WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

UNIT-II

MOBILE RADIO PROPAGATION: LARGE-SCALE PATH LOSS

Introduction to Radio Wave Propagation

The mechanisms behind electromagnetic wave propagation are diverse, but can generally be
attributed to reflection, diffraction, and scattering. Most cellular radio systems operate in urban areas
where there is no direct line-of-sight path between the transmitter and the receiver, and where the
presence of highrise buildings causes severe diffraction loss. Due to multiple reflections from various
objects, the electromagnetic waves travel along different paths of varying lengths. The interaction
between these waves causes multipath fading at a specific location, and the strengths of the waves
decrease as the distance between the transmitter and receiver increases. Propagation models have
traditionally focused on predicting the average received signal strength at a given distance from the
transmitter, as well as the variability of the signal strength in close spatial proximity to a particular
location.

Propagation models that predict the mean signal strength for an arbitrary transmitter-receiver (T-R)
separation distance are useful in estimating the radio coverage area of a transmitter and are called
large-scale propagation models, since they characterize signal strength over large T-R separation
distances (several hundreds or thousands of meters). On the other hand, propagation models that
characterize the rapid fluctuations of the received signal strength over very short travel distances (a
few wavelengths) or short time durations (on the order of seconds) are called small-scale or fading
models. As a mobile moves over very small distances, the instantaneous received signal strength may
fluctuate rapidly giving rise to small-scale fading.. Since the phases are random, the sum of the
contributions varies widely; for example, obeys a Rayleigh fading distribution.

In small-scale fading, the received signal power may vary by as much as three or four
orders of magnitude (30 or 40 dB) when the receiver is moved by only a fraction of a wavelength. As
the mobile moves away from the transmitter over much larger distances, the local average received
signal will gradually decrease, and it is this local average signal level that is predicted by large-scale
propagation models. Typically, the local average received power is computed by averaging signal
measurements over a measurement track of 5X to 40A. For cellular and PCS frequencies in the 1 GHz
to 2 GHz band, this corresponds to measuring the local average received power over movements of 1
m to 10 m. Figure 3.1 illustrates small-scale fading and the slower large-scale variations for an indoor
radio communication system. Notice in the figure that the signal fades rapidly as the receiver moves,
but the local average signal changes much more slowly with distance. This chapter covers large-scale
propagation and presents a number of common methods used to predict received power in mobile
communication systems.

Free Space Propagation Model

The free space propagation model is used to predict received signal strength when the transmitter and
receiver have a clear, unobstructed line-of-sight path between them. Satellite communication systems
and microwave line-of-sight radio links typically undergo free space propagation. As with most large-
scale radio wave propagation models, the free space model predicts that received power decays as a
function of the T-R separation distance raised to some power (i.e. a power law function). The free
space power received by a receiver antenna which is separated from a radiating transmitter antenna by
a distance d, is given by the Friis free space equation

Pr(d) = PtGt Gr/ 4 π 2 d2 L ------------------------(1)

where is the transmitted power, F,. (d) is the received power which is a function of the T-
R separation, is the transmitter antenna gain, is the receiver antenna gain, d is the T-R separation
distance in meters, L is the system loss factor not related to propagation (L I ), and X is the
wavelength in meters. The gain of an antenna is related to its effective aperture, by

G = 4 π Ae / λ2……………….(2)

The effective aperture is related to the physical size of the antenna, and X is related to the
carrier frequency by

λ = C/f = 2 πc/ωc ……………..(3)

where f is the carrier frequency in Hertz,; is the carrier frequency in radians per second,
and e is the speed of light given in meters/s. The values for and '3r must be expressed in the same
units, and and G,.are dimensionless quantities. The miscellaneous losses L (L1) are usually due to
transmission line attenuation, filter losses, and antenna losses in the communication system. A value
of L = I indicates no loss in the system hardware.

TheFriis free space equation of (1) shows that the received power falls off as the square of
the T-R separation distance. This implies that the received power decays with distance at a rate of 20
dB/decade. An isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna which radiates power with unit gain uniformly in
all directions, and is often used to reference antenna gains in wireless systems. The effective isotropic
radiated power (EIRP) is defined as

EIRP = PtGt…………(4)

and represents the maximum radiated power available from a transmitter in the direction
of maximum antenna gain, as compared to an isotropic radiator. In practice, effective radiated power
(ERP) is used instead of EIRP to denote the maximum radiated power as compared to a half-wave
dipole antenna (instead of an isotropic antenna), Since a dipole antenna has a gain of 1.64 (2.15 dB
above an isotrope), the ERP will be 2.15 dB smaller than the EIRP for the same transmission system.
In practice, antenna gains are given in units of dBi (dB gain with respect to an isotropic source) or
dBd (dB gain with respect to a half-wave dipole). The path loss, which represents signal attenuation
as a positive quantity measured in dB, is defined as the difference (in dB) between the effective
transmitted power and the received power, and may or may not include the effect of the antenna
gains. The path loss for the free space model when antenna gains are included is given by

………….(5)

When antenna gains are excluded, the antennas are assumed to have unity gain, and path
loss is given by
 ………….(6)

The Friis free space model is only a valid predictor for values of d which are in the far-
field of the 'transmitting antenna. The far-field, or Fraunhofer region, of a transmitting antenna is
defined as the region beyond the farfield distance d1, which is related to the largest linear dimension
of the transmitter antenna aperture and the carrier wavelength. The Fraunhofer distance is given by

df = 2D2 /λ …………..(7)

Where D is the largest physical linear dimension of the antenna. Additionally, to be in the
far-field region, d1 must satisfy

And

df>>D………….(8)

A Furthermore, it is clear that equation (1) does not hold for d = 0. For this reason, large-
scale propagation models use a close-in distance, d0, as a known received power reference point. The
received power, P/d), at any distance d > d0, may be related to at d0. The value (d0) may be predicted
from equation (1), or may be measured in the radio environment by taking the average received power
at many points located at a close-in radial distance d0 from the transmitter. The reference distance
must be chosen such that it lies in the far-field region, that is, d0 d1, and d0 is chosen to be smaller
than any practical distance used in the mobile communication system. Thus, using equation (1), the
received power in free space at a distance greater than d0 is given by

………….(9)

In mobile radio systems, it is not uncommon to find that may change by many orders of
magnitude over a typical coverage area of several square kilometers. Because of the large dynamic
range of received power levels, often dBm or dBW units are used to express received power levels.
Equation (3.8) may be expressed in units of dBm or dBW by simply taking the logarithm of both
sides and multiplying by 10. For example, if is in units of dBm, the received power is given by

………(10)

Where (d0) is in units of watts. The reference distance d0 for practical systems using low-
gain antennas in the 1-2 GHz region is typically chosen to be 1 m in indoor environments and 100 m
or 1 km in outdoor environments, so that the numerator in equations (9) and (10) is a multiple of 10.
This makes path loss computations easy in dB units.

The Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms

Reflection, diffraction, and scattering are the three basic propagation mechanisms which
impact propagation in a mobile communication system. These mechanisms are briefly explained in
this section, and propagation models which describe these mechanisms are discussed subsequently in
this chapter. Received power (or its reciprocal, path loss) is generally the most important parameter
predicted by large-scale propagation models based on the physics of reflection, scattering, and
diffraction. Small-scale fading and multipath propagation may also be described by the physics of
these three basic propagation mechanisms.

Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave impinges upon an object

which has very large dimensions when compared to the wavelength of the propagating wave.
Reflections occur from the surface of the earth and from buildings and walls.

Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is obstructed
by a surface that has sharp irregularities (edges). The secondary waves resulting from the obstructing
surface are present throughout the space and even behind the obstacle, giving rise to a bending of
waves around the obstacle, even when a line-of-sight path does not exist between transmitter and
receiver. At high frequencies, diffraction, like reflection, depends on the geometry of the object, as
well as the amplitude, phase, and polarization of the incident wave at the point of diffraction.

Scattering occurs when the medium through which the wave travels consists of objects
with dimensions that are small compared to the wavelength, and where the number of obstacles per
unit volume is large. Scattered waves are produced by rough surfaces, small objects, or by other
irregularities in the channel. In practice, foliage, street signs, and lamp posts induce scattering in a
mobile communications system.

Reflection

Reflection when a radio wave propagating in one medium impinges upon another
medium having different electrical properties, the wave is partially reflected and partially transmitted.
If the plane wave is incident on a perfect dielectric, part of the energy is transmitted into the second
medium and part of the energy is reflected back into the first medium, and there is no loss of energy
in absorption. If the second medium is a perfect conductor, then all incident energy is reflected back
into the first medium without loss of energy. The electric field intensity of the reflected and
transmitted waves may be related to the incident wave in the medium of origin through the Fresnel
reflection coefficient (┌). The reflection coefficient is a function of' the material properties, and
generally depends on the wave polarization, angle of incidence, and the frequency of the propagating
wave.

In general, electromagnetic waves are polarized, meaning they have instantaneous electric
field components in orthogonal directions in space. A polarized wave may be mathematically
represented as the sum of two spatially orthogonal components, such as vertical and horizontal, or
left-hand or right-hand circularly polarized components. For an arbitrary polarization, superposition
may be used to compute the reflected fields from a reflecting surface

Reflection from Dielectrics shows an electromagnetic wave incident at an angle with the
plane of the boundary between two dielectric media. As shown in the figure, part of the energy is
reflected back to the first media at an angle and part of the energy is transmitted (refracted) into the
second media at an angle The nature of reflection varies with the direction of polarization of the E-
field. The behavior for arbitrary directions of polarization can be studied by considering the two
distinct cases shown in Figure &4. The plane of incidence is defined as the plane containing the
incident, reflected, and transmitted rays [Ramfi5}. The E-field polarization is parallel with the plane
of incidence (that is, the E-field has a vertical polarization, or normal component, with respect to the
reflecting surface) and in Figure 3.4b, the E-field polarization is perpendicular to the plane of
incidence (that is, the incident E-field is pointing out of the page towards the reader, and is
perpendicular to the page and parallel to the reflecting surface). In the subscripts i, r, t refer to the
incident, reflected, and transmitted fields, respectively. Parameters c1. , and c2, M2' a., represent the
permittivity, permeability, and conductance of the two media, respectively. Often, the dielectric
constant of a perfect (lossless) dielectric is related to a relative value of permittivity, such that c = c0c,,
where is a constant given by 8.85 X 10 -12 F/m. If a dielectric material is lossy, it will absorb power
and may be described by a complex dielectric constant given by

…………..(11)

Where

……………..(12)

and σ is the conductivity of the material measured in Siemens/meter. The terms εrand σ
are generally insensitive to operating frequency when the material is a good conductor (f < σ / (ε0εr) ).
For lossy dielectrics,ε0and εrare generally constant with frequency, but a may be sensitive to the
operating frequency, as shown in Table 3.1.

Because of superposition, only two orthogonal polarizations need be considered to solve

general reflection problems. The reflection coefficients for the two cases of parallel and perpendicular
E-field polarization at the boundary of two dielectrics are given by

…..Equations (13) & (14)

Where is the intrinsic impedance of the i th medium (i = 1,2), and is given by (√µi ε i )
the ratio of electric to magnetic field for a uniform plane wave in the particular medium. The velocity
of an electromagnetic wave is given by 1/( √µε ) and the boundary conditions at the surface of
incidence obey Snells Law which, referring to Figure is given by

………….(15)

The boundary conditions from Maxwell's equations are used to derive equations (13) and
(14) as well as equations (16), (17.a), and (17.b).

θi = θr …………….(16) and

Er = ┌ Ei ……………(17.a)

Et = (1+┌) Ei ………….(17.b)

Where┌ is either or ┌║ , depending on polarization. For the case when the first medium is free space
and µ1= µ2 the reflection coefficients for the two cases of vertical and horizontal polarization can be
simplified t.

………….(18)

……….(19)

For the case of elliptical polarized w aves, the wave

may be broken down (depolarized) into its vertical and horizontal E-field components, and
superposition may be applied to determine transmitted
and reflected waves. In the general case of reflection or transmission, the horizontal and vertical axes
of the spatial coordinates may not coincide with the perpendicular and parallel axes of the propagating
waves. An angle θ measured counter-clockwise from the horizontal axis is defined as shown in Figure
for a propagating wave out of the page .The vertical and horizontal field components at a dielectric
boundary may be related by

Where EdH and EdV are the depolarized field components in the horizontal and vertical
directions, respectively, EiH and EiVare the horizontally and vertically polarized components of the
incident wave, respectively, and 4, P4, and are time varying components of the E-field which may be
represented as phasors. R is a transformation matrix which maps vertical and horizontal polarized
components to components which are perpendicular and parallel to the plane of incidence. The matrix
R is given by

Where θ is the angle between the two sets of axes, as shown in Figure. The depolarization matrix is
given by

Where D xx = ┌x for the case of reflection and Dxx =Tx = 1 + ┌ x for the case of
transmission Figure shows a plot of the reflection coefficient for both horizontal and vertical
polarization as a function of the incident angle for the case when a wave propagates in free space εr=
1) and the reflection surface has (a) εr = 4, and (b) εr= 12.

Brewster Angle

The Brewster angle is the angle at which no reflection occurs in the medium of origin. It
occurs when the incident angle θB is such that the reflection coefficient is equal to zero .The Brewster
angle is given by the value of θB which satisfies
 ………….(20)

For the case when the first medium is free space and the second medium has a relative
permittivity εr equation (20) can be expressed as

………….(28)

Note that the Brewster angle occurs only for vertical (i.e. parallel) polarization

Diffraction

Diffraction is the phenomena that explain the digression of a wave from a straight line path, under
the influence of an obstacle, so as to propagate behind the obstacle. It is an inherent feature of a wave
be it longitudinal or transverse. For e.g. the sound can be heard in a room, where the source of the
sound is another room without having any line of sight. The similar phenomena occur for light also
but the diffracted light intensity is not noticeable. This is because the obstacle or slit need to be of the
order of the wavelength of the wave to have a significant effect. Thus radiation from a point source
radiating in all directions can be received at anypoint, even behind an obstacle (unless it is not
completely enveloped by it). Thoughtheintensityreceivedgetssmallerasreceiverismovedintothe
shadowed region. Diffraction is explained by Huygens-Fresnel principle which states that all points
on a wavefront can be considered as the point source for secondary wavelets which form the
secondary wavefront in the direction of the prorogation. Normally, in absence of an obstacle, the sum
of all wave sources is zero at a point not in the direct path of the wave and thus the wave travels in
the straight line. But in the case of an obstacle, the effect of wave source behind the obstacle cannot
be felt and the sources around the obstacle contribute to the secondary wavelets in the shadowed
region, leading to bending of wave. In mobile communication, this has a great advantage since, by
diffraction (and scattering, reflection), the receiver is able to receive the signal even when not in line
of sight of the transmitter. This we show in the subsection given below.
Knife-Edge Diffraction Geometry

Consider that there’s an impenetrable obstruction of height h at a distance of d1 from the transmitter
and d2 from the receiver. The path difference between direct path and the diffracted path is

δ = √ (d12 + h2 ) + √ d22 + h2 −(d1 + d2)

Which can be further simplified as

δ = d1(1+ h2/2d21)+ d2(1+ h2/2d22)−(d1 + d2) = h2/(2 d1)+ h2/(2d2) = h2 (d1 + d2)/(2 d1d2)

Thus the phase difference equals

φ = 2πδ/λ = 2πh2(d1 + d2)/λ2(d1d2)

With the following considerations that

α = β + γ and α ≈ tanα

We can write,

αtanα = tanβ +tanγ = h/d1 + h/d2 = h(d1 + d2)/d1d2.

In order to normalize this, we usually use a Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter v,

expressed as

v = h √ 2(d1 + d2)/(λd1d2) = α √ (2d1d2)/(λ(d1 + d2))

And therefore the phase difference becomes

φ = πv2/ 2

From this, we can observe that: (i) phase difference is a function of the height of the
obstruction, and also, (ii) phase difference is a function of the position of the obstruction from
transmitter and receiver.

Fresnel Zones: the Concept of Diffraction Loss

As mentioned before, the more is the object in the shadowed region greater is the
diffraction loss of the signal. The effect of diffraction loss is explained by Fresnel zones as a
function of the path difference. The successive Fresnel zones are limited by the circular periphery
through which the path difference of the secondary waves is nλ/2 greater than total length of the
LOS path. Thus successive Fresnel zones have phase difference of π which means they
alternatively provide constructive and destructive interference to the received the signal. The radius
of the each Fresnel zone is maximum at middle of transmitter and receiver (i.e. when d 1 = d2 ) and
decreases as moved to either side. It is seen that the loci of a Fresnel zone varied over d1 and d2
forms an ellipsoid with the transmitter and receiver at its focii. Now, if there’s no obstruction, then
all Fresnel zones result in only the direct LOS prorogation and no diffraction effects are observed.
But if an obstruction is present, depending on its geometry, it obstructs contribution from some of
the secondary wavelets, resulting in diffraction and also the loss of energy, which is the vector sum
 of energy from unobstructed sources. Please note that height of the obstruction can be positive zero
and negative also. The diffraction losses are minimum as long as obstruction doesn’t block volume
of the 1st Fresnel zone. As a rule of thumb, diffraction effects are negligible beyond 55% of 1st
Fresnel zone

Knife-edge diffraction model

Knife-edge diffraction model is one of the simplest diffraction models to estimate the diffraction
loss. It considers the object like hill or mountain as a knife edge sharp object. The electric field
strength, Ed of a knife-edge diffracted wave is given by

The diffraction gain due to presence of knife edge can be given as

Gd(dB) = 20log|F(v)|

Gd(dB) = 0 v <=−1

Gd(dB) = 20log(0.5−0.62) −1 <= v <= 0

Gd(dB) = 20log(0.5exp(−0.95v)) 0 <= v <= 1

Gd(dB) = 20log(0.4−sqrt(0.1184−(0.38−0.1v2))) 1 <= v <= 2.4

Gd(dB) = 20log(0.225/v) v > 2.4

When there is more than one obstruction, then the equivalent model can be found by one knife-edge
diffraction model

Link Budget Analysis

Log-distance Path Loss Model

According to this model the received power at distance d is given by,

PL(d)( d/ d0)n =⇒ PL(dB) = PL(d0)+10nlog( d /d0)

The value of n varies with propagation environments. The value of n is 2 for free space. The value of
n varies from 4 to 6 for obstruction of building, and 3 to 5 for urban scenarios. The important factor is
to select the correct reference distance d0. For large cell area it is 1 Km, while for micro-cell system it
varies from 10m-1m. Limitations: Surrounding environmental clutter may be different for two
locations having the same transmitter to receiver separation. Moreover it does not account for the
shadowing effects.

Log Normal Shadowing

The equation for the log normal shadowing is given by,

 PL(dB) = ¯PL(dB)+ Xσ = ¯PL(d0)+10nlog( d /d0)+ Xσ

Where Xσ is a zero mean Gaussian distributed random variable in dB with standard deviation σ also in
dB. In practice n and σ values are computed from measured data.

Average received power:

The ‘Q’ function is given by,

And Q (z) = 1−Q(−z)

So the probability that the received signal level (in dB) will exceed a certain value γ is

Similarly , the probability that the received signal level will be below γ is given by

Outdoor Propagation Models

There are many empirical outdoor propagation models such as Longley-Rice model, Durkin’s model,
Okumura model, Hata model etc. Longley-Rice model is the most commonly used model within a
frequency band of 40 MHz to 100 GHz over different terrains. Certain modifications over the
rudimentary model like an extra urban factor (UF) due to urban clutter near the receiver is also
included in this model. Below, we discuss some of the outdoor models, followed by a few indoor
models too.

Okumura Model

The Okumura model is used for Urban Areas is a Radio propagation model that is used for signal
prediction. The frequency coverage of this model is in the range of 200 MHz to 1900 MHz and
distances of 1 Km to 100 Km. It can be applicable for base station effective antenna heights (ht)
ranging from 30 m to 1000 m.

Okumura used extensive measurements of base station-to-mobile signal attenuation throughout Tokyo
to develop a set of curves giving median attenuation relative to free space (Amu) of signal
propagation in irregular terrain. The empirical path loss formula of Okumura at distance d
parameterized by the carrier frequency fc is given by

PL(d)dB = L(fc,d)+ Amu(fc,d)−G(ht)−G(hr)−GAREA

Where L(fc,d)is free space path loss at distanced and carrier frequency fc, Amu(fc,d) is the median
attenuation in addition to free-space path loss across all environments, G(ht)
isthebasestationantennaheightgainfactor,G(hr)isthemobileantennaheightgain factor,GAREA is the gain
due to type of environment. The values of Amu(fc,d) and GAREA are obtained from Okumura’s
empirical plots. Okumura derived empirical formulas for G(ht) and G(hr) as follows:

G(ht) = 20log10(ht /200), 30m <ht< 1000m

G(hr) = 10log10(hr /3), hr ≤3m

G(hr) = 20log10(hr /3), 3m <hr< 10m

Correlation factors related to terrain are also developed in order to improve the models accuracy.
Okumura’s model has a 10-14 dB empirical standard deviation between the path loss predicted by the
model and the path loss associated with one of the measurements used to develop the model.

Hata Model

The Hata model is an empirical formulation of the graphical path-loss data provided by the Okumura
and is valid over roughly the same range of frequencies, 150-1500 MHz. This empirical formula
simplifies the calculation of path loss because it is closed form formula and it is not based on
empirical curves for the different parameters. The standard formula for empirical path loss in urban
areas under the Hata model is

PL,urban(d)dB = 69.55+26.16log10(fc)−13.82log10(ht)−a(hr)+(44.9−6.55 log10(ht))log10(d)

The parameters in this model are same as in the Okumura model, and a(hr) is a correction factor for
the mobile antenna height based on the size of coverage area.

For small to medium sized cities this factor is given by

a(hr) = (1.11log10(fc)−0.7)hr −(1.56log10(fc)−0.8)dB

and for larger cities at a frequencies fc> 300 MHz by

a(hr) = 3.2(log10(11.75hr))2 −4.97dB

else it is

a(hr) = 8.29(log10(1.54hr))2 −1.1dB

Corrections to the urban model are made for the suburban, and is given by

PL,suburban(d)dB = PL,urban(d)dB – 2(log10(fc/28)) 2 − 5.4

Unlike the Okumura model, the Hata model does not provide for any specific path correlation factors.
The Hata model well approximates the Okumura model for distances d > 1 Km. Hence it is a good
model for first generation cellular systems, but it does not model propagation well in current cellular
systems with smaller cell sizes and higher frequencies. Indoor environments are also not captured by
the Hata model.

FADING : LARGE-SCALE PATH LOSS

The term fading, or, small-scale fading, means rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes, phases, or
multipath delays of a radio signal over a short period or short travel distance. This might be so severe
that large scale radio propagation loss effects might be ignored.

Multipath Fading Effects

In principle, the following are the main multipath effects:

1. Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or time interval.

2. Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on different multipath signals.

3. Time dispersion or echoes caused by multipath propagation delays.

Factors Influencing Fading

The following physical factors influence small-scale fading in the radio propagation channel:

(1) Multipath propagation – Multipath is the propagation phenomenon that results in radio signals
reaching the receiving antenna by two or more paths. The effects of multipath include constructive
and destructive interference, and phase shifting of the signal.

(2) Speed of the mobile – The relative motion between the base station and the mobile results in
random frequency modulation due to different doppler shifts on each of the multipath components.

(3) Speed of surrounding objects – If objects in the radio channel are in motion, they induce a time
varying Doppler shift on multipath components. If the surrounding objects move at a greater rate than
the mobile, then this effect dominates fading.

(4) Transmission Bandwidth of the signal – If the transmitted radio signal bandwidth is greater than
the “bandwidth” of the multipath channel (quantified by coherence bandwidth), the received signal
will be distorted.

Types of Small-Scale Fading

The type of fading experienced by the signal through a mobile channel depends on the relation
between the signal parameters (bandwidth, symbol period) and the channel parameters (rms delay
spread and Doppler spread). Hence we have four different types of fading. There are two types of
fading due to the time dispersive nature of the channel.
Fading Effects due to Multipath Time Delay Spread

Flat Fading

Such types off adding occur when the bandwidth of the transmitted signal is less than the coherence
bandwidth of the channel. Equivalently if the symbol period of the signal is more than the rms delay
spread of the channel, then the fading is flat fading.

So we can say that flat fading occurs when

BS<< BC

Where BS is the signal bandwidth and BC is the coherence bandwidth. Also

TS>>στ

Where TS is the symbol period and στ is the rms delay spread. And in such a case, mobile channel has
a constant gain and linear phase response over its bandwidth.

Frequency Selective Fading

Frequency selective fading occurs when the signal bandwidth is more than the coherence bandwidth
of the mobile radio channel or equivalently the symbols duration of the signal is less than the rms
delay spread.

BS>> BC and TS<<στ

At the receiver, we obtain multiple copies of the transmitted signal, all attenuated and delayed in time.
The channel introduces inter symbol interference. A rule of thumb for a channel to have flat fading is
if στ/ TS ≤ 0.1

Fading Effects due to Doppler Spread

Fast Fading

In a fast fading channel, the channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol duration of
the signal. Due to Doppler spreading, signal undergoes frequency dispersion leading to distortion.
Therefore a signal undergoes fast fading if

TS>> TC

Where TC is the coherence time and

BS>> BD

Where BD is the Doppler spread. Transmission involving very low data rates suffers from fast
fading.
Slow Fading

In such a channel, the rate of the change of the channel impulse response is much less than the
transmitted signal. We can consider a slow faded channel a channel in which channel is almost
constant over at least one symbol duration. Hence

TS<< TC and BS>> BD

Doppler Shift

The Doppler Effect (or Doppler shift) is the change in frequency of a wave for an observer moving
relative to the source of the wave. In classical physics (waves in a medium), the relationship
between the observed frequency f and the emitted frequency fo is given by:

f = ( (v + vr ) / ( v + vs) ) f0

Where v is the velocity of waves in the medium, vs is the velocity of the source relative to the
medium and vr is the velocity of the receiver relative to the medium. In mobile communication, the
above equation can be slightly changed according to our convenience since the source (BS) is fixed
and located at a remote elevated level from ground. The expected Doppler shift of the EM wave
then comes out to be ±( vr/ c) fo or, ± (vr / λ ). As the BS is located at an elevated place, a cosφ
factor would also be multiplied with this. The exact scenario is illustrated below.

Consider a mobile moving at a constant velocity v, along a path segment length d

between points A and B, while it receives signals from a remote BS source S. The difference in path
lengths traveled by the wave from source S to the mobile at points A and B is ∆l = dcosθ = v∆tcosθ,
where ∆t is the time required for the mobile to travel from A to B, and θ is assumed to be the same
at points A and B since the

Source is assumed to be very far away. The phase change in the received signal due to the
difference in path lengths is therefore

∆ϕ = 2π∆l / λ = 2πv∆t/ λcosθ

And hence the apparent change in frequency, or Doppler shift (fd) is

fd = (1 / 2π) (∆ϕ / ∆t) = (v / λ ) cosθ

Impulse Response Model of a Multipath Channel

Mobile radio channel may be modeled as a linear filter with time varying impulse response in
continuous time. To show this, consider time variation due to receiver motion and time varying
impulse response h(d,t) and x(t), the transmitted signal. The received signal y(d,t) at any position d
would be

y(d,t) = x(t)∗h(d,t) =∞∫−∞ x(τ) h (d,t−τ) dτ

For a causal system: h(d,t) = 0, fort< 0 and for a stable system ∞∫−∞|h(d,t)| dt< ∞

The baseband impulse response of a multipath channel can be expressed as

hb(t,τ) =i=0ƩN−1ai(t,τ)exp[j(2πfcτi(t)+ ϕi(t,τ))] δ(τ −τi(t))

Where ai(t,τ) and τi(t) are the real amplitudes and excess delays, respectively, of the ithmultipath
component at time t. The phase term 2πfcτi(t)+ ϕi(t,τ) in the above equation represents the phase
shift due to free space propagation of the ithmultipath component, plus any additional phase shifts
which are encountered in the channel. If the channel impulse response is wide sense stationary over
a small-scale time or distance interval, then

hb(t,τ) =i=0Ʃ N−1aiexp [ jθi ]δ(τ −τi)

For measuring hb(τ), we use a probing pulse to approximate δ(t) i.e.,

p(t)≈ δ(t−τ)

Power delay profile is taken by spatial average of |hb(t,τ) |2 over a local area. The received
power delay profile in a local area is given by

p(τ) ≈ k|hb(t,τ) |2.

Small-Scale Multipath Measurements

Direct RF Pulse System

A wideband pulsed bistatic radar usually transmits a repetitive pulse of width Tbb s, and
uses a receiver with a wide band pass filter (BW = 2 /Tbb Hz). The signal is then amplified, envelope
detected, and displayed and stored on a high speed oscilloscope. Immediate measurements of the
square of the channel impulse response convolved with the probing pulse can be taken. If the
oscilloscope is set on averaging mode, then this system provides a local average power delay profile.

This system is subject to interference noise. If the first arriving signal is blocked or fades,
severe fading occurs, and it is possible the system may not trigger properly

Frequency Domain Channel Sounding

In this case we measure the channel in the frequency domain and then convert it into time
domain impulse response by taking its inverse discrete Fourier transform (IDFT). A vector network
analyzer controls a swept frequency synthesizer. An Sparameter test set is used to monitor the
frequency response of the channel. The sweeper scans a particular frequency band, centered on the
carrier, by stepping through discrete frequencies. The number and spacing of the frequency step
impacts the time resolution of the impulse response measurement.

For each frequency step, the S-parameter test set transmits a known signal level at port 1
and monitors the received signal at port 2. These signals allow the analyzer to measure the complex
response, S21(ω), of the channel over the measured frequency range. The S21(ω) measure is the
measure of the signal flow from transmitter antenna to receiverantenna (i.e., the channel).

This system is suitable only for indoor channel measurements. This system is also non real-
time. Hence, it is not suitable for time-varying channels unless the sweep times are fast enough.
Multipath Channel Parameters

To compare the different multipath channels and to quantify them, we define some parameters. They
all can be determined from the power delay profile. These parameters can be broadly divided in to two
types.

Time Dispersion Parameters

These parameters include the mean excess delay, rms delay spread and excess delay spread. The
mean excess delay is the first moment of the power delay profile and is defined as

Where ak is the amplitude, τk is the excess delay and P(τk) is the power of the individual multipath
signals. The mean square excess delay spread is defined as

¯τ2 = Ʃ P(τk)τ2 / Ʃ P(τk)

Since the rms delay spread is the square root of the second central moment of the power delay profile,
it can be written as

στ = √ (¯ τ2 − (¯ τ)2 )

As a rule of thumb, for a channel to be flat fading the following condition must be satisfied

(στ / TS ) ≤ 0.1

Where TS is the symbol duration. For this case, no equalizer is required at the receiver.

Statistical models for multipath propagation

Many multipath models have been proposed to explain the observed statistical nature of a practical
mobile channel. Both the first order and second order statistics
have been examined in order to find out the effective way to model and combat the channel effects.
The most popular of these models are Rayleigh model, which describes the NLoS propagation. The
Rayleigh model is used to model the statistical time varying nature of the received envelope of a flat
fading envelope. Below, we discuss about the main first order and second order statistical models.

Simulation of Rayleigh Fading Models

Clarke’s Model: without Doppler Effect

In it, two independent Gaussian low pass noise sources are used to produce in-phase and quadrature
fading branches. This is the basic model and is useful for slow fading channel. Also the Doppler effect
is not accounted for.

Clarke and Gans’ Model: with Doppler Effect

In this model, the output of the Clarke’s model is passed through Doppler filter in the RF or through
two initial baseband Doppler filters for baseband processing. Here, the obtained Rayleigh output is
flat faded signal but not frequency selective.

Clarke and Gan’s model for Rayleigh fading generation using quadrature amplitude modulation with

(a) RF Doppler filter and, (b) baseband Doppler filter.

The maximum frequency component of the line spectrum is fm .Using the property of real signals,
the negative frequency components are constructed by simply conjugating the complex Gaussian
values obtained for the positive frequencies. The random valued line spectrum is then multiplied with
a discrete frequency representation of (√ S E s (f)) having the same number of points as the noise
source.

Steps for to implement the simulator

1. Specify the number of frequency domain points (N) used to represent (√ S E s (f)) and the
maximum Doppler frequency shift (fm) . The value used for N is usually a power of 2.
2. Compute the frequency spacing between adjacent spectral lines as Δ f = 2 fm / (N-1) . This
defines the time duration of a fading waveform T = 1 /Δ f.
3. Generate complex Gaussian random variables for each of the N/2 positive frequency components
of the noise source.
4. Construct the negative frequency components of the noise source by conjugating positive
frequency values and assigning these at negative frequency values.
5. Multiply the in-phase and quadrature noise sources by the fading spectrum (√ S E s (f))
6. Perform an IFFT on the resulting frequency domain signals from the in phase and quadrature
arms to get two N-length time series and add the squares of each signal point in time to create an N-
point time series like under the radical of equation.
7. Take the square root of the sum obtained in step 6 to obtain an N point time series of a simulated
Rayleigh fading signal with the proper Doppler spread and time correlation.

Rayleigh Simulator with Wide Range of Channel Conditions

To get a frequency selective output we have the following simulator through which both the
frequency selective and flat faded Rayleigh signal may be obtained. This is achieved through varying
the parameters ai and τi,

Two-Ray Rayleigh Faded Model

The above model is, however, very complex and difficult to implement. So, we have the two ray
Rayleigh fading model which can be easily implemented in software.

hb(t) = α1ejφ1δ(t)+ α2ejφ2δ(t−τ)

Where α1 and α2 are independent Rayleigh distributed and φ1 and φ2 are independent and uniformly
distributed over 0 to 2π. By varying τ it is possible to create a wide range of frequency selective
fading effects.
 Rayleigh fading model to get both the flat and frequency selective channel conditions

Multipath & Small-Scale Fading

Multipath signals are received in a terrestrial environment, i.e., where different forms of propagation
are present and the signals arrive at the receiver from transmitter via a variety of paths. Therefore there
would be multipath interference, causing multipath fading. Adding the effect of movement of either Tx or
Rx or the surrounding clutter to it, the received overall signal amplitude or phase changes over a small
amount of time. Mainly this causes the fading.