fill their containers regardless of their shape Charges are neither created nor destroyed. They transfer from one object to another.
Law of Electrostatics
 Fluid Statics – study of fluids at rest. • Like charges REPEL, unlike charges ATTRACT
 Fluid Dynamics – study of fluids in motion. Charging
• Possible ways of charging an object:
Temperature (T) – By friction : through rubbing two surfaces with each other
• measure of hotness or coldness – By conduction : through direct contact
• Units: Celsius (C),Fahrenheit (F),Kelvin (K) – By induction : through polarization , with no direct contact
• Associated with the motion of molecules, atoms, particles that make up the Ohm’s Law
system • For ohmic materials: current (I) is directly proportional with the voltage (V).
• Measure of random average translational kinectic energy of molecules of The ratio V/I is constant, which is equivalent to the resistance (R).
the body V
HEAT (Q) • R
I
• Amount of energy transferred from one system to another because of a
difference in temperature. Magnet
• Energy in transit A magnet is a material or object that produces a magnetic field.
• Scalar quantity
• Unit: Joule (J) [SI], calorie (cal)
• Change in dimensions (e.g., volume)
• Change in temperature
• Change in phase

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