LASERS

Introduction
 LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation i.e. light gets
amplified several times by the process called Stimulated Emission.
 The laser light is treated as radiation of light having photons of energy h, where  is the
frequency of the incident radiation.
 Laser is a device that produces light (electromagnetic radiation) which is highly intense, highly
coherent, highly directional and powerful.
 The first working laser was invented by T. Maimann in 1960.
 The prominent applications of lasers are in optical storage device, barcode scanners, fiber optic
communications, industries, military and printers etc.

Characteristics of Laser Light

1.Coherence
Coherence is one of the unique properties of laser beam. Different parts of laser beam are
related to one another by phase. These phase relationship is maintained over long enough time. Due to
this property we can form holograms with lasers.

Phase relationship between any two light beams

2.Monochromaticity
A laser beam is more or less in single wave length.Mono- means single and Chrome means
color i.e. single wavelength. So, laser radiation is said to be highly monochromatic. The spectrum of
the laser beam is pure i.e. the spectral width of laser is very very small order (∆= 10-6 Å).

3. Directionality
Laser beam is highly directional because laser emits light only in one direction. It can travel
very long distances without divergence and less loss of energy. The directionality of a laser beam has
been expressed in terms of divergence. Suppose if r1 and r2 are the radii of laser beam at distances D1
and D2 from a laser, and then we have,
Then the divergence, ∆θ= (r1 - r2)/ D2-D1
The divergence for a laser beam is 0.01 milli-radian where as incase of search light it is 0.5 radian.

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4. High intensity
In a laser beam lot of energy is concentrated in a small region. This concentration of energy
exists both spatially and spectrally, hence there is enormous intensity for laser beam. This is because
of highly coherent and low divergence value.

Interaction of radiation with matter

In lasers, the interaction between matter and light radiation is of three different types.
 Stimulated Absorption
 Spontaneous Emission
 Stimulates Emission

(a) Stimulated Absorption: Let us consider two energy states E1 and E2 such that E1 E2.
Assume N1 and N2 are the number of atoms in lower energy level E1 and higher energy level
E2 respectively such that N1> N2. If a photon of energy hν = (E2-E1) is incident on atoms
present in lower energy E1 then the atoms completely absorbs the incident photon and makes
transition to higher energy state E2. This process is called stimulated absorption.
The rate of transition of atoms from lower energy level to higher
energy level depends on properties of energy states E1 and E2 and energy of incident photon.
The rate of transition is given by (P12) ab = A12 u()
Where A12 is the Einstein coefficient of stimulated absorption and u() energy density.
(b) Spontaneous emission: Let us consider two energy states E1 and E2 such that E1 E2. Assume
N1 and N2 are the number of atoms in lower energy level E1 and higher energy level E2
respectively such that N1> N2. An atom initially present in the higher energy state remains
only for 10-8 seconds (life time) and makes transition voluntarily on its own to the ground
state and emits a photon of energy hν (=E2-E1). This is called spontaneous emission. These
emitted photons are incoherent. (Photons travels in different direction)
The spontaneous emission depends on properties of energy states E1 and E2 only.
The rate of transition is given by (P21) sp = A21
Where A21 is the Einstein coefficient of spontaneous emission.
(c) Stimulated emission: Let us consider two energy states E1 and E2 such that E1 E2. Assume
N1 and N2 are the number of atoms in lower energy level E1 and higher energy level E2
respectively such that N1> N2. An atom in higher energy state under the influence of other
external incoming photon is forced to make a transition to lower energy level without
completing life time, then such process is called stimulated emission. Here the emitted photon
is in phase with the incident photon (Cohrent Photons).In this process all the emitted photons
travel in same direction.
The stimulated emission depends on properties of energy states E1 and E2 and energy of incident
photon u(v).

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 The rate of transition is given by (P21) st = B21 u()
Where B21 is the Einstein coefficient of stimulated emission and u() energy density.

Fig. (a) Absorption ;(b) Spontaneous emission;(c) Stimulated emission

Differences between Spontaneous emission and stimulated emission of radiation

Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission

1. Polychromatic radiation 1. Monochromatic radiation
2. Less intensity 2. High intensity
3. Only one photon emits in this process. 3. Two photons are emitted in this
4. Photons are not in phase and travel in process.
all directions. 4. Photons are in phase and travels in
5. Incoherent and low intensity only one direction.
6. Spontaneous emission takes place 5. Coherent and highly intense
when excited atoms make a transition 6. Stimulated emission takes place when
to lower energy level voluntarily a photon of energy equal to hν12 (=E2-
without any external stimulation. E1) stimulates an excited atom to make
transition to lower energy level.

Einstein’s Coefficients of LASERS and relation between them

Let N1 be the number of atoms per unit volume with energy E1 and N2 the number of atoms
per unit volume with energy E2. Let ‘n’ be the number of photons per unit volume at frequency ν such
that hν=E2-E1. Then the energy density of interacting photons u(v) is given by
u(ν) = n h ν →(1)
When these photons interact with atoms, both upward (absorption) and downward (emission)
transitions occur.
Upward Transition
Stimulated absorption rate depends on the number of atoms available in the lower energy state for
absorption of photons as well as the energy density of interacting radiation.

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 i.e. stimulated absorption rate of transition α N1
α u(ν)
therefore rate of transition = A12N1 u(ν) → (2)
Where the constant of proportionality A12 is the Einstein coefficient of stimulated absorption
Downward transition
This spontaneous emission rate depends on the number of atoms in the excited energy state.
i.e., spontaneous emission rate α N2

Rate of transition is =N2 A21 → (3)

Where the constant of proportionality A21 is the Einstein coefficient of spontaneous emission.
Stimulated emission
The stimulated emission rate depends on the number of atoms available in the excited state as well as
energy density of interacting photons
I.e. stimulated emission rate α N2
α u(ν)
rate of transition = N2u(ν) B21 → (4)
Where the constant of proportionality B21 is the Einstein coefficient of stimulated emission.

For a system in equilibrium, the upward and down word transition rates must be equal and hence we
have
N1 u(ν) A12= N2u(ν)B21 +N2A21 → (5)
𝑁2 𝐴21
Hence u(ν) =
𝑁1 𝐴12 −𝑁2 𝐵21
𝐴21 ⁄𝐵21
u(ν) = 𝐴12 𝑁 → (6)
( ⁄𝐵 )( 1⁄𝑁 )−1
21 2

The population of various energy levels in thermal equilibrium is given by Boltzmann distribution
law.
Ni=gi No exp (-Ei / KT)
Where Ni is the population density of the energy level E i, N0 is the population density of the ground
state at temperature T, gi is the degeneracy of the ith level and k is the Boltzmann constant (k
=1.38x10-23joule/k).
Hence population density for lower energy state E1is N1=𝑔1 N o exp (-E 1/k T)
population density for higher energy state E2is N2=𝑔2 N o exp (-E2/k T)

𝑁1 𝑔 (E2 −E1 )
Now, =𝑔1 exp [ ]
𝑁2 2 𝑘𝑇
𝑁1 𝑔1 ℎ𝜈
= exp[𝑘𝑇] → (7)
𝑁2 𝑔2

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 𝐴
[ 21⁄𝐵 ]
21
Substituting eq (7) in eq (6) u(ν) = 𝐴 𝑔 ℎ𝜈 → (8)
[ 12 1 exp[ ]−1]
𝐵21 𝑔2 𝑘𝑇

From Planck’s law of blackbody radiation, the radiation density is given by

8𝜋ℎν3 1
u(ν) = ℎ𝜈 → (9)
𝐶3 exp[ ]−1
𝑘𝑇

Comparing equations (8) and (9), we get

𝐴12 𝑔1
=1
𝐵21 𝑔2

If g1 = g2 then,
A12= B21→ (10)
i.e. the Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated absorption is equal to coefficient of stimulated
emission.
𝐴21 8𝜋ℎν3
And = → (11)
𝐵21 𝐶3

i.e. the ratio of coefficient of spontaneous emission to stimulated emission is proportional to the
cube of frequency of the incident radiation.
Equation’s (10) and (11) are referred to as the Einstein coefficients relation.

Population inversion
Usually in a system the number of atoms (N1) present in the ground state (E1) is larger than the
number of atoms (N2) present in the higher energy state. If the number of atoms is more in higher
energy level than the number of atoms of lower energy level (N2>N1) is called population inversion.
Conditions for population inversion are:
a) There should be a continuous supply of energy to the system such that the atoms must be
raised continuously to the excited state.

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 Pumping
Population inversion can be achieved by a number of ways. The process of supplying suitable
energy to the medium to achieve population inversion is called pumping. Some of the pumping
methods are
(i) optical pumping
(ii) electrical discharge
(iii) chemical reaction
(iv) direct conversion

Metastable state
Meta-stable state is a particular excites state of an atom having longer life time than any other normal
excited state but lesser than ground state. A meta-stable state can be considered as a energy trap or
stable intermediate state. The existence of meta-stable state is necessary for lasers to occur lasing
action. The atoms stay longer time in this state and provide necessary mechanism to achieve
population inversion.
Life time
The amount of time in which the atoms stays in an excited state is called life time. The life time of an
atom in excited state is 10-8 seconds and life time of atom in metastable state is 10-3 seconds.
Lasing action
The principle of lasing action is based on stimulated emission. We know that in stimulated emission,
the emitted photon travels in the direction of incident photon. When these two photons incident on
other two atoms in higher energy level (E2) two stimulated emission occur, so that 4 photons are
emitted as shown in figure. Again these four photons causes four stimulated emissions and 8 photons
are emitted. In this way a chain reaction takes place and avalanche of photons are emitted. This is
called lasing action.

E2
E2 E2 4 Incident
Incident
Photons
Photon
Incident
Photon
emitted 2 Incident
Photon
Photon 4 emitted 8 emitted
Photon E1 Photons
E1 E1

Pumping Schemes
There are two types of pumping schemes
1) Three level pumping scheme 2) Four level pumping scheme

Three level pumping scheme: In this there are three energy levels E1, E2 and E3 where E1 is the ground
state and other two levels E2 and E3 are excited states. Initially most of the atoms are in E1 state but
when the pumping is initiated, the atoms raises to E3 state known as pump band. The excited atoms
form E3transfers to E2 state by non-radiative transitions. The state E2 is called metastable state and

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population inversion exists between E2 and E1. The atoms in E2 state now return to E1 by emitting
photons. This is known as LASER transition.

E2

A three level pumping scheme

Four level pumping scheme: In this there are four energy levels E1, E2, E3 and E3 where E1 is the
ground state and other three levels E2,E3and E4are excited states. Initially most of the atoms are in E1
state but when the pumping is initiated, the atoms raises to E4 state known as pump band. The excited
atoms form E4 transfers to E3 state by non-radiative quick transitions. The state E3 is called meta-stable
state and population inversion exists between E3 and E2. Atoms in E2 decay to rapidly to ground state
E1 by non-radiative quick transitions.

A Four level pumping scheme

Components of LASER
Any type of Laser device consists of three parts. They are
1. Active medium: It consists of collection of atoms, molecules or ions which is capable of
producing stimulated emissions. The active medium may be a solid, a liquid or a gas
depending on type of laser.
2. Pumping source: The pumping source supplies the required energy to pump the atoms from
lower energy level to higher energy level. This pumping provides favorable conditions for
population inversion.
3. Optical feedback: The general function of laser depends on is based on optical feedback. The
photons emitted from the active medium are reflected back and forth by the mirrors. In this

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 way the optical feedback is maintained and controls the process of stimulated emission. This
is also called resonating cavity.

Types of LASERS
LASERS are classified into five categories depending on type active medium. They are (i) Solid state
Lasers (ii) Gas Lasers (iii) Liquid Lasers (Dye Laser)(iv) Diode Lasers.
Most of the LASERS emit light in visible region and some emit light in infrared region.
Lasers can be operated in continuous wave mode or pulsed wave mode.

Ruby Laser
Ruby Laser is a solid state laser which is a pulsed wave mode and three level laser. Basically,
ruby crystal is aluminum oxide [Al2O3] doped with 0.05 to 0.5% of chromium ions. These Cr+3ions
acts as active centers in Ruby laser which absorbs blue and green light. Due to presence of chromium,
the ruby crystal appears in pink color.

Construction:
Ruby (Al2O3+Cr2O3) is a crystal of Aluminum oxide in which some of Al +3 ions are replaced
by Cr +3 ions. When the doping concentration of Cr+3 is about 0.5%, the color of the rod becomes
pink. The active medium in ruby rod is Cr+3ions. In ruby laser a rod of 4cm long and 5mm
diameter is used and the ends of the rod are highly polished. Both the ends of rod are coated with
silver in such a way that one end is fully reflecting (Reflectance = 100%) and the other end is
partially reflecting (Reflectance  95%).
The ruby rod is surrounded by helical xenon flash lamp tube which provides the optical
pumping to raise the Chromium ions to upper energy level. The xenon flash lamp tube which
emits intense pulses which lasts only few milliseconds and the tube consume several thousands of
joules of energy.

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 Ruby laser construction
Working:
1. Pumping Mechanism
a. When the xenon flash lamp is switched ON, an intense flash of white light excites (which lasts
for milliseconds) the Cr+3 ions to energy band E3 (Pumping band) by absorbing light.
b. The Cr+3ions make a quick non-radiative transition to E2 energy state.
c. The energy state E2 is a meta-stable state which has life time of 10-3 seconds. Therefore more
number of Cr+3ions accumulates at E2 level.
2. Population Inversion
a. As more number of Cr+3 ions accumulates in energy level E2, population inversion is
established between energy states E2 and E1.
3. Lasing action
a. Photons are emitted spontaneously by few atoms in energy state E2.
b. These photons initiate stimulated emission by de-exciting the Cr+3ion to lower energy state E1
forcibly and emits photons.
c. All photons travel along the axis of the ruby rod by reflecting back and forth between the two
ends of mirror and triggers more stimulated emissions.
d. Once all the photons attain sufficient energy, the laser beam emerges out through partially
reflecting mirror. The laser emission occurs in visible region at wavelength of 6943 Å.

Once the stimulated transition starts, the metastable state E2 depopulates very quickly and
lasing action stops.The laser becomes active once again when the population inversion is
established by pumping (flashing of Xenon lamp). Therefore the laser output is not
continuous wave but occurs in form of pulses of duration in milli-seconds. So Ruby laser
is a pulse wave laser.

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 Drawbacks of ruby laser:
1. The laser requires high pumping power to achieve population inversion.
2. It is a pulsed laser.

Helium-Neon LASER
Helium-Neon gas laser is a continuous wave four level laser. It consists of a long, narrow
cylindrical tube made up of quartz. The diameter of the tube will vary from 2 to 8 mm and length will
vary from 10 to 100 cm. The tube is filled with helium and neon gases in the ratio of 10:1. The
pressure of gas mixture is nearly 1 mm of Hg.
Construction
Laser action is due to the neon atoms. Helium is used for selective pumping of neon atoms to
upper energy levels. Two electrodes are fixed near the ends of the tube to pass electric discharge
through the gas. Two optically plane mirrors are fixed at the two ends of the tube at Brewster angle
normal to its axis. One of the mirrors is fully silvered so that nearly 100% reflection takes place and
the other is partially silvered so that 3% of the light incident on it will be transmitted.

Working
Pumping Mechanism:
1. When the power is switched ON, a high voltage of about 10kV is applied across the glass tube
where the gas mixture inside the tube ionizes.
2. The electrons and ions produced in this process collide with helium atoms on the way since there
are more number of helium atoms than neon atoms.
3. After collision the helium atom excites to higher energy state F2 (energy= 20.61 eV) which is a
meta-stable state.
4. The excited helium atoms return to ground level by transferring the energy to neon atoms
through collisions. Such an energy transfer is called as resonating energy transfer.

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5. The neon energy level is E6 (energy= 20.66 eV) which is close to helium atom energy level F2
(energy= 20.61 eV). Therefore energy transfer takes between these energy levels (F2 and E6).

Population Inversion:
1. The upper energy state of neon atoms E6 is a meta-stable state. Therefore accumulation of
neon atoms is more in this energy level.
2. The energy state E3is less populated at ordinary temperatures, so there exists a population
inversion between E6 and E3 energy states.

Lasing action:
1. Photons are emitted spontaneously by few atoms in energy state E6.
2. These spontaneous photons travel through gas mixture and initiate stimulated emissions of
Photons of wavelength 6328Ȧ (red color).
3. The photons reflect back and forth between the polished mirrors, triggers number of
stimulated emissions at each stage.
4. When the stimulated photons gain sufficient energy, they come out from the partially
reflecting mirror.
5. Thus the transition between E6→ E3 is a laser beam of wavelength 6328Ȧ (red color).
6. The neon atoms come to ground state E1 by colliding with the walls of glass tube.

Here the neon atoms are excited to higher energy state continuously through collision
with helium atoms, so the population inversion in maintained all the time. Hence the laser
operates in continuous wave mode.

Energy level diagram of He-Ne atoms

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Applications of Lasers
Lasers find applications in various fields. They are described below.

a) In Communications :
Lasers are used in optical fiber communications. In optical fiber communications, lasers are used
as light source to transmit audio, video signals and data to long distances without attention and
distortion.

b) The narrow angular spread of laser beam can be used for communication between earth and
moon or to satellites.
c) As laser radiation is not absorbed by water, so laser beam can be used in under water (inside sea)
communication networks.

2.Industrial Applications
a) Lasers are used in metal cutting, welding, surface treatment and hole drilling. Using lasers
cutting can be obtained to any desired shape and the curved surface is very smooth.
b) Welding has been carried by using laser beam.
c) Dissimilar metals can be welded and micro welding is done with great case.
d) Lasers beam is used in selective heat treatment for tempering the desired parts in automobile
industry
e) Lasers are widely used in electronic industry in trimming the components of ICs
3. Medical Applications
1. Lasers are used in medicine to improve precision work like surgery. Brain surgery is an example of
precision surgery Birthmarks, warts and discoloring of the skin can easily be removed with an
unfocussed laser. The operations are quick and heal quickly and, best of all, they are less painful than
ordinary surgery performed with a scalpel.
2. Cosmetic surgery (removing tattoos, scars, stretch marks, sun spots, wrinkles, birthmarks and
hairs).
3.Laser types used in dermatology include ruby(694nm),alexandrite(755nm),pulsed diode
array(810nm), Nd:YAG(1064nm), HO:YAG(2090nm), and Er:YAG(2940nm)
4. Eye surgery and refracting surgery.
5. Soft tissue surgery: Co2Er :YAG laser.
6. Laser scalpel (general surgery, gynecological, urology, laparoscopic).
7. Dental procedures.
8. Photo bio modulation (i.e. laser therapy)
9. “No-touch” removal of tumors, especially of the brain and spinal cord.
10. In dentistry for caries removal, endodontic/periodontic, procedures, tooth whitening, and oral
surgery.
4. Military Applications

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The various military applications are:
a) Death rays: By focusing high energetic laser beam for few seconds to aircraft, missile, etc can
be destroyed. So, these rays are called death rays or war weapons.
b) Laser gun: The vital part of energy body can be evaporated at short range by focusing highly
convergent beam from a laser gun.
c) LIDAR (Light detecting and ranging): In place of RADAR, we can use LIDAR to estimate
the size and shape of distant objects or war weapons. The differences between RADAR and
LIDAR are that, in case of RADAR, Radio waves are used where as incase of LIDAR light is
used.
5. In Computers: By using lasers a large amount of information or data can be stored in CD-ROM
or their storage capacity can be increased. Lasers are also used in computer printers.
6. In Thermonuclear fusion: Toinitiate nuclear fusion reaction, very high temperature and pressure
is required. This can be created by concentrating large amount of laser energy in a small volume. In
the fusion of deuterium and tritium, irradiation with a high energy laser beam pulse of 1 nano second
duration develops a temperature of 1017 0C, this temperature is sufficient to initiate nuclear fusion
reaction.
5. In Scientific Research: In scientific, lasers are used in many ways including
a) A wide variety of interferometrie techniques.
b) Raman spectroscopy.
c) Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy.
d) Atmospheric remote sensing.
e) Investigating non linear optics phenomena
f) Holographic techniques employing lasers also contribute to a number of measurement
techniques.
g) Laser (LADAR) technology has application in geology, seismology, remote sensing and
atmospheric physics.
h) Lasers have been used abroad spacecraft such as in the cassini-huygens mission.
i) In astronomy lasers have been used to create artificial laser guide stars, used as reference objects
for adaptive optics telescope.

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