Chapter 4: Design Considerations

Table of Contents
Chapter 4: Design Considerations .................................................................................. 1
4-1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 3
4-2 Deflection and Camber ...................................................................................... 3
4-2.01 Maximum Allowable Deflection................................................................. 3
4-2.02 Actual Deflection ...................................................................................... 3
4-2.03 Negative Deflection .................................................................................. 4
4-2.04 Camber .................................................................................................... 5
4-2.05 Horizontal Deflection ................................................................................ 8
4-3 Beam Continuity ................................................................................................. 8
4-4 Cap Beam Center Loading Strips....................................................................... 9
4-4.01 Introduction............................................................................................... 9
4-4.02 Design Criteria........................................................................................ 10
4-5 Construction Sequence .................................................................................... 10
4-5.01 Introduction............................................................................................. 10
4-5.02 Transverse Construction Joint ................................................................ 11
4-6 T-Beam Bridges ............................................................................................... 11
4-7 Friction ............................................................................................................. 12
4-7.01 Introduction............................................................................................. 12
4-8 Prestressing Forces ......................................................................................... 12
4-9 Long-Term Superstructure Deflection .............................................................. 13
4-10 Falsework at Deck Overhangs ...................................................................... 13
4-10.01 Introduction............................................................................................. 13
4-10.02 Stem and Soffit Pour .............................................................................. 14
4-10.03 Deck Pour .............................................................................................. 15
4-11 Concrete Deck on Steel Girders ................................................................... 15
4-11.01 New Steel Girder Bridges ....................................................................... 15
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4-11.02 Steel Girder Widenings .......................................................................... 17

4-12 Falsework Over or Adjacent to Roadways or Railroads ................................ 19
4-12.01 Introduction............................................................................................. 19
4-12.02 Falsework Openings ............................................................................... 20
4-12.03 Horizontal Clearance .............................................................................. 21
4-12.04 Vertical Clearance .................................................................................. 22
4-12.05 Requirements Over or Adjacent to Roadways or Railroads ................... 24
4-12.06 Additional Requirements Over or Adjacent to Railroads ........................ 29
4-13 Waste Slabs .................................................................................................. 31
4-13.01 Introduction............................................................................................. 31
4-13.02 Considerations ....................................................................................... 31
4-14 Sand Beds .................................................................................................... 32
4-14.01 Introduction............................................................................................. 32
4-14.02 Considerations ....................................................................................... 33

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4-1 Introduction
This chapter covers design considerations which must be addressed during design and
review of shop drawings. Subsequent chapters cover specific design methods and
procedures.

Shop drawings must not be authorized if the applicable design considerations have not
been addressed properly in the design.

4-2 Deflection and Camber

4-2.01 Maximum Allowable Deflection
The maximum allowable beam deflection is limited to:

𝐋
𝐦𝐚𝐱 ≤ (4-2.01-1)
𝟐𝟒𝟎

where 𝐦𝐚𝐱 = Max allowable beam deflection

L = Span length of falsework beam

The deflection is calculated using the weight of all the concrete in the whole
superstructure cross section, as though the entire superstructure were placed in a
single concrete pour; the weight of the falsework is not included in the calculation. See
Standard Specifications, Section 48-2.02B(3), Stresses, Loadings, and Deflections. This
limiting value is included in the specifications to ensure a certain degree of rigidity in the
falsework and thereby minimize distortion of the forms as concrete is placed.

4-2.02 Actual Deflection

The actual deflection is the deflection that occurs as the falsework beam is loaded.
Calculating actual deflection is the engineer's responsibility, since it is used in
determining the amount of falsework camber required.

When calculating the actual deflection, include the weight of:

• Concrete, reinforcement, and forms (160 pounds per cubic foot (pcf)).
• The supporting beam (pounds per linear foot (plf)).

Consideration must be given to such factors as the sequence of construction and the
depth of the superstructure when two or more concrete pours are involved.

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The specifications do not include a limiting value for live load deflection, as they are of a
transient nature. However, when a bridge deck finishing machine is supported at the
outer edge of a cantilevered deck overhang, particular care must be taken to prevent
excessive deflection of the deck overhang support system. Unless special precautions
are taken, the concentrated load, due to the weight of the finishing machine, may cause
the deck overhang to deflect appreciably with respect to the remainder of the deck
surface. This will decrease bridge deck thickness and reduce reinforcing steel cover,
both of which are detrimental to the completed structure.

The applicable specification is the general requirement that falsework must be designed
and constructed to produce, in the finished structure, the lines and grades shown on the
plans. See Standard Specifications, Section 48-2.01A, Temporary Structures –
Falsework – Summary. To ensure compliance with this general requirement, add the
“deflection due to the weight of a deck finishing machine” to the “deflection due to the
weight of the concrete”. The sum of these two deflections should not be too large as to
adversely affect the character of the finished work. This will require engineering
judgment. In summary, the important point is that the weight of the finishing machine be
considered, and the total deflection limited to a realistic value.

4-2.03 Negative Deflection

Depending on the concrete placing sequence, negative (upward) deflection may occur
where falsework beams are continuous over a long span and a relatively short adjacent
span. This condition (negative deflection at the end support) is an indication of system
instability and must be considered in the falsework design. If beam uplift cannot be
prevented by loading the short span first, the end of the beam must be restrained, or the
span lengths must be revised. Designs where theoretical beam uplift will occur under
any loading condition must not be authorized.

When falsework stringers are considerably longer than the actual falsework span, the
stringer cantilever extending beyond the point of support will deflect upward as the main
span is loaded. The design must include provisions to accommodate this upward
deflection. The usual method is to use a sleeper (filler strip) on the main span only,
which allows free movement of the stringer cantilever. The sleeper should end at the
center line of the falsework top cap and should not extend into the cantilever section of
the stringer. The sleeper must be thick enough to offset the theoretical uplift on the
cantilever, see Figure 4-1, Sleeper on the Falsework Stringer.

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Note: No sleeper on beam tails.

Figure 4-1. Sleeper on the Falsework Stringer

Sometimes the contractor may use the steel beam cantilever beyond the support, with
wood beams wedged tight between its flanges, to close the gap at abutment and bent
faces. This may be acceptable for a closure distance up to 4 feet. This detail, when
applied to longer distances, can cause depression in the wet soffit concrete due to
stringer tail movement when concrete is placed in the main span. This should be
discouraged.

4-2.04 Camber
The term “camber” is used to describe an adjustment to the profile of a load supporting
beam or stringer so the completed structure will have the lines and grades shown on the
plans. In theory, the camber adjustment consists of the sum of the following factors:
• Anticipated total deflection of the falsework beam (stringer) under its own weight
and the actual load imposed
• Difference between the falsework beam profile and profile grade, also called
vertical curve compensation
• Difference between the falsework beam profile and ultimate superstructure
deflection curve (bridge camber)
• Difference between the falsework beam profile and any permanent or residual
camber to remain in the structure for its useful service life

In structures with parabolic soffits, an additional adjustment may be required to account

for the difference between beam profile and soffit curvature. On parabolic soffits the
vertical curve component is sometimes included with the soffit profile (4-scale) grades.

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When falsework beams are relatively short, the theoretical adjustment due to vertical
curve compensation, bridge camber, and desired permanent or residual camber will be
small and may be neglected. As falsework spans increase, these factors become
increasingly significant and must be considered along with beam deflection.

More than any other single factor, the satisfactory appearance of a completed structure
will depend on the accuracy of the camber used in the falsework construction. Good
judgment will be required, particularly in determining the amount of camber to be used
to compensate for anticipated dead load falsework deflection, take up, and settlement.

In general, the deck weight of a conventionally reinforced box girder bridge should be
omitted when calculating camber, since additional stringer deflection as the deck is
placed usually is insignificant. In the case of cast-in-place prestressed construction,
falsework span length may be an important consideration. In such structures, judgment
will be required as to the relative stiffness of the girder stems, and whether they will
resist additional deflection and by how much, as the deck is placed. Experience has
shown that including 10-20% of the deck weight for deflection is a reasonable estimate
for typical prestressed box girder bridges.

The engineer furnishes the amount of camber to use in constructing falsework; see
Standard Specifications, Section 48-2.03C, Falsework – Erection.

4-2.04A Camber Strips

When to require camber strips is a matter of engineering judgment. Generally, camber
strips are not necessary unless the total camber adjustment exceeds approximately 1/4-
inch for stringers supporting the exterior girders, edge of the soffit, or deck overhang,
and approximately 1/2-inch for beams at interior locations. The engineer orders the
contractor to furnish camber strips. See Standard Specifications, Section 48-2.03C,
Falsework – Erection.

To warrant proper design and installation, camber strips must conform to the following
criteria:
• 900 psi maximum allowable compressive stress for perpendicular-to-grain
loading
• 1.5-inch minimum width
• 1/8-inch maximum crushing
• Must be centered along the longitudinal centerline of the falsework beam
• Structure cross slope, allowable wood crushing, and joist deflection must be
considered when determining the height of the camber strip.

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• The minimum height of the camber strip must be such that the joists will not
come into contact with any part of the falsework beam under any loading
condition.
• Must not extend onto the unloaded portion of a trailing beam cantilever
• If the amount of camber is large, as in the case where a parabolic curved bridge
soffit is supported by a long falsework beam, the camber strips should be braced
or built up with wide material to avoid lateral instability. The use of laterally
unsupported tall, narrow camber strips is not permitted.
• A sleeper is required when the stringer does not follow bridge cross slope and
camber strip does not include allowance for cross slope, see Figure 4-2, Camber
Strip and Sleeper Requirements.

Because camber strips are an incidental part of the system, their installation seldom
receives more than cursory attention. Casual treatment of camber strip installation can
result in an unforeseen and undesirable loading of the falsework beam. For example, a
camber strip placed at a distance away from the centerline of a steel beam may induce
torsional stresses that were not considered in the design. Undesirable torsional stresses
may be induced in beams supporting falsework for structures having steep cross
slopes, even if the camber strip is properly placed along the beam centerline.

Figure 4-2. Camber Strip and Sleeper Requirements.

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4-2.05 Horizontal Deflection

Although the specifications do not include a limiting value for horizontal deflection, such
deflection will be negligible in any falsework system where horizontal forces are resisted
by bracing. Horizontal deflection need not be considered in any case where the
horizontal design load is resisted by a properly designed bracing system. This includes
external bracing systems where the use of external bracing is necessary to prevent
overturning.

Horizontal deflection will be a consideration when the horizontal design load is resisted
by bending in a falsework member. This situation occurs when falsework is supported
by pile bents. For pile bents, it is necessary to combine bending and vertical load
stresses to obtain the actual stress.

The procedure for evaluating the adequacy of falsework pile bents is discussed in
Section 8-6, Pile Foundations.

Horizontal deflection may be an issue with falsework where the stringers are loaded on
the bottom flange and not directly over the web. Loading stringers this way may cause
the top flange to move horizontally. See Figure 4-3, Bottom Flange Loading.

Figure 4-3. Bottom Flange Loading.

4-3 Beam Continuity

Because of the sequential, and sometimes unpredictable way falsework loads are
applied, beam continuity is an uncertain design condition. To accommodate this
uncertainty, assume the continuous beam condition when continuity will act to increase
loads or stresses, but not otherwise.

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For example, the simple span condition will be assumed when calculating positive
bending moments in joists, stringers, and similar continuous members; however, full
continuity will be assumed when calculating negative bending moments in these same
members. Assume full continuity when calculating the beam reaction on interior
supports under continuous falsework members but assume the simple span condition
when calculating the reaction at the end support.

In a framed bent, continuity must be considered in any case where stringer loads are
applied within the cap span rather than directly over the supporting post to ensure that
allowable post loads are not exceeded.

Continuous caps are often supported by two or more towers in a heavy-duty shoring
system. If leg loads are unequal, the resulting differential leg shortening will cause a
redistribution of beam reactions and a corresponding change in the magnitude and
location of maximum cap bending stress.

When beams are continuous over two or more spans, beam uplift can occur in adjacent
unloaded spans when concrete is placed in one span. Refer to discussion in Section
4-2.01A, Negative Deflection.

The engineer will be expected to recognize these and other cases where the effect of
beam continuity must be investigated to prevent the overstressing of any falsework
member or instability in the system.

4-4 Cap Beam Center Loading Strips

4-4.01 Introduction
Timber center loading strips or shims are sometimes used as a method for transferring
the load from stringers to cap beams. Center loading strips aid in transferring the
vertical reaction load from stringer to cap concentrically. This prevents the stringer
bottom flange from bearing on the flange edges of the cap. Otherwise the stringer can
induce torsional rotation in the cap if the stringer bears on points other than the center
of the cap. It is critical that center loading strips are symmetrically located about a
vertical line that passes through the webs of both the stringer and the cap. This ensures
the transfer of the force reactions from stringer to the cap through the web of cap
thereby preventing any unintended moment on the cap. See Figure 4-4. Center Loading
Strip Details.

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Figure 4-4. Center Loading Strip Details

4-4.02 Design Criteria

The maximum thickness of loading strips or shims must not exceed:
• 6 inches
• This limit also applies to multiple built-up strips or shims. This maximum
thickness limitation eliminates excessive build-up between the cap and the
stringer beam that could lead to stability problems

The allowable compressive stress for perpendicular-to-grain loading for center loading
strips is:
• 900 psi for single strip or shim up to 6 inches thick.
• Comply with National Design Specifications (NDS) for multiple strips or shims
with a combined thickness up to 6 inches thick.

4-5 Construction Sequence

4-5.01 Introduction
Unless a concrete placing sequence is shown on the bridge plans, the shop drawings
must include a placing diagram showing the proposed placing sequence and the
location of all construction joints. If a placing schedule or sequence is shown on the
plans, no deviation is permitted, and the falsework must be designed and constructed to
accommodate the planned placing sequence.

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4-5.02 Transverse Construction Joint

The location of transverse construction joints in the bridge superstructure is an
important falsework design consideration. If a construction joint is located near the mid-
point of a falsework beam, the initial concrete pour on one side of the joint will deflect
the beam as the concrete dead load is applied. Later, as concrete is placed on the
opposite side of the joint, additional beam deflection will occur. The additional beam
deflection leaves the first concrete placed to be unsupported, and this can result in
unanticipated detrimental stresses and even cracking in the permanent structure. To
avoid this condition, transverse construction joints in the bridge superstructure should
be designed and constructed in such a manner that subsequent pours will not produce
additional stresses in the concrete already in place. In many cases the exact location of
a construction joint is not critical, and the joint can be moved a few feet in either
direction to accommodate the falsework design. The important point, however, is that
the joint location be considered in the falsework design with respect to falsework beam
span, thus avoiding a problem during construction.

4-6 T-Beam Bridges

When relatively long falsework spans are used to support T-beam structures, the added
weight of the deck concrete, which often exceeds the weight of the stem, loads the stem
and the falsework as the deck concrete is placed. This can produce stresses of
considerable magnitude in the concrete and reinforcing steel in the girder stem.

To prevent overstressing of concrete and reinforcing steel in the girder stems of T-beam
girder bridges, the Standard Specifications, Section 48-2.02B(1) General limit the length
of falsework spans to:

𝐋 = 𝟖. 𝟓𝐓 + 𝟏𝟒 (4-6-1)

where L = Length of falsework span (ft)

T = Depth of T-beam girder measured from top of deck to bottom of girder (ft)

Occasionally contractors request to use a longer falsework span than allowed by the
specifications. It is acceptable to exceed the specified span length provided the criteria
in Section 5-8, Longer T-Beam Falsework Spans, are satisfied.

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4-7 Friction
4-7.01 Introduction
Friction used as a means of resisting opposing horizontal forces is a very intangible
factor. The use of friction for this purpose should be considered with caution. The
coefficient of friction should be assumed as not being greater than 0.30 maximum for all
contact surfaces. The only exception to this friction factor is for concrete anchor blocks,
see Section 5-5.13A, Cable Anchored to Concrete Blocks.

In general, friction may be considered as resisting the tendency of one member to slide
over or across another member, provided frictional resistance is actually developed
under the loading condition being investigated.

Do not consider frictional resistance in any case where the dead load is not applied
uniformly through all stages of construction, or where continuity would reduce the load
acting on a support under a non-uniform loading condition.

Do not consider frictional resistance as contributing to the lateral stability of beams or

stringers. If flange support is required, the method of support must be positive and
independent of any theoretical frictional resistance.

Do not consider friction as contributing to the resisting capacity of any connecting

device unless the device is specifically designed and marketed as a friction-type
connector, except as otherwise provided in the Section 7-3.06, C-Clamps.

4-8 Prestressing Forces

When cast-in-place prestressed structures are stressed, the initial stressing produces
an upward deflection in the positive moment area, and the resulting redistribution of
vertical forces transfers the superstructure dead load from the falsework to the adjacent
abutments and columns.

The Standard Specifications, Section 48-2.02B(2), Design Criteria – Loads, require that
the falsework must support any increase or readjustment of loads caused by
prestressing forces.

An example of dead load redistribution due to longitudinal prestressing is stage

construction of continuous bridges with hinges. For these bridges, prestressing will
reduce the dead load on the falsework near the center of the suspended span and
increase the load on the falsework at the hinge. The forces involved in the dead load
redistribution are of considerable magnitude, since up to 3/8 of the total suspended
span dead load may be transferred to the falsework at the hinge. The load due to dead
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load transfer must be added to the dead load calculated in the usual manner to obtain
the total dead load for the falsework design at the hinge support.

If the dead load hinge reaction (the load applied to the cantilever span by the supported
span) is not shown on the contract plans, it may be obtained from the designer.

The effect of transverse prestressing is a falsework design consideration. If the structure

is designed to include transverse prestressing of decks or caps, the project plans will
include the stressing sequence, and the falsework must be designed to accommodate
the sequence outlined on the plans.

4-9 Long-Term Superstructure Deflection

Depending on factors, such as the length of time the falsework is to remain in place and
the method and sequence of removal, long term deflection of the bridge superstructure
occurring after prestressing may be a design consideration.

Long term superstructure deflection will begin as soon as the structure is stressed. As
deflection occurs, a portion of the dead load initially transferred to the falsework at the
hinge will be carried back to the falsework near the center of the span. The amount of
dead load carried back is a function of time and is not easy to predict. However, this
should not present a problem in most cases because the load carried back cannot
exceed the load originally resisted by the falsework.

If falsework is removed in stages, field engineers should be aware that part of the
redistributed load will be carried back with time, and that components of the falsework
system remaining in place near the center of the span will be subjected to a gradually
increasing load as superstructure deflection takes place. Dead load carried back may
be an important consideration when evaluating the adequacy of a given falsework
removal sequence. See also Section 9-5.03, Stage Construction, for removal sequence
considerations.

4-10 Falsework at Deck Overhangs

4-10.01 Introduction
For box girder structures with cantilevered deck overhangs, the normal 2-stage
construction sequence results in differential loading of the exterior and first interior
falsework beams. The differential loading condition is exacerbated if the exterior girder
is also sloping outward at the top, as is usually the case. Depending on the beam size
and location, differential loading may result in differential beam deflection, causing the
exterior girder stem to rotate. Girder rotation may occur during the girder stem pour or
during the deck pour, or during both pours.
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4-10.02 Stem and Soffit Pour

Referring to Figure 4-5(a), Deck Pour Differential Deflection – Prior to Deck Pour, during
a girder stem pour, stringer A may deflect more than stringer B, causing a downward
movement of stringer A relative to point C. This downward movement of stringer A
causes the girder-stem form to rotate inward. Inward rotation will affect alignment and
grade at the top of the girder stem and will cause the rebar in the stem and soffit corner
to move during the pour. If the inward rotation is small, minor adjustments can be made
to the grades before the deck pour and the movement of the rebar will be negligible. If
the inward rotation is large, it may not be possible to make the grade adjustments
before the deck pour and the rebar in the stem and soffit corner may move out of place
and create separation during the pour. The effects of differential stringer deflection
during the girder stem pour must be investigated as a precautionary measure to
determine whether any adverse consequences will occur. If the soffit is placed separate
from the stem, it may be necessary to realign the stem forms before placing the stem
concrete.

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Figure 4-5. Deck Pour Differential Deflection

4-10.03 Deck Pour

Referring to Figure 4-5, Deck Pour Differential Deflection, a situation may develop
during the deck pour where the weight of the deck overhang may cause stringer B to
deflect more than stringer A. This differential deflection causes a downward movement
at point C relative to stringer A, which pulls the kicker away from the girder stem form
panel and leaves the sloping exterior girder unsupported causing it to rotate outward.
This will induce torsional stresses in the concrete and reinforcing steel at the girder
base. This outward rotational moment is exacerbated by the weight of the deck concrete
on the inside of the exterior girder.

The load applied to the exterior and adjacent interior falsework beams, during the deck
pour, should be investigated in all cases where the depth of a box girder structure,
having sloped exterior girders, exceeds 5 feet. When the applied loads result in
differential beam deflection of sufficient magnitude to cause the exterior girder support
system to become dysfunctional, the falsework design must include means to resist
girder rotation. The method by which this is accomplished must be shown on the shop
drawings, such as tiebacks to the base of the adjacent interior girder.

4-11 Concrete Deck on Steel Girders

4-11.01 New Steel Girder Bridges
The Standard Specifications, Section 55-1.03B, Steel Structures – Falsework, include
special requirements for falsework supporting the concrete deck on steel girder bridges.
These requirements are included to control the manner falsework loads are applied to
the steel girder, and thus prevent undesirable distortion of the permanent structure. See
Figure 4-6, Steel Girder Falsework.

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Horizontal loads applied to the girder flanges by the falsework will produce a torsional
moment in the girder. To prevent possible overstressing of the permanent diaphragm
connections, the falsework design must include temporary struts and/or ties to resist the
full torsional moment and to prevent appreciable relative vertical movement between the
edge of deck form and the adjacent steel girder.

The falsework must be designed and constructed to comply with Standard

Specifications, Section 55-1.03B, Steel Structures – Falsework, as follows:
• Any loads applied to the girder web must be applied within 6-inches of a flange or
stiffener.
• Temporary struts must be provided as necessary to resist lateral loads.
• The applied loads must be distributed to prevent local distortion of the web.

Standard Specifications, Section 55-1.02E(7)(a), Steel Structures – Fabrication –

Welding – General, do not allow welding or tack welding of brackets, clips, shipping
devices, or any other material not described to any part of the girders unless it is shown
on the girder shop drawings.

Figure 4-6, Steel Girder Falsework, shows conventional falsework for the interior deck
forms, however, it is common to use stay in place steel deck forms for the interior deck.

The top flange of the steel girders must be surveyed after the girders are erected, but
before any load is placed on them. This step is necessary to verify that the theoretical
girder dead load camber shown on the bridge contract plans was achieved. Any
deviation in the camber must be accounted for by adjusting the thickness of the fillet
between the top of the girder flange and the bottom of the deck.

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Figure 4-6. Steel Girder Falsework

4-11.02 Steel Girder Widenings

In addition to the requirements stated in the previous section, special attention must be
given to deck falsework on widenings. A steel girder bridge widening must be
constructed as an independent “bridge” and then tied to the existing bridge with the
closure pour.

Referring to Figure 4-7, Steel Girder Widening Falsework, the falsework on the new
girder adjacent to the existing must be constructed independently of the existing bridge.
Typically, it is constructed using overhang brackets to support the portion of the deck
hanging over the new girder next to the closure pour.

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Figure 4-7. Steel Girder Widening Falsework.

Referring to Figure 4-8, Incorrect Steel Girder Widening Falsework, the portion of the
new deck, hanging over the new girder towards the closure pour, must not be supported
by the existing girder. The existing girder is in its final position, but the new girder will
deflect downward during the deck pour. The deflection can be up to several inches
depending upon the span length and girder stiffness.

If this portion of the deck is supported on the existing girder, the deck form between the
new and existing girder will continue to move as the deck pour proceeds along the new
girder and the new girder continues to deflect. This will also result in the following:
• Point A: The slope on the new deck will change
• Point B: Rebar in the concrete placed earlier in the pour will keep moving
resulting in debonding, e.g. when the pour is at mid-span, the forms and rebar at
1/4-span are still moving due to the girder deflection.
• Point C: The concrete may debond from the steel girder.
• Point D: The outer screw jack will deflect down the same amount as the inner
screw jack, but the joist will move less at the outer screw jack, causing the joist to
only be supported at the inner screw jack and the post on the existing girder and
hence the joist will be over loaded.

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Figure 4-8. Incorrect Steel Girder Widening Falsework.

The top of the steel girders must be surveyed after the girders are erected, but before
any load is placed on them. This step is necessary to verify that the theoretical girder
dead load camber shown on the bridge contract plans was achieved. Any deviation in
the camber must be accounted for by adjusting the thickness of the fillet between the
top of the girder flange and the bottom of the deck.

4-12 Falsework Over or Adjacent to Roadways

or Railroads
4-12.01 Introduction
The Standard Specifications, Section 48-2.02B(4), Falsework – Design Criteria –
Special Locations, include special requirements, which apply only to falsework over or
adjacent to roadways and railroads that are open to traffic. These requirements are
included to ensure higher standards of design and construction at locations where
public safety is involved.

Falsework posts are adjacent to roadways or railroads if:

• The post supports members that cross over roadways or railroads.
• The post is located such that the horizontal distance from the traffic side of the
falsework to the edge of pavement or to a point 10 feet from the centerline of

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railroad track is less than the height of the falsework and forms. See Figure 4-9,
Falsework Adjacent to Roadways or Railroads.

Figure 4-9. Falsework Adjacent to Roadways or Railroads.

4-12.02 Falsework Openings

Whenever an operation will reduce clearances available to public traffic, the Standard
Specifications, Section 7-1.04, Public Safety, require the contractor to notify the resident
engineer within a specified timeframe before the anticipated start of the operation.
Moreover, the Standard Specifications, Section 12-4.02A(3)(b), Traffic Control Systems
– Submittals – Closure Schedules, require the contractor to submit a closure schedule
request within a certain timeframe before the anticipated start of any job site activity that
reduces horizontal or vertical clearance of traveled ways.

Referring to Bridge Construction Memo 7-1.04, Impaired Clearances at Falsework Traffic

Openings, the structure representative completes form SC-4103, Report of Falsework
Clearance, from the shop drawings. With this information, the structure representative then
completes form TR-0019, Notice of Change in Clearance or Bridge Weight Rating, or
TR-0029, Notice of Change in Clearance or Bridge Weight Rating, as applicable. After
the Bridge Construction Engineer has reviewed and initialed the appropriate form, the
form is submitted to the resident engineer as notification of the change. The resident
engineer notifies the Transportation Permits Branch. After erection of the falsework, the
structure representative verifies the clearance.

The minimum width and height of each opening to be provided through the falsework will
be shown on the structure plans or in the special provisions.

The width of a vehicular opening is the distance between the temporary railings. The
clear distance between falsework posts will be considerably greater than the width
shown in the special provisions.

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For a vehicular opening, no portion of the falsework may encroach into the clearance
zone shown in Figure 4-10, Clearance to Railing Members and Barriers.

4-12.03 Horizontal Clearance

Horizontal clearance for falsework openings and any falsework adjacent to roadways
must be at least those shown in Table 4-1, Clearance to Railing Members and Barriers,
and Figure 4-10, Clearance to Railing Members and Barriers:

Table 4-1. Clearance to Railing Members and Barriers.

Falsework Member Clearance to railing Clearance to

members, barriers, and unanchored temporary
anchored temporary railing railing
Footings (incl. pads and 0’-3” 2’-0”
corbels)
Piles (incl. pile bents) 1’-0” 2’-9”
Other members 2’-0” 2’-9”

The clearance is measured from the portion of the railing or barrier closest to the
falsework, e.g. for temporary railing (Type K) it is measured from the toe.

Corbels are considered part of the footing or foundation. However, if corbels are used
as build up, they are considered as other members.

For K-rail anchor details see Standard Plans, T3B, Temporary Railing (Type K).

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Figure 4-10. Clearance to Railing Members and Barriers.

4-12.04 Vertical Clearance

Calculating anticipated vertical clearance prior to falsework erection and measuring
actual vertical clearance after erection is required to ensure Transportation Permits
Branch is aware of impaired clearances. Transportation Permits Branch uses this
information to issue transportation permits.

Example 1: Clearances at Falsework Openings, in Appendix D, Example Problems,

illustrates proper methodology for calculating the anticipated minimum vertical
clearance. The following specific factors should be considered:
• Stringer bottom flange elevations over the roadway during all stages of
construction. Measure the clearance to the lowest stringer over the roadway.
• Verify if the point of minimum vertical clearance is over the roadway or behind the
K-Rail during construction.
• Whether or not falsework is skewed, etc.

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Deflection of the falsework stringers under the dead load of the concrete will reduce the
theoretical clearance, and this must be considered in the design.

Figure 4-11, Points of Minimum Vertical Clearance, shows that the point of minimum final
vertical clearance of the bridge may not be the same as the point of minimum temporary
vertical clearance for the falsework during construction.

Figure 4-11. Points of Minimum Vertical Clearance.

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4-12.05 Requirements Over or Adjacent to Roadways or

Railroads
4-12.05A Introduction
Refer to Standard Specifications, Section 48-2.02B(4), Falsework – Design Criteria –
Special Locations. The special requirements discussed in this section apply to falsework
over or adjacent to roadways and railroads and within the limits shown in Section 4-
12.01, Introduction. Additional requirements that apply only to falsework over or
adjacent to railroads are discussed in Section 4-12.06, Additional Requirements Over or
Adjacent to Railroads.

Similar requirements also apply to falsework with bents perpendicular to or at an angle to

roadways and railroads, which are not supporting members over the roadway or railroad,
as explained in the following sections.

4-12.05B Post Material and Parameters

Falsework posts must be either:
• Steel with a minimum section modulus of 9.5 in3 about each axis
• Timber with a minimum section modulus of 250 in3 about each axis

When pipe frame or tubular steel components are used in falsework over or adjacent to a
roadway or railroad, either as individual posts or as legs in a tower bent, the specified
minimum section modulus for steel posts will apply to the post or tower leg, but not to the
screw jack extension.

4-12.05C Impact Loads and Mechanical Connections

Each falsework post must be mechanically connected to its supporting footing or
otherwise laterally restrained and comply with the following:
• 2000 lb force applied at the base of the post is:
o Applied at the base of each post regardless of its size, spacing, or loading;
however, it will be assumed as acting on only one post at a time.
o Applied in any direction except toward the roadway or railroad.
• Lateral restraint must be effective as shown in Figure 4-12, Application of 2000
Pound Load.
• For a bent in a highway median or in between railroad tracks, the restraint must
be effective in all directions.

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• For falsework with bents parallel or at an angle to roadways or railroads, this

requirement applies to all posts within the limits shown in Section 4-12.01,
Introduction, but not less than two posts for angled bents.

In the Standard Specifications, Section 48-2.02B(4), Falsework – Design Criteria –

Special Locations, the term support footing means the element of the falsework
system that is set on the ground.

Figure 4-12. Application of 2000 Pound Load.

Many contractors prefer to adjust falsework to grade by wedging or jacking at the bottom
of a falsework bent, rather than at the top. In such designs, two or more posts will be
supported by a bottom cap, which will be supported by wedges or wedges over sand
jacks set on the falsework footings.

Each post must be mechanically connected to the bottom cap to withstand a force of at
least 2000 lb. The design force does not accumulate along the bottom cap, so the
connection between the bottom cap and the falsework foundation is only required to
resist 2000 lbs total, regardless of the number of posts supported. A single point of
restraint will not provide adequate resistance in the transverse direction when the 2000
lb force is applied perpendicular to the beam, unless the connection is capable of
resisting moment as well as shear. The most practical solution is to restrain the bottom
cap at both ends, and both connections must be designed to resist (transfer) 2000 lbs.

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As an alternative means of providing lateral restraint, the 2000 lb force may be carried
from the bottom cap directly to the ground in the manner shown in Figure 4-12,
Application of 2000 Pound Load.

If cap systems are used as discussed in Section 6-8, Cap Systems, all the caps in the
cap system must be restrained for the 2000 lb load as discussed above for the single
bottom cap.

Each falsework post must be mechanically connected to the top cap, and the connection
must be designed to resist and comply with the following:
• 1000 lb force applied at the top of the post will be:
o Applied at the top of each post regardless of its size, spacing, or loading;
however, it will be assumed as acting on only one post at a time.
o Applied in any direction.
• Lateral restraint must be effective in any horizontal direction.
• For a bent in a highway median or in between railroad tracks, the restraint must
be effective in all directions.
• For falsework with bents parallel or at an angle to roadways or railroads, this
requirement applies to all posts within the limits shown in Section 4-12.01,
Introduction, but not less than two posts.

Standard Specifications, Section 48-2.02B(4), Falsework – Design Criteria – Special

Locations, requires certain stringers to be mechanically connected to the cap. The
connection must be designed to resist and comply with the following:
• 500 lb. force applied in any direction, including uplift
• These connections must be installed and functional before traffic is permitted to
pass under the falsework span.
• For falsework stringers parallel or at an angle to roadways or railroads, where
traffic does not pass under the stringers, but the stringer is within the limits shown
in Section 4-12.01, Introduction, mechanically connect the exterior stringer to the
cap. The connection must be capable of resisting a force in any direction,
including uplift, of not less than 500 lbs.

Details showing the connection between stringer and cap, cap and post, and post and
footing, must be shown on the shop drawings. All components must be designed so that
the specified maximum allowable stresses in bending, shear, and bearing are not
exceeded. The load duration factor, CD, for impact loading may be used to determine
the allowable value of nails and bolts used in the connection:

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• CD = 1.6 for nailed and bolted connections only

4-12.05D Bracing
The Standard Specifications, Section 48-2.02B(4), Falsework – Design Criteria –
Special Locations, require bolted connections when timber members are used to brace
falsework bents over or adjacent to roadways and railroads:
• For falsework with bents parallel or at an angle to roadways or railroads, this
requirement applies to all bracing within the limits shown in Section 4-12.01,
Introduction, but not less than one cross brace between two posts.
• This requirement applies to bracing in the longitudinal as well as the transverse
direction.
• The bolt diameter must be at least 5/8-inch.
• Substitution of bolts with coil rods is permitted if the root diameter of the coil rod
is greater than or equal to the required bolt diameter. Also, the substituted coil
rods must provide the capacity required for the connection. The term coil rod
includes threaded coil rods, as well as threaded rods.
• The brace must be bolted at both ends. It is not acceptable practice to use a bolt
at one end of a brace and nails or lag screws at the other end.
• Other fastener types may be used as intermediate fasteners in the center
intersection of a diagonal brace. See Section 6-3.02, Wood Cross Bracing.

All components of the falsework system which contribute to horizontal stability and
resistance to impact, except for bolts in bracing, must be installed at the time each
element of the falsework is erected, see Standard Specifications, Section 48-2.03C,
Falsework – Erection. Therefore, friction cannot be considered as contributing to the
strength of the connection, at either the top or the bottom, because frictional resistance
is not developed until a load is applied.

Bolts in bolted connections need not be installed when the falsework is erected to facilitate
adjusting of the falsework to grade. However, if the contractor elects to use nails in lieu
of bolts as a temporary expedient, the nailed connection must be shown on the shop
drawings, and the connection must be designed to resist the assumed horizontal load
while the connection is in use.

When nails are used as temporary fasteners to facilitate grade adjustment, they should
be replaced by bolts as soon as feasible, and in any case prior to placing concrete.

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4-12.05D(1) Temporary Bracing

The Standard Specifications, Section 48-2.03A, Falsework – Construction –
General, require the installation of temporary bracing as necessary to withstand
all imposed loads during erection, construction, and removal of the falsework.
While wind loads are to be considered in the design, the basic requirement is that
the bracing must be adequate to "withstand all imposed loads." Under the
specifications, then, the contractor must determine the design load, which may
not be less than the specified wind load for the height of falsework under
consideration.

Details showing the temporary bracing, or other means of support provided to

meet the intent of the specifications, must be shown on the shop drawings. Such
details are a part of the design and must comply with all contract requirements
even though the bracing or other means of support may be only "temporary"
restraining devices.

4-12.05E Modified Design Load

The vertical load used for the design of posts and towers which support falsework
adjacent to or over roadways and railroads must be modified to increase the factor of
safety. This modified design load must comply with the following:

• 150% of the load calculated in the usual manner

• Applied to post loads only
• For falsework with bents parallel or at an angle to the roadways or railroads, this
requirement applies to all posts within the limits shown in Section 4-12.01,
Introduction, but not less than two posts.

In the case of towers, the modified design load will be applied to all tower legs if any of
the tower legs are within the limit shown in Section 4-12.01, Introduction.

If the load on falsework adjacent to or over a roadway or railroad will be increased by

load transfer due to prestressing, the design vertical load for posts and towers will be
either the actual (unmodified) load plus the additional load due to prestressing or 150%
of the design load, whichever is greater.

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4-12.06 Additional Requirements Over or Adjacent to

Railroads
4-12.06A Introduction
In addition to the requirement in Section 4-12.05, Requirements Over or Adjacent to
Roadways or Railroads, the design of falsework which is over or adjacent to railroads
must comply with all the special requirements in this section as well. Moreover, the
design must also comply with the current railroad guidelines.

4-12.06B Mechanical Connections

All falsework stringers that span over a railroad must be mechanically connected to the
caps. The mechanical connection must be capable of resisting a 500 lb. load in any
direction, including uplift on the stringer.

4-12.06C Bracing
The principal design requirement is that bracing for falsework bents located within 20
feet of the track centerline must be designed to resist the following:
• 5000 lb. or the assumed horizontal load, whichever is greater
• This requirement applies to both transverse and longitudinal bracing

In the specification context, the term “bent” means the overall length of the falsework
bent regardless of the number of posts used. Typically, the 5000 lb. load will govern the
design only in the case of relatively narrow structures where the bent consists of five, or
fewer, falsework posts.

The load duration factor, CD, in the wood connections is determined as follows:
• 1.25 for the assumed horizontal load or 5000 lb. load
• 1.6 for wind load

4-12.06D Timber
For timber members:
• All connections must be bolted
• The bolt diameter must be at least 5/8-inch
• Substitution of bolts with coil rods is permitted if the root diameter of the coil rod
is greater than or equal to the required bolt diameter. Also, the substituted rods
must provide the capacity required for the connection

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The railroad will require solid end blocking when timber stringers are used regardless of
the height-to-width ratio of the timber stringers.

The load duration factor, CD, in the wood connections is determined as follows:
• CD = 1.25 for the assumed horizontal load or 5000 lb load
• CD = 1.6 for wind load

4-12.06E Steel
For steel, the allowable compression, tensile, bending, and shear stresses are limited
to:

𝐅𝐛 ≤ 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝐅𝐲 (4-12.06E-1)

𝐅𝐯 ≤ 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝐅𝐲 (4-12.06E-2)

where Fb = Maximum allowable compression, tensile, and bending stress

Fv = Maximum allowable shear stress
Fy = Minimum yield strength

4-12.06F Shop Drawings Over or Adjacent to Railroads

The design of falsework over or adjacent to railroads is subject to review and approval
by the railroad company involved. To expedite approval, shop drawings submitted for
railroad company review should conform to the following procedural requirements:
• All design and construction details must be shown. If a reference is made to a
standard plan or to a detail shown on a previously submitted drawing for another
structure in the contract, such plans or drawings must accompany the submittal
to the railroad.
• When submitting only that portion of the falsework which is over or adjacent to
the railroad, details of the adjacent falsework spans must be shown, as these
spans will affect the design of the bents over or adjacent to the railroad.
• Design features or details for more than one structure must not be shown on the
same drawing.
• The shop drawings must include a sketch showing the location of the temporary
minimum horizontal and vertical clearance to the falsework.
• All falsework clearances and clearances to equipment must be clearly shown.
The vertical clearance is measured from the top of the track rail and horizontal
clearances are measured from the centerline of the tracks.

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• All temporary structures and equipment within 25 feet of centerline of track must
be shown on the shop drawings. Similarly, all temporary structures and
equipment, which if they were to fall over would land within 25 feet of centerline
of track, must be shown on the shop drawings.
• All temporary structures and equipment within railroad right-of-way must be
shown on the shop drawings. Similarly, all temporary structures and equipment,
which if they were to fall over would land within railroad right-of-way, must be
shown on the shop drawings.
• Soffit and deck overhang forming details should be included

See also Section 2-4.02B. Review Procedure when Railroad is Involved, for additional
information.

4-13 Waste Slabs

4-13.01 Introduction
A waste slab is a concrete slab finished to a smooth surface which is set to the soffit
grade of a bridge superstructure. It is cast on compacted material in a fill or in a cut and
becomes the bottom soffit form for the structure. On completion of the structure the fill
or cut material along with the slab is removed to final cross section, see Figure 4-13,
Waste Slab.

4-13.02 Considerations
Waste slabs are considered a construction method and not falsework as defined by the
Falsework Manual. In order to check the adequacy of the slabs, the structure
representative should require shop drawings as outlined in the Standard Specifications,
Section 5-l.23B(2), Shop Drawings.

Some factors to be considered are:

• Type of material under the slab
• Amount and depth of compaction
• Load on slab
• Slab thickness
• Slab must be wide enough to support exterior girder and overhang falsework
• Finish must comply with Standard Specifications, Section 51-1.03C(2), Forms
and Standard Specifications, Section 51-1.03F, Finishing Concrete.
• Bond breaker between soffit slab and waste slab

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• Settlement (subsidence with time if on fill)

• Bridge camber
• Down drag on the bridge foundation piles due to fill
• Columns and abutment must be protected from stains from the fill
• Place barriers after the waste slab has been removed
• Place approach slabs after the waste slab has been removed
• Check Cal-OSHA to see if mining and tunneling regulations are applicable during
fill removal after bridge is constructed

Figure 4-13. Waste Slab.

4-14 Sand Beds

4-14.01 Introduction
A sand bed is a well compacted layer of sand designed to support the soffit joists in lieu
of conventional falsework. The sand bed with the soffit plywood and joist is set to the
soffit grade of a bridge superstructure. The sand bed is constructed on compacted
material in a fill or in a cut and becomes the support for the bottom soffit form for the
structure. On completion of the structure, the fill or cut material along with the sand bed
and forms is removed to final cross section, see Figure 4-14, Sand Bed.

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4-14.02 Considerations
Sand beds are considered a construction method and not falsework as defined by the
Falsework Manual. In order to check the adequacy of the sand beds, the structure
representative should require shop drawings as outlined in the Standard Specifications,
Section 5-l.23B(2), Shop Drawings.

The sand bed is constructed such that the soffit joists have full bearing on the sand bed.
The plywood is designed to be supported by the joist only. Although sand is placed and
compacted between the joists, this sand is only intended to help distribute the plywood
load evenly but is not intended to support the plywood.

Some factors to be considered are:

• Type of material for the sand bed and under the sand bed
• Amount and depth of compaction
• Load on the sand bed from the joists
• Thickness of sand bed
• Sand bed must be wide enough to support exterior girder and overhang
falsework
• Finish must comply with Standard Specifications, Section 51-1.03C(2),
Preparation – Forms, and Standard Specifications, Section 51-1.03F, Finishing
Concrete.
• Settlement (subsidence with time if on fill)
• Bridge camber
• Check plywood deflection based upon span between joists
• Down drag on the bridge foundation piles due to fill
• Columns and abutment must be protected from stains from the fill
• Place barriers after the sand bed has been removed
• Place approach slabs after the sand bed has been removed
• Check Cal-OSHA to see if mining and tunneling regulations are applicable during
fill removal after bridge is constructed

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Figure 4-14. Sand Bed.

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