pLECTRIC CURRENT ‘Acurrent is charge Aq c ‘ny motion of charge from one region to another. If sosses an area in time Ar, average electric current ‘ough the area during tis time is Instantaneous current: a at 1. unit of current is ampere. More About Current ‘The direction of current is taken along the direction of motion of positive charge and opposite to the direction cof motion of negative charge. The electric current is not a vector, the direction represents the sense of charge flow and it cannot be added lke vectors. In current carrying wire, the current always along the length of wire, whether wire is straight or curved. No single vector could describe motion along a curved path. ‘As charge is conserved and current is rate of flow of charge ice. charge entering per second at one end of conductor is equal to the charge leaving per second the other end i. (@) For a given conductor, current does not change with change in cross-section. (©) When current flows through a conductor, it remains unchanged. Current is due to motion of different charge carriers in different situations: (@ Current in conductors and vacuum tubes is due to motion of electrons. (b) In elecirolytes, current is due to motion of both positive and negative ions. (6) In semiconductors, due to motion of electrons and holes, a hole carries a positive charge Current ELECTRICITY (a) The discharge tube contains atomic gases due tO motion of positive ions and electrons. Voltmeter Ayelectron @ ‘Semi-conductor electron +8 o- hole > © Fig. 3.1 5. Ifa charge q is moving in a circle of radius r with uniform speed v, current is given by OO Fig. 3.2 Fig. 33 q 14 2nlo 2xrlv where 7: time-period of revolution; {frequency of revolution and ©; angular frequency. CURRENT DENSITY ‘The current density j at a point is defined as a vector having ‘magnitude equal to current per unit area surrounding that point and normal to the direction of charge flow and direction in ‘which current passes through that point.4g — |p| ay ee = Fig. 34 ‘Average current density j = “A a Instantaneous current density j = a i Ifa current jis uniformly distributed over an area s and Perpendicular to it je s Ifthe cross-sectional area is not normal tothe current ifthe ‘normal to the area makes an angle @ with the direction ofthe current, DRIFT SPEED In a conductor, some electrons known as free electrons move randomly like molecules in a gas, with speed oe. uae ‘These free/conduction electrons collide with positive ions (known as lattice) and follow a zig-zag path. The motion of electrons is random, so there is no net flow of charge in any direction, and hence no current. ‘When an electric field E is applied, due to electric force F = e£, path of electrons becomes curved instead of straight lines and electrons drift opposite to field. Due to this drift the random motion of electrons get modified and there is a net transfer of charge across a cross-section resulting in a current. ‘The drift speed is of the order of 10~* m/sec. 3x1.38%10 300 ~ =10° misec 9.1x10 so sind it speed Va COMET are elgg, Force onit P= €E ' ‘Acceleration of electron a= F ee ; non Let r(eaxation ime): Average time te, successive collision with ions, by yeutatsO+at ey, i) Et eet yee i= 7” m current, Current Density and Drift Spee ; indrical conductor of ar Consider a cylindrical con 68 Of crag ‘which an electric field E exists. Consider a Tenet 7 Nonductor. The volume ofthis potion is Aya, 174 4g fhe electrons per unit volume, the number gf oy Het this portion are ny, At “eo! AQ= (nA vg Ade 4g BO - neAv, j=oE (Ohm'slaw) 2 @: conductivity, o= "E ™ en 1 m Resistivity p= + =" o nee ‘where (0, p):= function of (material, temperaure). OHM’S LAW (Another form) Consider a conductor of length ! and A area of cost Let us apply a potential difference V between the eis conductor. ‘The electric field inside conductor E=Vil According to Ohm's law sokis rsitance of conductor, its units R vol ohm (@) and it symbol is W— amp ‘re rexproca of resistance is known as conductance, conductance = Vresistance (uit of conductance is ohm”! ormho rresope of Vi graph gives resistance t v Slope =tan @= R @ Fig. 3.7 ‘Anobjct of conducting material having resistance is known asresisor. ‘Ohm's law is derived making several assumptions, it cannot be applied for semiconductors, insulators, solutions ete. Colour Code for Resistors ‘The value ofthe resistance is indicated by four coloured bands, arte onthe surface of the cylinder. Mater +7 rranco = | Digit i+ + Digit 2 = Fig. 3.8 Curent Eleeichy 183 tance codes (resistance In ohm) Colour Dial Multiplier Tolerance Black 0 1 Brown 1 0 Red 2 10 Orange 3 0 Yellow 4 10 Green 5 10° Blue 6 108 Violet 1 ow Gray 8 108 White 9 10 Gola o4 5% Silver 001 10% Suppose the colours on the resistor are red, yellow, green and silver R= (24x 10° + 10%) 2= (2440.24) MQ If only three bands are indicated, assume tolerance 20%. ‘Temperature Dependence of Resistivity and Resistance As temperature of conductor is increased, the amplitude of vibrations of ions increases and hence relaxation time (7) decreases; therefore, resistivity (p = mlne*t) increases and conductivity (o = 1/p) decreases. For small temperature variations Po= Pa, {1 + 0(0- 8)) where pe: resistivity of temperature 8; a, esstvty at temperature 8 and @ temperature coefficient of resistivity. R= pl/A with change in temperature, ! and A changes but change is small hence //A is assumed constant. Rep Ry= Ra [1 + o(0-4)] (6) (5) CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRIC MATERIALS 1. Conduetors: These have large numberof free electrons and small resistivity. The resistivity of metals increases with rise in temperature. 2, Semiconductors: These have few conduction electrons and greater resistivity as compared to metals. The resistivity of semiconductor decreases with rise in temperature Silicon and germanium are examples of semiconductors.184 Choter 9 ¥Ansntntors: These hive practically. no free electrons und have very high resistivity. The resistivity decreéses With rise in temperature, Mica, rubber. fused quart” ‘1 tne examples of insulators. ‘uperconductors: There are some materials for WE Fesistivity suddenly becomes. zero below a cerain temperature (critical temperature). The material in this state is called a superconductor. Above critical temperature. resistivity is like meta. Thi phenomer0” was observed for mercury (Hg). The critical temperalure for Hg is 4.2 K, Resistivity Normal meta Sipeeondor Te Temperature Temperature Fig. 39 ‘The electric current once set up in a superconductor ‘ill persist indefinitely without any applied emf. Super- conductors are used to construct very strong magnets and as a power line for transmission of electrical energy without any loss. However, the requirement of low lemperature is causing problems. Superconductvity, around 125 K has already been achieved and efforts are on to improve THERMISTOR For semiconductors, temperature coefficient of resistivity ais negative ie. resistivity decreases with increase in temperature. The large value of ais utilized to construct thermometers to detect small changes in temperatures. Such a device is called thermistor. Thermistors are prepared from oxides of nickel, cobalt, copper etc. These compounds are semiconductors. A thermistor can measure a change in temperature of the order of 10°C. Example 1. Ina discharge tube, 6 x 10" electrons move to the left and 4 x 10" protons move to the right past a cross-section in every second. Find the magnitude and the direction of current. Solution: Electrons: -9 e- ‘Total current i= i, +4) 10x10* x16 x19" Lee 6A, towards right Example 2 An electron moves ina circle svth uniform speed 5 x 10° misec. Find the ncn at point on the circle. (Take 1? = 10) lectrig = Solution: Time-period T= go 28 a °° Only Oar 1.6x10"" x5x10° 2nxnxl0™ =4x10PA Example 3 (@ The amount of charge passed in time + tag, cross-section of wire is, qzat-pe where cand Bare constants, (i) Find curent in terms of time (ii) Sketch i versus ¢ graph. (b) The current through a wire depends on time as i=443042F Find the charge crossed through a section of wet {versus ¢ graphy = a2 (thie wi slope and positive intercept)> a dg=idt oa, f Pydt are faeaear) afi ; ° ae let y 367426" = 4014567 +30 med +144=222C ‘4 Anelectron beam has an aperture 2 mm? A parol x 10" electrons go through any perpendicular rol "ion per second. Find (a) the current and (b) the once in the beam. 5x10" x1,6x10? 1 08.4 4x10°A/m? o FFA 2x10 S The current-voltage graphs for a given ‘joe toilet temperatures and Tare shown in ur. Isthe specimen ohmic? (6) At which temperature sane is greater” (c) Which temperature is higher? 1 Solution: (0Since F-V graph is linear ie. V = J, the specimen is ohmic. (Te slope ofJ-V gives reciprocal of resistance. vod “Tan 4>0, ie. tan 6,>tan 30 Ry R,T>T, Resistance increases with temperature. a 8 A potential difference is applied between the set centor of uniform ratas 2 im, 1 results in sft el of strength 250 Vim along the length of teconnonn ns sisi ofthe material if current in QnA, Solution: E _250x2 4, EF 230%? <5 x10'a-m oo. Example 7 A potential difference 50 V is applied between the ends of a conductor of length 100 m and resistance 052. ‘The conductor has a uniform cross-section. Find the total linear momentum of free electrons. Solution: VaiR S0=i1x05 = i= 100A i=neAvy Momentum of one electron = mv Total number of electron = Al ‘Total momentum, 1AD (mv,) = (nAvg)(enl) = 100%9.1x10!x100 _ 91. 16x10" 16 .6 x 10 kg m/sec x10 Example 8 (2) A current of 5 ampere is passing through a metallic wire of cross-section area 4 x 10™® m”. If the density of the charge carriers in the wire is 5 x 10°° m’, find the drift speed of the electrons. (b) Incopper there are 10” free electrons per c.c., all of which contribute to a current of | ampere in a wire of copper of 0.01 cm? cross-sectional area: (i) What is the average speed of electrons in the ‘copper? Gi) Whats the electric field in the wire? Given specific resistance of copper 1.6 x 10 ohm- meter. (©) The area of cross-section, length and density of a piece of a metal of atomic weight 60 are 10°° m’, 1.0 m and 5 x 10° kg/m? respectively. Find the number of free electrons per unit volume if every atom contributes one free electron. Also, find the drift velocity of electrons in the metal when a current of 16 A passes through it, (Given: Avogadro number 6 x 10°*/kg-mole)AeSe 10 tm n= 8x10" pase. nets, i) (©) Volume V=/A = 1x 10-°m* Mass = Density x Volume =5x 10° x 10°=5x 10° ke=Sg Mass .. 4 vogadro's no. Number of atoms = AULWE Number of free electrons = 5 x 107 Number of free electrons/volume = 5x10 10 5x10 i 16 ————————— # eA 5x10" x1.6x10” x10 =2x 107 m/sec =2 mm/sec Example 9 (a) A wire has a resistance R. Find new resistance if (i) Jength of wire is doubled. (ii) Area of cross-section is doubled. (b) If radius of cross-section of a cylindrical wire is doubled, find ratio of initial to final resistance. If length of wire is increased by 0.1%, find the percentage increase in its resistance. () th of wire is increas om veage increase in its resistance? 25%, fe) Lm ong metallic wite is broken into ty, we Pand Q. P part ofthe wire is uniform. “hug another wire R. Length of R is twice and the resistance of R is equal to ie teeth dao of the resistance of P and R ang \°"O phan engths of P and Q. arog ™ A rectangular block has dimensions 59 em F x Oy - (Bind resistance across its (i) square.) opposite rectangular faces. The specigy" i the material of wire is SOx 10 ohn ea [All the edges of a block with parallel facey tis longest edge is four times its shorty Sy the ratio of the maximum to the minima %® between parallel faces. rat ‘The masses of three wires of copper are 1: 3: Sand their lengths are in the ratio." "tm ratio of their electrical resistances, 1 (@) a Solution: Since mass or volume of wire remains same whey Tength of wire is changed. For solving these propicy =? ind that volume of wire remains same, "ke eGnalivelusly © For % change, use [Fear ay,07! }x100 Tf necessary, use binomial theorem to solve in min Gi) (b)> Current Electricity 187 Ro= Rp > (Ih) = y= 202m Ae R jek AeA OO qyedsh = ATA + 017100 a a 0.1/100) — 705 Ply __ pill +0.1/100) oy rae ‘Al (1+0.1/100) A101) (i) Between square faces I= yA =a % a 4 50x10" X05 _ 9 541070 (0.01x0.01 a0 v0 00 “iy oes ~ 100 RX 02 ® = | —-1]x100=—. = — 4 change (f ) 709 *100= 02% h @ > 1 Lett: longest edge, b; shortest edge, lb = 4 Resistance between faces of area © 0xa,R= Ib «i Oxi, y= Ross Gi) (x A, R= fe Ras (h) my =m, m, = 3m, m, = Sm =m = h=hh=3h b= Density and resistivity of each wire is same. Here d: density of wire and p: resistivity of wire. 2 ‘Mass = density x volume = density x area x length Mass « (area x length) m,=m=KAyl,= FASE = Ay= m= 3m=KAgly=KAys 31 = Ay ‘ly [since P is converted into R by doubling A its length, hence area of R becomes half, Ret128 Choprer 3 3 Mt WIS ABA us 1281531 Example 10 (ay (by © @) A metal ball of radius a is surrounded by a thin ‘concent metal shel of radius b. The space between ‘hese electrodes is filled up with a poorly conducting homogeneous medium of resistivity p. Find the resistance of the interelectrode gap. Analyse the Obiained solution at b co cylindrical tube of length Z has inner radius a while ‘outer » as shown in the figure, What i the resistance Of the tube between (a ts ends and (bits inner and Outer surfaces? (the resistivity of its material isp). ‘A material of resistivity p is formed in the shape of ‘truncated cone of length Las shown. The radii of ends are r and ry, Assuming a uniform current densi'y through any circular cross-section of the cone, fird Tesistance between two ends. T a L 14 ‘The gap between the plates ofaparllel-platecapacitor is filled up with a medium whose conductivity varies linearly in the direction perpendicular to plates from 6; 10 03(0 > 0,). Each plate has an area A and the separation between the plates is L. Find resistance between the plates. Solution: @ ‘Taking an element of a spherical shell of radius r and thickness dr. (i) Taking an element a cylindrical shel of rads thickness dr A=2nrLCurrent Electricity 189 Plog,(b/a) Plog, b= log, a) = ies dnl ‘Taking an clement of area A and separation between plates dr. Conductivity at distance x from the left end. a0, = a+ or) Le=o,the de (a, +20A = Felloea +AL)~log,(0,)] Flic, (0)~10g,(0,)] = Llog.(6,/0)) © AO, =6;) — Example 14 The resistances of two wires A and B at 20°C aze 3 2 and 4.0 respectively. At what temperature will the resistance be equal? aj, = 6x 107 K", ag =2 x 107 K" ‘Neglect any thermal expansion. pil me oll + a4 (0-20)] =e ‘49 [1 + yg (8-20) ahh f fae cme fear come re aa a Rg {1+ cg (B~20)] = Ry (1 + 4 (0 -20)) ! A= JAA, = yar = mn7, ALL + Gy (8-20)] = 3 [1 + a (8- 20)] Bet, — 44g) 8-20) = 1 (Bx6-4x2)10°(@-20)=1 6-20= 100 = 120°C Example 12 (a) At what temperature would the resistance of a copper conductor be doubles of its value at 0°C? (t)Does this same temperature old forall copper conductors regardless of shape and size? (0g, = 4.0 x 105°C] Solation: avg (a) Ry= Rall +a(8-0)] 6o 260 MAS B= tie sei anin Fe catig tere nent of fength 1 and aren of cross: ANA Sor off copper conductors Exampte connected B A carbon snd aun aluminium wire are oft a OC ges I the combination has resistance of 27 What is the resistance of each wire at 0°C so that the resi Tomperatne eof the combination does not change with Ve=-0.5 104°C) and ay = 4x 10°00)" Solution: ‘The equivalent resistance in series = Rot Ray = (Rovlo 1 + a, 46] + (Raily [1 + gy AO] Revlot (Rave + Rey lo Gout (Rail Mai] AE (Rovlo + Raila =27 ~o (Rel Gu (Ratlo Gay = 0 4107 Roy lg — 0.5 x 10° (Rail =0 (aslo = 8IReyly oii) Solving. (Royo = 3 Q. (Raily = 24.2 Example 14 A potential difference is applied across the filament of a bulb at = 0 and it is maintained at a constant value while the filament gets heated to its equilibrium temperature. We find that final current in the filament is one fifth of the current drawn at 1 = 0, If the temperature of filament at 1 = 0 is 20°C and the temperature coefficient of resistivity at 20°C is 0.004 (°C)"', find the final temperature of the filament. Solution: AL constant potential difference, current becomes 1/5" i.e. resistance is five times of initial resistance. Ra= Rao Rol] + 8 — 20)] = 5Roo a @-20)=4 4_ 4 -20= 4 =—4_=1000 ° a 0.004 = 1020°C Example 15 Two resistors with temperature coefficients of resistance 0, and a have resistances Ry, and Roy at 0°C. Find the equivalent temperature coe!.icient if resistors are connected in (a) series and (b) parallel. Solution: AWW ALO Rov Ro AtOrC Rot +r Roglt + 9, an Roll + O14 Rall + 26) = Rae, i (Ro + Roa) + (Roy + Rye 9 8) PFO + Ray eg % (b) AL OPC: Rot i Pax Pah, Rava > Roa 1 1 ‘ Ae ———_ + —______ 1 Roi(1+@8) Rog (1+06) Riles (+aey' | +a,6)" _ (ite, ay! Ro Ro Ry 4, Gy Oe, are very small, using binomial theore 1208 1-00 1-0 (1-059) 4 Re” es)Ry RB Ry RR Rox( te + Ro(1 C2 6)=(Ro,+Re.)-2alRystg Roy + Roo — Ro + Ron COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES Series Combination 1, The resistances are connected end to end @| succession. The current in each resistance is same. The potential difference across each resistanc §) different provided resistances are different. 4. To find equivalent resistance, we equate tal p across combination to sum of the p.d. across ins resistances. LOR ay awe Ae Vyoabe Varah vgn B Fig. 3.10 V=V,+V>+V5 A Reg = (Ry + Ry + Ry) Ri+Ry+Ry eacombination Ip thi arAMEEMEN. ome end Of a Yeicatoee ie rrnnectedtocne pon ad anther end asl tecieranens femme to the seen psi ‘The pd RETO OCH FesietMCe 6 game spe ren im ech reset resistances ane different find equivalent resisnnce. we equate tonal curren cross the combination 10 the sum of current acres jain resistances, © 16 differen provided a Pe ~ Ry 7 R, 14 i Be i th Sap 4 WW 7 >; ro Sw boy (a) Reg min of (Ry, Rp. Rs) (b)_ Iftworesistances are in parallel, for quick calculation, (©) In parallel, if the value of resistances increased/ decreased, equivalent resistance increases/decreases. (@) If m equal resistances are connected in series, Ryy= AR. (c) If m equal resistances are connected in parallel, Rg=Rn How to Calculate Equivalent Resistance Fis ty to identify those resistances which are in series or in parallel This can be done by connecting a battery between those points about which equivalent resistance is required, Let battery cumentjenters at A and emerges at B. The resistances having same curent between two points or resistances connected end loend ar in series Ro RRS A rn LL J Ry, Rp and Rare in series | Fig. 3.12 Garment Betricty 191 Hone end of all recistances is at one place say and another ‘dof all resictance is anether place cay , then all resistances erwoen Wat ¥ are in paral R We Re x} le Ry aN Ry, Ry-and Ry ar in parallel Fig. 313 Example 16 Find the equivalent resistance between A andl Bin the following cases. @) e \ wags 20 Low eon ) 6a 30 Ai 4a 19 e © zag yaa 38 sa 3a A 3 o 70 3a 50 a 102 8 Solution: @ Series, tor20 =300 % Le = eon : 30x60 Parallel, Rg 35+ 66° 208ni a) 47 Findthe cain eine, ng cases. ™ Bint eT 3020 fo i. 100 80 2 (a) _ Be 40 © Paralel, 60! 30 7 Series, 18452100Prva, 30 wf > Parallel, Series, Parallel, 20.0 Series, 20+ 1 Current Blecrricty 193 Example 18 Find the equivalent resistance between A and Bin the following cases. (a) sa 30 180 (b) ae194 Qhapner 3 gees 3188120 son pean gen 120) Wie so [ion] wp, 28 7 138 [ede 30 Series, Reg23t4+9= 108 Paralle|, —_5_ 7 went : Example 19 Find the equivalent resistance ben . Ay Bin the following cases. R 2R BR 100R (Oy ra ee a ® RoR OR A wie = on 32R 32k 8 © R 4 resistances each R 8 resistances eachR A 5 Solution: (a) These resistances are in series. Ray =RHIR+IR+ + 100R = RU 424340 + 100) 100(100+1) 2 ORnina) Series, 4R Curent Emcroty 95 R Rus Note: Sum of infinite terms in G.P. 2. a first term, 7 commen ratio Ir For mathematical formulae, re 8, for wo volume / Concept of Same Potential The points connected by a wite are points, Make new diagram by placing same points at ove place and then identity resistances in seies/ parallel, To solve problems, first name all the joints and then proceed ¢-8- 8 ft Ly Fig. 3.14 fat same potential oF same Here B, Cand D are same potential and therefore place them at one point. Example 20. Find the equivalent resistance between A and B. @) (b)(48 LR | \a “ro NE «d) son — wal ig 200 200 eon «e) aw 3a aa A oo le 80. 40 6a Ne Solution: (a) The points connected by a wire are at same potential or same points, redraw the diagram, by placing the points of ‘same potential at one place and then solve for equivalent Tesistance. ery 12k | 2R fa T-B A and Y are at same potential; B and X are at same potential. 34241 1 roid ee BR 12R" TAR AR ) 8 nee apt Tap tate 3t: FOR” TAR Fame 2+ Rear 2Solution: gxample 24 Find the equivalent resistance between A and B sa 60 | za fe wr 8a A 8 6a 6a © aie ie vf 20 A 300 «8 (b) © bi ‘ 6a 19 & A "y WK — x: A B 6R @ ' 3a Parallel, Rog= gg =22198 Chopter3 © Parallel 9Rx6R @ 18, Balanced Wheatstone Bridge Wheatstone bridge is a combination of 5 ress. tan and B as shown, ese, bs x agp Fig. 3.16 If RyRy = Ry/Ry. (balanced bridge), no curren wi Re, remove it and “Series Fig. 3. Example 22 Find the equivalent resistan Aand B Sov @ (b) An hs My WW 2R 4R © R . —— R A Ne 8 2R 2R wm aR () 29 4a x B F102 4a 80@ o ALB RoR This is balanced Wheatstone bridge, the resistance between X and ¥ is redundant, remove it and solve. (©) Here, pe en balanced Wheatstone bridge, remove 2R 4R resistance between X and ¥. Rx 2R 2R Y OR Curren Bercy 199 ¥ Series, 6 @ 20. 4a | 40 Ba Y Balanced Whetstone bridge, remove 10 Q, 6x12 = =4! +1“ x ®t Bi Balanced Whetstone bridge GRxI8R_9R I 6R+I8R 2 oO <—* Balanced Wheatstone beige, Rg= RExample 23. Find the equivalent resistance between Aad B @) sa 20 a fw B za A aa 62 120 g ead (b) Each resistance in 32 is given in the figure. A | a Solution: @ 4 a Be x ” é ong a0 40 A 8R, 3R aR aR 8 Balanced Wheatstone bridge Parallel 2 a A gn ne Sere, wRsymmety 1, If dingrnm is symmetrical shot AR, the points on the pemendicinr N8ecto of AP are wt same penta! ‘Two porsiilities () TF some resistances ate connected terteeen points of same potential, remove them ot cole. (b) IF no resistances. are connected. hetwe, these points, make new diagram by placing pointe at caine potential at one place and then solve, " if n diagram is not symmetrical about AB n ta symmetrical shout perpendicular bisector of AB. adopt same procedure asin (1). : 3, The points located symmetrically with respect to A and B reat same potential. Adopt procedure asin (1, pxample 24 Find the equivalent resistance between A and B ® (b) © (@) Each resistance is R. Current Electricity 201 © RoR Ni a rir ji R R 7 aR OR Ny Solution: (a) This diagram is symmetrical about AB, hence points 0 the perpendicular bisector of AB ie. X, Yand Z are at same Potential. The resistances between X and ¥, ¥ and Z, are redundant, remove them and solve. Parallel, 4R, 4R in parallel, Rog= 2R (b) Symmetry about AB, X, Y and Z are at same potential: remove resistance between X and ¥; ¥, and Z.202 Chopter 3 (6) Symmetry about AR, N.Y Z and Ware at same poten (c) Symmetry about perpendicular bisector, oF AR remove reistance between Nand ¥, ¥and Z. Zand W. hence the points X, ¥ and Z ate at the gyn’ 's 3a y 30 Series, 6.0 aw Xa 3a 3a Para Vit ats Ry 82 BS Req= 2 Parallel, Req Example Aand B. @© solution: @ ‘Symmetry about perpendicular bisector of AB ic. XY.X and Y/areal same potential. Make new diagram by plain ‘Xand Yat one place and solve, “ . Current Electricty 203, (b) Symmetry about perpensdicutar hisector of AB i.e. XYZ. hence points X, ¥ and Z are at the same potential. Make new diagram by placing X, ¥ and Z at one place and solve. Since the right half is mirror image of the left half. hence solve only for the left half. Symmetry about AB, the points X, ¥ and Z are at the same potential, make new diagram by placing X, ¥ and Z at one place and solve, Solve only for the left half; the right half is mirror image oft.Solution: @ The points located symmetrically W.t to Bare atthe, potential. To locate points of same potential move j or B on the shortest path e.g. on moving from A to x find one resistance, A to U; two resistances, A to 7, cn tances and so on. 7 ee 1 1 2 3 B33 2 2 4 4 1,3; 1,3 ie. Xand ¥ are at the same potential 2,2; 2,2 ie. U and V are at the same potential 3, 153, Lie, Zand Ware at the same potential The resistances between X and ¥, U and V; Z and W ap redundant, remove them and solve. Example 26 Find the equivalent resistance between A Paratel and B. 4 @ R R R R am Ne o Al a RE REE vii 1 at a R R R R 20, 20 20 ” a x vn Y X and Yare at the same potential Vand V are at the same potential Remove resistance between X and Y, U and V.Example 27 Find the equivalent resistance of 12 equal resistances shaped as a cube between points (a) AG, (b) AC and () AB f G 7 c fe, BDE CFH a 0 aati aii Al resistances are R. B, D, E ase at the same potential C,F,H ave atthe same potential Make new diagram by placing B, D, E at one place and C, F, Hat another place. CAH B Parallel, RIS BD.E Parallel, RI6 Parallel, RIS Current Electricity 205 Note: This problem can be solved by another method. (b) All resistances are R. B, D are at the same potential F, Hare at the same potential Make new diagram by placing B and D at one place and F and H at another place and then solve. wel ‘SPR eihXR 38 ‘Wheatstone bridge Rea 3ReR 4 © Hz 6 7 (c i" GH 32 A 5 23 Dand E are at the same potential Cand F are at the same potential Make new diagram by placing D and E at one place and C and F at another place.206 Chapter 2 / ACF => Parallel, 2RxRI2_2R 5 Parallel, 7R b Raed eth ea 7R, p12 sikdelta BCD into star RX2R__2R_ X= DReOR42R 3 0 convert we 37 : Parallel, Reg = —_— CURRENT AND POTENTIAL How to determine current and potential when only one cell is connected? ‘Todetermine current and potential difference across resistors, make the circuit smaller, smaller ... smaller (by reducing resistances in series/parallel, one combination at a time) unless you are comfortable and then return keeping in mind that in /* series, curent is same and in parallel, potential is same, useful, use the following short-cuts. @)_Iftwo resistances are in parallel: 4 OR wi) Ai) Current Electricity 209 (©) If various resistances are in series: Ry R Ry Vy ae Vp — she Vg +R,+R, ER iR,, Va = iRy, Vy =iRy R Ry Ry Ws sly, vy =c2v, yack ER TTR OER Use V;, Vz, V5 directly, no need to determine current. Example 29 (@) Determine the current supplied by the battery in the circuit as shown: 122 2av 20 (b) Find currents in resistances 6 @ and 12.2. 6a 4a 120 sov 29 (©) Find values of i, i, ig and is, l 2a i b/ th 129 20 240 (@)_ Find current in 6 Q and potential difference between A and B. 6a 4a ww 120 A wt B 5: 20 ov210 Chapter 3 : (c) Solution: i Parallel, 40 (a) 120 LAA ARR . af wl — gungungan |p T an | B B B B All resistances are in parallel Va die 24142 6 RX MD wD 4 Ry=4Q ‘Current supplied by battery i= x =6A «b) 40 40 WM % AW Yy | 2a y l 1 | pad. between X and ¥=6x4=24V 30V 20 30V 2a af +442=100 . 30 Current supplied by battery fa 4 80 i=3A 42 oA rts — rv 12 2 = Ga! gxae2a -i)=3-2=1A OR pad. across X and ¥,ix4=3x4=12V pad. across 6 Q and 12 Qs also 12.V R 12 =—=2A,,=—=1A ‘| 4 RD Note: Use i, = ua in ft i Use hy = at im ease of two resistances in ‘parallel. If more than two resistances in parallel, apply normal procedure,Current Electrcty 211 4a 2 @ Finda and ¥y— Vy sa 8a 108}, — VarVe=5x8=40V We _{}—»,—] Example 30 (@) Find current through each resistance. 3a SS sov oo + 120 (©) Find current flowing in branch AB. 5a ei A 3 iaghpeta Bea Sag wag goa F100 ped. oss 40,14 =4V B =e © (©) Find current in 4 Q resistance. 20 30 10 oye 40; sag 8 ant 30 19 3022 Chopter 3 ‘punta 24a Pant =n roy" i Ie po tbe a Note: r, «First, make circuit small, small, ..., then return keeping in mind that in series, current is same and in parallel, potential is same. © This problem can be solved by another method involving few steps. Porat 1 16a Y Y » 44 4 he agega b= gyqr4A Pd, across 1:2= 4x1 =4y Ve= Vy= 4 BATTERY AND EMF A battery is a device which maintains a potential difference between its two terminals X and Y. Figure 3.24 shows « schematic diagram of a battery. fii sl Fig. 3.24 A force F, is acting inside battery. This force depends on the kind of source g.g. in fuel cell, itis associated with diffusion processes and varying electrolyte concentrations resulting i chemical reactions. This force is non-electrostatic in nature The force F, drives positive charges of battery materi towards X and negative charges towards Y. As positive chase accumulates on X and negative charge on Y, an electric field E is established from X to ¥ and a p.d. develops and grows in tht battery between X and ¥, ‘The force on q due to E,F_ = 4E,Fe is opposite to Fr. lt steady state, the charge accumulation on X and ¥ is such ts! F, =F. No further accumulation takes place.a charge qi ten fom 110 X, the work done by a We Fy unit charge is known as emf of where xfie, clectromotive force: however, emf is not a force, it a vione per unit charge, esting is connected between X and ¥ F,=Fe=9E oe Fd=aed=aV where V'= Ed is p.d. between terminals Fd q ‘Theemfof a battery is equal tothe p.d, between its terminals incase of open circuit ‘The emf is workdone/charge by force F, which is non- eeerosutic in nature. The p.d. is due to electrostatic field ated by the charges accumulated on the terminals of the ‘battery. Now letus make complete circuit by connecting a conducting wire, an electric field is created in the wire by p.d. between X and Y. Vv — 7 P Fig. 3.25 ‘The free electrons in the wire move opposite to E and enter the battery at X. Some electrons are withdrawn from Y. Therefore p.d. and hence F, decreases but F, remains same. Since F, > F., net force acts towards positive terminal. With this net force, positive charge moves to X and negative charge 10 ¥. Thus p.d. between X and Y is maintained. INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF BATTERY ‘a bauery is prepared by putting two rods of different metals ‘ina chemical solution, chemical reactions generate emf. Such ‘rangement is known as galvanic cell. In real source of emf, E # V. The charge moving through ‘aerial of any real source encounters resistance known as -ineral resistance (7), Potential difference (V) across the terminals of a battery 1. Discharging of battery: When battery is supplying current Le Current Electricity 213 ALA 18 i Fig. 3.26 V=V,-Vp=E-ir 2. Charging of battery: when battery is taking current Source a, E als—|F—w—a Fig. 3.270 V=V,-Vy=Etir 3. When the battery is in open circuit: E izo for a AE 8 Fig. 3276 4, When the cells short-circuited: ie. external resistance is zero i=Efr VaVy-Vp=E COMBINATION OF CELLS 1. Series combination: Let n cells of each of emf E and internal resistance r are connected in a row and this arrangement is in series with external resistance R. = av : Fig. 3.29 Net emf=nE Total resistance = nr+ R nE nrt+R Current in the circuit nE (a) IER>> nr, i= (useful)214 Chopter 3 A tb) IE Renn, i= (useless) If exicrnal resistance >> net intemal resistance, t0 get maximum current, cells should he connected in series Note: If out of cells p cells are of reverse polarity. Emme wr aeer ian t+ —, Ef ' — wn ww Him fi f ") ee : 14 Fig. 3.30 Net emf = (1 2p)E ‘Total resistance = nr +R 2 Parallel combination: Let n cells cach of emf E and intemal resistance r are connected in parallel and this combination is connected in parallel with external resistance R. e ee oie ‘1 frm R Fig. 3.31 A +R n (Current in external resistance (ERE r+nR t4R ” (a) Itr>> nk, i= (useful r (b) Ir> external resistance, to get maximum current in external resistance, cells should be connected in parallel. 3, Mixed grouping: Let n cells of each of emt E and internal resistance r are connected in a row and there are such m rows. This combination is in series with external resistance K. cells in a row Net emf =nE ‘Total resistance = “+R m Current in R, i= bad mae mg rime m Let mn = N, N: Total number of cells, for i to be maximum di _ (°r+NR)(NE)—nNE(nr) an (ert NR) If external resistance = net internal resistance, current in external resistance is maximum. , aE mE liga = OF —— 2k 2r Note: Till now we have taken cells of same emf and same internal resistance, Example 34 (a) Theemf ofa cell is E and its internal resistance isr.18 terminals are connected to a resistance R. The potest difference between the terminal is 12 V if R= 3.2 16V if R= 8 Q. Find the values of E and r. (b) When an unknown resistance is connected act? series combination of two identical cells, each of! ¥, current through the resistance is 4 A. Whet it connected across a parallel combination of the cells, the current through it is 3 A. Find the vunknow® resistance and internal resistance of each cell.penta! cells. each of emt and internal resistance rare joined in Series to form a closed circuit. One cell {X) is joined with reversed polarity. Find the potential alferenee neross cach cell except X and also across X. 12 cells ench having the same emf are connected in series and are kept in a closed box. Some of the cells are wrongly connected. This battery is connected series with an ideal ammeter and two cells of same emf as of 12 cells. The current is 3 A when the cells and the battery sid each other and 2 A when the cells and battery oppose each other. How many cells in the © w battery are wrongly connected? solution: @ k E a t 8 WhenR=39, V=12V R=80, V=16V pe BS “Ber : @) Ex8 er , 16 _ 8 3+r eee OO = Der a 1 _3+r hel 3 7 aaenncameaae 3E _ 3E = 26 zen Desay ® , R hat tv 24a v aeaalev 18 Hie . r tv © ® Case (a j,- 18418 __36 RA R42r Current Electricity 218 6 = R+r=9 A) Re2r Case (t): Two cells of same emf are equivalent to a cell of same emf 18 Vand resistance r/2 18 i i i) Solving (i) and (ii), r= 2.2, (©) One cell is wrongly connected peels teem L Net emf=(p-2)E Net resistance = pr DE pr All cells are supplying current except X. 7 pad. across each cell (except X) @-DE,_p_(-DE p-EOe pr Pp V=E-ir= E- 2E ? Cell Xi taking current (p-DE__ Up-DE pr ? (@ _Latncells are wrongly connected, let emf of each cell is E and internal resistance isr Net emf of battery = (12 2n)E Net resstance = 12,r (i) When battery and two cells aid each other Netemf = (12-20) +2E Net resistance = 12 r+ 2r= 1dr (12-2mE+2E “ur (ii) When battery and two cells oppose each other Netemf=(12~2n) E-2E (12-2mB-26 SEtir= E+ pa. Current i 3 A) Current i= Omi) = 10. M22 3 n=l Only one cell is wrongly connected26 Choprer 3 Example 32 (a) Two sarees of current of equal emf are connected in series and have different internal resistances 7, and 7 (ry > r). Find the external resistance R at which the jpotemtinl difference across the terminals of one of the sees (Which one in particular?) becomes equal to rem (by Nscurves of current with different emf's are connected ts shown in the figure. The emf's of the sources are proportional to their internal resistances, ie. E = @R, where aris an assigned constant, The lead resistance is negligible. Find (Gi) the current in the cirex Gi) the potential difference between points A and B dividing the circuit in n and N~n links. Hy, ‘ neces” S XX (Nn) cals (©) Twenty-four identical cells, each of internal resistance 0.5 Q. are arranged ina parallel combination of mrows, ‘each row containing n ces in series. The combination is connected across a resistor of 3.9. Find the value of, mand nif current in resistance 3.0 is maximum, (@) How will you connect (series and parallel) 24 cells each of intemal resistance 2 ohm so as to get maximum, current across a load of 10 2? Solution: (a) E+E 26 Rtn th Ren +h 1-(>n) Resistance cannot be negative 2B Rtn+h Cell ¥: pd. V= B= ir = Ren—n, OK. zero across ¥. (by (i) y= Ry By = Ry oo Ey Ry Net emf = a(R, + Ry+-~ + Ry) Net resistance = Ry +Ry += + Ry a(R + Ryo Ry) _ f= OR ER) et Ry) Gi) Between A and B, n cells on one side. Netemf =, + Ey +'~ + Ey= O(R) +R + Net resistance = R, +R, +- +R, pid. Vy —Va= (Ey + Ey to + By) ~i(R, + Ry (R,+Ry +> #Ry)— OUR + Ry. +R, (6) Let there are m cells in a row and there are such m roys Total number of cells mn = 24 For current to be maximum in external resistance ar 226 m n=6min(i) mx6m=24 => mad => m=2 n=6m=12 @ — m=24 Ret m 10= "x2 m Bos m n=Smin(i) mxSm=24 => mi ‘Value of m lies between 2 and 3, (@) Ifm=2,n=12, Current ink, ¢= —™E_-_24F _ mR nr 2x10+12x2 6E = Fosse im (i) Itm=3,n=8 ME ME 2 = ME NE _osor 3x10+8x2 4623 ie. current in arrangement (i) is higher. eight el row, number of rows = 3. sia®yr ple 33 when a cel is connected in sees with some external resistance. current flows through it. When one more {identical cell is connected in series with the first one, a current Bis found to flow inthe circuit. When same cell jg connected in parallel with the fist one, the current is found to be 5. Find the value of ain tems of Band 6. {py Tis requitod to send a current of 8 A through a circuit whose tesistance is $2. What is the least number of accumulators which must be used for this purpose and how should they be connected? The emif of each accumulator is 2 V and the intemal resistance is 0.5.2. E E a= ey Rte (i) E+E 26 2E Para ee (pes rete iil) Ree 26 2 “vy to) Current Electricity 217 (b)_Letn be number of cells in a row and m the number of rows Ra oy 525 yn al0m m nE 1Omx2__ 20m m ~~ 10mx05 10 Re St m m m=4 n=d0 ‘Total cells = mn = 160 Example 34 Find current i in the circuit in the following cases, ® 10 15V r J 2a 32 200 “i © 10V, 15V i rt 2a 3a 20 ‘We © i 6V 12V) BV — Apo pa ta an 10 | @ z ov 32 sa | "Tov 3a © av sv 1SV Hn Han ig" 19 19 sov 30V tov 20 "20 ' 20 6a ‘ ‘ 3a218 Chopter 3 o 14Vv a 20 Q aw | Sty — a0 Law » wvp sv 20 ant Tea oe 4a av —| 30 Solution: 1 aq Vag Hw] __| 2a Here cells are in series, supporting Net emf=10+15=25V Net resistance = 2+3+20=252 25 ala 35 - 10V 15V het 20 20 Here cells ae in series, opposing Net emf=15-10=5V Net resistance =2+1+2=50 5 2 =1A © 109 Net emf=6+4 12-8 ov 4341444102 Net resistance = lt, Balanced ‘100 Wheatstone @ Cells of same emfs are in parallel. Net emf =10V 10 —a=2A 243 fe) (@ Netemf=20+5-15=10V Net resistance = 1+1+i =3.0 (i) Netemf=30-30+10=10V Net resistance = 2+2+2=6Qan 4 I wpa wove ang 30 tow a 40 30 nevemnf=30+24-14=40V netresistance = 24443434444=200 40 20 2A Example 35 (a) Find the potential difference between A and B. 3a 22 6a an 10V | Al we! 8 20 () Calculate the current flowing in the circuit and the potential difference across terminals of each cell, Vv tov Hee 79 We (©) Calculate the potential difference across terminals of each cell. wv tv Hay 19 i (@) Calculate the potential difference between A and B. 30v 48th f sa a A ! 10V 150 4p (©) Calculate the current in each resistor and terminal potential difference across each cell. 20 DY 60 B40 Le Current Bectcty 219 (f) Calculate potential difference aces each cell Ante Ei peste 459 3a hi 6a | (8) A battery of 6 cells each of emf 2 Vand internal resistance 0.5 (2 is being charged by DC mains of emf 220 V by using an external resistance of 10 2. Calculate petted 10V eee ov, MH (i) the charging current Gi) the potential difference across the battery Solution: =1A 248 Vy -Vp=ix8=1x8=8V OR Vy-Vp=E-ir =10-1x2=8V (Cell is supplying current) o)220 Qhopter 3 Coll X: Vy ~ Coll ¥ Vp 10-2 2=6V 0-2x1=8V (Cells are supplying current) re) Net emf=18-12=6V Net resistance =3+2+1=60 Coll X: It is taking current V,-Vp=1241x3=15V Cell ¥: Tes supplying current Vo-Vp=18-1x2=16V Note: +e plate is at higher potential. @ 150: ‘These cells are in series because same current flows in them, cells are opposing. _ 30-10 S415 1A Cell X: (supplying current), V, ~Vy=30~1 x 5=25V OR Cell ¥: (taking current), Vy ~Vp=10+1 x 15 =25V Co) an 2Y , I — Paral, 20 sad gna gon bea 12 , cL pi. 4 Net emf = 20-10=10V. Net resistance =2+2+1+5=100 10 “10 p.d. across AB=1x2=2V. Cell X: (supplying current), Vy ~V=20. Cell ¥: (taking current), Vs -Ve=10+1x1=11y pi} > 4 te ta | z ie fea Zea i i A © =4V Net resistance = 0.5 +14+2+45=8 4 Ll SA 2cell (king cure). Vp — = 40s 425V ponent ery = 62 12V Tet resistance of battery 20v 220-12 _ 208 @ =o =16A 3410 13 (ii) Battery: (taking current) Va -Vp=12416x3=60V KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS ‘Those complicated circuits which cannot be analysed by simple series-parallel combinations, can be analysed with the help of Kirchhofl’'s laws. ‘Junction or node: In a circuit a point where three or more ‘conductor meet. Loop: A loop is any closed conducting path. & , \o oy {Hw we. / \ es Junction junction: Fig. 333 Kirchhoff's Junction Rule or Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) ‘The algebraic sum of currents into any junction is zero i.e. Li=0 i 3 Fig. 3.34 Current Elecricty 221 i theitiy i tit Ci + Cin =0 Incoming currents: +ve, outgoing currents: -ve. This law is based upon conservation of charge. Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule or Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) ‘The algebraic stim of potential differences in any loop, including those associated with emfs and those of resistive elements, must ‘be equal to zer0 ie. Lpd.=0 This law is based upon that electrostatic force which is conservative in nature and the work done by itin any closed path is zero, We can also say that this law is based on conservation of energy. ‘Sign Convention for the Rule Sign Convention for emfs: —Travel—> = — +e 2 Fig. 335 Sign convention for resistors —Travel—> Fig. 336 Sign convention for capacitors: —Travel—> +Q) )-Q F 4 = 48 Fig. 337 How to Calculate Potential Difference Between ‘Two Points? To calculate pad. between two points, 1. Move from one point to another, if moving along the direction of current, there will be drop of potential /222 Qhopter 3 across a resistance and if moving opposite 10 the direction of current, there will be gain of potential Moving across a cell (do not consider direction of current). If moving from positive to negative terminal, use ~E, if moving from negative to positive terminal, use +E, A ie : ie ——* Motion direction Fig. 3.38 Move from A to B Vg—E,~iR) + E—iR,= Vo & & 4 ; rs 1 “Te Fig. 3.39 First assume the direction of currents in a branch as you wish but balance currents at junctions. & Ea asa 7 z zu bi ved ee ee Fig. 3.40 AtoD (i) Path ABCD; V,—E, + E+ ipr4=Vp (ii) Path ABED; V,~E,~(i, +4) 5- Ey=Vp (iii) Path AFED; V, + ir, + iyr- Es Cells of different emf’s in parallel When cells of different ems are connected in parallel, the cells in parallel can be replaced by single cell @ a, e, An & » fp Hn 4 » L__yy,— R R Fig. 341 0) Fig. 3.42 @ WE fr, > Bln Ee i) If E/r, > E,/r, E r hw “1 R Fig. 3.430 1_1it ee ron © ft n bp a, | D> rw R ste Fig. 3.44(If E is positive, polarity of equivalent cell is correct. Gi) If Eis negative, reverse the polarity of equivalent @ Now the equivalent cell is an open circuit, no need to calulate equivalent resistance, Example 36 (@) Find the potential difference between A and B. (b) A circuit has a section AB as shown. If V,~-Vp = 12 V, find current i. v tov os Sa © 19 20 a_4 2 eet eee wo} g do 2210 (@) Find the potential difference between the points A and B. i) Find current through 25 V cell if points A and B are connected. Curent lectricty 223 @) Inthe following circuit, calculate 19 xX 20 aie 25 A — s am 2a we 3a Y 40 (Potential difference between points X and ¥, when switch Sis open, Gi) Current through switch S, when switch S is closed. (iii) Equivalent resistance between A and B. Solution ® 15V 10V 5v eg thats Move from A to B: Vy- 15-5 x2-10-5x6-5=Vp Vy -Vg=70V (b) 5 A} wd — 8 30 6a Vy-ix34+5-ix6+10=V, Vy —Vp +15 =95 12415=9 => i=3A oo 19) 4 20 x th 2sy| A 15V ae a i 10v 20 yo aie — 2 2a © 19 ‘No current flows in the branch CB. Let current in the circuit A XY CZWA bei AoA, pathAXYCZWA Vj~iX1-25-ix3-ix2-ix1-ix1 +1S-ix2 = Vy 10i 10 = i=-1A i.e, direction of iis opposite. Ato B, path AX YC B Vy-ix 1-25 -ix3-ix2+10= Vp Va-Vp= 15+ 61=15+6x(-1I)=9V224 Chopter 3 (i) 50460445 12 155 24643 12 @a av sth 2a st 30 Y 40 pad, between X and B, Vy ~ Va = pes ba Current through XY or switch =9-8=1A, from X to Y Git) Rega = Za Example 37 (@) Find the value of i and potential difference across each cell ~ sov wt 62 1B ev [Pts 3a ba- 1) Find pote diflrence between A and Q Vea {hw 8V30 aL ew—{e Ly 20 ak (o)_ Inthe given circuit, ol | 1 tov : 25V' wae sa va 20 find the (potential difference between terminals 10 V cell (ii) current through 25 V cell i) current through $.Q (@ Find the current through resistance 5 200 37V i 15V 00 1-1 50 AW Solution: ) 30V A 8V 39 | ise L 50 6a By Kirchhoff’s rules: First assume direction of currents in differen branches as you like but currents should be balanced ‘at junctions. Here current in 5 Q is required and it is i, Let current in 30 V cell isi, towards left. At junction A: e. current in 6 V cell is ii, towards left. itxax= J 52 K Here two unknowns i and i,, so we require two equations. For this move from one point to the same point on two different paths (i) Ato A; loop @; path AYBXA Vq~6 +30) — 64 + 30= Va 3i-3i, - 64, =-24 i-3i=-8 ) (ii) Ato A; loop @; path AJKBYA Va-ix5—(i-1) x3 +6= Vy -81+3i, = | A 2 | 50 Vy-Vp=2x5=10V Alternative method: 2Y 69 A 8 8Y 30 i Laie 5a Here, one terminal of cells is connected to A and another terminal is connected to B (do not look at intemal resistances of cells), hence these cells can be replaced by single cell. IV a | e A 2. ap Hw — 8V 3g iVy-Vp=ix5=2x5=10V OR Vy-Vp= 14-2 2=10V For calculating currents in other branches: 4, OY oa A fp A 8 68V 59 1 na * aie 52 V4-V_=10V Cell of emf 30 V: V4 —Vp= 30-1, x6 10=30-64, = = Cell of emf 6 V: Vy-Vp=6-x3 10=6-3) > 4=-5 ve sign indicates that current is flowing in opposite direction. Check: i + p= 104 33 ) iy ag 6a u | — 6V 3 att 4 8 th 4V 20 xi fromm Let the current flowing in 30 V cell i Current in 4 V will be i; + i, as shown. Loop ©, A to A, path AXYBA Vy—4 iy + i) X2-3in += Vy Di, ~5in+2=0 2i, + 5i,=2 a Loop @, A to, path AUVBA Vy —30+ 61, -3i +6= Vs fi) Vy—Vp= 6-1 x3 = 6-1) x3=9V Alternative method: Here one terminal of all cells at point A and another terminal of all cells at point B, hence these cells can be replaced by single cell. Ven hw 6V iF 3a A p= Awe Ea r ay 22 i ite Eli + Eylr, +E ule, _30/6+6/3+4/2 Tilt weris+i2 aah =9V ttyl reia 5 6vin Ai —8 re equivalent cell is open circuit hence no current flows i wn ye Wee9V d current in cells: WV:Va-Va= 30-6 = 9=30-64, = 235A 6V:V4-Vp= 6-2, x3 => 9=6-3), > +i=35-1=25A (ana wal, 193 | Para, 20 10x5 _10 Tors S, 8 Current Electrichy 227 A A A ft, # tov av | 1 19 2a #3" 8 8 3 , Ry (i) pad. between terminals of 10 V cell: Va~Va= => (i) Let current through 25 V cell is ig Vy—Vp= 25 ~igX2 Gi) @ 07/3 07 1 20734335 208228 Chopter 3 Example 38 (a) Find the current in § Q and voltage across $ 2 “ov 20 aw rad 10 | uM 30 30 —=3A a 10 545 Ly Vy-Vp=ix5=3x5=15V av 12 Oo) vl | | ravi soz sof cad 30 [| sa (©) Calculate the potential difference between A and B. A oof sa ga 320 sv: ev asv fe (@) Find the current flowing in 10 Q and the potential difference between A and B. A na: ert E=24v 1 120 on 20V' sa Solution: @ Va~Vp=ix6=3x6=18V 40v A 18a rt pt ta oa a 7 sw —fo qe lo i > zov * ta 7 7 — B Va—Vp=ig( 5 +3) 20v I8=igx 18 g=lACurrent Electricity 229 @ oA A___A A Example 39 Eon (@) Inthe ciruit shown, 8 av 1v 1a 20, Cell H 19 AV 3a 3V O cone Anee A (the pd. between B and D ae Gi) the pa. acros the terminals ofeach ofthe cells Er2ZBvy ang Gand H. masa (0) Find the potentials of A, B, C and D and current through 1 © and 2 0 resistance. , 8 12 e 8 s0Vv, 2v 5v D 20 10°20°30 60 Equivalent cell is open circuit hence no need to find equivalent resistance r. (i) Celisin series, equivalent emf =2-1=1V Net resistance = 3.2 (i) “Cells in series, equivalent emf =3-1=2V Net resistance = 1+3=4QCell G: (supplying current) 6 -Vp=3-igx3= 3-2 v Ve-Vp=3~igx3= 3-532 55 Cell H: (taking current) 6 Ver Vp= Vt igx = leeaxds Alternatively by Kirchhoff’s rules av 20 hth Loop ©, D to D, path DEBD Vp~3i +3- 1-1, +2i,= Vy 4iy — 2 ine Loop @, Dio D, path DBFD Vp ~2in~2i +i) #2-1-(i, #4) =V, -3i, -5i,+1=0 3i, +5i,=1 64, Solving () and (i). jy = 75 Avb Direction off; is opposite Cell G: (supplying current) Cell H: (taking current) 6 Ve- Vga +i = 1+ 13 ) 19 Oe 8 ay Wate sy tov, tv ol ww za ‘The point A is attached to ground ie. V, = 0 By branch CA, Ve- V,=5 Ve-0=5 Ve=5V By branch ADC, Vy +2!,~ 10 = Ve 2iy-10=5 5 = Vy=ISV W420, Vg=2V, Vo=SV,Vp=15V Current in 10:34 Current in 2.0:7.5 ACae 40 Inthe following circuit; the potential difference between the points A and (rand the currents through each bench, 5 Afrsis short-circuited and the point A is connected to o point B. ind the currents through Fy, E and Ey and reiatance R neg. we 4ye8¥ Reta A519 y eeay — 4 ® Hence V, ~ Vp =2V, curents through branches, 1A, Oand 1 A. 4 19 )3V Current Ekectricty 231 Short-cireut i¢, resistance is replaced by a wire. From middle branch, Ve ~ Vy=2V Cell of emf 3 V; Vy ~Vq=3~ i= 1A, Cell ofemt 1 V; Ve Va= Lt iye 1 => i= 1A, X10 X, path XABX Vy-ixl42=Vy_ > i=2A The distribution of current is as shown. Aya pv 19 2a av pai {A} $F ie \ we eT ah Example 44 Find current through each cell. xl > 223-4 20 20 L iwi 2g Solutio Here cells cannot be replaced by single cell because terminals Of cells are not joined to same point. This problem can be solved by Kirchhofi’s laws. First, assume currents in different branches keeping in mind junction law, Loop @, B to B, path BCDXYB Vy i) X2-(i, +i) x2-ix2+41= Vy 4i,+2i+2i=1 Ai) Loop @, Bo B, path BACB Vg-(i~i))x 1-2-1, x 141, x2=VyTE _— 232 Chopter 3 (ii) 3iy-ip- Loop @. A to A. path ADCA Vpn (in iy ix VHC HH ARTAZAM ii) fa) Bi +4 (edi +( 4 Gi) Gi) 2 Sy2-4 > =~ FAH OBA Putting iy 10; +5(-4) =0 = 4=04A 4i, + 28-2 4x 0.442% (08) +2 1y-05a 2 ‘Current through 1 V: 0.5 A, 2V:0.8A Example 42 Find the equivalent resistance between the terminal points A and B in the network shown in the figure. R 2R i a4 te ba sy AW aR R Solution: Here resistances are neither in series nor in parallel. This problem can be solved by Kirchhoff’s rules or by delta-star method. Equivalent resistance by Kirchhoft’s rules: First, connect a battery of emf E between points A and B, let the current supplied by battery isi, then find the value of E/i in terms of Here we are making use of symmetry in current distribution. i, is entering in R between A and C and i, will flow in R between D and B. Similarly i— i, will enter in 2R ber and D and ii, wil flow in 2R between Cand p, 4 ‘The current in middle resistance R between Cand p, jpextini, @ 2=24-7 Loop ©, A to A, path ACDA Vy igR- Qi, — DR + 1-1) 2R= Vy 51,4310 > fj Loop @, A to A, path ADBA Vy— (G+ iy) 2R~i)R + E= Vo TR Reg = > Equivalent resistance by delta-star method: Convert delta ACD into a star R2R ER=R+2R+R R x= R2R_ 2K? “ER aR We have new circuit as z- 443 Find the magnitude and direction of current sx thr te sezment CD ‘of the citeuit shown in the fot ue 10 an a l af “3a a . D yp av ution: Sine C and D are connected by a conducting wire, hence pu tewesn Cand D is zero, Cand D are same points 19 20 i ri a 8 25v = 1x3, 2x4 3 425 43 244 43° 12 caren in circuit '= 2A Current in CD is 1 A from C to D. Example 44 Find the equivalent resistance between the points A and B. x Current Electricity 233 Solution: Let current i enter jas shown, 1A and divided in three parts jy. fp and By symmetry, current in YB is XB is i, and in OB is iy It shows that branches AOB and XOY are not connected, therefore make AOB as shown. 7RI5 Example 45 Find the equivalent resistance between A and B. @ (b)Example 46. Find the equivalent resistance betvee, and B and (b) A and C. (a4 Solution: @ ig 8 Since current in AY = current in YB, ie. Branch XYZ is hia] independent. () Branches XYZ and WZV are independent The paths ADC and AGC ‘are equivalent and cary sane A current. No currents in GF and DH, hence remove thee resistances. © A 3R 4Current Elecrkity 238 gncuTs INVOLVING CAPACITORS Solution: Spee imoling. capacitors and one ot more than ene TY can soled jos ke cites involving resistances, Here col ge to use hinge gin place of i, 1/C in place of R. Ths will we Mine with the Help of some examples, Some problems fe colved assming charge is flowing in the branches, veil ge i stored in capacitor prot mv t2v 47 Find the potential difference between the eins an Here cells re in series and opposing. Netemf=24—12=12V @ tHe} 2 oc Sor -0 HK av ov nv ® ey Q=2Cx12=24C +Q -Q 8 A acl 24 Sur 6uF T | a I RV av v-vp= 2 = BC ney 3c 3 © rv (Positive plate is et higher potential) 4 {sc} E42 i 4 Alternatively A T™ foc|——oc| — avo RV ® A Ee 8 | x12=8V=V,—Vp 40V Cc IK © nv wv IK c ‘ov uF uF Ute » (€) If Vy—Vy=5 V, find voltage across each capacitor. 24v a—{1uF-—}-—20* | — The cells are in series, opposing. 5 tov Net emf =24~12=12V236 Dropter 3 a} nF vy uF ~ 4 7 a tv 6 Wa Zgxi2e8V=Vy-V, V4-Vp=-8V © The cells are in series Net emf=24-12=12V The capacitors are in series ae Ca 8C Cqe4e ae 12C "24C 4c ie I. Q=4C x12=48C Now return to previous diagram, in series charge on each capacitor is same. 2 +0 Rv Pe bh | yt Now move from A to B Q V,+—+12=V, arc . 48C Vj4+——+12=), nt 0 ‘a V,-Vg=-18V @ Move from A to B: Q =+10- 1 V-Vo+10=0+8 5110-22 Q=10 "uC era 0-0 xt +++? weve 10 wtp Example 48 Find the charges on the three capacitos shown in figure, ret (a)Current Electricity 237 Branch Ax B: 10-19= 22-9, =0 a al Branch AY B: 10- 40-259, =-180 uC Q +O, =~ 180 wC [Heo neL 180 ne 3uF ‘eur Gur 1 000g T +180 we 10v T =40v Charge on capacitor ‘The cells in parallel can be replaced by a single cell. 3pE:0, 18 pF: 180 uC, 6 uF: 180 pC GE*CE _3x10+6%40 _30+240 _ 5 346 = Altematively by Kirchoff's rules C+C, 346 9 C=C) +C,=346=9 pF ‘Assume charge in branches, balancing at junctions. A A & a 4 z +e vr=(2_)x30=10v 9+18 =Vg=10V Now ren to previous diagram: A ~ F To,+ ahs aur eur i) a 7 tT 7 % — 8 8238 Chopter3 40,4 Solving (i) and (ii) Or E= Vis = 7 20 20x12-10%6 _ 10V 1246 C=1246=18 pF 18 } 20 10=—V peers 60 uF = (Qs + Qe) (ii) Q)=-100 pC Check: Q; + 0) = 60 HC. OK ov) = ov. KA 3k © E=20V Cat Prt This is open cr 30x2415x4+20%6 _ joy 24+4+6 C=24+4+6=12pF ey es AXB: -20-30= 99, =20nC AYB: ® V,+15- fp PV AV HISQ,+02=0 gxample 49° Find the equivalent capacitance between A and B. ® c| ach oc a ca 3 Jee} ¢ ° cL ec | = HetteHt | oe Lect 14 Solution: (@) By Kirchoff’s rules (same procedure as in finding equivalent resistance) BY of ach 2 Loop ©, A to A, path AXYA v2 20122 , 2-81 _y, Cie CRIOC, -2Q,-40, +20+Q-Q,=0 10)=30 = Q,=30/7 Current Electricity 239 Loop @, A to A, path AYBA c 20) var Replace Delta APO by a star rec42c+S2e sc Ce _5C ac+e+ eb yeeree eo zec+2c+ 2 = 5c c SCxC_5C s0+0 6 Series, eH - la H 350 Parallel,