Prepared by: Arzu Islam

MSc Aeronautical Engg.

PTL and Physics Teacher iSTEM
Visiting Lecturer SIMT
(Aeronautical)
O&A-level Physics Teacher (BACHA
English Medium School)
1
TEMPERATURE
Temperature is measure of hotness or coldness of an object.
Temperature is measured by using thermometer.
The units of temperature are: Kelvin (K), degree Celsius (°C) and
Fahrenheit (F).
There are different types of thermometers
Liquid in glass thermometers
Laboratory thermometer
Clinical thermometer
Thermocouple thermometer
Laboratory thermometer
Laboratory thermometer is used to measure the temperature of different
things while doing experiments.
The laboratory thermometer shown below, the liquid in the bulb expands
when the temperature rises. The tube is made narrow so that a small
increase in volume of liquid produces a large movement along the tube.
So which means in laboratory thermometer the physical property varies
with temperature is volume of the liquid.
 Main design features Purpose or working principle

1 The mercury or alcohol is contain in Thin wall of the bulb allow s

a thin wall glass bulb conduction of heat quickly through
the glass (a poor conductor of heat) to
the liquid.

2 Bulb is made small to contain a Small amount of liquid will be more

small amount of liquid. responsive to heat
3 The bore of capillary tube is fine and The fine tube allows noticeable
uniform movement of the liquid for small
change in temperature, (i.e. good
sensitivity). The uniform tube ensures
even expansion of the liquid.

4 The walls of the long tube above the This acts as a magnifying glass for easy
bulb are made thick and circular reading of the mercury thread in the
shape. stem.

5 The size of the thermometer is The small size allows it to be portable

relatively small. and also cheap to produce.
Clinical thermometer

Clinical thermometers are used to measure the temperature of human

body in hospitals.
In clinical thermometer also the physical property varies with temperature
is volume of the liquid.
 Main design features Purpose of working principles

1 The glass wall of the bulb is thin Thin wall of the bulb allow s conduction of
heat quickly through the glass (a poor
conductor of heat) to the liquid.

2 Bulb is made small to contain a Small amount of liquid will be more

small amount of liquid. responsive to heat
3 The bore of capillary tube is fine and uniform The fine tube allows noticeable movement of
the liquid for small change in temperature, (i.e.
good sensitivity). The uniform tube ensures
even expansion of the liquid.

4 The walls of the long tube above the bulb are This acts as a magnifying glass for easy reading
made thick and circular shape or pear- of the mercury thread in the stem.
shaped.

5 The scale is limited to small range between 35°C to Since the normal body temperature is 37°C, the short
42°C. range allows for greater accuracy and the stem can be
made reasonably short.

6 A narrow constriction After taking temperature, it prevents contracting

mercury from flowing back into the bulb by breaking the
mercury threat at constriction.
Calibrating thermometer scale

 First put the unmarked thermometer into the ice and wait until the liquid
of the thermometer becomes steady. When it becomes steady by using
marker mark that point, which is ice point or lower fixed point.
 After that put the unmarked thermometer into the boiling water and wait
until the liquid of the thermometer becomes steady. When it becomes
steady by using marker mark that point, which is steam point or upper
fixed point.

 Now calibrate the scale of the thermometer between two fixed points by
using ruler. Measure the distance between two fixed points and divide
the divisions.
Sensitivity, linearity and range of liquid-in glass-
thermometers
Sensitivity
Sensitivity of the thermometer is the change in reading of the
thermometer for a small change in temperature.
If the reading of the thermometer has a noticeable change for a small
change in temperature, the sensitivity is HIGH.
If the reading of the thermometer shows small difference change in
temperature, the sensitivity is LOW.

Sensitivity of the thermometer can be increased by narrowing the bore

tube and using thin glass bulb.
Range
The span of temperature that the thermometer can measure.
Example: For laboratory thermometer, −10°C to 110°C
For clinical thermometer, 35°C to 42 °C

Linearity
The liquid of the thermometer expands linearly with increase in
temperature.
For the same increase in temperature, the length of mercury thread
increased by the same amount.
Thermocouple thermometer:
Thermocouple thermometer is used to measure very high temperatures in
industries. It make use of physical property varies with temperature is
Electromotive force (e.m.f).
Thermocouple has two junctions hot and cold junctions. To use
thermocouple its ends are connected to a sensitive voltmeter. The one
junction is place in melting ice at 0°C while other end is placed in object
whose temperature is measured.
The voltmeter shows the reading. The greater the voltage produce, the
bigger difference in temperatures between two junctions. The
thermocouple must be calibrate so that the temperature can be deduce
from voltage.
KINETIC THEORY
OF MATTER
STATES OF MATTER
There are three states of matter that is solid liquid and gas.

PROPERTIES OF MATTERS
SOLID
 In solid particles are closely packed together.
 Molecules are arranged in regular pattern
 Molecules can vibrate to and fro but cannot change the
position
 The force of attraction between the molecules is very strong.
 Solid has fixed shape and volume
 It cannot compress
LIQUID
Particles are close together but compare to solid particles
are little far.
The attraction force between the molecules are weak
compare to solid.
Molecules can freely move from one place to another.
Liquid has no fixed shape but has fixed volume.
It cannot compress easily
GAS
Particles are very far apart.
The attraction force between the molecules are very weak
Particles can move randomly with higher speed.
Gas has no fixed shape and fixed volume.
It can compress
 The Kinetic Theory of Matter
 The kinetic theory of matter states that all matter is
made up of a large number of tiny atoms or
molecules which are in continuous motion.
 Molecules are too small to be seen directly.
 Existence of particles in continuous motion has
been demonstrated by Brownian motion and
diffusion.
Brownian motion:

 The erratic random movement of microscopic

particles in a fluid, as a result of continuous
bombardment from molecules of the surrounding
medium is known as Brownian motion.
EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON MOTION OF THE MOLECULES:
When the temperature is increased the molecules gain
kinetic energy. The increasing kinetic energy makes
molecule moves faster and increase there separation
(expand).
HOW GAS EXERT RESSURE INSIDE THE CONTAINER:
The gas molecules are in random continuous motion.
When the gas molecules are in a container, they exerts a
force on a wall of the container when they collide with
it.Since the force is exerted over an area, a pressure is
produced.
EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON PRESSURE OF MOLECULES:
If the temperature of the gas increases, the gas
molecules gain K.E and moves faster. So the molecules
exerts force on the wall of the container and pressure is
also increased.
Thermal expansion of gases
Gases expand when they are heated, just like solids and liquids. We can
understand this by using the kinetic model of matter. The diagram
below shows some gas in a cylinder fitted with a piston.
At first the gas is cold and its particles press weakly on the piston.
When the gas is heated, its particles moves faster.
Now they push greater force on the piston and push it upwards. The
gas has expanded.
The upward force of the gas is balanced by
downward force of the piston. So in this
situation, the pressure of the gas is
remained constant as it has expanded.
So for a fixed mass of a gas at constant
pressure, the volume gas is directly
proportional to the increasing temperature
of the gas.
This is called Charles’s law.
If the piston did not move, the volume of the
gas remains constant when it was heated
but its pressure would increase.
Boyle’s law
For a fixed mass of a gas at a constant temperature, pressure of the gas
is inversely proportional to the volume of the gas.
Which means if the temperature of the gas is constant, when the
volume of the gas is decreased the pressure of the gas increases.
If you plot the graph pressure of the gas against the volume of the gas
you will obtain a smooth curve as shown below.

The following equation is derived from this law:

Initial pressure × initial volume = final pressure × final volume (P1V1 = P2 V2)
EVAPORATION
When the liquid below its boiling point changes into gas this
process is called evaporation. It happens because some of the
particles in the liquid moves faster than others. The faster one
near the surface have enough energy to escape and form a
gas.
 FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION
1. Temperature of the liquid
Rate of evaporation increases as the temperature of the
liquid increases

lower temperature higher temperature

2. Surface area of the liquid
Rate of evaporation increases as the surface area of the liquid
increases.

Small exposed Larger exposed

surface surface
2. Wind over the surface of the liquid
Rate of evaporation increases when the drought over the liquid
increases (wind blows over the surface of the liquid).

Still air wind

23°C= 273+23=296 K
300K= 300 – 273 = 27°C
THE COOLING EFFCT OF EVAPORATION
Evaporation has a cooling effect. If the high energetic fast
moving particles escape from the liquid, slower ones left
behind. so the temperature of the liquid is less than before and
the liquid cools down.

Why we feel cold when wind blows after swimming?

 Wind helps to carry away

water vapour formed by
evaporation, thus
increasing the rate of
evaporation.
 When the water droplets
evaporate, they remove
heat from our body and
thus, we feel cool.
INTERNAL ENERGY

The total kinetic energy and potential energy of all atoms or

molecules in a material is called internal energy. When the
temperature of the material increase the movement of atoms
or molecules inside the material increases and the kinetic
energy of the atoms increases, so internal energy of the
material increases.
Heat capacity
The heat capacity of a substance is amount of heat energy that
is needed to raise its temperature by 1°C.
Specific heat capacity
The specific heat capacity of a substance is amount of heat
energy that is needed to raise the temperature of 1kg of the
substance by 1°C.
The SI unit of specific heat capacity is (J/kg°C).
We can use following equation to calculate the specific heat
capacity of a substance.
Energy required = mass × specific heat capacity × increase in
temperature
E = mc T
Example:
A domestic hot water tank contains 200kg of water at 20°C.
How much energy must be supplied to heat this water to
70°C?
(specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J/kg°C).
Ans: E = mc T
= 200 × 4200 × (70−20)
= 42 000 000 J
MELTING
It is the process that heat is absorbed from the surrounding to
change the substance from solid state to liquid state. The
temperature of a substance remains constant until all the
solid has change to liquid.

Melting point
The temperature at which the solid changes to liquid is called
melting point.
BOILING
Boiling is the process that heat absorbed from surrounding to
change the substance from liquid state to vapor or gas state.
Temperature of the substance remains constant until all the
liquid changes to gas.
Boiling point
The temperature at which the liquid changes to gas is called boiling
point.
CONDENSATION
Condensation is the process that substance change from gas
state to liquid state by cooling it below boiling point. The
temperature of the of the substance remains constant until all
the gas changes to liquid.
FREEZING / SOLIDIFICATION
Solidification is the process that substance change from liquid
state to solid state by cooling on it. The temperature of the of
the substance remains constant until all the liquid changes to
solid.
HEATING CURVE
When solid is heated for a sufficiently long time, it melts and
eventually boils. A heating curve of a solid is shown in the
figure below.
Temperature D E

Mixture of liquid and gas

Mixture of solid and
liquid
liquid

B C

solid

Time
COOLING CURVE
The figure below shows a cooling curve of a gas when
energy is flowing out at a constant rate from the gas. The
curve can be divided into four regions
Temperature

gas

C liquid
Mixture of liquid and
B solid

Mixture of gas and

liquid
D E

Time
Difference between boiling and evaporation
Boiling Evaporation
Boiling take place at definite Evaporation take place at any
temperature. (boiling point) temperature below the boiling
point.
Boiling takes place throughout Evaporation take place on the
the liquid. surface of the liquid.
Bubbles are formed in boiling Bubbles are not formed in
evaporation.
LATENT HEAT
Energy must be supplied to a substance to melt or to boil it – in
other words to make it change state. This energy does not increase
the increase substance’s temperature, and for this reason it is known
as latent heat (the word ‘latent’ means ‘hidden’).
The latent heat is the amount of energy needed to change the
state of a substance without changing temperature.

SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT

The specific latent heat is the amount of energy needed to
change the state of 1 kg of a substance without changing
temperature.
We can use following equation to calculate the specific heat capacity
of a substance.
Thermal energy = mass × specific latent heat
E=m×l
SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
The specific latent heat of vaporization is amount of heat energy
required to change 1kg of a substance from liquid state to gas as its
boiling point.

SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION

The specific latent heat of fusion is amount of heat energy required to
change 1kg of a substance from solid state to liquid as its melting
point.
Example:
In an experiment to find latent heat of fusion of a 15kg metal needs
520000J of heat energy to melt from solid state to liquid. Calculate
the latent heat of fusion of metal.
E=m×l
l = E/m = 52000/15 = 34666.7 J/kg