Introduction to Nondestructive Testing

For visitors who are not already familiar with NDT, the general information below is intended to provide a basic description of NDT and the most
common test methods and techniques used when performing NDT.  As such it is not highly detailed or all encompassing, and for more
comprehensive information readers should refer to ASNT publications such as the ASNT NDT Handbooks or the ASNT Personnel Training
Publications (PTP) Classroom Training Series, all of which are available from ASNT’s bookstore.  Also, standards covering these test methods
are listed on the "Codes and Standards Bodies" page under the NDT Resources Center tab.  To maintain consistency, the techniques
described for each test method are those listed in the 2011 edition of ASNT’s Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.

What Is Nondestructive Testing?

Nondestructive testing (NDT) is the process of inspecting, testing, or evaluating materials, components or assemblies for discontinuities, or
differences in characteristics without destroying the serviceability of the part or system. In other words, when the inspection or test is completed
the part can still be used.

In contrast to NDT, other tests are destructive in nature and are therefore done on a limited number of samples ("lot sampling"), rather than on
the materials, components or assemblies actually being put into service.

These destructive tests are often used to determine the physical properties of materials such as impact resistance, ductility, yield and ultimate
tensile strength, fracture toughness and fatigue strength, but discontinuities and differences in material characteristics are more effectively
found by NDT.

Today modern nondestructive tests are used in manufacturing, fabrication and in-service inspections to ensure product integrity and reliability,
to control manufacturing processes, lower production costs and to maintain a uniform quality level. During construction, NDT is used to ensure
the quality of materials and joining processes during the fabrication and erection phases, and in-service NDT inspections are used to ensure
that the products in use continue to have the integrity necessary to ensure their usefulness and the safety of the public.

It should be noted that while the medical field uses many of the same processes, the term "nondestructive testing" is generally not used to
describe medical applications.

NDT Test Methods

Test method names often refer to the type of penetrating medium or the equipment used to perform that test. Current NDT methods are:
Acoustic Emission Testing (AE), Electromagnetic Testing (ET), Guided Wave Testing (GW), Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), Laser Testing
Methods (LM), Leak Testing (LT), Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL), Microwave Testing, Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT), Magnetic Particle Testing
(MT), Neutron Radiographic Testing (NR), Radiographic Testing (RT), Thermal/Infrared Testing (IR), Ultrasonic Testing (UT), Vibration Analysis
(VA) and Visual Testing (VT).

The six most frequently used test methods are MT, PT, RT, UT, ET and VT. Each of these test methods will be described here, followed by the
other, less often used test methods.

Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)

The basic principle of liquid penetrant testing is that when a very low viscosity (highly fluid) liquid (the penetrant) is applied to the surface of a
part, it will penetrate into fissures and voids open to the surface. Once the excess penetrant is removed, the penetrant trapped in those voids
will flow back out, creating an indication. Penetrant testing can be performed on magnetic and non-magnetic materials, but does not work well
on porous materials. Penetrants may be "visible", meaning they can be seen in ambient light, or fluorescent, requiring the use of a "black" light.
The visible dye penetrant process is shown in Figure 7. When performing a PT inspection, it is imperative that the surface being tested is clean
and free of any foreign materials or liquids that might block the penetrant from entering voids or fissures open to the surface of the part. After
applying the penetrant, it is permitted to sit on the surface for a specified period of time (the "penetrant dwell time"), then the part is carefully
cleaned to remove excess penetrant from the surface. When removing the penetrant, the operator must be careful not to remove any penetrant
that has flowed into voids. A light coating of developer is then be applied to the surface and given time ("developer dwell time") to allow the
penetrant from any voids or fissures to seep up into the developer, creating a visible indication. Following the prescribed developer dwell time,
the part is inspected visually, with the aid of a black light for fluorescent penetrants. Most developers are fine-grained, white talcum-like
powders that provide a color contrast to the penetrant being used.
PT Techniques
Solvent Removable

Solvent Removable penetrants are those penetrants that require a solvent other than water to remove the excess penetrant.  These penetrants
are usually visible in nature, commonly dyed a bright red color that will contrast well against a white developer.  The penetrant is usually
sprayed or brushed onto the part, then after the penetrant dwell time has expired, the part is cleaned with a cloth dampened with penetrant
cleaner after which the developer is applied.  Following the developer dwell time the part is examined to detect any penetrant bleed-out showing
through the developer.

Water-washable

Water-washable penetrants have an emulsifier included in the penetrant that allows the penetrant to be removed using a water spray.  They are
most often applied by dipping the part in a penetrant tank, but the penetrant may be applied to large parts by spraying or brushing.  Once the
part is fully covered with penetrant, the part is placed on a drain board for the penetrant dwell time, then taken to a rinse station where it is
washed with a course water spray to remove the excess penetrant.  Once the excess penetrant has been removed, the part may be placed in a
warm air dryer or in front of a gentle fan until the water has been removed.  The part can then be placed in a dry developer tank and coated with
developer, or allowed to sit for the remaining dwell time then inspected.

Post-emulsifiable

Post-emulsifiable penetrants are penetrants that do not have an emulsifier included in its chemical make-up like water-washable penetrants. 
Post-emulsifiable penetrants are applied in a similar manner, but prior to the water-washing step, emulsifier is applied to the surface for a
prescribed period of time (emulsifier dwell) to remove the excess penetrant.  When the emulsifier dwell time has elapsed, the part is subjected
to the same water wash and developing process used for water-washable penetrants.  Emulsifiers can be lipophilic (oil-based) or hydrophilic
(water-based).

Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)

Magnetic Particle Testing uses one or more magnetic fields to locate surface and near-surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials.  The
magnetic field can be applied with a permanent magnet or an electromagnet.  When using an electromagnet, the field is present only when the
current is being applied.  When the magnetic field encounters a discontinuity transverse to the direction of the magnetic field, the flux lines
produce a magnetic flux leakage field of their own as shown in Figure 1.  Because magnetic flux lines don't travel well in air, when very fine
colored ferromagnetic particles ("magnetic particles") are applied to the surface of the part the particles will be drawn into the discontinuity,
reducing the air gap and producing a visible indication on the surface of the part.  The magnetic particles may be a dry powder or suspended in
a liquid solution, and they may be colored with a visible dye or a fluorescent dye that fluoresces under an ultraviolet ("black") light.

MT Techniques
Yokes

Most field inspections are performed using a Yoke, as shown at the right.  As shown in Figure 2(a), an electric coil is
wrapped around a central core, and when the current is applied, a magnetic field is generated that extends from the core
down through the articulated legs into the part.  This is known as longitudinal magnetization because the magnetic flux
lines run from one leg to the other. 
When the legs are placed on a ferromagnetic part and the yoke is energized, a magnetic field is introduced into the part
as shown in (b).  Because the flux lines do run from one leg to the other, discontinuities oriented perpendicular to a line
drawn between the legs can be found.  To ensure no indications are missed, the yoke is used once in the position shown
then used again with the yoke turned 90o so no indications are missed.  Because all of the electric current is contained in
the yoke and only the magnetic field penetrates the part, this type of application is known as indirect induction.

Prods

Prod units use direct induction, where the current runs through the part and a circular magnetic field is generated around the legs as shown in
Figure 3.  Because the magnetic field between the prods is travelling perpendicular to a line drawn between the prods, indications oriented
parallel to a line drawn between the prods can be found.  As with the yoke, two inspections are done, the second with the prods oriented 90 o to
the first application.

Coils

Electric coils are used to generate a longitudinal magnetic field.  When energized, the current creates a magnetic field around the wires making
up the coil so that the resulting flux lines are oriented through the coil as shown at the right.  Because of the longitudinal field, indications in
parts placed in a coil are oriented transverse to the longitudinal field.

Central Conductor

When testing hollow parts such as pipes, tubes and fittings, a conductive circular bar can be placed between the heads with the part suspended
on the bar (the "central conductor") as shown in Figure 6.  The part is then wetted down with the bath solution and the current is applied,
travelling through the central conductor rather than through the part.  The ID and OD of the part can then be inspected.  As with a head shot,
the magnetic field is perpendicular to the current flow, wrapping around the test piece, so indications running axially down the length of the part
can be found using this technique.
Radiographic Testing (RT)

Industrial radiography involves exposing a test object to penetrating radiation so that the radiation passes through the
object being inspected and a recording medium placed against the opposite side of that object.  For thinner or less dense
materials such as aluminum, electrically generated x-radiation (X-rays) are commonly used, and for thicker or denser
materials, gamma radiation is generally used.

Gamma radiation is given off by decaying radioactive materials, with the two most commonly used sources of gamma
radiation being Iridium-192 (Ir-192) and Cobalt-60 (Co-60).  IR-192 is generally used for steel up to 2-1/2 - 3 inches,
depending on the Curie strength of the source, and Co-60 is usually used for thicker materials due to its greater
penetrating ability. 

The recording media can be industrial x-ray film or one of several types of digital radiation detectors.  With both, the
radiation passing through the test object exposes the media, causing an end effect of having darker areas where more
radiation has passed through the part and lighter areas where less radiation has penetrated.  If there is a void or defect in
the part, more radiation passes through, causing a darker image on the film or detector, as shown in Figure 8.

RT Techniques
Film Radiography

Film radiography uses a film made up of a thin transparent plastic coated with a fine layer of silver bromide on one or both
sides of the plastic.  When exposed to radiation these crystals undergo a reaction that allows them, when developed, to
convert to black metallic silver.  That silver is then "fixed" to the plastic during the developing process, and when dried,
becomes a finished radiographic film.

To be a usable film, the area of interest (weld area, etc.) on the film must be within a certain density (darkness) range and
must show enough contrast and sensitivity so that discontinuities of interest can be seen.  These items are a function of
the strength of the radiation, the distance of the source from the film and the thickness of the part being inspected.  If any
of these parameters are not met, another exposure ("shot") must be made for that area of the part.

Computed Radiography

Computed radiography (CR) is a transitional technology between film and direct digital radiography. This technique uses a reusable, flexible,
photo-stimulated phosphor (PSP) plate which is loaded into a cassette and is exposed in a manner similar to traditional film radiography. The
cassette is then placed in a laser reader where it is scanned and translated into a digital image, which take from one to five minutes.  The image
can then be uploaded to a computer or other electronic media for interpretation and storage.

Computed Tomography
Computed tomography (CT) uses a computer to reconstruct an image of a cross sectional plane of an object as opposed to a conventional
radiograph, as shown in Figure 9.  The CT image is developed from multiple views taken at different viewing angles that are reconstructed
using a computer. With traditional radiography, the position of internal discontinuities cannot be accurately determined without making
exposures from several angles to locate the item by triangulation.  With computed tomography, the computer triangulates using every point in
the plane as viewed from many different directions.

Digital Radiography

Digital radiography (DR) digitizes the radiation that passes through an object directly into an image that can be displayed on a computer
monitor.  The three principle technologies used in direct digital imaging are amorphous silicon, charge coupled devices (CCDs), and
complementary metal oxide semiconductors (CMOSs).  These images are available for viewing and analysis in seconds compared to the time
needed to scan in computed radiography images. The increased processing speed is a result of the unique construction of the pixels; an
arrangement that also allows a superior resolution than is found in computed radiography and most film applications.

Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

Ultrasonic testing uses the same principle as is used in naval SONAR and fish finders.  Ultra-high frequency sound is
introduced into the part being inspected and if the sound hits a material with a different acoustic impedance (density and
acoustic velocity), some of the sound will reflect back to the sending unit and can be presented on a visual display.  By
knowing the speed of the sound through the part (the acoustic velocity) and the time required for the sound to return to the
sending unit, the distance to the reflector (the indication with the different acoustic impedance) can be determined.  The
most common sound frequencies used in UT are between 1.0 and 10.0 MHz, which are too high to be heard and do not
travel through air.  The lower frequencies have greater penetrating power but less sensitivity (the ability to "see" small
indications), while the higher frequencies don't penetrate as deeply but can detect smaller indications.

The two most commonly used types of sound waves used in industrial inspections are the compression (longitudinal)
wave and the shear (transverse) wave, as shown in Figure 10.  Compression waves cause the atoms in a part to vibrate
back and forth parallel to the sound direction and shear waves cause the atoms to vibrate perpendicularly (from side to
side) to the direction of the sound.  Shear waves travel at approximately half the speed of longitudinal waves. 

Sound is introduced into the part using an ultrasonic transducer ("probe") that converts electrical impulses from the UT
machine into sound waves, then converts returning sound back into electric impulses that can be displayed as a visual
representation on a digital or LCD screen (on older machines, a CRT screen).  If the machine is properly calibrated, the
operator can determine the distance from the transducer to the reflector, and in many cases, an experienced operator can
determine the type of discontinuity (like slag, porosity or cracks in a weld) that caused the reflector.  Because ultrasound
will not travel through air (the atoms in air molecules are too far apart to transmit ultrasound), a liquid or gel called
"couplant" is used between the face of the transducer and the surface of the part to allow the sound to be transmitted into
the part.

UT Techniques
Straight Beam

Straight beam inspection uses longitudinal waves to interrogate the test piece as shown at the right.  If the sound hits an internal reflector, the
sound from that reflector will reflect to the transducer faster than the sound coming back from the back-wall of the part due to the shorter
distance from the transducer.  This results in a screen display like that shown at the right in Figure 11.  Digital thickness testers use the same
process, but the output is shown as a digital numeric readout rather than a screen presentation.

Angle Beam

Angle beam inspection uses the same type of transducer but it is mounted on an angled wedge (also called a "probe")
that is designed to transmit the sound beam into the part at a known angle.  The most commonly used inspection angles
are 45o, 60o and 70o, with the angle being calculated up from a line drawn through the thickness of the part (not the part
surface).  A 60o probe is shown in Figure 12.  If the frequency and wedge angle is not specified by the governing code or
specification, it is up to the operator to select a combination that will adequately inspect the part being tested.

In angle beam inspections, the transducer and wedge combination (also referred to as a "probe") is moved back and forth
towards the weld so that the sound beam passes through the full volume of the weld.  As with straight beam inspections,
reflectors aligned more or less perpendicular to the sound beam will send sound back to the transducer and are displayed
on the screen.
Immersion Testing

Immersion Testing is a technique where the part is immersed in a tank of water with the water being used as the coupling medium to allow the
sound beam to travel between the transducer and the part.  The UT machine is mounted on a movable platform (a "bridge") on the side of the
tank so it can travel down the length of the tank.  The transducer is swivel-mounted on at the bottom of a waterproof tube that can be raised,
lowered and moved across the tank.  The bridge and tube movement permits the transducer to be moved on the X-, Y- and Z-axes.  All
directions of travel are gear driven so the transducer can be moved in accurate increments in all directions, and the swivel allows the transducer
to be oriented so the sound beam enters the part at the required angle.  Round test parts are often mounted on powered rollers so that the part
can be rotated as the transducer travels down its length, allowing the full circumference to be tested.  Multiple transducers can be used at the
same time so that multiple scans can be performed.

Through Transmission

Through transmission inspections are performed using two transducers, one on each side of the part as shown in Figure 13.  The transmitting
transducer sends sound through the part and the receiving transducer receives the sound.  Reflectors in the part will cause a reduction in the
amount of sound reaching the receiver so that the screen presentation will show a signal with a lower amplitude (screen height).

Phased Array

Phased array inspections are done using a probe with multiple elements that can be individually activated.  By varying the time when each
element is activated, the resulting sound beam can be "steered", and the resulting data can be combined to form a visual image representing a
slice through the part being inspected.

Time of Flight Diffraction

Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) uses two transducers located on opposite sides of a weld with the transducers set at a specified distance from
each other.  One transducer transmits sound waves and the other transducer acting as a receiver.   Unlike other angle beam inspections, the
transducers are not manipulated back and forth towards the weld, but travel along the length of the weld with the transducers remaining at the
same distance from the weld.  Two sound waves are generated, one travelling along the part surface between the transducers, and the other
travelling down through the weld at an angle then back up to the receiver.  When a crack is encountered, some of the sound is diffracted from
the tips of the crack, generating a low strength sound wave that can be picked up by the receiving unit.  By amplifying and running these signals
through a computer, defect size and location can be determined with much greater accuracy than by conventional UT methods.