Communication system

TC-307
Lecture 10, week 4
Course Instructor: Nida Nasir
Week 3 compiled topics
• Transmission loss, gain in cable system
• Transmission loss, gain in radio system
• Signal and spectrum
• Classification of signal(periodic/non periodic, deterministic/random, energy/power, odd/even, CT/DT, analog/digital
• Phasors, line spectra
• Line spectrum conventions (one sided, two sided spectrum)
• Negative freq
• Fourier theory
• FS for periodic signals (trigonometric , exponential F.S)
• Conversion of trigonometric to exponential F.S
• F.S time domain expressions of non sinusoidal waveforms and their freq domain line spectrum plots
• Rectangular pulse train and its freq domain(Sinc function)
• AM expression
• modulation index
• Percentage of Modulation( under, over, exact)
• Sidebands and frequency domain
• AM bandwidth
• AM power

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 Disadvantage of AM
Conventional AM has 2 disadvantages:

1.In amplitude modulation, two-thirds of the transmitted power is in the

carrier, which itself conveys no information. The information is contained
within the sidebands.

2. AM utilizes twice as much bandwidth as needed with SSB

Hence AM is both power and bandwidth in efficient. These two are the most
predominant consideration in electronic comm system design.

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 Double side band and Single-Sideband Modulation
DSB Signals

•The first step in generating an SSB signal is to suppress the carrier,

leaving the upper and lower sidebands. This type of signal is
referred to as a double-sideband suppressed carrier (DSSC or DSB)
signal.

•The benefit is that no power is wasted on the carrier.

•Double-sideband suppressed carrier modulation is simply a special

case of AM with no carrier.

• Envelope of DSB is not the same as that of the modulating signal,

as it is in a pure AM signal with carrier.

•A unique characteristic of the DSB signal is the phase transitions

that occur at the lower-amplitude portions of the wave seen on
oscilloscope display.

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• Double-sideband suppressed carrier signals are generated by balanced modulator.
The purpose is to cancel or balance out the carrier.
• DSB AM saves considerable power, but is not widely used because the signal is
difficult to demodulate (recover) at the receiver.
• Also the bandwidth of DSB is similar to AM and is equal to fusb-flsb =2fm.

SSB Signals
• In DSB transmission, since the sidebands are the sum and difference of the carrier and
modulating signals, there is no reason to transmit both sidebands in order to convey
the information.
• One sideband can be suppressed; the remaining sideband is called a single- sideband
suppressed carrier (SSSC or SSB) signal.

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 Advantages Of SSB

SSB signals offer four major benefits.

1. Bandwidth conservation: SSB signal uses one-half of spectrum
space than of AM and DSB signals.
2. Power conservation: power can be consumed by single sideband,
producing a stronger signal that should carry farther and reliably
received at greater distances.
3. Noise reduction: Because SSB signals occupy a narrower
bandwidth.
4. Selective Fading: is not a problem with SSB since only one
sideband is being transmitted.

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• An SSB signal has some unusual characteristics.
1. when no information or modulating signal is present, no RF signal is
transmitted in SSB while in AM, the carrier is still transmitted.
2. Sidebands are generated only during the modulation process, shows why SSB
is so much more efficient than AM.
• frequency- and time-domain displays of an SSB signal produced when a steady
2-kHz sine wave tone modulates a 14.3-MHz carrier.
• The time domain of RF signal is simply a constant-power 14.302-MHz sine
wave, waveform is not an envelope but it is a simple sine wave with USB freq.

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 Disadvantages of DSB and SSB
• The main disadvantage of DSB and SSB signals is that they are harder to
recover, or demodulate, at the receiver.
• If the carrier is not present, then it must be regenerated at the receiver and
reinserted into the signal.
• To recover the intelligence signal, the reinserted carrier must have the
same phase and frequency as those of the original carrier, which is
difficult.
• To solve this problem, a low-level carrier signal is sometimes transmitted
along with the two sidebands in DSB or in SSB. Such a low-level carrier is
referred to as a pilot carrier. This technique is used in the transmission of
the color information in a TV picture.

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Example: An AM broadcast radio radiates 10KW of power is mod index is 60%.
find the carrier power.
Sol: Since Pt= Pc{ 1+m2/2}
Pc= Pt / { 1+m2/2} = 10 / 1.18 = 8.47KW

Example: The tuned ckt of oscillator in AM transmitter uses 50µH coil and 1nF
capacitor. If the oscillator o/p is modulated by audio freq upto 8kHz. Find oscillator
freq and freq range occupied by sidebands.
Sol: Freq of oscillation is given by the formula : fc= 1/ 2π√ LC
= 1/ 2π√ 50x10-6x 1x10-9 = 7.12x105 Hz or 712 kHz
Now calculating side band frequencies:
USB = fc + fm = 712 + 8 = 720kHz
LSB = fc - fm = 712 - 8 = 704kHz
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Example: How many AM broadcast station can accommodate in 100KHz
bandwidth if highest modulating freq is 5KHz?
Sol: BW of each station = 2fm= 2x5 = 10KHz
No of stations accommodated = total BW/ BW of each station
= 100kHz/ 10 kHz = 10 stations.

Example: An SSB signal contains 1kW. How much power is contained in side
bands and in carrier.
Sol: Pc = 0
PSSB = 1kW
In SSB transmission carrier is suppressed and one of the side band is eliminated.
Therefore all the transmitted power will be in one sideband regardless of mod index/
% of mod.

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d) Vm=20V, Vc= 50V
m = Vm/Vc = 20/50 = 0.4
% mod = 100 x 0.4 = 40%

e) Freq will be
fm= 3kHz, fc=75MHz, fc + fm =
75003MHz, fc – fm = 74997 MHz

f) Expression for modulating signal

vm = Vm sin 2πfmt = 20 sin 6000πt
vc = Vc sin 2πfc t = 50 sin 150x106πt

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VSB ( Vestigial sideband)
• VSB modulation is a compromise between
DSB and SSB modulation.
• In VSB , carrier and one complete side band
are transmitted but only part of second
sideband is transmitted.
• Its bandwidth is slightly higher (appx. 25%)
than SSB signals but lower than DSB and
AM signals
• VSB system is the picture portion of
commercial TV broadcasting.
• The bandwidth of VSB signal
BW = fc + fv – fc + fm = fv + fm
fv = vestigial freq
fm = message/ modulating signal freq

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AM,DSB, SSB, VSB formulas
• AM has 3 different types of modulation depending on the modulation index, m = Vm/Vc
1. under modulation: m < 1 if Vm < Vc
2. exact modulation: m =1 if Vm = Vc
3. over modulation: m>1 if Vm > Vc

• Power in AM = Pt = Pc + Pusb + Plsb AM bandwidth = 2fm

• Power in DSB = Pt = Pusb + Plsb DSB bandwidth = 2fm
• Power in SSB = Pt = Pusb or Plsb SSB bandwidth = fm
• Power in VSB = Pt = Pc + Pusb + Pvsb VSB bandwidth = fm + fv

• Carrier power Pc= Vc2/R

• Single Side band power PUSB or PLSB = Pcm2/4
• Double sideband power PDSB = PUSB + PLSB = Pcm2/2

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Communication system
TC-307
Lecture 11, week 4
Course Instructor: Nida Nasir
 Amplitude Modulators
Equation for AM is
v AM= Vc sin 2πfct + (Vm sin 2πfmt) (sin 2πfct)
v AM= Vc sin 2πfct + (mVc sin 2πfmt) (sin 2πfct)
v AM= Vc sin 2πfct { 1 + m sin 2πfmt)
• For AM, multiply the carrier by the modulating
signal and then add the carrier.
• Second way to get AM, is to develop a circuit
whose gain (or attenuation) is a function of 1 + m
sin 2πfmt. vAM =Avc
where A is the gain or attenuation factor.
• if the gain of the amplifier or the attenuation can
be varied in accordance with the modulating
signal, AM will be produced.
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• Third way to generate the product of the carrier and modulating signal is to
apply both signals to a nonlinear component or circuit, ideally one that
generates a square-law function.
• A linear component or circuit is one in which the current is a linear function of
the voltage. A resistor or linearly biased transistor i = av
• A nonlinear circuit is one in which the current is not directly proportional to the
voltage. Instead, the current variation is a square-law function. Diode, BJT,
FET gives non linear devices and give non linear responses.
• A square-law function is one that varies in proportion to the square of the input
signals. A diode gives a good approximation of a square-law response.
i = av + bv2
• where av is a linear component of the current equal to the applied voltage
multiplied by the coeficient a (usually a dc bias) and bv2 is second-order or
square-law component of the current.
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• Square law modulator. connect the carrier and
modulating sources in series and apply them to the diode
circuit. The voltage applied to the diode is then
v = vc + vm
• The diode current in the resistor is i = av + bv2
i = a(vc + vm) + b(vc + vm)2
• The 1st term after expanding the equ gives carrier , 2nd
term shows modulating signal, 3rd term shows the second
harmonic of carrier, 4th term defines AM wave, 5th term
is second harmonic of modulating signal.
• All terms other than third are undesirable and are filtered
out.
• If harmonics are undesired, it is called harmonic
distortion. If harmonics are desired then it is called freq
multiplication.
• Fourth term show cross product of fm and fc. If the cross
products are desired then they are called modulation. If
undesired, it is called intermodulation distortion.

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• If a parallel resonant circuit is
substituted for the resistor in Fig. 4-4,
the modulator circuit is resonant at the
carrier frequency and has a bandwidth
wide enough to pass the sidebands but
narrow enough to filter out the
modulating signal. The result is an
AM wave across the tuned circuit.
• A JFET is a special case of non linear
device that has characteristic approx.
similar to square law devices.

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 Types of Amplitude modulators
• Amplitude modulators are generally one of two
types: low level or high level depending on
place of modulation in TX.
• Low-level modulators generate AM with small
signals and thus must be amplified considerably
if they are to be transmitted.
• High-level modulators produce AM at high
power levels, usually in the final amplifier stage
of a transmitter.
• In high level, modulating signal and carrier are
first amplified and then applied to modulator. In
low level, modulation is performed first then the
modulated signal is amplified.
• Narrowband PA is used for carrier because it is
a fixed freq signal. However we use wideband
amplifier for modulating signal just to preserve
all freq components.

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 Low level Amplitude modulators
Diode Modulator.
• If both the carrier and the modulating signal are sine waves,
the waveform resulting at the junction of the two resistors
will be like in part (c), This signal is not AM.
• The composite waveform is applied to a diode rectifier. The
current through the diode is a series of positive-going pulses
whose amplitude varies in proportion to the amplitude of
the modulating signal.
• These positive-going pulses are applied to the parallel-tuned
circuit made up of L and C, which are resonant at the carrier
frequency. The coil and capacitor repeatedly exchange
energy, causing an oscillation, or “ringing,” at the resonant
frequency.
• The oscillation of the tuned circuit creates one negative
half-cycle for every positive input pulse. The resulting
waveform across the tuned circuit is an AM signal.

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Transistor Modulator.
• It is an improved version of the diode modulator.
Because it uses a transistor instead of the diode, the
circuit has gain. The emitter-base junction acts as a
nonlinear device.
• Class A amplifiers can be used to perform low level
AM. It has 2 i/p, one for carrier, other for
modulating signal. With no modulating signal, ckt
operates as Class A amplifier and o/p results in
carrier only.
• When modulating signal is applied, amplifier
operates non linearly.
• Modulating signal drives the ckt into cutoff and
saturation, thus producing non linear amplification
necessary for modulation to occur.
Amplifying Low-Level AM Signals
• In systems using low-level modulation, the AM
signal is applied to one or more linear amplifiers, to
increase its power level without distorting the signal.
These amplifier circuits are—class A, class AB, or
class B—raise the level of the signal to the desired
power level before the AM signal is fed to the
antenna.
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 High-Level AM
Collector Modulator. Is an example of a high-level modulator circuit
with carrier at base of BJT and modulating signal at collector. o/p is
also taken from collector. The output stage of the transmitter is a high-
power class C amplifier. The tuned circuit reproduces the negative
portion of the carrier signal.
• With a zero input signal, there is zero-modulation voltage across
the secondary of T1, the collector supply voltage is applied directly
to the class C amplifier, and the output carrier is a steady sine wave.
• When the modulating signal occurs, the ac voltage of the
modulating signal across the secondary of the modulation
transformer is added to and subtracted from the dc collector supply
voltage. This varying supply voltage is then applied to the class C
amplifier, causing the amplitude of the current pulses through
transistor Q1 to vary. As a result, the amplitude of the carrier sine
wave varies in accordance with the modulating signal. High-level
modulation produces the best type of AM.

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 Amplitude Demodulators
• Demodulators, or detectors, are circuits that accept modulated signals and
recover the original modulating information.
Diode Detectors/ Envelope detector/ peak detector
• The simplest and most widely used amplitude demodulator is the diode
detector. The AM signal is usually transformer-coupled and applied to a basic
half wave rectifier circuit consisting of D1 and R1. A capacitor C1 is
connected across resistor R1, effectively filtering out the carrier and thus
recovering the original modulating signal.
• On each positive alternation of the AM signal, the capacitor charges quickly,
When the pulse voltage drops to zero, the capacitor discharges into resistor
R1. The resulting waveform across the capacitor is a approximation to the
original modulating signal.
• Diode detector recovers the envelope of the AM signal, which is the original
modulating signal, the circuit is referred to as an envelope detector.
• If the time constant is too long, the capacitor discharge will be too slow to
follow the faster changes in the modulating signal. This is referred to as
diagonal distortion.
• If the time constant is too short, the capacitor will discharge too fast and the
carrier will not be sufficiently filtered out.
• The dc component in the output is removed with a series coupling or
blocking capacitor, C2. 23
Working of the diode detector is in the frequency domain.
• The diode detector circuit combines carrier and modulated
signals, creating the sum and difference signals:
• Since the carrier frequency is very much higher than that
of the modulating signal, the carrier signal can easily be
filtered out with a simple low-pass filter.
• The frequency spectrum of a diode detector shows the
low-pass filter removes all and allows desired original
modulating signal only.

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 DSB Modulators
Balanced (Ring) Modulators
• A balanced modulator is a circuit that generates a DSB
signal, suppressing the carrier and leaving only the sum
and difference frequencies at the output..
• One of the most popular and widely used balanced
modulators is the diode ring or lattice modulator
consisting of an input transformer T1, an output
transformer T2, and four diodes connected in a bridge
circuit. The carrier signal is applied to the center taps of
the input and output transformers, and the modulating
signal is applied to the input transformer T1. The output
appears across the secondary of the output transformer
T2.
• The carrier sine wave, which is usually considerably
higher in frequency and amplitude than the modulating
signal, is used as a source of forward and reverse bias
for the diodes.

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Operation of lattice modulators
Case 1: modulating input is zero.
• When the polarity of the carrier is positive, as in (a),
diodes D1 and D2 are forward-biased. Current divides
equally in the upper and lower portions of the
primary winding of T2. The current in the upper part
of the winding produces a magnetic field that is equal
and opposite to the magnetic field produced by the
current in the lower half of the secondary. The
magnetic fields thus cancel each other out, the
carrier is effectively suppressed.
• When the polarity of the carrier reverses,in (b),
diodes D3 and D4 conduct, the current flows in the
secondary winding of T1 and the primary winding of
T2. The equal and opposite magnetic fields produced
in T2 cancel each other out. The carrier is effectively
balanced out, and its output is zero.
• The degree of carrier suppression depends on the
degree of precision with which the transformers are
made. The greatest carrier suppression occurs when
the diode characteristics are perfectly matched.
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Case 2: a low-frequency sine wave is applied to the primary of T1 as the modulating signal.
• When the carrier polarity is positive (a), diodes D1 and D2 conduct and act as closed switches. As a
result, the modulating signal at the secondary of T1 is applied to the primary of T2 through D1 and D2.
• When the carrier polarity reverses, D1 and D2 cut off and D3 and D4 conduct, portion of the
modulating signal at the secondary of T1 is applied to the primary of T2, but this time the leads have
been reversed because of the connections of D3 and D4. The result is a 180° phase reversal.
• The carrier is operating at a considerably higher frequency than the modulating signal. The DSB signal
appear across the primary of T2.

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Communication system
TC-307
Lecture 12, week 4
Course Instructor: Nida Nasir
 DSB using product modulator

• DSB o/p = x(t) Cos wct

• AM o/p = Vc{1+mx(t)}sin wct
• Or = Vc sin 2πfct { 1 + m sin 2πfmt

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DSB Balanced Modulator block diagram

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31
 Generation of DSB-SC Signal with Balanced Modulator Using Diodes
AMPLITUDE MOD

Balanced modulator defined as a circuit in which two non-linear devices Hence, the output voltage contains a modulating
are connected in a balanced mode to produce a DSB-SC signal. The signal term and the DSB-SC signal.
modulating signal x(t) is applied equally with 180o phase reversal at the The modulating signal term is eliminated and the
inputs of both the diodes through the input center tapped transformer . second term is allowed to pass through to the output
The carrier is applied to the center tap of the secondary . by the LC band pass filter section .
input voltage to D1 is given by: v1 = cos wct +x(t) …….(1) Therefore, final output = 4 b R x(t) cos ωct
input voltage to D2 is given by : v2 = cos wct -x(t)……….(2) = K x(t) cos ωct
The parallel RLC circuits on the output side form the band pass filters . Thus, the diode balanced modulator produces the
The diode current i1 and i2 are given by : DSB-SC signal at its output.
i1 = av1 + bv12------3
i2 = av2 + bv22------4

Substituting values of v1 and v2

The output voltage is given by : vo = i1 R + i2 R

Substituting the expression for i1 and i2 from equations (3) and (4), we
get

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 DSB Demodulators
Synchronous Detection
• Synchronous detectors use an internal clock signal at the carrier
frequency in the receiver to switch the AM signal off and on,
producing rectification similar to that in a standard diode detector.
• The switch is usually a diode or transistor that is turned on or off by an
internally generated clock signal equal in frequency to and in phase
with the carrier frequency.
• The switch is turned on by the clock signal during the positive half-
cycles of the AM signal, which therefore appears across the load
resistor. During the negative half-cycles of the AM signal, the clock
turns the switch off, so no signal reaches the load or filter capacitor.
The capacitor filters out the carrier.
• synchronous detector ensures that the signal producing the switching
action is perfectly in phase with the received AM carrier.
• Some synchronous detectors use a phase locked loop(PLL) to generate
the clock, which is locked to the incoming carrier.
• Synchronous detectors are also referred to as coherent detectors, and
were known in the past as homodyne detectors.
• Their main advantage over standard diode detectors is that they have
less distortion and a better signal-to-noise ratio. They are also less
prone to selective fading, a phenomenon in which distortion is caused
by the weakening of a sideband on the carrier during transmission.
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DSB Demodulator (synchronous detector) block diagram
Let the DSBSC modulated wave be s(t)=Ac cos(2πfct) m(t)
Locally generated carrier oscillator is c(t)=Ac cos(2πfct+ϕ)
Where, ϕ is the phase difference between the local oscillator signal and
the carrier signal, which is used for DSBSC modulation.

From the figure, we can write the output of product modulator as

v(t)=s(t)c(t)
Substitute, s(t) and c(t) values in the above equation
v(t)=Ac cos(2πfct)m(t) x Ac cos(2πfct+ϕ) =Ac2 cos(2πfct) cos(2πfct+ϕ)
m(t)
=Ac2 /2 [cos(4πfct+ϕ)+cosϕ] m(t) = Ac2 /2 cosϕm(t) + Ac2/ 2
cos(4πfct+ϕ)m(t)
the first term is the scaled version of the message signal. It can be
extracted by passing the above signal through a low pass filter.
Therefore, the output of low pass filter is
V0(t)=[Ac2/2] cosϕ m(t)
• The demodulated signal amplitude will be maximum, when ϕ=00,
that’s why the local oscillator signal and the carrier signal should be
in phase
• The demodulated signal amplitude will be zero, when ϕ=±900. This
effect is called as quadrature null effect.
• Demerit of synchronous detection is it requires an additional system
at RX to ensure locally generated carrier is synchronized with Tx
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carrier making RX complex and costly.
Generating SSB
SSB can be generated by 2 methods
1. Filter method
2. Phase shift method
• In filter method, DSB is generated using BM. After this one of 2 side
bands are filtered out by BPF.
• The phase shift method avoids filter. This method uses 2 BM and 2
phase shifting networks.

35
36
Generating SSB Signals: The Filter Method
• The simplest and most widely used method of generating SSB signals
is the filter method.
• An SSB signal is produced by passing the DSB signal through a
highly selective bandpass filter that selects either the upper or lower
sideband.
• Filters are usually designed with a bandwidth of approximately 2.5 to
3 kHz, making them wide enough to pass only standard voice
frequencies.
• Filters are fixed-tuned devices; i.e., the frequencies they can pass are
not alterable.
• With the filter method, it is necessary to select either the upper or the
lower sideband. Choice of the upper or lower sideband as a standard
varies from service to service.

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• There are two methods of sideband selection.
• In two filters method, one that will pass the upper sideband and another that
will pass the lower sideband, and a switch is used to select the desired
sideband.
• In two carrier oscillator frequencies method, Two crystal change the carrier
oscillator frequency to force either the upper sideband or the lower sideband
to appear in the filter bandpass.
Example, A bandpass filter is fixed at 1000 kHz and the modulating signal fm is
2 kHz. The carrier frequency fc must be chosen so that the USB or LSB is at
1000 kHz.
Sol: The balanced modulator outputs are USB = fc + fm and LSB = fc - fm.
Two crystals change the carrier
To set the USB at 1000 kHz, the carrier must be fc + fm = 1000, fc + 2 = 1000,
and fc = 1000 -2 = 998 kHz.
To set the LSB at 1000 kHz, the carrier must be fc - fm = 1000, fc - 2 = 1000,
and fc = 1000 + 2 = 1002 kHz.

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39
 Generating SSB Signals: Phasing Method

• The phasing method of SSB generation uses a phase-shift technique that causes one of
the sidebands to be canceled out. It uses two balanced modulators, which effectively
eliminate the carrier.
• The carrier oscillator is applied directly to the upper balanced modulator along with
the audio modulating signal. The carrier and modulating signal are then both shifted
in phase by 90° and applied to the second, lower, balanced modulator.
• The phase-shifting action causes one sideband to be canceled out when the two
balanced modulator outputs are added to produce the output.
• The carrier signal is Vc sin 2 π fct, modulating signal is Vm sin 2 π fmt.
• Balanced modulator 1 produces the product of these two signals:
(Vm sin 2πfmt) (Vc sin 2 π fc t).
Applying a common trigonometric identity sinA sinB =0.5[cos (A - B) 2 cos (A + B)]
(Vm sin 2πfmt) (Vc sin 2 π fc t) = 0.5VmVc[cos (2πfc - 2πfm)t + cos (2πfc + 2πfm)t]

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• It is important to remember that a cosine
wave is simply a sine wave shifted by 90°.
• The 90° phase shifters create cosine waves
of the carrier and modulating signals that
are multiplied in balanced modulator 2 to
produce
(Vm cos 2 π fmt) x (Vc cos 2 π fc t).
Applying common trigonometric identity
cos A cos B = 0.5[cos (A - B) + cos (A + B)]
(Vm cos 2 π fmt)(Vc cos 2 π fct) =
0.5VmVc[cos (2πfc - 2πfm)t + cos (2πfc +
2πfm)t]
• When you add the two expression, the sum
frequencies cancel and the difference
frequencies add, producing only the lower
sideband.
cos [(2πfc - 2πfm)t]

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 DSB and SSB Demodulation
• To recover the intelligence in a DSB or SSB signal, the carrier that was suppressed at the
receiver must be reinserted.
Example: Assume that a 3-kHz sine wave tone is transmitted by modulating a 1000-kHz
carrier.
Sol: With SSB transmission of the upper sideband, the transmitted signal is 1000 + 3 = 1003
kHz.
at the receiver, the SSB signal (the 1003-kHz USB) is used to modulate a carrier of 1000
kHz.
• The balanced modulator is called a product detector because it is used to recover the
modulating signal rather than generate a carrier that will transmit it.
• The sum and difference frequencies produced are
Sum: 1003 + 1000 = 2003 kHz
Difference: 1003 - 1000 = 3 kHz
• The difference is, the original intelligence or modulating signal. The sum, the 2003-kHz
signal, has no importance.
• higher undesired frequency is easily filtered out by a low-pass filter that keeps the 3-kHz
signal but suppresses everything above it.
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43
• An SSB generator has a 9-MHz carrier and is used to pass voice
frequencies in the 300- to 3300-Hz range. The lower sideband is
selected. What is the approximate center frequency of the filter
needed to pass the lower sideband?

• fc= 9MHz
• fc+fm =
• fc-fm=
Do yourself

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 Generation and Demodulation of VSBSC
• Generation of VSBSC wave is similar to the generation of SSBSC wave. In
this method, first we will generate DSBSC wave with the help of the product
modulator. Then, apply this DSBSC wave as an input of sideband shaping filter
with freq response H(f). This filter produces an output, which is VSBSC wave.
• Demodulation of VSBSC wave is similar to the demodulation of SSBSC
wave.
• Here, the same carrier signal (which is used for generating VSBSC wave) is
used to detect the message signal. Hence, this process of detection is called
as coherent or synchronous detection.
• The resulting signal is then passed through a Low Pass Filter. The output of this
filter is the desired message signal.

45
Frequency translation
• modulation shows freq up conversion as carrier is added to modulating
signal and Demodulation shows freq down conversion as carrier is
subtracted from to modulating signal.
• Freq translation/ conversion is a process used to shift/ convert a freq
signal to a new freq (up or down) and is used in modulators and
detectors.
• Mixing of signals is done by freq converters and the operation is
known as heterodyning.
• Info signals are upconverted from low freq to high freq in TX and
down converted from high freq to low freq in RX.
46
Communication system
TC-307
Lecture 13, week 5
Course Instructor: Nida Nasir
Week 4 summary
• Important Fourier relation
• Disadvantages of AM
• DSB and SSB mod
• advantages of SSB
• Disadvantages of DSB,SSB
• VSB
• AM,DSB, SSB, VSB formulas ( power and bandwidth)
• Types of amplitude modulator ( simple multiplier, square law modulator)
• Low level AM, high level AM
• Diode modulator, collector modulator
• Amplitude demodulator (Diode Detectors/ Envelope detector/ peak detector)
• DSB modulator ( ring modulator / lattice balance modulators)
• DSB generation (Product modulator, balanced modulator)
• SSB generation( Filter method, Phase shift method)
• DSB and SSB demodulation ( synchronous detection)
• VSB generation and demodulation
• Frequency translation
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AMPLITUDE MODULATION TECHNIQUES

• The communication process can be broadly divided into two types, namely. analog communication and digital
communication. This classification is mainly based on the nature of message or modulating signal.
• The modulation techniques in analog communication can be classified into amplitude modulation (AM) and
angle modulation techniques (FM,PM).
• The amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the message to obtain modulated signal in
case of amplitude modulation. The angle modulation employs variation of angle of the carrier signal in
proportion to the message.
• AM can be further classified as double sideband full carrier (DSBFC), double sideband suppressed carrier
(DSBSC), single sideband (SSB) and vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation techniques. This is based on how
many components of the basic amplitude modulated signal are chosen for transmission.

49
AM (amplitude modulation) Technique (freq spectrum, time domain
representation , BW, power)
Frequency Spectrum of the AM Wave, Time Domain Representation of the AM Wave
A =Vc + vm = Vc + Vm sin wmt = Vc + m Vc sin wmt = Vc (1 + m sin wmt)
The instantaneous voltage of the resulting amplitude modulated wave is: vAM = A sin ϴ = A sin wct= Vc (1 + m
sin wmt) sin wct
trigonometric relation sin x siny = 1/2 {cos (x - y) - cos (x + y)}, give ½ cos (wc – Wm)t - ½ cos(wc + wm)t
VAM= Vc sin 2 π fc t + mVc sin 2 π fc t sin 2 π fm t = Vc sin 2 π fc t + (mVc/2) cos 2πt(fc-fm) - (mVc/2) cos
2πt( fc+fm)
.
• The frequency of the lower sideband {LSB) is fc - fm., and the frequency of the upper sideband (USB) is fc +
fm. Bandwidth required for amplitude modulation is twice the frequency of the modulating signal. That is,
B = USB – LSB = fc + fm – (fc – fm) = 2 fm

Power Relations in the AM Wave

PAM = Vcarr2/R + Vlsb2/R + Vusb2/R
Above values can be expressed in terms of their peak values using √𝟐 factor, and R is the resistance, (e.g.,
antenna resistance), in which the power is dissipated.
Where Pc = Vcarr2/R = Vc2/2R and Plsb = Pusb = Vlsb2/R = m2/4 (Vc2/2R)
PAM = Vc2/2R + (mVc)2/8R + (mVc)2/8R = Vc2/2R { 1+ m2/4 + m2/4} = Pc { 1+ m2/2}
PAM / Pc = 1+ m2/2

where all three voltages are root mean square.

maximum power in the AM wave is Pm= 1.5Pc when m = 1,without distortion

50
Modulation by Several Sine Waves; In practice, modulation of a carrier by several sine waves simultaneously The total
modulation index : mT = ˨ m12 + m2 2+m3 2+ ....
• If several sine waves simultaneously modulate the carrier, the carrier power will be unaffected, but the total sideband power
will now be the sum of individual sideband powers. We have
PT = P1 + P2 + P3+ ....
PcmT2/ 2 = Pcm1 2/ 2 + Pcm22 / 2 +Pcm32 / 2 + ----
PAM = Pc (1+ mT2/2 )
• To calculate the total modulation index, take the square root of the sum of the squares of individual modulation indices. Note
also that this modulation index must still not exceed unity, or distortion will result with overmodulation.

Example: A certain transmitter radiates 9 kW with the carrier unmodulated, and 10.125 kW when the carrier is sinusoidally
modulated. Calculate the modulation index. If another sine wave is simultaneously transmitted with modulation index 0.4,
determine the total radiated power.
Solution:
PAM / Pc = 1+ m2/2
m2/2 = PAM / Pc - 1 = (10.125 kW / 9 kW ) – 1 = 0.125
m2 = 0.125 X 2 = 0.250; m = 0.5
the total modulation index will be mT = ˨ m1 + m2 = ˨ 0.52 + 0.42 = 0.64
PAM = Pc (1+ mT2/2) = 9 ( 1 + 0.642 /2) = 9 (1+ 0.205) = 10.84 kW

• Since AM signal has three components, namely, unmodulated carrier, LSB and USB. The message to be transmitted is present
only in LSB and USB.
PAM = Pc (1+ mT2/2 ) and Pc = PAM / 1+ mT2/2
Let the modulation index be unity, i.e., m = 1, Pc = PAM (2/3)
Thus two-third of total AM power is utilized for the transmission of carrier component, which does not bear any message. A
significant saving in power requirement can be achieved by supressing the carrier before transmission, double sideband suppressed
carrier (DSBSC) technique. The instantaneous voltage of DSBSC may be related to that of AM as
VDSBSC =VAM - Vc sin 2 π fc t = (mVc/2) cos 2πt(fc-fm) - (mVc/2) cos 2πt( fc+fm)
51
Double Sideband (DSB) Technique (freq spectrum, time domain representation
, BW, power)
Frequency Spectrum of the DSBSC Wave, Time Domain Representation of DSBSC Wave :
A = vm = Vm sin wmt = mVc sin wmt
vDSBSC = A sin ϴ = A sin wct = mVc sin wmt sin wct = (mVc/2) cos 2πt(fc-fm) - (mVc/2) cos
2πt( fc+fm)
• equation of DSBSC wave contains two terms, namely, LSB and USB. The bandwidth
required for DSBSC is twice the frequency of the modulating signal, as in the case of AM.
That is,
BW = USB – LSB = fc + fm – (fc – fm) = 2 fm

Power Relations in the DSBSC Wave:

• It has been shown that the carrier component is suppressed in DSBSC wave. The modulated
wave contains energy only due to the two sideband components. Since amplitude of the
sidebands depends on the modulation index. The total power in the DSBSC modulated wave
will be
PDSB = Vlsb2/R + Vusb2/R = (mVc)2/8R + (mVc)2/8R = Vc2/2R { m2/4 + m2/4} = Pc m2/2
• The relation btw total power in the DSBSC modulated wave to the unmodulated carrier
power
PDSB /Pc = m2/2 .
• maximum power in the DSBSC wave is PDSB /Pc = m2/2 =1/2 when m = l. Thus we need
only maximum of 50% of unmodulated carrier power for the transmission of DSBSC wave.

52
Example: A 400 W carrier is amplitude modulated to a depth of 100%. Calculate the total power in case of AM
and DSBSC techniques. How much power saving (in W) is achieved for DSBSC? If the depth of modulation is
changed to 75%, then how much power (in W) is required for transmitting the DSBSC wave? Compare the
powers required for DSBSC in both the cases?
• PAM = Pc ( 1+ m2/2 )
• PDSB = Pc m2/2
Solution: Case 1 Given, Pc= 400W and m = 1.
PAM = 400 ( 1+ 12/2 ) = 600 W
PDSB = 400 12/2 = 200W
Power saving (in W) = 600 - 200 W = 400 W
Thus we require only 200 W in case of DSBSC which is one-third of total AM power! This is the gain we achieve
using DSBSC.

Case 2 Given, Pc= 400 W and m = 0.75

Total power in DSBSC PDSB = Pc m2/2 = 400 (.75)2/2 = 112.5W
The power required in this case is lower than m=1 case. It will be maximum, that is, one-third of total AM power
when m= 1 and less < 1.

Example: A DSBSC transmitter radiates 1 kW when the modulation percentage is 60%. How much of carrier
power (in kW) is required if we want to transmit the same message by an AM transmitter?
Solution: Given, PDSB = 1 kW and m = 0.6
Carrier power, Pc = 2PDSB / m2 = 2/ 0.36 = 5.56 kW.
We require 5.56 kW to transmit the carrier component along with the existing 1 kW for the sidebands when m=0.6
and total of 6.56kW when we use an AM transmitter.
53
Single Sideband (SSB) Technique (freq spectrum, time domain representation ,
BW, power)
Frequency Spectrum of the SSB Wave, Time Domain Representation of the SSB Wave :
The basic version of AM is modified by supressing the carrier component to yield DSBSC technique. The
bandwidth of DSBSC is still same as that of AM. Both the sidebands, LSB and USB carry the same
information. Hence saving in bandwidth can be achieved by suppressing one of the sidebands, termed as
single sideband suppressed carrier (SSBSC) technique. SSB needs a bandwidth equal to that of message. That
is, B SSB = fm

• The DSBSC signal is given by VDSBSC = (mVc/2) cos 2πt(fc-fm) - (mVc/2) cos 2πt( fc+fm)
• If LSB is chosen for transmission in case of SSB, then VSSBSC = (mVc/2) cos 2πt(fc-fm)
• If USB is chosen for transmission in case of SSB VSSBSC = (mVc/2) cos 2πt(fc+fm)

•Compared to AM and DSBSC, SSB saves power; since carrier and one sideband are suppressed and saves
bandwidth, since only one sideband is chosen for transmission.
•The bandwidth required for SSB is the frequency of the modulating signal. That is,
B SSB = (fc+fm) – fc = fm or B SSB = fc - (fc-fm) = fm
•The envelope of SSB does not contain message and hence a simple envelope detector circuit is not useful for
recovering the message.

Power Relations of SSB Wave

lt has been shown that the carrier component and one sideband are suppressed in the SSB wave. The total
power in the SSB modulated wave will be PSSB = Vlsb2/R or Vusb2/R
Plsb = Pusb = Vsb2/R = m2/4 (Vc2/2R)
PSSB = Pc m2/4
•total power in the SSB modulated wave to the unmodulated carrier power. PSSB /Pc = m2/4

• maximum power in the SSB wave is PssB = Pc /4 when m =1. Thus we need only maximum of 25% of
unmodulated carrier power for the transmision of SSB wave.
54
Example: A 400 W carrier is amplitude modulated to a depth of 100%. Calculate the total power in case of SSB technique. How much power
saving (in W) is achieved for SSB compared to AM and DSBSC? If the depth of modulation is changed to 75%, then how much power (in W) is
required for transmitting the SSB wave? Compare the powers required for SSB in both the cases
• PAM =Pc ( 1+ m2/2 )
• PDSB = Pc m2/2
• PSSB = Pc m2/4
Solution: Case 1 Given, Pc= 400W and m = 1.
PAM = 400 ( 1+ 12/2 ) = 600 W
PSSB = 400 12/4 = 100W
Power saving (in W) = 600 - 100 W = 500 W
Thus we require only 100 W in case of SSBSC which is one-sixth of total AM power!

Case 2 Given, Pc= 400 Wand m = 0.75

Total power in DSBSC PSSB = Pc m2/4 = 400 (.75)2/4 = 56.25W
The power required in this case is lower than m=1 case. This infers that the total power in SSBSC also depends on the depth of modulation. It will be
maximum, that is, one-sixth of total AM power when m= l and less for m< 1.

Example: A SSB transmitter radiates 0.5 kW when the modulation percentage is 60%. How much of carrier power (in kW) is required if we want
to transmit the same message by an AM transmitter?
Solution
Given, PSSB = 0.5 kW and m = 0.6
Carrier power, Pc = 4 PSSB / m2 = 4 x 0.5/ 0.36 = 5.56 kW.
We require 5.56 kW to transmit the carrier component along with the existing 0.5 kW for one side- band and 0.5 kW more for another sideband when
m =0.6. In total 6.56 kW is required by the AM transmitter.

55
Example: Calculate the percentage power saving when the carrier and 0ne of the sidebands are
suppressed in an AM wave modulated to a depth of (a) 100 percent, and (b) 50 percent.
Solution
a. PAM /Pc = ( 1+ m2/2 ) = 1+1/2 = 1.5Pc
PSSB /Pc = m2/4 = ¼ = 0.25Pc
Saving= 1·5 - 0·25 / 1.5 = 0.833 or 83.33%

b. PAM /Pc = ( 1+ m2/2 ) = 1+0.52/2 = 1.125Pc

PSSB /Pc = 0.52/4 = ¼ = 0.0625Pc
Saving= 1·125 - 0·0625 / 1.125 = 0.944 or 94.44%

56
Vestigal Sideband (VSB) Technique (freq spectrum, time domain representation , BW, power)
Frequency Spectrum of the SSB Wave, Time Domain Representation of the VSB Wave :
• The main limitation associated with SSB is the difficulty in suppressing the unwanted sideband
frequency components. It was observed that such a process results in eliminating even some
portion of the wanted sideband. Therefore an attempt to attenuate unwanted component will in
tum leads to attenuation of wanted component. To compensate for this loss is to allow a vestige
or trace or fraction-of unwanted sideband along with the wanted sideband, vestigial sideband
suppressed carrier (VSBSC) technique.
• The DSBSC signal is given by: VDSBSC = (mVc/2) cos 2πt(fc-fm) - (mVc/2) cos 2πt(
fc+fm)
• If LSB is wanted sideband in case of VSB, the instantaneous voltage of the VSB signal may be
expressed as VVSBSC = (mVc/2) cos 2πt(fc-fm) + F [- (mVc/2) cos 2πt( fc+fm)]
• If USB is chosen for transmission in case of VSB :
VVSBSC = (- mVc/2) cos 2πt(fc+fm) + F [(mVc/2) cos 2πt( fc+fm)]
• wherc F represents the fraction.
• The power and bandwidth requirements in case of VSB will be slightly more than SSB, but
less than DSB. The only difference between SSB and VSB will be in the cut-off frequencies.
• equation of VSB wave contains two terms, one complete sideband and trace of other sideband.
The bandwidth required for VSB is the frequency of the modulating signal plus vestige, band.
That is,
B VSB = (fc+fv) – (fc- fm) = fv + fm
B SSB = (fc+fm) - (fc- fv) = fm + fv
• The modulated wave will have two sine waves.
• The shape of the signal in the time domain depends on the value of vestige frequency. If fv is
very close to the other sideband, then its shape will be more like DSBSC. Alternatively, if fv is
significantly lower than the other sideband frequency, then its shape will be like SSB.
57
Power Relations in the VSB Wave

• It has been shown that the VSB wave contains one sideband completely and a vestige of other sideband.
• The modulated wave contains energy due to these two components. Since amplitude of the sidebands
depends on the modulation index, the total power in the modulated wave will depend on the modulation index
also.
• The total power in the DSBSC modulated wave will be
PDSB = Vlsb2/R + Vusb2/R = (mVc)2/8R + (mVc)2/8R = Pc m2/2
Plsb = Pusb = Vsb2/R = m2/4 (Vc2/2R)
PSSB = Pc m2/4

• If LSB is wanted sideband in VSB, then PVSB = Pc m2/4 + F[Pc m2/4]

• If USB is wanted sideband in VSB, then PVSB = F[Pc m2/4 ]+ Pc m2/4

• We relates the total power in the VSB modulated wave to the unmodulated carrier power.
• the maximum power in the VSB wave is P vsb = P/ 4 + F(P/ 4) when m =1. Thus we need only maximum
of 25% to 50% of unmodulated carrier power for the transmission of VSB wave.

58
Example: A 400 W carrier is amplitude modulated to a depth o/100%. Calculate the total power in case of VSB technique, if 20% of the other sideband is
transmitted along with wanted sideband. How much power saving (in W) is , achieved for VSB compared to AM and DSBSC ? How much more power (in
W) is required compared to SSB? If the depth of modulation is changed to 75%, then how much power (in W) is required for transmitting the VSB wave?
PAM =Pc ( 1+ m2/2 )
PDSB = Pc m2/2
PSSB = Pc m2/4
PVSB = Pc m2/4 + F[Pc m2/4]
Solution
Given, Pc = 400 W and m = 1.
Total power in VSB, PVSB = Pc m2/4 + F[Pc m2/4] = 400(12/4) +20% [400(12/4)] = 100 + 20 = 120W
Already calculated from previous example: PAM = 600W; PDSB = 200W ;PSSB = 100W

Power saving (in W) compared to AM= PAM -PVSB = 600 – 120 = 480 W.
Power saving (in W) compared to DSBSC = PDSB - PVSB = 200 – 120 = 80 W.
Extra power (in W) compared to SSB = P VSB - PSSB = 120 – 100 = 20W

Case 2 Given, Pc= 400 Wand m = 0.75

Total power in VSBSC PVSB = 1.2 Pc m2/4 = 1.2x 400 (.75)2/4 = 67.5W
The power required in this case is lower than m=1 case. This infers that the total power in VSBSC also depends on the depth of modulation. It will be
maximum, when m= l and less when m< 1.

Example: A VSB transmitter that transmits 25% of the other sideband along with wanted sideband, radiates 0.625 kW when the modulation percentage is
60%. How much of carrier power (in kW) is required if we want to transmit the same message by an AM transmitter?
Solution
Given, P VSB = 0.625 kW and m = 0.6
Carrier power, Pc = 4 PVSB / 1.25m2 = 4 x 0.625/ 1.25 x 0.36 = 5.56 kW
We require 5.56 kW to transmit the carrier component along with the existing 0.625 kW for one side band and 0.375 kW more for rest of the other sideband
when m = 0.6. In total 6.56 kW is required by the AM transmitter. 59
Communication system
TC-307
Lecture 14, week 5
Course Instructor: Nida Nasir
 Applications of DSB,SSB,VSB
• SSB signals are used in 2way radios like in marine application,
military. DSB are used in FM & TV broadcasting to transmit 2 ch
stereo signals & color info in TV.
• The most prominent and standard application of VSBSC is for the
transmission of television signals. Also, this is the most convenient
and efficient technique when bandwidth usage is considered.
• A TV signal consist of picture(video) signal & audio signal which have
different carrier frequencies. Audio carrier is freq modulated while
video info amplitude modulates the picture carrier. In picture carrier
one side band is partially suppressed.
• Video info contains freq upto 4.2MHz. Full AM TV signal occupies
2(4.2)= 8.4MHz. This is excessive bw that is wasteful of spectrum
space bcz not all of it is required to transmit a TV signal. Since FCC
(federal control commission) allows 6MHz of Bw for TV signals. So a
portion os LSB of TV signal is suppressed, leaving vestige of lower
sideband.Vdo signals above 750kHz are suppressed in lower vestigial
sideband and all vdo freq are transmitted in upper sideband. New
HDTV or digital TV uses VSB but with multilevel modulation.
• From 1.25 MHz of lower sideband band, 0.75 MHz vestige is
transmitted and rest is suppressed. This basically simplifies the
filtering requirements. Hence, by this, we can reduce the bandwidth
requirement to 6 MHz from 9MHz
61
 Generation of AM, DSB,SSB, VSB Signal using analog multiplier
Generation of AM Signal Using Analog Multiplier The conceptual
way to realize the generation of AM signal is with the help of an
analog multiplier and a summer connected as shown in Fig. 3.12. The
output of the analog multiplier is given by:
V out = vm vc = Vm sin wmt x Vc sin wct =
(mVc/2) cos 2πt(fc-fm) - (mVc/2) cos 2πt( fc+fm)
• Thus at the output of the analog multiplier we have two sidebands.
Now adding the unmodulated carrier component to this, we get the
requisite AM signal and is given by
• VAM = vc + vm vc = Vc sin 2 π fc t + (mVc/2) cos 2πt(fc-fm) -
(mVc/2) cos 2πt( fc+fm)
• This results in the generation of AM signal.

Generation of DSB Signal Using Analog Multiplier The conceptual

way to realize the generation of DSBSC signal is with the help of an
analog multiplier as shown in Fig. 3.15. The output of the analog
multiplier is given by
VDSB= Vout = vm vc = Vm sin wmt x Vc sin wct = (mVc/2) cos
2πt(fc-fm) - (mVc/2) cos 2πt( fc+fm)
This results in the generation of DSB signal.
62
.
Generation of SSB Signal Using Analog Multiplier: The conceptual way to realize the
generation of SSB signal is with the help of an analog multiplier followed by a bandpass filter as
shown in Fig. 3.17.
V out = vm vc = Vm sin wmt x Vc sin wct = (mVc/2) cos 2πt(fc-fm) - (mVc/2) cos 2πt( fc+fm)
• Thus at the output of the analog multiplier we have the DSBSC signal. This signal is passed
through a bandpass filter which, depending on the cut-off frequencies, will attenuate one
sideband and allows the other to pass through. If the lower sideband is passed out then the
output of the bandpass filter will be
VSSB = mVc/2) cos 2πt(fc-fm)
• Alternatively, if upper sideband is passed out, then the output of the bandpass tilter will be
VSSB = mVc/2) cos 2πt(fc+fm)
• This results in the generation of SSB signal

Generation of VSB Signal Using Analog Multiplier: The concepnial way to realize the
generation of VSB signal is with the help of an analog multiplier followed by a bandpass filter as
shown in Fig. 3.17. Thus the basic blocks remain same as in the case of SSB generation and the
only difference is in the cut-off frequency values of the bandpass filter. The output of the analog
multiplier is given by
V out = vm vc = Vm sin wmt x Vc sin wct = (mVc/2) cos 2πt(fc-fm) - (mVc/2) cos 2πt( fc+fm)
• Thus at the output of the analog multiplier we have the DSBSC signal. This signal is passed
through a bandpass filter which, depending on the cut-off frequencies, will pass one sideband
completely and a vestige of the other sideband. If the lower sideband and vestige of upper
sideband are passed out, then the output of the bandpass filter will be
VVSBSC = (mVc/2) cos 2πt(fc-fm) + F [- (mVc/2) cos 2πt( fc+fm)]
• If USB is chosen for transmission in case of VSB :
VVSBSC = (- mVc/2) cos 2πt(fc+fm) + F [(mVc/2) cos 2πt( fc+fm)]
• This results in the generation of VSB signal.

63
 Modulators :
• Multiplier Modulators: modulation is achieved directly by multiplying m(t) with cos Wct,
using an analog multiplier whose output is proportional to the product of two input signals.
Typically, such a multiplier may be obtained from a variable-gain amplifier in which the gain
parameter (such as the βof a transistor) is controlled by one of the signals, say, m(t).
• Nonlinear/ power law Modulators: Modulation can also be achieved by using nonlinear
devices, such as a semiconductor diode or a transistor. Let the input-output characteristics of
either of the nonlinear elements be approximated by a power series
• Let us consider the use of a nonlinear device such as a P-N diode, the voltage input to such a
device is the sum of the message signal m(t) and the carrier Ac cos 2π fct. The nonlinearity will
generate a product of the message m(t) with the carrier, plus additional terms.
• The desired modulated signal can be filtered out by passing the output of the nonlinear device
through a bandpass filter.
• Suppose that the nonlinear device has an input–output (square-law) characteristic of the form
v0(t) = a1vi (t) + a2v2i (t)
• where vi (t) is the input signal, v0(t) is the output signal, and the parameters (a1, a2) are
constants. Then, if the input to the nonlinear device is vi (t) = m(t) + Ac cos 2π fct
• its output is vo(t) = a1[m(t) + Ac cos 2π fct] + a2[m(t) + Ac cos cos 2π fct]2
= a1m(t) + a2m2(t) + a2A2c cos2 2π fct + Aca1 [1 + 2a2 /a1 m(t) ] cos 2π fct
• The output of the bandpass filter yields : s(t) = Aca1 [1 + 2a2 /a1 m(t) ] cos 2π fct
• First term is carrier and second term shows modulation. Thus, the signal generated by this
method is an AM signal.

64
Balanced Modulator. generate a DSB-SC AM signal uses two conventional AM
modulators. These modulators must have identical characteristics so that the carrier
component cancels out at the summing junction.

Ring Modulator. The switching of the diodes is controlled by a square wave of

frequency fc, denoted as c(t), which is applied to the center taps of the two
transformers.
• When c(t) > 0, the top and bottom diodes conduct, while the two diodes in the
crossarms are off. In this case, the message signal m(t) is multiplied by+1.
• When c(t)<0, the diodes in the crossarms of the ring conduct, while the other two
are switched off. In this case, the message signal m(t) is multiplied by−1.
• Consequently, the operation of the ring modulator may be described
mathematically as a multiplier of m(t) by the square-wave carrier c(t); i.e., v0(t) =
m(t)c(t)
Since c(t) is a periodic function, it is represented by the Fourier series
c(t) = 4/π σ∞n=1 (−1)
n−1 /2n − 1 cos[2π fc(2n − 1)t] (

= 4/π [cos wct – 1/3 cos 3wc t + 1/5 cos 5wc t - …

Vo (t) = m(t) c (t) = 4 m(t )/π [cos wct – 1/3 cos 3wc t + 1/5 cos 5wc t - …
• When this waveform is passed through a bandpass filter tuned to Wc, the filter
output will give the desired signal: Vo (t) = 4 m(t )/π cos Wc t,
• Hence, the desired DSB-SC AM signal u(t) is obtained by passing v0(t) through a
bandpass filter with center frequency fc and bandwidth 2W.
• balanced modulator and the ring modulator systems, multiply the message signal
m(t) with the carrier to produce a DSB-SC AM signal. The multiplication of m(t)
with Ac coswct is called a mixing operation. 65
Demodulation of AM Signals using Envelope Detector: The output
of an envelope detector follows the envelope of the modulated
signal.
• On the positive cycle of the input signal, the input grows and may
exceed the charged voltage on the capacity vc (t), turning on the
diode and allowing the capacitor C to charge upto the peak
voltage of the input signal cycle. As the input signal falls below this
peak value, it falls quickly below the capacitor voltage, thus
causing the diode to open. The capacitor now discharges through
the resistor R at a slow rate (with a time constant RC).
• This ripple can be reduced by choosing a larger time constant RC
so that the capacitor discharges very little between the positive
peaks (RC » 1/wc ). Picking RC too large, however, would make it
impossible for the capacitor voltage to follow envelope
• The envelope detector output is vc(t) = A + m(t) with a ripple of
frequency wc . The dc term A can be blocked out by a capacitor.
The ripple may be reduced further by another (low-pass) RC filter.

66
Demodulation of DSB-SC AM Signals. requires a synchronous demodulator, That
is, the demodulator must use a coherent phase reference, which is usually generated
by means of a phase-locked loop (PLL), to demodulate the received signal.
A PLL is used to generate a phase-coherent carrier signal that is mixed with the
received signal in a balanced modulator. The output of the balanced modulator is
passed through a lowpass filter of bandwidth W that passes the desired signal and
rejects all signal and noise components above W Hz.
Demodulation of SSB Signals. The demodulation of SSB AM signals also requires
the use of a phase coherent reference. In the case of signals such as speech, that
have relatively little or no power content at dc, we generate the SSB signal, then
insert a small carrier component that is transmitted along with the message.
Demodulation of VSB Signals. In VSB a carrier component is generally
transmitted along with the message sidebands. The existence of the carrier
component makes it possible to extract a phase-coherent reference for demodulation
in a balanced modulator.

67
 DOUBLE-SIDEBAND
• If the carrier amplitude A is made directly proportional to the
modulating signal m(t), then modulated signal is m(t) cos wct, simply
shifts the spectrum of m(t) to the carrier frequency. Thus, if
m(t) <====> M (f) then
m(t) cos 2πfct -<====> ½ [M (f + fc) + M (f - fc) ] (4. 1)
• Recall that M (f - fc) is M (f) shifted to the right by fc, and M (f + fc) is
M (f) shifted to the left by fc . Thus, the process of modulation shifts
the spectrum of the modulating signal to the left and to the right by fc.
• If the bandwidth of m(t) is B Hz, then, the modulated signal now has
bandwidth of 2B Hz.
• We also observe that the modulated signal spectrum centered at ±fc ( or
±wc, in rad/s) consists of two parts: known as the upper sideband (USB
), and the lower sideband (LSB).
• The DSB modulated signal does not contain a discrete component of
the carrier frequency fc, for this reason it is called double-sideband
suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulation.
• If fc>>B, thus avoiding overlap of the modulated spectra centered at fc
and –fc.
• If fc < B, then the two copies of message spectra overlap and the
information of m(t) is lost during modulation, which makes it
impossible to get back m(t) from the modulated signal m(t) cos wct.
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 DSB Demodulation
• To recover the original signal m(t) from the modulated signal, it is necessary
to retranslate the spectrum to its original position is referred to as
demodulation.
• Thus, demodulation, which is almost identical to modulation, consists of
multiplication of the incoming modulated signal m(t) cos wct by a carrier cos
wct followed by a low-pass filter.
• We can verify this conclusion directly in the time domain by observing that
the signal e (t) is; e(t) = m(t) cos2 wct = ½ [m(t) + m(t) cos 2wct]
• Fourier transform of the signal e(t); E(f)= ½ M(f) + ¼[M(f + 2fc)+M(f -2fc)]
• This analysis shows that the signal e(t) consists of two components (1/2)
m(t) and ( l/2) m(t) cos 2wct, with their nonoverlapping spectra Comparing modulation and Demodulation of DSB-SC Signals
• The spectrum of the second component, being a modulated signal with
carrier frequency 2fc , is centered at ±2fc . Hence, this component is • The only difference between the modulator and the
suppressed by the low-pass filter. demodulator lies in the input signal and the output filter. In
the modulator, message m(t) is the input while the
• The desired component ( l /2)M (f) , being a low-pass spectrum (centered at f multiplier output is passed through a bandpass filter tuned
= 0), passes through the filter unharmed, resulting in the output (1/2) m(t) . to wc, whereas in the demodulator, the DSB-SC signal is the
input while the multiplier output is passed through a low-
• We can get rid of the fraction 1/2 in the output by using a carrier 2 cos wct pass filter.
instead of cos wct. This method of recovering the baseband signal is called • Therefore, all the modulators can also be used as
synchronous detection, or coherent detection, where we use a carrier of demodulators, provided the bandpass filters at the output
exactly the same frequency (and phase) as the carrier used for modulation. are replaced by low-pass filters of bandwidth B.
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 AMPLITUDE MODULATION
• Amplitude modulation transmitted signal SAM (t) is given by
SAM = A cos wc t + m(t) cos wc t = [A + m(t)] cos Wc t
• The spectrum of AM is basically the same as that of DSB-SC = m(t)
cos wc t except for the two additional impulses at ±fc,
S(f) = ½ [M (f + fc ) + M (f - fc)] + ½ [δ( f + fc) + δ( f − fc) ]
• Upon comparing AM with DSB-sc , it is clear that the AM signal is
identical to the DSB-SC signal with A + m(t) as the modulating signal
[instead of m(t)]. The value of A is always chosen to be positive.
• In the first case, A is large enough that A + m(t) ≥ 0 is always
nonnegative. In the second case, A is not large.
• In the first case, the envelope has the same shape as m(t) (although
riding on a dc of magnitude A). In the second case, the envelope shape
differs from the shape of m(t) because the negative part of A + m(t) is
rectified.
• For envelope detection to properly detect m(t), two conditions must
be met:
(a) fc » bandwidth of m(t)
(b) A + m(t) >> 0

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 Single-Sideband
• We demonstrate that the transmission of either sideband is sufficient to reconstruct the message signal m(t)
at the receiver. Thus, we reduce the bandwidth of the transmitted to that of the baseband signal.
• First, we demonstrate that a single-sideband (SSB) AM signal is represented mathematically as
s(t) = Ac m(t) cos 2π fct ∓ Ac mˆ (t) sin 2π fct
where mˆ (t) is the Hilbert transform of m(t), and the plus-or-minus sign determines which sideband we obtain.
We recall that the Hilbert transform may be viewed as a linear filter with impulse response h(t) = 1/πt and
frequency response
H( f ) = −j, f > 0
j, f < 0
0, f = 0
•Hilbert transform is a simple filter. ˆx(t) plays the same role as A sin(2π f0t +φ). ˆx(t) is called the Hilbert
transform of x(t)[ = A cos (2π f0t + φ)] .

•SSB AM signal s(t) may be generated by The method using a Hilbert transform filter. Another method,
generates a DSB-SC AM signal and then employs a filter which selects either the upper sideband or the lower
sideband of the double-sideband AM signal.
S usB (f ) = M+ (f - fc ) + M - (f + fc ) = 1/2 [M ( f - fc ) + M ( f + fc) ] – ½j [M (f - fc ) - M ( f +
fc)
• From the frequency-shifting property, the inverse transform of this equation yields
s usB (t) = m(t) cos Wc t - mh (t) sin Wct
s LSB (t) = m(t) cos Wct + mh (t) sin Wct
• Hence, a general SSB signal can be expressed as s SSB (t) = m(t) COS Wct ∓ mh (t) sin Wct
where the minus sign applies to USB and the plus sign applies to LSB
• Given the time domain expression of SSB-SC signals, we can now confirm analytically that SSB-SC signals
can be coherently demodulated:
S ssB (t) COS Wct = [m(t) COS Wct ± mh (t) sin Wct] COS W ct = m(t) [ l + cos 2wct] ∓ mh (t)
sin 2wct
• Thus, the product s ssB (t) • 2 cos Wct yields the baseband signal and another SSB signal with a carrier 2wc.
A low-pass filter will suppress the unwanted SSB terms, giving the desired baseband signal m(t).

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Communication system
TC-307
Lecture 15 week 5
Course Instructor: Nida Nasir
Topics summary
Angle modulation and types
• Frequency modulation basic principles
• Phase modulation basic principles
• Freq and phase deviation
• Freq and phase deviation sensitivity
• Angle modulation formulas

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Angle modulation
• A sine wave carrier can be modulated by varying its amplitude, frequency, or phase shift.
The basic equation for a carrier wave is Vc sin(2π ft ± ϴ)
where Vc = peak amplitude, f = frequency, and ϴ = phase angle
• Impressing an information signal on a carrier by changing its frequency produces FM.
• Varying the amount of phase shift that a carrier experiences is known as phase modulation
(PM). Varying the phase shift of a carrier also produces FM.
• FM and PM are collectively referred to as angle modulation.

Advantages of FM over AM are noise reduction, system fidelity, efficient use of power.

DisAdvantages of FM over AM are wider bandwidth and complex circuitry in both

transmitter and receivers.

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• Angle modulation was introduced in 1931 as an alternate to amplitude modulation
• Angle modulation is used for radio broadcasting, television sound transmission, two way mobile radio,
cellular radio, microwave and satellite communication
• Angle modulated waves is expressed as m(t)= Vc cos {𝝎𝒄𝒕 + 𝜽(𝒕)}
Vc= carrier amplitude;𝜔𝑐= carrier radian frequency;𝜃(𝑡)= Instantaneous phase deviation
• If vm(t) is the modulating signal, angle modulation is expressed as 𝜽(𝒕)= F(vmt)
vm(t) = Vm sin 𝜔mt
Vm= Peak amplitude of modulating signal
𝜔m = Modulating radian frequency
• Difference between FM and PM lies in property of carrier (Frequency or phase) is directly varied by
modulating signal
• If frequency of carrier is varied with modulating signals FM results. If Phase is varied with respect to
modulating signals PM results.

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Basic Principles of Frequency Modulation
•In FM, the carrier amplitude remains constant and the carrier frequency is changed by
the modulating signal.
•As the modulating signal amplitude increases, the carrier frequency increases.
•If the amplitude of the modulating signal decreases, the carrier frequency decreases.
•The reverse relationship can also be implemented.
•A decreasing modulating signal increases the carrier frequency above its center value,
whereas an increasing modulating signal decreases the carrier frequency below its center
value.
•The amount of change in carrier frequency produced by the modulating signal is known
as the frequency deviation fd.
•Maximum frequency deviation occurs at the maximum amplitude of the modulating
signal.

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• With no modulating signal applied, the carrier frequency is a constant-
amplitude sine wave at its normal resting frequency.
• As the sine wave goes positive, the frequency of the carrier increases
proportionately. The highest frequency occurs at the peak amplitude of the
modulating signal.
• As the modulating signal amplitude decreases, the carrier frequency decreases.
• When the modulating signal is at zero amplitude, the carrier is at its center
frequency point.
• When the modulating signal goes negative, the carrier frequency decreases.

A transmitter operates on a frequency of 915 MHz. The maximum FM

deviation is ±12.5 kHz. What are the maximum and minimum frequencies that
occur during modulation?
fc= 915 MHz = 915,000 kHz
Maximum deviation = fc + fd= 915,000 + 12.5 = 915,012.5 kHz
Minimum deviation = fc - fd =915,000 - 12.5 = 914,987.5 kHz

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• The frequency deviation is expressed as the amount of frequency
shift of the carrier above or below the center frequency.
• frequency deviation for the 150-MHz carrier frequency is represented
as ±30 kHz. This means that the modulating signal varies the carrier
above and below its center frequency by 30 kHz.
• frequency of the modulating signal has no effect on the amount of
deviation.
Ex: A carrier frequency is 150 MHz. If the peak amplitude of the
modulating signal causes a maximum frequency shift of 30 kHz, the
carrier frequency will deviate up to 150.03 MHz and down to 149.97
MHz.
The total frequency deviation is 150.03 − 149.97 = 0.06 MHz = 60 kHz.

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 Principles of Phase Modulation
• When the amount of phase shift of a constant-frequency carrier is varied in accordance
with a modulating signal, the resulting output is a phase modulation (PM) signal.
• A modulator circuit whose function is to produce a phase shift, a time separation
between two sine waves of the same frequency.
• The greater the amplitude of the modulating signal, the greater the phase shift.
• positive alternations of the modulating signal produce a lagging phase shift and negative
signals produce a leading phase shift.
• If a constant-amplitude, constant-frequency carrier sine wave is applied to the phase
shifter whose phase shift is varied by the intelligence signal, the output of the phase
shifter is a PM wave.
• As the modulating signal goes positive, the amount of phase lag, and delay of the carrier
output, increases with the amplitude of the modulating signal. The result at the output is
the same as if the constant-frequency carrier signal had been stretched out, or
frequency is lowered.
• When the modulating signal goes negative, the phase shift becomes leading. This
causes the carrier sine wave to be compressed. The result is the same as if the carrier
frequency had been increased.

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81
PM and FM waveform
• The time domain waveform of both FM and PM are identical except their
time relationship (phase). It is not possible to distinguish FM from PM
without knowing modulating signal.
• With FM, max freq deviation (change in carrier freq) occurs during positive
n negative peaks of modulating signal.
• With PM, max freq deviation (change in carrier freq) occurs during zero
crossings of modulating signal.
• In PM, the maximum rate of change of modulating voltage occurs exactly
at the zero crossing points. In contrast, in an FM wave the maximum
deviation occurs at the peak positive and negative amplitude of the
modulating voltage.
• Thus, a phase modulator does indeed produce FM.

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 Frequency and phase deviation
• The angular displacement (Shift of carrier phase wrt reference phase) is
called phase deviation ∆𝜽
• The relative displacement (Shift of carrier frequency wrt unmodulated
value ) is called frequency deviation ∆f
• Magnitude of frequency and phase deviation is proportional to amplitude
of modulating signals Vm and also with modulating signal frequency fm

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Deviation sensitivity
• For modulating signal vm(t)
PM = ϴ(t) = Kp vm(t) rad
FM= ϴ’(t) = Kf vm(t) rad/s

• Deviation sensitivity
Kp = deviation sensitivity of phase = ∆𝜽/ ∆𝑽 rad/V
Kf = deviation sensitivity of freq = ∆𝒘/ ∆𝑽 rad/sec V

• Deviation sensitivities are o/p vs i/p transfer function for modulators.

• For FM, change will occur in o/p freq wrt change in amplitude.
• For PM, change will occur in phase of o/p freq wrt change in amplitude.

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