Radical Political Ideas Nietzsche : Radical Aristocracy

There are some good reasons to read

Nietzsche:
Nietzsche: c. Influence. Whatever we think of Nietzsche
Radical the fact remains that he has been profoundly
influential on thought in the 20th century in
aristocracy
many traditions of thought, and in many
parts of the world.

Core readings: d. Diagnosis of the modern condition.

Nietzsche offers a diagnosis and critique of
Nietzsche, F. ‘The Madman’ in The Gay Science. virtually every aspect of European culture in
modernity (and he finds it all wanting). This
Nietzsche, F. ‘The Greek State’ in Ansell-
ranges from culture, to morality, to
Pearson K, Diethe C. On The Genealogy of
philosophy, to psychology, to politics, and
Morality. Cambridge: Cambridge University
from the individual to the societal levels.
Press; 2007, pp. 164-173.
e. Radical solutions. Nietzsche is of interest
Nietzsche, F. Beyond Good and Evil. Sections
precisely where he appears to be wrong,
186-188, 202-203, 257-268. Trans.
harmful, and offensive. Nietzsche offers
Hollingdale RJ. London: Penguin Books;
radical solutions to the problems of
2003.
modernity. We must try to understand why
he proposes these solutions, and then
evaluate them. If they are wrong, then do
Lecture 1 we really have anything better to put in their
place?
Nietzsche as political thinker
f. Style. Nietzsche is a great writer with style
and panache. There are even jokes!

Why read Nietzsche?

Before we begin it is important that we consider

Nietzschean themes
why it might be desirable to read Nietzsche. I
am going to start with two reasons we might be Although Nietzsche’s writings cover many
reluctant to open his books. topics and themes, and even go through stages
which he later leaves behind, there are six main
a. Political and cultural associations. If
themes which we can flag-up as especially
people have heard of Nietzsche it is often in
relevant to this module:
association with the Nazi regime. In
addition, his philosophy is associated with a. Death of God. This is the idea not only that
adolescent young men. Christianity has really become untenable,
but that truth and certainty itself has
b. Wrong, harmful and offensive. Nietzsche become untenable. In other words, there
attacks many things that we find of value, are no permanent truths or metaphysical
and he makes many statements which we foundations to be discovered and relied
know to be wrong. In addition, he attacks upon.
many religion – and especially Christianity.

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Radical Political Ideas Nietzsche : Radical Aristocracy

b. Nihilism. Put simply, nihilism is the that all life was driven by the drive to
increasing ‘experience’ of those who live dominate. It is not – necessarily – driven to
without firm foundations. However, not all keep itself alive, but to impose its order and
nihilists realise that they are nihilists – for values on the world around it.
Nietzsche many people still hold doctrines
f. Radical aristocracy. Commenting Brandes’
and act in ways which are motivated by
description of him, Nietzsche wrote that ‘The
empty systems of belief and order. In so
expression 'aristocratic radicalism', which
doing, they are really subscribing to, and
you employ, is very good. It is, permit me to
promoting, the devaluation of life.
say, the cleverest thing that I have yet read
c. Slave revolt in morality. See especially the about myself.’ Nietzsche was a radical
Genealogy of Morals, but it is also Beyond because he wanted to do away with virtually
Good and Evil. This is the idea that the everything that had previously been
original code of valuation (morality) was established in philosophy, culture, morality,
established by the strong (the masters). At and politics. He was an aristocrat because
some point there was an inversion of this he viewed the solution to Europe’s nihilism
code by the weak (the salves). What was to lay in a new hierarchical order both within
formerly ‘bad’ (the masters’ evaluation of the the individual and in society more generally.
qualities of the slave) became ‘good’; and In this way, there is a link between
what was formerly ‘good’ (the masters’ Nietzsche’s views on the relationship
evaluation of themselves) became ‘evil’. between the individual and the state, and
Nietzsche thinks that Christianity is one such those of Plato in The Republic.
slave morality. He also thinks that much
political thought in modernity (democracy,
socialism, utilitarianism) is also a symptom
of this revolt.
Political importance

Given his themes (which often seem to be about

d. Übermensch. Perhaps one of Nietzsche’s
culture and philosophy) what is the political
most notorious ideas (although only
importance of Nietzsche? Here we need to
appears rarely outside of his Thus Spoke
understand that for Nietzsche politics, culture,
Zarathustra). The Übermensch can be
and morality were all tied up together.
translated as ‘super man’ where ‘super’
However, a few further things can be said.
means above. Another translation is ‘over
man’ where there is a play on both the sense a. Right and Left. The fascists were the first
of being above, but also the sense of political group to systematically use
transcending or movement. Nietzsche Nietzsche’s thought. Nietzsche’s philosophy
makes much play on this idea in Zarathustra was (ab)used by the Nazi regime to help
with talk of over-coming man, going over justify its own policies. There is now a
bridges etc. The Übermensch is supposed to general consensus that Nietzsche’s thought
represent what man might become. A being does not lead to Nazism, it is still possible to
who accepts his fate on the earth, is vibrant consider some of what Nietzsche wrote as
and creative, and who gives human beings a leading to fascistic conclusions. Anarchists
meaning. and the left see Nietzsche as an opponent
of the state, and celebrate his focus on
e. Will to Power. Another notorious and
individuality. Nietzsche’s work has also been
difficult notion. Basically Nietzsche claimed
used by post-modernists and post-

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Radical Political Ideas Nietzsche : Radical Aristocracy

structuralists. These thinkers tend to draw f. Nihilism. Ultimately, what Nietzsche offers
attention to Nietzsche’s focus on the shifts us is a diagnosis of our political (and cultural)
of power and identity in his work. They see condition which exposes is as being based
his work as a fight against conformity, but on nihilism. This is one of his central
also the creative play of language the lack of concerns – and (if he is right) should also be
foundations, and the debunking of binary a central concern for all of Europe and
opposites. Perhaps surprisingly, Feminists beyond.
and anti-racists have sometimes drawn
Given the ambiguous (and sometimes
inspiration from Nietzsche’s thought. They
ambivalent) nature of Nietzsche’s views it is not
point to two features of Nietzsche’s thought
surprising that he has been adopted by so many
which supplement their own outlook. First,
contrasting political movements. He said of
Nietzsche is understood to be an anti-
himself that he was ‘dynamite’. What he seems
essentialist thinker. He subverts fixed
to have meant by this is that his philosophy
identity even as he shows how identity
does not endorse any particular direction or
works. Second, Nietzsche is considered to
established position (left or right), but that his
be a figure who is ‘on the outside’, a figure
philosophy blows the existing paradigm apart.
who cannot easily be assimilated into the
From now on, politics (that is the creation of
system. As such, both Nietzsche and his
values and order and living together) must be
thought represent an irreducible source of
thought of in new ways.
difference.

b. Was Nietzsche political at all? Some

people say that he had little to say on
politics, or trivialise and dismiss his political
Lecture 2
statements, or even suggest that he was The death of God and nihilism
opposed to politics. Nietzsche was not a
thinker in the mould of a Hobbes, Locke, or
Rousseau. If we understand him as a
political thinker it must be as a radical one. §125 of the Gay Science ‘The
Madman’
c. Anti-Semitism and nationalism. It is
important to note that (despite his popular I am going to read this passage out in the
image) Nietzsche consistently criticised anti- lecture. I will make the text available to you on
Semitism and nationalism. the VLE in the appropriate step.

d. Democracy, liberalism, and socialism.

Nietzsche has much to say about these
forms of politics which he sees as being §125 of the Gay Science ‘The
symptomatic of a wider malaise. That Madman’ exegesis
malaise was the triumph of ‘slave morality’
In order to start to open up what Nietzsche is
and the advent of nihilism.
thinking about we can turn to a section of Gay
e. Radical aristocracy. Despite not providing Science where Nietzsche tells us a story about
a blueprint, Nietzsche does offer us a vision the death of God and its consequences. This
of a rejuvenated society. This would be story is about the advent of modern nihilism
based around a new form of aristocracy. and its consequences. It would be good if you
could make sure that you have looked at this

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Radical Political Ideas Nietzsche : Radical Aristocracy

section before the lecture (it is short, but packed i. Come too early. The mad man smashes his
with symbolism and ideas). In what follows I am lantern and says that he has come to early.
going to assume that you have read the The people do not understand what he has
passage. There are nine points to note [I will said, or what they have done.
elaborate on these in the lecture]:

b. He is a mad man. The central character is

the person who is considered ill adjusted to The problem of nihilism
the times. This also plays on the notion of
As indicated, the ‘death of God’ is not just a
the fool being the only one who can speak
claim that Christianity is over (Nietzsche knew
the truth.
that many people would still believe in it). It is
a claim that the foundations of our values,
b. Lantern lit during the day. The mad man
ethics, and knowledge have become
creates his own light when it is already
impossible. This leads to nihilism:
supposed to be light (Enlightenment!). this
image also invokes Diogenes the Cynic and a. Although the centre of foundations to our
Christ. values and institutions have been removed,
we continue as if they were still there. For
c. He seeks God. This turns out to be a
those with religious belief, they are basing
pretence.
this belief on a ‘nothing’ (and always have
d. Unbelievers mock him. It is important to been). For those who are atheists, they
note that the people in the market place are continue to act as if their beliefs had
atheists. They mock the mad man’s search foundations – when they do not.
(because they have ‘transcended’ the foolish
b. This is a nihilistic condition. We cannot find
belief in God).
foundations for our beliefs, values and ways
e. God is dead… The mad man announces the of life. One response to this is to ‘despair’.
death of God (this should not be a surprise It is to say that if there are no values then
to those present). human life is meaningless and worthless. If
such a position is taken then there can be no
f. …and we have killed him! This is the real value or politics.
shock for those present. Man is the
murderer of God. c. Although Nietzsche diagnoses nihilism he is
not a nihilist in the sense that he does not
g. Can we become gods? The mad man now endorse the condition. In fact, he thinks that
asks what we will have to do to atone for this the condition gives us a radical and epoch
crime? Is it possible for us to become gods making chance to rethink all of our values
to replace the absent god who used to hold and to refashion our society. The death of
the system together? God is thus terrible – but also liberating. But
only if we are brave and powerful enough to
h. The advent of nihilism. The mad man now
make something of it. Nietzsche shows us
describes what has happened since we
one way that we can escape this condition
destroyed God who was like a ‘sun’ at the
by thinking about a culture much older and
centre of our solar system. Now there is no
very different to that of modern Europe – the
up nor down, and everything is getting
Ancient Greeks.
colder. This is the advent of nihilism, the
draining of value.

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Radical Political Ideas Nietzsche : Radical Aristocracy

part) indicative of his tensions and rejection of

Wagner.
Lecture 3
a. Initially Nietzsche admired Wagner, his
Slavery, culture, and the Greek music, and his attempt to revitalise culture
State through art. Wagner thought Nietzsche
could add philosophical clout to his project.
Before we begin it is necessary to say
something about what Nietzsche intended by b. But when Wagner established his festival at
the idea of slavery as it is not a straight-forward Bayreuth, Nietzsche became disillusioned
notion. When Nietzsche is talking about slavery by Wagner’s growing anti-Semitism,
he is really talking about several different things German nationalism, and Christianity.
(and sometimes they merge, and sometimes
c. Nietzsche was rattled by the Paris
they don’t). Sometimes he is talking about very
Commune of 1871. He needed to think
specific societies where slavery was explicit
through the question of slavery: and
(such as Ancient Greece and Rome). At other
whether it was economic, or connected to
times he is talking about people who are in a
politics and culture. The kind of slavery
position of slavery (such as the bondman of the
Nietzsche is thinking of is: (a) slavery in the
middle ages). At other times he is referring to
Ancient world; and then (b) the slavery of
the class of people who must labour in order to
working people. In other words, he is
perpetuate their existence (such as the modern
thinking about a class of people who are
proletariat – Marx also calls these people ‘wage
subordinated to another.
slaves). Given that he was supposed to be
diagnosing European modernity, it is a failing of d. Nietzsche disagreed with Wagner’s belief
Nietzsche that he has nothing to say (in his that Greek culture crumbled under slavery
published work) about the racialised form of and that true art could only come about by
slavery that characterised the Trans-Atlantic the liberation of the wage-slave.
slave trade – and that his private comments
show very little understanding of it either. e. Nietzsche disagreed with Wagner’s belief
that fear of violence led to a contract
For Nietzsche there all societies are (Nietzsche rejects contract theory).
characterised by a struggle between masters
and slaves (understood as outlined above).
Both groups produce very different sets of
values, and these values reflect their basic The Greek State
attitudes and dispositions to the world as well
We start our discussion of these positions by
as their class positions.
looking at Nietzsche’s conclusions in a very
early essay ‘The Greek State’. The conclusions
of this essay are echoed in Nietzsche’s later
The background to the Greek work. Crucially, this essay makes the
State connection between the individual (so called)
and politics and furnishes both with a task. In
The Greek State was an early introduction to a The Greek State Nietzsche argues that:
book Nietzsche never wrote. However, it grows
out of his early thought and it prefigures many
of his later political positions. The essay was (in

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Radical Political Ideas Nietzsche : Radical Aristocracy

a. Work is a disgrace. The Greeks (unlike the

Lecture 4
moderns) were under no illusions about the
degrading nature of work. Radical aristocracy

b. Life is meaningless. The Greeks faced up to

the precariousness of life and its ultimate
lack of meaning. How then did they survive? A natural history of morals

c. The Greeks survived through the redemptive For Nietzsche ‘moralities’ are something more
power of art. They created a world for than simple systems of right and wrong. As
themselves, and gave this meaning – not as noted, Nietzsche does not think that moralities
an escape, but as their purpose. point to some eternal truth, but are creations of
humans which change over time. Moralities,
d. However, in order for this to exist someone then, are about our beliefs and values, and
must create it. The Greeks wanted culture, those beliefs and values give an order to the
but did not respect those who produced it world. Thus, morality is not simply ‘ethical’ it is
(including artists). If culture was to exist, deeply political: morality is produced by a
then some form of slavery was necessary. community and shapes the life of the
community itself. In Beyond Good and Evil
e. The state then is built on violence (the order
(1886) Nietzsche offers a kind of ‘natural
of rank, and physical and psychical force),
history’ or moralities, explaining the purposes
but it produces culture. Plato knew this only
that they serve (what kind of a community they
too well.
create and sustain, and what problems they
seek to overcome), and under what conditions
they are created.
The lessons of the Greek State
a. Nietzsche claims that if we consider
a. The state formed when the strong force ‘European’ moralities we see that they are
order on the weak. No ‘social contract’ and teach the same basic things: evil can be
‘the rights of man’ and ‘dignity of labour’ are avoided (freewill of some description), an
slavish rationalisations (cf. Marx). insistence on equality, the desire to
eliminate suffering, and the promotion of
b. Slavery was necessary for culture, and that pity for others.
the state was the platform for the
production of culture. b. Nietzsche claims that these moralities all
share the same impulses: avoid danger,
c. Modern nation-state is riddled with ‘slavish’ avoid suffering, avoid self-loathing.
attitudes.
Thus he concludes that:
d. Modern nation-state uses culture to further
its own ends. He who examines the conscience of the
present-day European will have to extract
e. Modern nation-state serves the egoistic and from a thousand moral recesses and hiding-
atomised individual (politics reflects this). places always the same imperative, the
imperative of herd timidity: ‘we wish that
f. Nietzsche’s question: how can we escape
there will one day no longer be anything to
entropy and re-establish political authority?
fear!’ One day – everywhere in Europe the

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Radical Political Ideas Nietzsche : Radical Aristocracy

will and way to that day is now called This then is (in part) the political condition of
progress. (§ 201) Europe. Far from the triumphantalism of
liberalism, democracy, equality and material
Nietzsche – of course – does not think that this
prosperity, Nietzsche thinks the situation is a
is ‘progress’ at all. Compare this to what is said
disaster!
in the Prologue of Zarathustra.
a. The current political situation is a response
to the anarchy outlined in 5b (above).

The origin of species b. It favours the mediocre and encourages

mediocracy.
Nietzsche claims that moralities ‘grow’ as a
response to different conditions. He writes that: c. Its aim is to render everyone harmless.

A species arises, a type becomes fixed and d. Democracy and modern ideas (equality,
strong, through protracted struggle against liberalism, individualism) are manifestations
essentially unfavourable conditions. of this desire.
Conversely, one knows from the experience
of breeders that species which receive e. In such conditions it is difficult to command,
plentiful nourishment and an excess of care and no one wants to obey. Thus it is difficult
and protection soon tend very strongly to to overcome what ‘man’ has become.
produce variations of their type and are rich
However, Nietzsche is not simply attacking this
in marvels and monstrosities (also in
situation. We should bear in mind that he sees
monstrous vices). (§ 262)
in ‘nihilism’ both a danger and an opportunity
a. Nietzsche believes the first societies were (indeed, the two go hand-in-hand). Often
aristocratic and (from one perspective) Nietzsche sees a healthy and unhealthy side to
healthy. They emerged in unfavourable the same phenomena. Consider, for example,
conditions (they struggled to survive). They what he says about democracy in (§ 224):
were united by the necessity of a warlike
f. One the one hand democracy is to be
discipline. They were simple and bound
welcomed insofar as it has mingled together
together. Such societies were no doubt
races and classes. As such, Europeans have
hierarchical.
become exposed to wide variety of
b. Nietzsche contrasts this picture to later influences and cultural resources.
developments. When warlike conditions
g. On the other hand democracy has done so
and harshness eased off, so the moral code
without restriction. It has done so through
holding the society together changed. In
insisting on equality and preventing
these easier conditions multiple kinds of
discernment and distinction. As a result, this
individuals began to emerge. Things
has not developed taste. Taste requires
became complex. The moral code began to
restrictions. The taste for everything is the
reflect this new individuality. The notions of
taste for nothing! In this sense it adds to the
duty and order broke down.
nihilistic anarchy that Nietzsche is trying to
overcome.

The political condition

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Radical Political Ideas Nietzsche : Radical Aristocracy

servant. Aristocracy is only healthy if it has

Aristocratic radicalism
good faith in its system of evaluation and its
Nietzsche’s way out of all of this is to try to purpose. Society is given meaning through
create conditions where a new kind of the production of aristocracy.
aristocracy could emerge. His view is radically
opposed to that of European modernity, and to Thus, Nietzsche makes the following claim
the notion of ‘progress’ that it develops: which is as intriguing as it is shocking:

a. Suffering and exploitation are a ‘fact’ of Every elevation of the type ‘man’ has
life. Nietzsche thinks that his natural history hitherto been the work of an aristocratic
has shown how these forces shape society, society – and so it will always be: a society
and he also thinks it is fanciful to think that which believes in a long scale of orders of
they could ever be eliminated. Indeed, they rank and differences of worth between man
are in some sense needed if society is to and man and needs slavery in some sense or
hold together. other. (§257)

b. It is natural to seek rules and discipline

(§188). Without rules and discipline there
can be no order and no values. Nietzsche is Summary
not simply saying ‘no’ to the exiting codes of a. Method. Nietzsche does not look for eternal
morality, he is recognising the necessity of and metaphysical truth. Instead he focuses
morality and calling a new one into being. on natural history and genealogy. He is
concerned to show how our systems of
c. Order of rank leads to the superiority and
order and value have responded to the
pathos of distance. Nietzsche is claiming
conditions of life and how they promote or
that rank and hierarchy create
work against ‘life’.
differentiations, and that this is needed for a
healthy society to exist. Thus he is not b. Political condition. Nietzsche understands
opposed to difference – in fact, under ‘morality’ to mean a system for the
certain conditions he promotes it. production of order and values. All
Difference must be productive and not moralities legislate for humans in some way
simply permissive. – what kinds of beings we should be, and
how we should live together. Nietzsche sees
d. Europe’s strength diverse sources: anti-
in modern politics a Christian heritage, and
nationalism. Nietzsche indicates that
a heritage which cannot face (or counter) the
Europe is not a homogenous whole but a
nihilism it has created.
system of differences. He points to the
multiple sources that have cultivated and c. Socio-political task. Nietzsche understands
disciplined the European soul. Importantly politics to have a task. Such a politics needs
he rails against the anti-Semites and order. Nietzsche – like Plato – connects the
nationalists who fail to understand this. individual and society.

e. A healthy aristocracy does not justify d. ‘European’ modernity. In contrast to the

itself: it is the justification! (§258). triumphantalism of European modernity
Nietzsche claims that a healthy aristocracy Nietzsche claims that it heading for disaster.
does not see itself as the servant of society – He reintroduces the problem of suffering,
instead, it understand society to be its exploitation, and domination, and sees them

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Radical Political Ideas Nietzsche : Radical Aristocracy

as unavoidable features of our lives. He

stresses not a just political society, but how
all order is built on struggle, difference, and
relations with ‘the other’. Nietzsche is at
once both an authoritarian and a pluralist.

Further reading
For a discussion of the death of God and
nihilism, see:

Owen, D. 2003. Nietzsche's Event: Genealogy

and the Death of God. Theory & Event. 6 (3),
p48.

Warren, M.E. 1985. The Politics of Nietzsche's

Philosophy: Nihilism, Culture and Power.
Political studies. 33 (3), pp.418-438.

For wider political themes, see:

Drochon, H. 2018. Nietzsche’s Great Politics.

Princeton University Press. This is an excellent
book and it is one of the best places to start to
understanding Nietzsche as a political thinker.
Chapters 2 and 3 will be of special interest.
It is available online from the library.

Emden, C.J. 2008. The Uneasy European:

Nietzsche, Nationalism and the Idea of Europe.
Journal of European studies. 38 (1), pp.27-51.