UNIT 2: BIOLOGICAL APPROACH TO BEHAVIOUR

What is the difference between mind and body?

The mind is inner subjective experience of awareness. The body is a physical being – including what
many people feel is the basis of the mind – the brain.
The biological approach to behaviour looks at behaviour as a product of evolution, genetic inheritance,
brain structure or chemical processes in the body. It rests on the following principles (they define the
biological levels of analysis, LOA):
1. Behaviour is the product of physiology (the structure and function of the nervous and
endocrine systems): The structure is how a system is constructed; for example, brain damage is a
structural problem. The function is how the system operates; for example, low activity in certain
parts of the brain is a functional problem of the nervous system, while abnormal levels of hormones
are a functional problem of the endocrine system.
2. Behaviour can be genetically inherited: The idea that characteristics such as eye colour are
inherited raises no objection, but inheritance of behaviours such as perfectionism or preference in
movie genres is not so obvious. However, this assumption is made in the biological approach:
patterns of behaviour can be inherited as well as physical characteristics. This principle follows from
principle 1, because the structure and function of the nervous and endocrine systems are to a large
extent genetically determined.
3. Animal research may inform our understanding of human behaviour: This principle follows
from principle 2: we share a large portion of the genotype with our animal ancestors, and since
genotype determines behaviour, animal behaviour in some aspects may be very similar to that of
humans. This justifies animal research in psychology. We can also learn about human behaviour
from studying animals, since we are evolutionary related to them.
*Anterograde Amnesia: A neurological disorder  which is a condition that doesn't allow new memories to
transfer from short term memory into long-term memory. 
*Visual agnosia: The inability to recognize visually presented objects despite the preservation of
elementary sensory functions. Visual agnosia is diagnosed by assessing the patient's ability to name,
describe uses for, and pantomime the use of visually presented objects.

Brain Structure
The nervous system is a system of neurons— the neuron is the basic working unit of the brain, a
specialized cell designed to transmit information to other nerve cells, muscle, or gland cells. Everything you
feel, remember, or dream is written in these cells. The central nervous system consists of the spinal cord
and the brain.
Cortex: The cortex is the layer of neurons with a folded surface covering the brain on the outside. It is the
largest part of the human brain associated with higher-order functions such as abstract thought or voluntary
action. Evolutionarily, this part of the brain developed the
latest. The cortex is divided into four sections called “lobes”.
 The frontal lobes are associated with reasoning,
planning, thinking and decision-making, voluntary
action, complex emotions, and so on.
 The parietal lobe is associated with movement,
orientation, perception, and recognition.
 The occipital lobe is associated with visual
processing.
 The temporal lobes are associated with processing
auditory information, memory, and speech.
Corpus Callosum: There is a deep furrow along the cortex that divides it into the left and right
hemispheres. A structure of neurons that connects these two hemispheres is known as the corpus
callosum.
Cerebellum: The cerebellum (“the little brain”) got this name because it looks somewhat like the cortex: it
has two hemispheres and a folded surface. It is associated with coordination of movement and balance.
Limbic System: The limbic system is an evolutionarily older subcortical structure. It is sometimes referred
to as the “emotional brain”. It includes several structures, some of which are as follows.

 The thalamus has mostly sensory functions.

Nerves from almost all sensory organs reach the
thalamus as a final “hub” before they are
connected to the cortex.
 The hypothalamus is “below” the thalamus in the
brain, and it is involved in such functions as
emotion, thirst, and hunger.
 The amygdala is involved in memory, emotion,
and fear.
 The hippocampus is important for such functions as learning, memory and transferring short-term
memory to a more permanent store, spatial orientation.
Brainstem: The brain stem is underneath the limbic system and its main function is to regulate the basic
vital processes such as breathing or heartbeat. It connects the brain to the spinal cord. This part of the
human brain is very much like the entire brain found in lower animals such as reptiles.

LOCALIZATION OF FUNCTION
Phrenology: The attempt to make inferences about one’s personality and intelligence by examining skull
formation. Done by manually searching for bumps and indentations.
Localization of function: It is very tempting to assume that every behaviour (speech, attention,
aggression, hunger, embarrassment, and so on) has its specific place in the brain and is associated with a
certain brain area. This idea is known as localization of function.
Strict localization: the idea that there is a clear correspondence between psychological functions and
brain areas, and that all functions can be clearly mapped onto the brain.
Weak localisation: the idea that several brain areas are responsible for the same function (and can
potentially take over), but only one of these areas is dominant.

 The principle of mass action based on a correlation observed between the percentage of cortex
removed and learning abilities. The less cortex, the slower and more inefficient the learning. The
key idea here is that performance deterioration depends on the percentage of cortex destroyed but
not on the location of the destroyed cells.
 Equipotentiality—this refers to the ability of one part of the cortex to take over the functions of
another part of the cortex.
Widely distributed functions: functions that cannot be localized anywhere in the brain.
Studies supporting localization
*Broca’s Aphasia: Expressive aphasia, also known as Broca's
aphasia, is a type of aphasia characterized by partial loss of the ability
to produce language (spoken, manual, or written), although
comprehension generally remains intact. The region of the brain
affected causing this aphasia is called Broca’s area. (read case study
from book page 49)
*Wernicke’s Aphasia: People with Wernicke’s aphasia have a
general impairment of language comprehension, while at the same
time speech production is intact. As a result, when they speak they
sound really fluent and natural, but what they say is in fact largely
meaningless.
One commonality between research of Broca and Wernicke is the method they used: studying a patient
with a naturally occurring brain lesion and conducting brain autopsy after the patient’s death. This method
has a number of drawbacks, including the following.
 A naturally occurring brain lesion is rarely neat or confined to a specific area.
 As cynical as this sounds, you have to wait until the patient dies.
-Lesion: A region in an organ or tissue which has suffered damage through injury or disease.
*Mapping of brain functions was done on a larger scale by Wilder Penfield (1891–
1976), a Canadian neurosurgeon. He used the method of neural stimulation. He
created a map of the sensory and motor cortex known as the cortical
homunculus. The cortical homunculus is an original model of the body within the
brain: it shows the relative representation of various parts of the body in the
sensory cortex.
All these discoveries (by Broca, Wernicke, and Penfield) suggest that
psychological functions have directly corresponding regions in the brain. We
might want to conclude that psychological functions are strictly localized—but it is
not that simple.
CASE STUDY IN FOCUS: LOCALIZATION
HM’s Case:-
Aim: HM’s case was used to understand the role of hippocampus in memory formations.
What happened to HM: H.M. had been knocked down by a bicycle at the age of 7. Epileptic attacks began
when he was 10. At the age of 27 he had become so incapacitated by his seizures that he could not lead a
normal life and medication did not help him.
Procedures:-
1. With the approval of the patient and his family, the neurosurgeon William Scoville performed an
experimental surgery where he removed tissue from the medial temporal lobe (lobotomy of temporal
lobe/temporal lobectomy), including the hippocampus, on both sides of HM’s brain. After the
operation HM remembered his childhood very well. His personality appeared largely unchanged.
However, HM suffered from anterograde amnesia– he was no longer able to transfer information
from short-term memory to long-term memory.
a. Temporal lobectomy: Temporal lobe resection, also called temporal lobectomy, is a surgery
that can lower the number of seizures you have, make them less severe, or even stop them
from happening. During the operation, the doctor removes some of the part of your brain
where most seizures start.
2. Then, in order to investigate this further, Milner carried out a case study on HM, using many
different strategies – an example of how method triangulation may be used in a case study:
a. Psychometric testing: IQ testing was given to HM.  His results were slightly above average
with an IQ of 104 before the operation and a slightly improved IQ of 112 after the operation
due to the reduction in seizures.
b. Direct observation of his behaviour.
c. Interviews with both HM and with family members.
d. Cognitive testing: memory recall tests as well as learning tasks - such as reverse mirror
drawing.
3. HM could not acquire new episodic knowledge (memory for events) and he could not acquire new
semantic knowledge (general knowledge about the world). This suggests that the brain structures
that were removed from his brain are important for long-term explicit memory. Memories in the form
of motor skills, i.e. procedural memories, were well maintained, for example he knew how to mow a
lawn. He also showed improvements on the performance of new skills such as reverse mirror-
drawing in which he had to acquire new eye-hand coordination.
4. An MRI scan of HM’s brain was performed in 1997 and 2002 where Corkin analysed the extent of
the damage. It was possible to see that parts of HM’s temporal lobe including the hippocampus had
the most damage. Damage to the hippocampus explains the problem of transferring short-term
memory to long-term memory.
Conclusion/Findings: The researchers concluded that the hippocampus plays a critical role in converting
memories of experiences from short-term memory to long-term memory. Since HM was able to retain
some memories for events that happened long before his surgery it indicates that the hippocampus is not
the site of permanent storage but rather plays a role in the organization and permanent storage
of memories elsewhere in the brain.

SPLIT BRAIN
It has to be noted that split-brain studies represent research into lateralization—the division of functions
between the two hemispheres of the cortex. Lateralization is a special case of localization.
CASE STUDY IN FOCUS: SPLIT BRAIN
Research in this area was pioneered by Roger Sperry. Roger Sperry was joined by Michael Gazzaniga,
and in 1967 Gazzaniga published results of the first research with human split-brain patients.
Aim: To test the theory of lateralization and to see if the two hemispheres have uniquely different functions.
Participants: Four patients who underwent novel treatment for epilepsy that involved surgically cutting the
corpus callosum. The patients were examined thoroughly over a long time period with various tests.
Initial observations showed that patients seemed to be remarkably
unaffected by the surgery. Hence, the authors devised a technique
where the participant had to sit in front of a board and look at the dot in
the middle of it. Visual stimuli would then be presented for one tenth of a
second either to the left or the right visual field (the far left or far right on
the board). Optic nerves from the left eye are connected in our brain to
the right hemisphere, and vice versa. So, by presenting the stimulus to
the left visual field the researcher “sends it” to the right hemisphere, and
stimuli from the right visual field goes to the left hemisphere. Also, a
variety of objects were placed behind the screen so that participants
could feel them with their hands.
Findings:
 When shown the picture of a spoon to the left visual field (connected to the right hemisphere) and
asked to name or describe what they saw, the patients said nothing. However, when asked to pick a
corresponding object from a group of objects behind the screen, they felt around and picked a
spoon (with their left hand, because it is controlled by the right hemisphere). Patients could not
explain why they picked the spoon. The right hemisphere saw the spoon and picked it from behind
the screen using the left hand, but the centre of speech is in the left hemisphere, so the patients
were unable to explain what they saw and what they did. This supports lateralization of language in
the left hemisphere.
 However, when a simple word, such as “pencil”, was flashed to the right hemisphere, the patients
were able to pick a pencil from a group of objects behind the screen with their left hand. This shows
that the right hemisphere does have some amount of language comprehension and language is not
exclusive to the left hemisphere. Language production, however, is confined to the left hemisphere.
 When the word “heart” was flashed on the screen so that “he” was presented in the left visual field
and “art” in the right visual field, the patients said that they saw “art” but pointed (with their left hand)
to the card with the word “he” on it. This corroborates the previous findings, but also shows that the
two hemispheres process stimuli independently
 Some patients were able to spell simple words with their left hand, although it differed from person
to person. For example, when researchers placed four plastic letters in a pile behind the screen,
one patient was able to spell “love” with his left hand (the instruction was simply “spell a word”). Of
course, after completing the task the patient was not able to say what word he had just spelled! This
shows that the right hemisphere is even capable of language production, but only in the simplest
form and only in some patients.
The four findings listed above demonstrate the dominance of the left hemisphere for language. The left
hemisphere produces speech and makes a person consciously aware of something. However, this
lateralization is not strict: some forms of language production and comprehension can be performed by the
right hemisphere also. Moreover, it differs somewhat from person to
person.
 The right hemisphere performs better in tasks that involve visual
construction. A redrawn picture was a much closer match to the
original when done by the left hand (controlled by the right
hemisphere) than the right hand (controlled by the left
hemisphere), even in right-handed people.
 Both hemispheres independently are capable of forming an
emotional response. In other words, emotions are not
lateralized. In one series of tests, various objects were flashed
on the screen and among them the picture of a nude woman.
This immediately evoked an emotional response irrespective of
where on the screen the picture was flashed. If it was flashed to
the left hemisphere, the patient laughed and identified it.
Each hemisphere is still able to learn after the split brain operation, but one hemisphere has no idea about
what the other hemisphere has experienced or learned. Today, technology in split brain operation make it
possible to cut off only a tiny portion and not the whole of the corpus callosum of patients.
CONCLUSIONS ABOUT LOCALISATION
The accumulated body of evidence suggests that localization of function in the human brain is relative. This
idea of relative localization includes the following aspects.
– Some functions are indeed strictly localized. Examples include Broca’s aphasia and Wernicke’s
aphasia.
– Some functions such as memory are widely distributed. Refer to Karl Lashley’s research for an
example.
– Some functions are weakly localized rather than strictly— several brain areas are responsible for
the same function, but one of these areas is dominant. This is illustrated by split brain research, for
example.
– Some components of a function may be localized while other components of the same function may
be distributed. For example, speech production seems to be more localized than speech
comprehension.
– Localization is not static: brain areas can re-specialize due to neuroplasticity.

NEUROPLASTICITY
Neuroplasticity is the ability of the brain to change throughout the course of life. The change occurs through
the making and breaking of synaptic connections between neurons. In this process neural networks in the
brain literally change their shape. The reasons for such changes are both genetic (normal pre-programmed
development of the brain) and environmental (for example, injury, brain damage or simply learning new
skills).
Neuroplasticity can be observed on different scales. On the smallest scale, at the level of a single neuron, it
takes the form of synaptic plasticity: the ability of the neuron to form new synaptic connections and break
up the old ones. On the largest scale, neuroplasticity takes the form of cortical remapping: the
phenomenon when brain area X assumes the functions of brain area Y, for example, due to injury (on the
level of cortex).
*Hippocampus—a part of the limbic system, known to be implicated in emotional regulation and long-term
memory
Synaptic plasticity depends on the activity of neurons. If two nearby neurons are frequently activated at the
same time, a synaptic connection between them may gradually form. Similarly, if two neurons are rarely
activated together, the existing connection may gradually fall apart.
CASE STUDY IN FOCUS: NEUROPLASTICITY
Maguire et al (2000) investigated the brains of London taxi drivers, a group chosen for their extensive
navigation experience. The researchers hypothesized that the structure of the hippocampus would be
different because prior animal studies had shown the hippocampus to be involved in spatial abilities. Taxi
drivers in London undergo an intensive training programme on how to navigate in the city and have to pass
a set of stringent examinations to be licensed.
Aim: The aim of the study was to see whether the brains of London taxi drivers would be somehow
different as a result of the exceptional training that they have to do to be certified. All potential taxi drivers
must learn “the Knowledge” – that is, they must form a mental map of the city of London.
Participants: 16 right-handed male taxi drivers. The average experience as a taxi driver was 14.3 years. A
control group: 50 healthy right-handed male subjects who did not drive a taxi.
Brain scans of control subjects were taken from the database of brain scans at the same unit where brain
scans were performed with taxi drivers. The scans were obtained by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). It
was important to make the comparison groups as equivalent as possible in terms of potential confounding
variables, so some exclusion criteria were applied to the control subjects. Subjects below 32 and above 62
years old were excluded, as well as subjects who were female, left-handed or had any health issues. This
resulted in the selection of (brain scans of) 50 healthy right-handed male subjects who did not drive a taxi.
Results indicated an increased brain matter volume in the brains of taxi drivers as compared to control
subjects in the posterior hippocampus. At the same time, control subjects had greater volumes of grey
matter in the anterior hippocampus. This meant there was no difference between the groups in terms of the
general volume of the hippocampus, but there was significant redistribution of grey matter from the anterior
to posterior hippocampus in the brains of taxi drivers. Brain matter “shifted” from the front to the back.
However, this study is a quasi-experiment (comparison of two pre-existing groups). The researchers did
not randomly assign people to be either taxi drivers or controls. The results obtained are therefore
essentially correlational and cause-and-effect inferences cannot be made. It seems plausible to suggest
that driving a taxi in London leads to redistribution of grey matter in the hippocampus, but we cannot be
certain. One of the possible alternative explanations for this finding is that people with larger grey matter
volumes in the posterior hippocampus (and lesser volumes in the anterior) are naturally predisposed to
choose professions that depend on navigational skills. In other words, people become taxi drivers because
they have a special brain, not the other way around.
To test this alternative explanation, Maguire et al examined the correlation between hippocampal volume
and amount of time spent as a taxi driver. Grey matter volume in the posterior hippocampus correlated
positively and significantly with experience as a taxi driver, and there was a reverse relationship with grey
matter volume in the anterior hippocampus. Note that the effect size is exactly the same but with a different
sign. This led researchers to conclude that, since grey matter volumes change as taxi drivers’ experience
increases, these differences are indeed the result of neuroplasticity.
Redistribution of grey matter in the hippocampus itself can be explained by attributing different functions to
the two regions: it is now accepted that the posterior hippocampus is involved when previously learned
spatial information is used, whereas the anterior hippocampus is responsible for learning new spatial
information.
Practical Applications
All the evidence discussed so far challenges the idea that the brain is “fixed” and that certain psychological
functions are hard-wired in certain parts of the brain. At least to some extent, the brain is a plastic structure
that can adapt itself to the demands of the environment. This raises the question: can we use brain
plasticity for practical purposes? Potential applications are countless. Can we rewire the visual cortex of
blind people so that they can “see” using some other senses? For a person with a mechanical prosthetic
limb, can we implant electrodes into the motor cortex and train the brain to control the artificial limb? The
idea that other senses may be used to make up for the lost sense is known as sense substitution.
Another application of neuroplasticity is human echolocation. Some blind people can acquire the ability to
see around them with echoes: they produce clicking sounds with their mouth and analyse echoes as the
sounds bounce off the objects in front of them. Studies have demonstrated that this auditory information in
such people is processed in the visual rather than auditory cortex areas (Thaler, Arnot and Goodale 2011).
Yet another promising area is brain-machine interfaces. These include artificial sensory organs and
bionic limbs that can be controlled by thought.

BRAIN IMAGING TECHNIQUES/NEUROIMAGING

Brain imaging techniques (BIT) allow us to study brain without cutting the skull open (non-invasive
methods). Five of the most commonly used brain imaging techniques are computerized axial tomography
(CAT), positron emission tomography (PET), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI), and electroencephalography (EEG).

1. Computerized axial tomography (CAT)

a. Principle: Works on the principle of differential absorption of X-rays.
b. Procedure: The subject lies on a table that slides inside a cylindrical apparatus, where a moving
source of X-rays scans the subject’s head. After passing through the head the X-ray beam is picked
up by a detector and analysed. Bone and hard tissue absorb X-rays better than soft tissue. As
multiple X-ray beams go through the head it is possible to reveal the structural features of the brain.
c. Strengths
i. A quick non-invasive method of studying brain structure.
ii. It has an advantage over standard X-rays because CAT records images of hard and soft tissue as
well as blood vessels simultaneously.
iii. Unlike some other techniques, CAT scans can be made for people who have implanted medical
devices.
d. Limitations
i. CAT scans involve some level of radiation exposure.

2. Positron emission tomography (PET)

a. Positron emission tomography (PET), like fMRI, uses blood flow as the indicator of brain activity. A
radioactive tracer is used that binds itself to molecules naturally used in the brain, such as glucose.
This radioactive tracer is administered into the subject’s blood stream. It has a short half-life period
(that is, it decays quickly). The scanner then registers radio frequencies emitted by the decaying
tracer. Brain areas that are more active require more blood supply, so the distribution of the tracer in
the brain will depend on what regions are mostly in use at the time of the scan
b. Strengths
i. PET has a decent spatial resolution of about 4 mm throughout the brain
ii. PET is useful for detecting tumours and metastases, as well as other diffuse brain diseases, so
that it becomes clear what areas are affected by the spreading disease. It is often helpful in
diagnosing causes of dementias.
iii. Another advantage of PET is that scanners can be small—so small that a small PET scanner has
been constructed that can be worn by a rat on its head like a hat.
c. Limitations
i. There is exposure to radioactivity
ii. It provides poor temporal resolution (as compared to fMRI), so only relatively slow processes can
be registered

3. Electroencephalography (EEG)
a. Electroencephalography (EEG) measures electric potentials generated by neural circuits. Neurons
communicate with each other by sending electrical impulses along their axons. An impulse fired in an
individual neuron is “invisible” to any device outside of the skull because the impulse is too tiny.
However, when large groups of neurons fire synchronously, electric potentials generated by these
impulses become detectable at the head surface. Electrodes are attached to the scalp in
predetermined points and pick up the changes in the electric potential of the scalp areas. This
information is used to generate an electroencephalogram.
b. Strengths
 i. EEG has a perfect temporal resolution. It is capable of detecting changes in brain activity within
milliseconds. In this sense it outperforms other techniques such as fMRI.
ii. It is a low-cost technique.
iii. Unlike PET and fMRI, EEG measures neuronal activity directly.
iv. EEG can be offered as a mobile service because the apparatus can be manually transported. For
comparison, the weight of an fMRI scanner is about 1 ton.
v. EEG is silent, which is an advantage because responses to auditory stimuli can be studied. This is
difficult with noisy fMRI scanners.
vi. EEG is completely non-invasive in comparison to most other neuroimaging techniques.
c. Limitations
i. EEG offers extremely low spatial resolution, so it only gives a very crude picture in terms of
localization.
ii. EEG is good for measuring electric activity in the cortex, but not so good for detecting activity in
subcortical areas. The farther away from the surface of the scalp, the weaker the signal.
iii. It takes considerable experience to interpret an encephalogram correctly because a number of
artifacts contribute to noise in the data, and the signal–noise ratio is quite low.

4. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

a. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is different from CAT in that it does not involve X-rays. In
general, MRI is often compared to CAT because it has the same purpose—to produce a high
resolution three-dimensional image of brain structure.
b. Principal: MRI is based on the principle that some atomic nuclei—in particular, those of hydrogen
atoms—can emit energy when placed in an external magnetic field. When these pulses of energy
are detected by the scanner, the relative distribution of hydrogen atoms in the brain can be mapped.
Hydrogen atoms exist naturally in the body, but their concentration in different types of tissue is
different. Analysing the pattern of emission of energy in response to magnetic fields, we can see
inside the brain. After excitation by the magnetic field each tissue returns to its equilibrium state—
and the time required to do so differs in different types of tissue. This information is also analysed.
This is why it is necessary to rapidly change the parameters of the magnetic field and switch it on
and off repeatedly. The result is the loud noise that is characteristic of any MRI scanner.
c. Procedure: Similar to CAT, the subject is placed on a table that slides inside a cylindrical apparatus.
d. Strengths
i. It allows non-exposure to radiation and, as a consequence, less risk of radiation-induced cancer.
ii. MRI has better resolution. This makes it particularly useful for detecting abnormalities in soft tissue
—such as the brain.
e. Limitations
i. People with metal in their body, for example, cardiac pacemakers or shrapnel, cannot undergo the
procedure because metal will attract to the magnetic field (one can only imagine what happens).
ii. An MRI scan can be an issue for claustrophobic people because it requires being placed in a
narrow tube.
iii. Lying still for a long time may be problematic for young children, especially since the procedure is
new and may be frightening (partly because MRI scanners are noisy).
iv. An MRI scan is more expensive than a CAT scan. However, the costs are falling.
v. The high resolution and sensitivity of an MRI scan is a risk in itself due to incidental findings.
Sometimes the scan will pick up slight abnormalities in the brain structure that are not actually
related to the symptoms being investigated. This may create anxiety and cause patients to seek
unnecessary treatment.

5. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

a. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is called functional for a reason: the image obtained
in the scan is dynamic. While MRI and CAT are only able to reveal the structural features of the
brain, fMRI can also show the ongoing brain processes. In a typical fMRI study, the subject is
required to carry out some task in which periods of activity are alternated with periods of rest.
b. Principal: The principle at work is that when a brain region is active during the performance of a task,
the flow of oxygenated blood in that region increases. This method uses the BOLD (blood-oxygen-
 level dependent) signal. When a brain region is active during the performance of a task, the
organism supplies it with oxygenated blood. When oxygenated blood is placed in an external
magnetic field, it emits pulses of energy, but this response depends on the blood flow and level of
oxygenation. Since we know that the most active brain areas are supplied with the most blood, this
also allows us to see which brain areas are most active during the performance of a particular task.
i. BOLD (blood-oxygen-level dependent) signal— pulses of energy emitted by oxygenated blood
when placed in an external magnetic field, used in fMRI
c. Procedure: Similar to MRI, but subjects are also required to carry out a task while their brain is being
scanned.
d. Strengths
i. It offers excellent spatial resolution (up to 1–2 mm).
ii. Unlike structural imaging techniques, it allows us to see brain processes.
e. Limitations
i. There is poor temporal resolution (about 1 second) when using fMRI as compared to
electromagnetic techniques such as EEG
ii. All the considerations that were relevant to MRI also apply to fMRI: claustrophobia, cost, lengthy
procedure, and inability to use it with medical implants.
CASE STUDY IN FOCUS: MRI
Aim: Ashtari et al(2009), used MRI to investigate whether substance abuse(Marijuana) can damage the
developing brain in adolescents and young adults.
Participants and procedure: The researchers scanned the brains of 14 young men with a history of
heavy marijuana abuse over a long period. The control group consisted of 14 young men who had not used
marijuana.
Findings: The results of the scan indicated that there were brain abnormalities in the frontal, parietal and
temporal regions of the brains of marijuana users. The development of white matter (myelin)
was affected and this could explain the slow processing of information in the brain . Thus, the researchers
concluded that early marijuana use can affect brain development negatively, thus contributing to a
correlational nature of data, rather than the cause and effect nature.
Since the study only had sample as men, thus confounding variables, like sex and age can impact the
study. The study has low ecological validity as this cannot be replicated easily, one of the disadvantages of
the brain imaging techniques. These techniques are also very expensive.
On the other hand, the advantage of MRI are that they can be used to study in particular, how the
blood flows in the brain and can be used to detect diseases like Alzheimer’s. It is also safe to use as no
radioactive material is used.
CASE STUDY IN FOCUS: fRMI
Aim: Harris and Fiske (2006) used fMRI scans to study students brain processes as a response to being
presented with the pictures of extreme outgroups. This study aimed to find the biological correlates
to stereotype and prejudice.
The researchers scanned students while they were watching either pictures of different humans or objects.
It was predicted that the medial prefrontal cortex would be active when participants looked at the humans
but not when they looked at objects.
This was found except when the participants looked at the pictures from the extreme outgroup such as the
homeless and addicts. Brain regions related to disgust were activated and there was not activity in the
prefrontal cortex. Thus, it was concluded that dehumanization of the outgroups – these groups were
apparently viewed as disgusting object and not people.
Thus, the study lends insight into the technique of fMRI, as it is advantageous: it is safe to use, it can
record activities in all regions of the brain. One disadvantage is on the localization function, rather than
taking into account the neural network model, No cause and effect, Low ecological Validity, Role of
confounding variables.
 NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND BEHAVIOUR
Neuron: The neuron is the basic working unit of the brain, a specialized cell designed to transmit
information to other nerve cells, muscle, or gland cells. But neurons never touch; there is always a space
between them called the synapse. The neurons
essentially throw chemicals back and forth across the
synapse.
Synapse: The site of transmission of electric nerve
impulses between two nerve cells (neurons) or
between a neuron and a gland or muscle cell
(effector).
Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that
transmit a message from a nerve cell across the
synapse to a target cell. The target can be another
nerve cell, or a muscle cell, or a gland cell. They are
chemicals made by the nerve cell specifically to transmit the message.
Neurotransmitters allow the impulse to cross a synapse and produce a stimulating effect on the brain
(excitatory) or stop the impulse and prevent it from crossing a synapse and produce a calming effect on
the brain (inhibitory). Neurotransmitters are themselves affected by agonists which amplify their effect and
antagonists which reduce their effect. As a result, neurons working together can produce a large variety of
effects resulting in a complex repertoire of behaviors. Communication is a chemical process, where one
neuron sends out chemicals called neurotransmitters. The next neuron will pick it up with their
dendrites and may or may not keep the message going.
This communication in neurons begins when an electrical impulse called an action potential travels along
the axon of a presynaptic neuron toward the axon terminal. Vesicles thereafter move toward the membrane
of the axon terminal. The membrane of the vesicle fuses itself into the membrane of the axon terminal,
enabling the vesicles to release its contents into the synaptic space. These molecules released by the
vesicles are called neurotransmitters. At the synapse, the mechanism becomes chemical. When the
electrical impulse reaches the end of the axon, a
neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic gap. This
neurotransmitter can then (1) be pulled back into the axon
that released it (this process is called reuptake), (2) reach
the end of the synaptic gap and bind itself to one of the
receptors on the surface of the next neuron, or (3) get
destroyed (metabolized).
When the neurotransmitter binds to a receptor, this
changes the next neuron’s electric potential and
contributes to building up the impulse in the post synaptic
neuron.
Drugs: a substance which may have medicinal, intoxicating, performance enhancing or other effects when
taken or put into a human body. They manipulate neurotransmitters in three ways:
 Agonist: a chemical that enhances the action of a neurotransmitter (mimic a neurotransmitter thus
encouraging its production).
 Antagonist: a chemical that inhibits the action of a neurotransmitter (block the production of the
neurotransmitter).
 Reuptake inhibitors: Some drugs prevent the reuptake of neurotransmitters by the axon terminal.
o Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs): a class of chemicals that act by preventing
reuptake of excess serotonin in the synapse, hence increasing its concentration in the synaptic
 gap. They act as agonists for the neurotransmitter serotonin; they inhibit its reuptake thus
increasing its concentration in the synapse.
Our brain is protected by a layer of capillaries called the blood-brain barrier. The drugs that are small
enough to pass through are called psychoactive drugs.
If a drug is used often, a tolerance is created for the drug. Thus, more of the same drug is needed to feel
the same effect. If drug consumption is stopped, one can develop withdrawal symptoms.
 Stimulants: Speed up body processes; more powerful ones give people feelings of invincibility.
 Depressants: Slows down body processes

Types of neurotransmitters
1. Acetylcholine (ACH)
Acetylcholine (ACH), the first neurotransmitter ever to be identified, is a small- molecule excitatory
neurotransmitter with a wide variety of known functions. In the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
systems and at all neuromuscular junctions, ACH is used to signal muscle movement and muscle
contraction + development of memory in the hippocampus.
a. Too much can cause convulsions – A convulsion is a medical condition where body
muscles contract and relax rapidly and repeatedly, resulting in uncontrolled actions of the
body.
b. Too little can cause paralysis
Case Study: Martinez and Kesner (1991)
Aim: Determine role of ACH on memory
Participants: 3 groups of rats trained to go through maze – received food
 The lab rats were put under three different controls:
o Rats were injected with scopolamine (drug), which is known to block acetylcholine receptor
proteins on the post-synaptic neurones. This means that acetylcholine, a hormone expected
to help form memories cannot travel from one neuron to another, i.e. no nerve impulse is
sent across neurones. – antagonist
o Rats were injected with physostigmine, a drug that is antagonistic towards
acetylcholinesterase. Cholinesterase (or acetylcholinesterase) is what cleans up the
acetylcholine from receptor proteins on the post-synaptic neurones, returning the neurones
to their "resting potential", where no nerve impulse is being sent. Physostigmine blocks
cholinesterase which prevents this "cleaning-up" of acetylcholine. – agonist
o Rats were not injected or altered in any form at all. – placebo
Procedure:
 They first had mice run a simple T-maze to find food (award) that was placed in one of the arms of
the t. After having run the maze, but before memory could be consolidated, the researchers injected
the mice with one of three chemicals.
 Rats were given their respective treatments (see 3 groups above)
 After being injected, the rats were again placed into the T-maze to see how long it would take them
to find the food that they had previously located.
Results: 
 Condition 1 (rats that were injected with scopolamine) took the longest to complete the maze and
made more mistakes/errors
 Condition 2 (rats that were injected with physostigmine) took the shorted amount of time to
complete the maze and made fewer mistakes/errors
 Condition 3 (rats with no treatment) had maze-completion times between the condition 1 and
condition 2 rats 
Conclusion/Interpretations:
 Scopolamine has the effect of preventing or slowing down the process of memory formation. This
can be concluded because the rats given scopolamine took the longest to complete their mazes.
Acetylcholine is involved in memory formation because scopolamine is what blocks acetylcholine
receptors.
  Acetylcholine is involved in memory formation because the condition 2 rats were quickest in
completing the maze: their injection of physostigmine prevented the removal of acetylcholine from
the receptor proteins of the post-synaptic neurones.
 The more acetylcholine is available, the more productive memory formation is. This can be
concluded because condition 3 rats were in-between the other two conditions in terms of maze-
completion time.

Strengths:
 First, the procedure is very simple.  In this way the study can be easily replicated, and the reliability
of the results can be tested. In addition, the experiment in highly controlled. 
 The only difference in the conditions is the level of acetylcholine.  To make sure that receiving
the injection was not the factor that influenced the rats’ ability to run the maze, the saline solution
was injected. In this way the researchers could rule out the placebo effect as a reason for their
results.
Weaknesses:
 It is not clear to what extent we can generalize the findings from rats to human beings. 
However, researchers have found that there are lower levels of acetylcholine in Alzheimer’s
patients. 

2. Dopamine
Dopamine is an excitatory neurotransmitter that is involved in our desire to get things done (motivation), in
controlling the brain’s reward and pleasure centres and in regulating emotional responses. When you
come to associate a certain activity with pleasure, mere anticipation may be enough to
raise dopamine levels. It is involved in motor/voluntary movement, alertness, and memory.
a. Too much can cause Schizophrenia
b. Too little can cause Parkinson’s disease
Cast Study: Fisher (2004)
Fisher, Aron, and Brown (2005) conducted a study of the neural mechanisms of romantic love. This study
suggested the central role of dopamine in the brain response to loved ones.
Aim: To investigate neural mechanisms of romantic love.
Participants: Ten men and seven women who were currently “intensely in love” (but not with each other)
were recruited for the study by word of mouth as well as through flyers. The mean age was 21 years and
the mean reported duration of being in love was 7 months.
Method:
 Experiment; repeated measures design.
 Variables were measured in fMRI scans.
Procedure: All participants were placed in a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanner and
engaged in a standardized procedure involving looking at photographs while their brains were being
scanned. There were four stages:
 For 30 seconds each participant viewed a photograph of his or her beloved person.
 Participants were given a 40-second filler activity which was to count back from a given number.
 For 30 more seconds participants viewed a photograph of an emotionally neutral acquaintance.
 The final stage was another 20 seconds of counting back from a number.
These four steps were repeated six times, so the total procedure lasted for 720 seconds (12 minutes).
Then, brain responses to the picture of a loved one and to the picture of a neutral acquaintance were
compared.
Results: Results showed a specific pattern of activation in the brains of participants in response to the
photographs of their loved ones: activation was observed in dopamine-rich neural systems, primarily the
ventral tegmental area (VTA) and caudate nucleus. Both these regions are rich in dopamine and form the
key part of the so-called dopaminergic pathway—a system that generates and transmits dopamine and
increases dopamine-related activity in the brain. It is a reward system because dopaminergic activity is
associated with motivation and feelings of pleasure. Such brain activity is similar to what happens when
someone has consumed cocaine; being “in love” is similar to being “addicted.”
Conclusion: Dopaminergic activity plays a role in feelings of romantic love.
 3. Serotonin
Serotonin is a chemical that has a wide variety of functions in the human body. Serotonin is the key
hormone that stabilizes our mood, feelings of well-being, and happiness. This hormone impacts your
entire body. It enables brain cells and other nervous system cells to communicate with each other.
Serotonin also helps with sleeping, eating, and digestion. {sleep, arousal levels, and emotion}
a. Low levels of serotonin can cause depression, anxiety, and sleep trouble
b. High levels of serotonin can cause signs and symptoms that can range from mild (shivering
and diarrhoea) to severe (muscle rigidity, fever and seizures).
Case Study 1: Effect of serotonin on prosocial behaviour – Crockett et al (2010)
*Prosocial behaviour, or intent to benefit others, is a social behaviour that "benefit[s] other people or society
as a whole", "such as helping, sharing, donating, co-operating, and volunteering".
Aim: Crockett et al (2010) investigated the effect of serotonin on prosocial behaviour.
Participants: A sample of volunteers was recruited for the study. It included 30 healthy subjects (mean age
26).
Procedure: The experiment followed a repeated measures design with two conditions.
 In condition 1 participants were given a dose of citalopram. This drug is a highly selective serotonin
reuptake inhibitor (SSRI): a chemical that blocks reuptake of serotonin from the synapse, in this way
boosting its concentration and prolonging its effects.
 In condition 2 (the control) participants were given a placebo (a harmless substance with no active
effect). The design was counter-balanced, and this was a double-blind study.
After taking the drug, participants were given a series of moral dilemmas that involved choosing between a
utilitarian outcome (saving five lives) and aversive harmful actions (such as killing an innocent person).
Aversive harmful actions in the scenarios were of two types: personal (for example, pushing a man off a
bridge to stop a train and prevent it from hitting five people) and impersonal (for example, pressing a lever
to divert a train off a track where it will hit five people to a track where it will hit one).
Results: Results showed that responses in the impersonal version were unaffected by citalopram.
However, after receiving a dose of citalopram participants were less likely to push the man off the bridge in
the personal scenario than participants in the placebo condition.
Conclusion: Researchers concluded that serotonin reduces acceptability of personal harm and in this way
promotes prosocial behaviour. It modulates reactions of the brain to emotionally salient situations so that
inflicting harm on other people is judged as less acceptable.
Limitation to the study: A limitation of the study that the authors recognized is that citalopram intake
induced slight nausea. This might mean that participants could work out what condition they were in on that
trial. However, it is not possible to estimate the extent to which this might have influenced the results.

Effect 2: Serotonin and Depression

 Serotonin has been shown to be involved in the symptoms of major depressive disorder. The
serotonin hypothesis states that low levels of serotonin in the brain play a causal role in developing
depression.
 Studies have mainly involved clinical trials with two groups of patients. The experimental group
would be given a drug that affects levels of serotonin in the brain and the control group would be
given a placebo (a harmless substance that the patient believes to be a drug), after which the
symptoms of depression would be compared.
 If a drug that is known to affect serotonin (for example, an SSRI) leads to a reduction of symptoms
in the experimental group, it is concluded that the level of serotonin is the cause of depression.
 However, this logic has a number of limitations.
o First, drugs affect neurotransmitters within minutes, but the behavioural effects do not
manifest immediately. Sometimes it takes weeks. This suggests that the influence may be
indirect or there could exist a longer path where changing levels of serotonin is just one
stage.
o Second, not all patients benefit from drugs. This suggests that the link between serotonin
and depression is not universal (that is, not applicable to all people without exception).
o Whether it is universal or not, direct or indirect, the presence of the link between serotonin
and depression is not questioned. Recently, depression was also linked to a particular gene
 —the serotonin transporter gene 5-HTT—and it was shown that this gene determines one’s
vulnerability to developing depression in response to stressful life events.

HORMONES
Hormones: Chemical messenger secreted by glands. These glands are part of a system called the
endocrine gland.
Hormones Neurotransmitters
Hormones are released into the bloodstream and Neurotransmission is communication along nerve
travel with blood to reach their destination. cells.
Hormones can regulate long-term ongoing The nervous system regulates relatively rapid
processes such as growth, metabolism, digestion, processes (movement, emotion, decisions, and so
or reproduction. on).
Hormones are not in our control, e.g. growth While to certain extent, the impact of
hormone in excess is not something that one neurotransmitters can still be controlled, e.g. your
can directly control. mood.
Relatively less The degree of voluntary control over neural
regulation is higher than over hormonal regulation.

Hormones can only influence cells that have receptors for this particular hormone. Such cells are called
target cells. When a hormone binds to a receptor it launches a sequence of changes, some of which are
genomic: gene activation or gene suppression. Essentially, what this means is that hormones do not
influence behaviour directly. Instead, they change the probability that a certain behaviour will occur in
response to a certain environmental stimulus.

1. Oxytocin
a. Produced by the hypothalamus and secreted by the pituitary gland. 
b. When it affects the brain, it acts as a neurotransmitter. 
c. Plays a role in mother-child attachment; believed to play a role in social bonding and trust
between people. It is also released with every kiss or hug. 
d. It has been referred to as “the love hormone”, “the bonding hormone” and “the cuddle
chemical”.

Case Study 1: Romero et al (2014)

Aim: Romero et al (2014) demonstrated that oxytocin promotes social bonds in mammals in non-
reproductive contexts.
Procedure + Participants: In their study 16 dogs were sprayed intra-nasally either with oxytocin or a
placebo (in a repeated-measures, double-blind counterbalanced design). They were placed with their
owner and another dog in the same room and their behaviour was recorded by four cameras during one
hour. The room was empty except for a chair on which the dog owner sat. The owner was instructed to
move the chair in pre-designated positions every 10 minutes, but otherwise sit quietly and not actively
interact with the dog.
Results: Later the recordings were analysed using a checklist of dog behaviours. Results showed that dogs
sprayed with oxytocin showed higher affiliation towards their owner. Affiliation was operationalized as
sniffing, licking, gentle touching with the nose or paw, play bouts and body contact. They also spent
significantly more time in close proximity to the owner. Similar results were observed for the dog partner
(the other dog present in the room): affiliation and approach behaviours were more frequent in
the oxytocin condition.
Furthermore, the effect of oxytocin was found to be bi-directional: subsequent blood tests showed that the
more often the dog interacted with the owner and the dog partner, the higher the levels of endogenous
oxytocin it had. So, oxytocin “triggers” social interaction, and social interaction affects the release of more
oxytocin. The researchers concluded that oxytocin performs the function of maintaining close social bonds
in mammals.
Case Study 2: De Dreu et al (2011)
Aim: De Dreu et al (2011) found that oxytocin promotes human ethnocentrism, a type of inter-group bias
where one’s own ethnic group is perceived as more important than or superior to others. De Dreu et al
(2011) conducted a series of experiments all of which used double-blind placebo-control independent
measures designs.
Participants: Participants in the studies were indigenous Dutch males. They self-administered either
oxytocin or a placebo intra-nasally.
Procedure: Experiments involved exposing subjects to images of people belonging either to their ingroup
(Dutch males) or outgroup (immigrants from the Middle East and German citizens). Experiments used
“moral-choice dilemma” tasks, such as the famous trolley problem we have already discussed. Participants
in the oxytocin and placebo groups were given a series of moral choice dilemmas where decision had to be
made as to whether one person should be killed in order to save five other people. In some of these tasks
the target person (the one who had to be killed) was a member of participants’ ingroup, and in other tasks a
member of their outgroup. This was achieved by manipulating the name of the target person: either a
typically Dutch name (Dirk or Peter, for example) or a typically Arab name (such as Ahmed or Youssef) or a
typically German name (such as Markus or Helmut). The other five individuals were unnamed and so their
identity or ethnic background was not indicated. The question was, in a task like this, would a Dutch person
prefer to sacrifice a non-Dutch person, and how does this depend on oxytocin?
Results: Results showed that under oxytocin males were more likely to sacrifice an outgroup target than an
ingroup target, while under the placebo there was no significant difference. There are two alternative
explanations for this finding.
 Oxytocin promotes ingroup favouritism.
 Oxytocin promotes outgroup derogation.
Further analysis of the data revealed that, compared with males in the placebo (control) condition, males
under oxytocin were less likely to sacrifice a member of their ingroup, but were not more likely to sacrifice a
member of the outgroup. Based on this, the first explanation has to be the preferred one. Oxytocin creates
inter-group bias by increasing ingroup favouritism. It does not promote outgroup derogation.

2. Cortisol
a. Secreted by the adrenal glands.
b. Helps control blood sugar levels, regulate metabolism, reduce inflammation, and assist with
memory formation.
c. To suppress the immune system, and to aid in the metabolism of fat, protein,
and carbohydrates. 
d. It also helps to the body to return to a state of homeostasis after a stressful event. 
e. Thus, it prepares your body for the flight and fight action.

Case Study: Newcomer et al (1999)

Aim: To investigate how levels of cortisol levels interfere with verbal declarative memory.
Procedure + Participants: A self-selected sample (recruited through advertisement) of 51 normal and
healthy people aged 18-30 was used. It was a randomised, controlled, double bind experiment running for
four days. All participants gave informed consents. There were three experimental conditions:
1. Condition 1 – high level of cortisol: The participants in the high level cortisol group were given a
tablet containing 160 mg of cortisol on each day of the four-day experiment. This dose of cortisol
produces blood levels similar to those seen in people experiencing a major stress event.
2. Condition 2 – low level of cortisol: The participants in the low level of cortisol group were given a
tablet containing 40 mg of cortisol per day. This dose
is similar to the amount of cortisol circulating in the blood
stream of people undergoing minor surgical procedures
such as having stitches removed.
3. Condition 3 – placebo group: The participants in this
condition were given placebo tablets - that is, a tablet that
looked like the other tablets but with no active ingredient. 
This was done in order to have a control group.
All participants were asked to listen to and recall parts of a prose paragraph. This tested their verbal
declarative memory. It is known that verbal declarative memory is often affected during long-term stress
and the researchers knew from previous studies that cortisol could be involved in memory impairment.
The study seems to clearly indicate an effect of stress related hormones on recall of declarative
memory. Errors tended to be of omission-missing out the response  rather than commission-including
a wrong amount, indicating that the results are not due to attention impairment, but impairment of recall.
Results: In the placebo treated group, paragraph recall performance improved over the course of the four 
days, most likely due to a practice effect. In contrast, the cortisol treated participants did not show an 
overall improvement. The results indicated that high cortisol levels impaired performance in the memory
task since the participants  who received the highest level of cortisol also showed the worst performance in
verbal declarative memory. The effect was not permanent, however. The performance of participants in the
high cortisol condition returned to normal after they stopped taking the hormone tablet. According to the
researchers, these results demonstrate a clear link between levels of cortisol and remembering.  It appears
that cortisol interferes with the transfer of short-term memory to long-term memory that takes place in the
hippocampus. This makes sense as there are several cortisol receptors on the hippocampus.
Evaluation: This was a controlled randomized experiment, so it was possible to establish a cause and effect
relationship between the level of cortisol and scores on verbal declarative memory test. Ethical issues were
observed with informed consent. The negative effect of taking high doses of cortisol was reversible so no
harm was done.

PHEROMONES
Pheromones: A pheromone is a chemical substance produced and released into the environment by an
animal affecting the behaviour or physiology of others of its own species.
Although pheromones are known to play a significant role in signalling between members of the
same species among animals to affect various behaviours, it is not clear that this is also true in humans.
Some psychologists have argued that pheromones may affect the menstrual cycle in groups of
women, olfactory recognition of new-born by its mother and that individuals may exude different odours
based on mood. Although there is some evidence, nothing is conclusive on whether or not humans have
functional pheromones.
Types of Pheromones: Primer pheromones that cause slow, long-term physiological changes, such
as hormonal effects; and signalling pheromones that produce rapid behavioural effects, such as mating. 
In humans, there is some evidence of primer pheromones. However, for all the published research that
shows these effects, there is an equal number of studies showing that there are no effects. At this stage in
the study of psychology, no human pheromone has yet been found.
Putative human pheromone: a chemical substance that is hypothesized to be a human pheromone such
as androstadienone (AND) and estratetraenol (EST).
Localization of processing pheromonal information in the brain: Although many pheromones have a
smell, pheromonal information in the brains of animals is not processed in the same brain regions as
ordinary smells. The region of the brain responsible for processing smell is called the main olfactory bulb.
However, pheromones are processed differently from regular smells. Mammals have a separate structure
called the vomeronasal organ (VNO) which is located in the anterior nasal cavity. Nerves from the VNO in
animal brains connect to a special region called the accessory olfactory bulb. This region is adjacent to, but
separate from, the main olfactory bulb. Human foetuses do have the accessory olfactory bulb, but it
regresses and disappears after birth. Some people do have the VNO while some don’t. Even in those who
have the VNO, it appears to be non-functional: there is no connection to the central nervous system. If
pheromonal information is indeed processed in the human brain, it must be processed somewhere else.
How pheromones work:
1. Our bodies naturally secrete fluids through glands in out body that contain natural pheromones.
2. The vomeronasal organ (VNO) detects the pheromones and send a signal to the olfactory nerves.
3. The olfactory nerves stimulate the hypothalamus in the cortex of the brain which stimulates
emotions.
 4. The pheromone scent triggers illicit emotions in the hypothalamus such as attraction, sexual desire,
arousal.
Case Study: Zhou et al (2014)
Aim: Zhou et al (2014) carried out a study to see if these substances influenced human sexual behaviour. 
Participants: The sample was made up of 96 participants – 24 heterosexual men, 24 heterosexual
women, 24 gay men and 24 lesbian women.
Procedure: In the experiment, participants were asked to watch stick figures walking on a screen and
to determine their gender. While carrying out the task, the participants were exposed to the smell of cloves. 
 In the first condition, the cloves were mixed with androstadienone
 In the second condition, the cloves were mixed with estratetraenol
 In the control condition, only cloves were used. 
Results: The findings showed that smelling androstadienone biased heterosexual females and gay males,
but not heterosexual males, toward perceiving the walkers as more masculine. By contrast, smelling
estratetraeonol systematically biases heterosexual males and lesbian women toward perceiving
the walkers as more feminine. The researchers concluded that pheromones influence communication of
gender information in a sex-specific manner.
Limitations: Although the study showed a significant difference in behaviour, there are some concerns
with the study. First, the participants were exposed to very high levels of the pheromones; it is unclear
that this response would happen in a naturalistic setting.  Secondly, although they identified the figure as
masculine or feminine, this is not a clear study of sexual behaviour but rather if participants perceived a
person's walk as feminine or masculine. It can be debated whether this is a reliable measure of
sexual behaviour. Finally, the study is done on a relatively small sample.  The study would need to be
replicated on a much larger sample in order to determine whether the results are reliable.
Criticisms of research into human pheromones:
 Population validity: Most studies used self-selected samples. This means that the majority of studies
are performed with young, relatively educated participants.
 Participant bias (demand characteristics): There are hints that may lead participants to guess the
true aims of the study.
 Ecological validity: A concentration solution of the pheromone much higher than what is found in
natural sweat is used.
 Internal validity: Other smells act as confounding variables , so it is important to control subjects’
odour lessness, which is difficult.
 Experimenter bias: Since the study of pheromones focuses on participants’ responses to other
people, there are important sources of bias that are more crucial in pheromone research than
anywhere else – the gender, the looks and the behavior of the experimenter or the research
assistant conducting the study. This is difficult to control or keep constant in all the groups.
 Construct validity: Even if the influence of a chemical substance or a scent on
the behavior of human subjects is demonstrated, this does not mean that the chemical substance is
a pheromone. There are many smells and substances (such as those resulting from industrial
pollution or naturally found in the environment) that can have an effect on human behaviour. To be
a pheromone, the substance must perform the function of communication between two individuals.
 Ethics: There may be some ethical issues involved. For example, in one study women were
required to wipe pads containing armpit sweat obtained from donors under their noses each day for
three months.
 Publication bias: Researchers who conduct human pheromone studies are often commercially
interested in the results. So, it is likely that publication bias will occur—with researchers publishing
only supporting evidence and failing to publish “unsuccessful” research.
 Replicability: This has been an issue in the research with human pheromones. Despite some
promising findings, experiments discussed above are countered by other studies that fail to show an
effect of pheromones on human behaviour. So, the effect is elusive and the research inconclusive.

GENES AND BEHAVIOUR

 Chromosome: A chromosome is a thread-like structure that contains a DNA molecule. The long
DNA molecule is tightly coiled many times around supporting proteins, so a chromosome is a
“package” that contains folded DNA.
  DNA: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) stores information. It is a code made up of a long sequence of
four chemical bases (A = adenine, G = guanine, C = cytosine, T = thymine). The bases are paired
up, making a sequence of base pairs. The DNA has a characteristic structure of the double helix
which looks a bit like a ladder where base pairs are the ladder’s rungs. Information is coded in this
sequence of bases like letters in a sentence
 Gene: If DNA is one extremely long sentence, and base pairs are letters, then genes are probably
words. A gene is a unit of heredity, a region of DNA that encodes a specific trait or function.
 Heredity: Biologically determined characteristics passed from parents to offspring.
 Alleles: Alleles are different forms of the gene. They can be dominant or recessive. The trait
controlled by the recessive allele only develops if the allele is present in both chromosomes in the
pair, whereas the trait controlled by the dominant allele will develop if at least one of the
chromosomes in the pair contains it.
 Genotype: The set of traits as coded in an individual’s DNA is called genotype.
 Phenotype: The set of traits that actually manifest in an individual’s body, appearance or behaviour
is called phenotype.
The Nature-Nurture Debate
Nature-nurture is the long-lasting debate in psychology and philosophy that attempts to establish whether
human behaviour is determined primarily by biological factors such as genetics and brain structure (that is,
nature) or environmental factors such as education and friends (that is, nurture).

Methods of research to investigate the influence of genotype on behaviour:

1. Twin Studies: The main principle is estimating the similarity between identical (monozygotic— MZ)
twins and comparing it to the similarity between fraternal (dizygotic—DZ) twins. MZ twins develop
from the same egg and share 100% of genotype. DZ twins develop from different eggs and share
50% of genotype, just like regular siblings. If identical twins are more similar to each other than
fraternal twins, we can attribute it to genetic influences.
a. Researchers compare behavioural traits of monozygotic (MZ or identical) twins and dizygotic
(DZ or fraternal) twins to evaluate the degree of genetic and environmental influence on a
specific trait
2. Family Studies: This method also uses the principle of genetic relatedness but compares relatives
on a broader scale and across generations, for example, comparing children to parents,
grandparents, siblings, cousins, and uncles and aunts.
a. Researchers trace a phenotype over several generations in a family tree to determine the
likelihood that a behaviour is inherited.
3. Adoption Studies: These compare adopted children to their adoptive parents, biological parents,
adoptive siblings, and biological siblings. We can infer genetic influences if adopted children are
more similar to their biological parents than to their adoptive parents.
a. Researchers investigate similarities between the adoptee and their biological and adoptive
parents. Similarity with the biological parent is potentially the result of genetic inheritance,
while similarity with the adoptive parent is more likely the result of environmental factors.
4. Molecular Genetics: Studies of molecular genetics are based on using modern technology for
genetic mapping and identifying the alleles of particular genes in a particular individual. Genetic
variants are then correlated with observed behaviour. These methods are usually used to identify
specific genes responsible for specific behaviour.
The first three methods involve the use of genetic similarity as the principle of research.

Genetic Heritability: Genetic heritability is the quantitative measure of the relative contribution of genetic
factors into a trait or behaviour. Estimation of genetic heritability is performed in twin studies and is based
on the so-called Falconer model, which assumes that phenotype is comprised of three types of influence.
These are:
 Genetics
 Shared environment: Shared environment is the part of environmental influences that is common to
the two twins (such as similar schooling, and the same exposure to books and technology).
  Individual environment: Individual environment comprises environmental influences that are unique
to each of the twins (different friends at school, different hobbies, and so on). This idea can be
written in the following form:
1=A+C+E
(where A = genetic inheritance, C = shared or common environment, E = individual environment).

The influence of genetics on the environment: niche-picking

*Genetic Predisposition: A genetic predisposition (sometimes also called genetic susceptibility) is an
increased likelihood of developing a particular disease based on a person's genetic makeup. A genetic
predisposition results from specific genetic variations that are often inherited from a parent.
Genes and environment are not completely independent: in many instances, genes influence environment
too. So, we need to look at how the interaction between these two factors develops dynamically. One form
of this dynamic development is niche-picking: the phenomenon when genetic predisposition causes
individuals to select environments that, in turn, start to affect their behaviour.
Niche-picking may explain one interesting property of heritability coefficients: they change during life,
typically becoming larger. This means that if you use a sample of adolescent twins and the Falconer model
to arrive at an estimate of heritability (A), this estimate will typically be smaller than if you use a sample of
older twins. As you grow up, your genetic programme “unfolds” causing you to choose certain “niches” in
the environment. In this way, in terms of their behaviour, MZ twins become more and more similar with age.
This phenomenon cannot be explained by the Falconer model.

Gene Environment Correlation

Research has found  three important ways in which  an individual’s genotype may shape his or her
environment:
1. Passive Effect: The genotype may have what has been termed as passive effect on the
environment, resulting from genetic similarity of parents and children. For e.g. highly intelligent
parents may provide a highly stimulating environment for their child thus creating an
environment that will interact in a positive way with the child’s genetic endowment for high
intelligence.
2. Evocative Effect: The child’s genotype may evoke particular kinds of reactions from the social
and physical environment, so called evocative effects, for e.g. active, happy babies evoke more
positive responses from others than passive unresponsive infants do. Similarly, musically talented
children may be picked out at school and given special opportunities.
3. Active Effect: The child’s genotype may play a more active role in shaping his
environment, so called evocative effect, in this case the child seeks out and builds an environment
that is congenial – a phenomenon called as niche building. Extraverted children may seek the
company of others thereby enhancing their own tendencies to be sociable.

Huntington’s Disease
 A rare progressive neuromuscular disorder.
 Person afflicted with Huntington experience a gradual onset of uncontrollable, jerky movements in
their limbs. 
 Unfortunately, there is no cure for Huntington disease
 Children of an affected person has 50% chances of developing this disorder.
 It is now possible to detect the gene which actually causes this disease, it is now possible to detect
its presence before the onset of symptoms.
PKU
 A very important interaction is seen through the Phenylketonuria (PKU). PKU, is a genetically based
disorder in which a person lacks the enzyme necessary to break down – Phenylalanine – a
substance present in many foods.
 Affected people on normal diet tend to accumulate phenylalanine in their bodies. This interferes with
the normal development of the brain and leads to mental retardation, seizures, and hyperactivity.
Altering environment condition can prevent this chain of events.
 Hospitals now routinely screen infants’ blood for high level of phenylalanine. If PKU is detected
during the first few weeks, babies are placed on a diet low in phenylalanine, hence, such babies do
not develop the PKU symptoms, thus showing an important link between the genetics, which
predispose us towards certain patterns of behaviour.
Case Study 1: Twin Studies – Bouchard and McGue (1981)
In twin research, the researchers calculate concordance rate (a concordance rate is the probability that the
same trait will be present in both members of a pair of twins).
The concordance rate is assumed to establish if or to what extent a certain trait is inherited. Ideally, the
percentage of twins sharing the disorder or trait should be 100%. Thus, this would mean if one identical
twin had a particular disorder/trait the other twin would as well. However, there are no forms
of psychopathology in DSM where concordance rates are so high so we can safely conclude that no mental
disorder are completely heritable.
One twin act as a control for the other twin. Twin research is based on a systematic analysis of similarity
between MZ and DZ twins and based on the assumption that any heritable trait will be more concordant in
identical twins than in non-identical twins, and concordance rates will be even lower in siblings. When
carrying out twin research, if the concordance rate for MZ twins is significantly higher than for DZ twins or
siblings, it is likely that there is a genetic component to the behaviour. If the concordance rate is high for
both MZ and DZ twins it is may be assumed that environmental factors play a large role in the observed
behaviour.

Case Study Aim: Bouchard et al (1990) Twin study investigating genetic inheritance in intelligence.
This study used a self-selected sample of white, middle class (in an industrialised nation) MZ twins who
had been reared together (MZT) and MZ twins who had been raised apart (MZA) to investigate
concordance rates for a number of variables such as IQ. The results showed that for IQ (measured by the
standardised intelligence test called WAIS) the concordance rate was 69% for MZA and 88% for MZT.
The researchers concluded that environmental factors do play a role in development of intelligence but IQ
is to a large extent inherited and that 70% of the observed variation in the sample could be attributed to
genetic variation. They also said that their findings do not indicate that IQ cannot be increased–that is
influenced by environmental factor.

Evaluation:
 Correlational data cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
 Concordance rates were high in the study but far from 100% so it was difficult to determine the
relative influence of genes. Calculation of concordance rates is not always reliable.
 There was no control for the effects of environmental variables in the study and this affects accurate
estimations of a genetic contribution to intelligence. As many twin pairs were not separated
immediately after birth so they experienced some formative months or years together.
 Twins might not be as representative of the general population as we would like them to be, so twin
study findings might not be generalizable to a wider population.
 Twin studies are usually small in sample size and rare due to the uniqueness of their target group.
This implies fewer opportunities for replication.
 The similar physical features of the twins might elicit similar responses from the environment (for
example, it is known that attractive people are treated better than average-looking people).
 Assuming that twins grow up in equal environment is often called the equal environment fallacy.
Some research suggests that parents, teachers, peers, and others may treat identical twins more
similarly than fraternal twins. 

Case Study 2: Adoption Studies – Kendler et al (2015)

Adoption studies provide a direct test of environmental malleability of cognitive abilities. There are two
aspects of adoption studies that may provide slightly different angles on the nature-nurture problem. These
aspects are:
1. computing the correlation between cognitive abilities of the adopted child and the adoptive parents
and comparing it to the correlation between cognitive abilities of the adopted child and the biological
parents
2. comparing cognitive abilities of adopted children to those of their siblings who were not adopted but
raised by their biological parents.
In general, most of the existing studies support the idea that IQ is increased by adoption into more
prosperous families. This is demonstrated by comparing the average IQ of children adopted into higher-
SES (socioeconomic status) families and the average IQ of their biological home-reared siblings. At the
same time, the same studies demonstrate that adopted child– biological parent correlations are always
higher that adopted child–adoptive parent correlations, suggesting that the genetic component in cognitive
abilities is strong.
Together these two effects suggest the additive influence – this action occurs when the
combined effect of two or more chemicals is equal to the sum of the effect of each agents given alone (they
do not interact in a direct way) – of genetics and environment on the development of intelligence: adopting
into a higher-SES family results in an increase in IQ, but this increase will be higher or lower depending on
the genetic inheritance of the child.

Case Study Aim: Kendler et al 2015 demonstrated this additive effect in this study. The researchers
conducted a rigorously designed adoption study of a sample of sibling pairs in which one of the siblings
was home-reared and the other one was adopted away.
Procedure + Participants: The complete national Swedish register of male-male siblings was searched,
initially identifying 436 male sibling sets where one of the members was reared by adoptive parents. IQ
scores were taken from the Military Conscription Register (which includes cognitive assessment data for all
18-year-old men in Sweden). Available data also included the educational attainment of both biological and
adoptive parents.
Demand for child adoption in Sweden was considerably larger than the number of children available for
adoption, so potential adoptive parents were carefully screened. The mean educational level was
significantly higher in the group of adoptive parents as compared to biological parents. There was a modest
correlation between the educational levels of biological and adoptive parents, which may suggest some
effects of selective placement.

Interpretation of these findings suggests that cognitive ability is environmentally malleable: there was a 5-
point IQ increase on average by age 18. The fact that there is a correlation between cognitive ability of
adopted children and educational levels of adoptive parents supports this conclusion. On the other hand,
results also suggest heritability of intelligence: this is evident from the correlation between cognitive ability
of adopted children and the educational level of biological parents. Results seem to suggest an additive
influence of environment and genetics: the largest IQ scores were observed in adopted children from well-
educated biological families adopted into well-educated families.
Evaluation: As an evaluation of this study, Adoption studies are often criticized as these children are not
representative of the general population. In addition, adoption agencies tend to use selective
placement when finding homes for children, trying to place children with families who are similar in as many
ways as possible to the natural parents. Consequently, the effects of genetic inheritance may be difficult to
separate from the influences of the environment.

The influence of environment on genes

Biologically, genotype becomes manifested as phenotype through a process called gene expression.
Each gene contains instructions for the synthesis of a functional product—in most cases a protein—a
molecule which will then influence the chemical composition of the cells that determine the trait (eye colour,
for example). Proteins usually are a chain of amino acids.
The process of constructing a protein based on
the plan encoded in the DNA involves two major
steps: transcription and translation. In
transcription, the sequence of the gene is copied
to make an RNA (ribonucleic acid) molecule.
In translation, the RNA molecule is decoded into
a sequence of amino acids in a protein.
In humans, transcription takes place in the nucleus of a cell, and translation takes place in cell structures
known as ribosomes. A ribosome latches onto the RNA molecule, finds its starting point (indicated by a
special chemical) and rapidly moves along the RNA, synthesizing one amino acid at a time, building a
protein that mirrors the RNA. Once the protein is finished, it is transported to its destination (either within
the cell or not) and performs its job.
A wide range of sophisticated mechanisms can be used by the body to increase or decrease the production
of proteins based on the genetic code. Collectively these mechanisms are known as regulation of gene
expression. The important implication here is that having a gene does not automatically mean that this
gene will be manifested in the phenotype. Any step of gene expression can be modulated, from the DNA–
RNA transcription to modification of a protein after translation. Some genes can be suppressed completely.
The process when chemicals are added to the DNA molecule, and so repress gene transcription, is known
as methylation.
Regulation of gene expression results in epigenetic changes—deviation of phenotypes from the genetic
code in the DNA sequence. Epigenetic changes can be attributed to environmental influences, and in this
sense it is a study of how nurture influences nature.
Epigenetic changes can influence the growth of neurons in the developing brain of a child and influence
brain activity in adults. Both processes result in a change of behaviour.
Modern biologists do not simply argue that a gene “causes” a behaviour; instead, they recognize what
is known as the gene-environment interaction. This is part of a field of study known
as epigenetics. Epigenetics argues that for a behaviour to occur, genes must be “expressed.”  Genetic
expression is a complex chemical reaction to environmental or physiological changes that allow a gene to
“do its job.”  
It is important to know that environmental factors such as stress, exercise or diet, may result in
genetic expression, or the lack of genetic expression. This also means that an individual may have a
gene that could lead to a behaviour, but if the gene is never expressed, then this behaviour will not occur.

Genetic Arguments for Depression

Kendler el al (2006) carried out a twin study of over 42.000 twins from the Swedish national twin registry to
determine the level of heritability of depression. They found that the average concordance rate for MZ male
twins was 31 per cent and for MZ female twins 44 per cent, while for DZ twins it  was 11 and 16
per cent, respectively. Overall, Kendler concluded that heritability of depression is estimated to be 38%.
The fact that the concordance rate for MZ twins is far below 100 per cent indicates that depression may be
the result of a genetic predisposition - also called genetic vulnerability. The fact that the concordance rate
for MZ twins is below 100 % does not contradict the argument that depression is genetically inherited. It
may mean that the gene is there, but both twins have not experienced the same level of stress and thus
both twins have not "expressed their genes." The fact that some of the DZ twins also both had depression
is also explained by the fact that they do share some of the same genes.
Since twin studies leave a lot of questions unanswered, modern research in genetics focuses on genetic
mapping. Recent research has used DNA markers to try and identify the gene or genes that are involved in
depression. The Human Genome Project allowed us to see that there are up to 11 genetic markers - or
variations - that seem to be correlated with Major Depressive Disorder.

EVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATIONS FOR BEHAVIOUR

Evolution is the process by which organisms change from generation to generation as a result of a change
in heritable characteristics. It is not just any random change; as suggested by Charles Darwin, there is
deep logic to this process. The modern theory of evolution (a combination of Darwin’s theory with the
discoveries of genetics) is based on the following premises.
 Biological organisms are driven by the need to survive and reproduce
 There is considerable variation in the traits of individual organisms from the same population.
Organisms having different traits are adapted to their environment to varying degrees—some better,
some worse. This is called “differential fitness”.
 Those organisms that are well adapted to the environment have higher chances of surviving and
producing offspring. Organisms that are less adapted die out or are unable to produce offspring.
This is called “survival of the fittest”.
 Gradually as those organisms that are less adapted do not pass on their genes, those genes
disappear from the population gene pool. More adapted organisms produce more offspring, so their
genes in the gene pool get stronger. This is called “natural selection”.
As the environment changes, organisms need to adapt to this change. Scarce resources (such as food and
mates) make organisms fight for survival.
Case Study: Curtis, Aunger and Rabie (2004)
Curtis, Aunger and Rabie (2004) published a study suggesting that disgust evolved as a protection from
risk of disease. Researchers reasoned that if this was true, then the following conditions have to be fulfilled.
 Disgust should be felt more strongly when faced with a disease-salient stimulus as opposed to a
similar stimulus with less salience.
 Disgust should operate in a similar way across cultures.
 Disgust should be more pronounced in females since they have to protect their babies in addition to
themselves.
 Disgust should become weaker as the individual’s reproductive potential declines with age (there is
less responsibility to care about offspring).
 Disgust should be stronger in contact with strangers than with close relatives because strangers
potentially can carry novel pathogens.
Procedure: To test their hypotheses, Curtis, Aunger and Rabie (2004) used a survey placed on the BBC
Science website. The survey was advertised in a BBC documentary. It was completed by over 77,000
people from 165 countries. However, after data cleaning, the final sample size was slightly less than
40,000. For example, all participants who had watched the BBC documentary were excluded because they
could have been exposed to the hypothesis of the study.
First, respondents were asked a set of demographic questions on their age, sex, country, and so on. Then
they were asked to rate 20 photographs (appearing one by one on separate screens) for disgust on a scale
from 1 (not disgusting) to 5 (very disgusting). Of these photographs, 14 comprised 7 pairs of disease-
salient versus less salient stimuli. For example, one photograph depicted a white towel with a blue stain on
it, and the paired photograph showed the same towel with the stain depicted in reddish-yellow resembling
blood and bodily secretions.
Results: Results showed support for all five hypotheses.
 First, disease-salient stimuli were rated as more disgusting than less salient ones.
 Second, the results were consistent across cultures.
 Third, females rated the disease-salient pictures as more disgusting than men. This was true for all
the disease-salient pictures used in the study.
 Fourth, as predicted, there was an age-based decline in the sensitivity to disease-salient stimuli.
 Finally, there was one question in the survey that asked participants to choose with whom they
would be less likely to share a toothbrush. The average responses were ranged in the following
order: postman (least likely), the boss, the weatherman, a sibling, a best friend, the spouse, or
partner. This shows that disgust is felt more strongly in contact with strangers than with relatives.
Therefore, all five tests supported the evolutionary explanation of disgust as a response that reduces risk of
disease.

ANIMAL RESEARCH IN UNDERSTANDING HUMAN BEHAVIOUR

An animal model is a concept that refers to using animal research to test a certain cause–effect hypothesis
about a certain human behaviour.
Value of Animal Models:

 Genetic Similarities. Humans and animals are identical in many ways, both in terms of brain
structure and genetically.
 Studies with animal models do produce results: useful models of human behaviour and life-saving
treatments have been developed based on animal experimentation. For example, insulin was
discovered in an experiment where dogs had their pancreas removed.
 Ability to study behaviour over the lifespan. Animal studies allow researchers to embrace the full
lifespan. While human subjects often outlive researchers themselves, laboratory mice live 2–3 years
and this presents an opportunity to see their behaviour across their lifespan and even across
generations. This is especially helpful in genetic research.
 Animal research may be highly controlled. For example, the “knockout” technique has been
developed to selectively switch off one of the genes in the DNA sequence. All other things being
equal, this technique provides great insight into the function of individual genes. The ability to better
control confounding variables means higher internal validity of experiments.
 Ease of conducting research: Animal subjects are relatively inexpensive and easily accessible, easy
to handle and manage.
 Less ethical concerns. Modern ethics committees can be very strict about enforcing ethical
guidelines in human research, and no study that causes physical or psychological harm to
 people will be allowed to proceed.  On the other hand, for better or worse, there are less strict
ethical guidelines when it comes to animal research.
 Ease of carefully controlling variables.  Although there are human research studies that span years
(even decades), it is obviously impossible to control all the variables that a person might encounter
over such a long time span.  On the other hand, psychologists can carefully control all of the
variables for a lab rat (such as diet, type of cage, etc), establishing a clear causal link between the
independent and dependent variables. 
Limitations of Animal Models:

 Animals and humans are never exactly the same, and we can never know the extent of the
difference. This means that animal research, if successful, still needs to be replicated with humans
in order to be sure that findings are generalizable.
 Even if humans and animals are similar in some aspect biologically, they can still differ
psychologically (Premack, 2007).
 When scientists develop new biomedical treatments for mental disorders, they usually first test them
with mouse models. However, results from mouse models are never directly applied to humans.
Even if mouse models yield successful results, the drug needs to be tested on larger animals first. It
is like a pyramid of generalization where mice are at the bottom and humans are at the top.
 Animals are tested in strictly controlled laboratory environments, so arguably they may be under
stress. As a result, their reactions to experimental manipulations may not be quite the same as in
their natural environments: there may be an issue with ecological validity.
 Although humans and animals are similar in many ways, they are still essentially different. For
example, over 85 vaccines for HIV worked well in primates but all of them have failed in humans
(Bailey, 2008). On the contrary, some results that are negative in animals can actually turn out to be
positive in humans. For example, aspirin proved dangerous for animals, but it is now one of the
most widely used drugs for humans.
CASE STUDIES:

1. Karl Lashley’s experiments with rats cannot be replicated with human subjects: systematic removal
of parts of the cortex in large samples of people sounds horrifying! However, the study was
insightful: we understand now that some complex psychological functions may be distributed rather
 than localized, and this may be used to explain other findings from human research (for example,
controversial findings of Sperry and Gazzaniga regarding different degrees of lateralization for
different functions). So, the insight provided here is not in terms of direct generalization of results
from animals to humans, but in terms of developing a better theory that would explain human
behaviour.
2. Merzenich et al’s (1984) study of cortical representations of the hand in adult owl monkeys is
important because it provides a direct test of neuroplasticity: brain scan—intentional damage—
another brain scan. Can we repeat this with human subjects? No, that would not be ethical.
However, the study provides support for a more general principle: the brain can modify itself in
response to structural damage, and cortical areas can respecialize. This general principle is very
insightful in terms of research with human subjects and practical applications: sense substitution,
artificial limbs and brain-machine interfaces (see “Neuroplasticity”). Again, in this case we are
dealing with theoretical generalization of animal research rather than direct animal-to-human
generalization.
3. Romero et al (2014) looked at the role of oxytocin in promoting social bonds in mammals (dogs).
This research can be replicated with human subjects— and it has been (see “Hormones and
behaviour”). Such research studies are insightful in a different way: we can compare results from
human and animal studies and see to what extent human behaviour is like animal behaviour and
why. This comparison, together with evolutionary theories of behaviour, can help us understand
humans better. For example, oxytocin in the animal world has very straightforward effects: you can
observe how the social behaviour of a dog visibly changes after a dose of the hormone. However, in
human subjects the effects are subtle because humans’ behaviour is also affected by a number of
social norms (which in this context function as confounding variables).
4. HORMONES: Cases et al (1995) carried out a study on the genetic origins of aggression. For their
study, they used a transgenic mouse where the gene that regulates the production of monoamine
oxidase A (MAOA), an enzyme that breaks down serotonin and norepinephrine, was ‘knocked out”
or deleted. High levels of serotonin and norepinephrine were found in the offspring of the transgenic
mice.  High levels of aggression were found in the male pups
a. Does this animal model then help us to understand human behaviour?  In a study carried out
by Caspi et al (2002 ), the researchers carried out a 26-year longitudinal study of 1037
children born in Dunedin, New Zealand.  The study included 442 boys. In their study, they
looked at the genotype of the boys – particularly at the gene that controls the production of
the MAOA enzyme – the same enzyme studied by Cases et al (1995).
b. The researchers wanted to see not only if the gene had an effect on the level of aggression
in the children as they developed, but also whether environmental stressors may interact
with the gene to determine behaviour.  In other words, they were interested in the gene-
environment interaction that is important to epigenetics
c. By age 11, 36% of the children had been maltreated; this included rejection by the mother,
physical and/or sexual abuse.  The results of the study showed that if the abused boy had
the version of the MAOA gene that resulted in low levels of enzyme production, they were
more likely to bully others and engage in aggressive and antisocial behaviour. As adults, 85
percent of the severely maltreated children who also had the gene for low MAOA activity
developed anti-social outcomes, such as violent criminal behaviour.  Boys who were abused
but did not have this gene, did not show any more aggression than boys that were not
abused.
5. Weaver et al (2004) looked at stress-related epigenetic changes in the brain of rats depending on
the type of nurturing they received from their mothers. Potentially, understanding of epigenetics of
stress can lead to a breakthrough in health psychology: if we understand the “chemistry” of bad
parenting, maybe we can reverse its effects. Promising results from Weaver et al (2004)
encouraged researchers such as McGowan et al (2009) to look for possibilities to replicate it with
humans. As you remember from “Genetics and behaviour”, they conducted post-mortem
examinations of brains of 24 individuals (with a different history of abuse in childhood) who had
committed suicide. How do you come up with a research idea like this, unless it is informed by prior
animal research? In this case, animal research provides an insight into human behaviour because it
helps generate new hypotheses
 a. GENE AND BEHAVIOUR: Study #1 - Francis et al - This study investigates the role of
epigenetics in rat behavior.  Baby rats that are licked often by their mothers (a sign of
affection) grow up to be less stressed out as adult rats, and also lick their babies a lot when
they become mothers.  But is this genetic, or epigenetic?  Read this article to find out!
b. Aim:  Investigate how an interaction between genes and the environment influences how
rats nurture their offspring 
c. Procedure:  Within 12 hours of being born, researchers switched baby rats born to "high
licking" mothers with baby rats born to "low licking" mothers (licking is a sign that mother rats
are caring and loving to their offspring)
d. Findings: The rats that were raised by "high licking" mothers grew up to be less stressed,
and eventually became "high licking" mothers when they had children of their own, even if
their biological mother was a "low licker".  Through an examination of genes related to
maternal care, researchers found that rats raised by "high lickers" had lost the methyl groups
around these genes, causing those genes to be "turned on".
e. Conclusion: Being raised in a nurturing, loving environment causes changes in genetic
expression.  These epigenetic changes are then passed on to the next generation.
f. Evaluation
i. This was a carefully controlled lab experiment, showing a clear causal relationship
between the independent variable (being raised by a high vs low licking mother) and
dependent variables (stress in adulthood, and maternal behavior after having
children)
ii. Use of animals in this experiment had several advantages: switching babies with
different mothers would be highly unethical if done to humans, and the shorter
lifespan of rats made it easier to study behavior across generations
iii. Since this experiment was done on rats, it cannot be said for certain that these
epigenetic changes also occur in humans
6. PHEROMONES: Study #2 - Waran and Tod - This study investigates the effects of pheromones on
the behavior of dogs.  Lactating bitches release pheromones three days after birth to comfort their
offspring.  Can a synthetic imitation of this pheromone affect dog behavior?  Read this article for the
answer!
a. Aim: Investigate the effects of DAP ("dog appeasing pheromone") on the behavior of dogs in
an animal shelter
b. Procedure: DAP is a synthetic chemical that mimics the pheromones released by lactating
bitches three days after birth.  DAP was released in the air to 37 dogs, while 17 dogs
received no pheromones.  A graduate student (who wasn't aware of which group received
DAP) then observed the dogs' behavior for one week.
c. Results: DAP dogs barked less frequently, and showed more interest in strangers who
approached their cage.  Sound meters registered a peak decibel level of 80 db for the DAP
dogs, compared with 100 db for the control dogs
d. Conclusion: Pheromones send chemical signals to dogs that make them less anxious and
more relaxed
e. Evaluation:
i. This was a well-controlled laboratory experiment, showing a clear causal relationship
between the independent variable (DAP or none) and dependent variable (dog
behavior)
ii. The use of animals in this study was ethical, as no dogs were harmed.  Furthermore,
this research may have benefits for these animals
iii. This study suggests that DAP may be used to help calm down anxious or difficult to
handle dogs.  However, since pheromones are specific to each species, it is unlikely
that DAP would have effects on other animals or humans

ETHICS
Main Considerations that must be addressed at all stages of research involving animals:

 Any animal study should be justified “with a clear scientific purpose”. One of the following
justifications may be used. The study will:
o increase scientific knowledge of behaviour
o increase our understanding of a particular species
o give results that will benefit humans or other animals.
  If non-human animals are chosen for research, it has to be ensured that the chosen species is the
best choice to address the research question, the minimum required number of non-human
participants is used, and it should be assumed that whatever procedures cause pain in humans
would cause pain in animals too.
 All animal research proposals must be submitted to the Ethics Committee prior to conducting the
study.
 Psychologists and their assistants conducting the study must be familiar with the species specific
characteristics of normal behaviour so that they will be able to tell when the animal is stressed or
unhealthy.
 Laboratory animals must be given humane care.
 Whenever possible, the experimental procedures should be designed in a way that minimizes
discomfort of the animal. APA guidelines also advise researchers to first test the painful stimuli to be
used with non-human animals on themselves, whenever reasonable.
 If a research animal is observed to be in distress or chronic pain and this is not necessary for the
aims of the study, it should be euthanized.
 Animals reared in the laboratory must not be released into the wild.
BPS Guidelines

 The aim is to assist in the planning of research in order to minimize discomfort caused to living
animals. In addition, they expect researchers to seek veterinary advice when unsure and to
consider the following points:
o Do the ends justify the means of the research?
o Is there a way to minimize the suffering of the animal?
o Is the environment, food, and water appropriate for the animal?
o What is the minimum number of animals necessary?

Moral Guidelines

 If performing an experiment would cause more harm than not performing it, then it is ethically wrong
to perform that experiment. In evaluating the good vs. harm of an experiment, one must consider
the following:
o the moral value of a human being vs. a non-human animal
o the number of human beings who would benefit from the study
o the effect on humans if the study is not conducted
o the number of animals suffering in the experiment
o the harm done to the animals

Principle of 3 R’s

 Replace the use of animals with alternate techniques whenever possible by:

o Experimenting on cell cultures instead of on whole animals
o Using computer models
o Studying more human volunteers
 Reduce the number of animals used in a research study by:
o Improving experimental techniques
o Improving techniques of data analysis
o Sharing information with other researchers
 Refine the way experiments are carried out to reduce animal suffering and ensure that animals are
kept in humane conditions by:
o Using less invasive techniques
o Better medical care
o Better living and breeding conditions