Communication system

TC-307
EL, Lecture 7, week 3
Course Instructor: Nida Nasir
Summary of week 2
1. A/D conversion (PCM)(sampling, quantization, coding)
2. Need , benefit of modulation
3. Coding & its benefits
4. Multiplexing and multiple access
5. Multiplexing and its types (FDM, WDM, TDM)
6. Multiple access and its types (FDMA, TDMA, CDMA)
7. Electromagnetic spectrum
8. Electromagnetic spectrum for wired and wireless channels
9. Licensed and unlicensed freq spectrum
10. Radio waves and microwaves
11. Terrestrial microwave and satellite communication
12. Optical Characteristics of Radio Waves (reflection, refraction, diffraction)
13. Electromagnetic Wave Propagation over wireless channel (ground wave/surface wave, sky wave, space wave (ground reflected wave,
line of sight/direct wave)
14. Received power calculation
15. Channel capacity for noisy and noiseless channel
16. Channel capacity or bit rate for binary and M-ary levels
17. MODEM

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 Transmission loss, gain in cable system
• A transmission system reduces the power level or “strength” of the output signal. This signal-strength reduction is expressed in terms of
transmission power loss. It describes transmission loss encountered on cable and radio communication systems.
• If the system is distortion less, the average signal power at the output will be proportional to Pin.
• System’s power gain is G= Pout/Pin. In dB, GdB = 10 log10 G
• Power gain is always positive, but negative dB values occur when G<1.
• 0 dB corresponds to unity gain, G=1.
• Given a value in dB, the ratio value is G= 10 GdB/10
• Also P in W, PdBW =10 log10 P/ 1 W
• Also P in mW, PdBm =10 log10 P/ 1mW
• Pout,dBm = GdB + Pin,dBm
• Any passive transmission medium has power loss rather than gain, transmission loss, or attenuation, L = 1/ G = Pin/Pout
• LdB = - GdB= -10 log10 Pin/Pout
• Hence Pout = Pin/L and Pout dBm = Pin dBm –L
• In the case of transmission lines, coaxial and fiber-optic cables, and waveguides, the output power decreases exponentially with distance.
We’ll write this relation in the form: Pout = 10 –α l / 10 P in
Where l is the path length between source and destination and α is the attenuation coefficient in dB per unit length
• Also loss L = 10 α l /10 and L dB = α l
• In a cable transmission system, power gains multiply in a cascade connection.
Pout = Pin (G2 G4/ L1 L3) In dB, Pout= Pin + G2 +G4 – L1 –L3
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 Transmission loss, gain in radio system
• Signal transmission by radio wave propagation can reduce the
required number of repeaters. lets examine the transmission
loss for line-of-sight propagation where the radio wave travels
a direct path from transmitting to receiving antenna. The free-
space loss on a line-of-sight path is
Loss L = (4πl / λ)2 λ is the wavelength, f the
signal frequency, and c the speed of light, l is the path length
between TX and RX.
• LdB = 92.4 + 20 log10 fGHz +20 log10 lkm

• Furthermore, Pout = Pin Gt Gr /L

where Gt, Gr represent the antenna gains at the transmitter and
receiver.
• The maximum transmitting or receiving gain of an antenna
with effective aperture area Ae is G = 4πAe / λ2
• The transmitter power and antenna gain can be combined to
give us the effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP),
EIRP = Pt Gt

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Gru stands for the receiving antenna gain on the uplink from
ground to satellite.
Gtu stands for the transmitting antenna gain on the uplink
from ground to satellite.
Gtd stands for the transmitting antenna gain on the downlink
from satellite to ground
Grd stands for the receiving antenna gain on the down link
from satellite to ground
Given is : The satellite is in geostationary orbit and is about
22,300 miles. The satellite has a repeater amplifier that
produces a typical output of 18 dBW. If the transmitter input
power is 35 dBW, find o/p power??
Sol: the power received at the satellite is :Pt+Gtu+Gru-Lu
35 dBW + 55 dB -199.1 dB + 20 dB = -89.1 dBW
The power output at the receiver is: Pr+Gtd+Grd-Ld
18 dBW + 16 dB - 195.6 dB + 51 dB= -110.6 dBW
PdBW =10 log10 P/ 1 W
Pout = 10 -110.6/10 = 8.7 x 10-12W 5
 Signals and Spectrum
• signals are functions of the independent variable time.
• Signals may be processed further by systems, which may modify them or extract
additional information from them.
• We get line spectra based on Fourier series expansion of periodic signals
• We get continuous spectra based on Fourier transform of non periodic signals.
• Oscilloscope is used to get time domain display of waveforms.
• Spectrum analyzer is used to get frequency domain display.
• The freq domain description of a signal is known as spectrum.

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 Classification of signals

1. Periodic vs non periodic signals

• A periodic signal is a signal which repeats again and satisfies the

condition : g(t)=g(t±𝑇°)
• A non periodic signal or Aperiodic signals does not satisfy above
condition

2. Deterministic Vs Random Signals

• A deterministic signal has no uncertainty w.r.t its value while random

signals have uncertainty.

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3. Energy and Power signals

• Signal g(t) is an energy signal if total energy satisfies the condition 0 < 𝐸 < ∞
• Signal g(t) is a Power signal if total power satisfies the condition 0 < 𝑃 < ∞
• Energy signal has zero average power whereas power signal has infinite
energy.
• Usually periodic and random signal are power signals
• Non periodic and deterministic signals are energy signals
• power is time average of the energy.

4. Odd and even signals

• A signal has odd symmetry if is satisfies v(t)= - v (-t)

• A signal has even symmetry if it satisfies v(t)= v (-t)

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5. Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals
• A signal that is specified for every value of time t ) is a continuous
time signal, and a signal that is specified only at discrete points of t =
nT is a discrete time signal.
6. Analog and Digital Signals
• One should not confuse analog signals with continuous time signals.
Analog signal amplitude can take on an infinite number of values. A
digital signal, is one whose amplitude can take on only a finite
number of values.
• The terms "continuous time" and "discrete time" qualify the nature of
signal along the time (horizontal) axis. The terms "analog“ and
"digital," on the other hand, describe the nature of the signal
amplitude (vertical) axis .

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 Phasors and line spectra

• v(t)= A sin (Ѡ t)
• v(t)= A cos (Ѡt +φ)
A is peak amplitude, Ѡ = radian frequency, φ=phase
angle
• The phase angle represents peak angle shifted away
from the time origin.
• The time period is given by T=2π/ Ѡ
• The cyclic frequency f=1/T= Ѡ / 2π
• complex exponential or phasor, plays major role in
spectral analysis (frequency spectrum).

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 Phasor Representation

• Phasor representation of sinusoidal signal comes from Euler’s

theorem
𝑒 ±𝑗ϴ = cosϴ + j sinϴ
ϴ = Ѡt + φ (ϴ=arbitrary angle)
• Any sinusoid can be written as real part of complex exponential
A cos (Ѡ t + φ ) = A Re [𝑒 𝑗 Ѡ𝑡+φ ]=Re [A𝑒 𝑗Ѡ𝑡 𝑒 φ ]
• term inside can be viewed as as rotating vector in a complex
plane
• The phasor has length A rotates counter clockwise at a rate of f
rev/sec at t=0
• Three parameters specify a phasor completely, amplitude, phase
angle and frequency
• The frequency domain description would be the line spectrum
which consists of 2 plots : amplitude Vs frequency and phase vs
frequency

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Line spectrum has Four conventions/rules
1. We use f cyclic frequency rather than radian frequency w
2. Phase angles are measured w.r.t cosine waves. Hence sine waves need to be
converted into cosine using the identity
sin Ѡt = cos (Ѡt – 90⁰)
3. Amplitude should always be a positive quantity. When negative sine appears
it must be edit in the phase using
-A cos Ѡt= A cos ( Ѡt + 180⁰ )
It does not matter whether you take plus or minus 180 since phasor ends in
same place either way.
4. Phase angles are expressed in degrees even though Ѡt are in radians.

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Example: Draw the line spectrum of the given
signal
w (t) = 7 – 10 cos ( 40π - 60⁰ ) + 4 sin 120πt
Rewriting the above signal
first term = 7 cos 2π0t
Second term = – 10 cos ( 40π - 60⁰ )
= 10 cos ( 2π 20t + 180⁰ - 60⁰)
= 10 cos (2π 20t + 120⁰)
Third term = 4 sin 120πt = 4 cos ( 2π 60 t -90⁰ )
Now draw the line spectrum of amplitude vs
frequency and phase vs frequency, we get one sided
or positive frequency line spectra

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 Two Sided Line Spectrum
• If we add negative frequencies then we get two sided
spectra
Re[z]= ½(z + z*),
where z is any complex quantity with complex
conjugate z*.
Hence if z= Ae jφ e jѠ⁰t then z*= Ae- jφ e- jѠ⁰t
• A cos (Ѡ t + φ )= A/2 ejφ ejѠ⁰t + A/2 e - jφ e - jѠ⁰t
Above equation shows pair of conjugate phasors
• Phasor diagram consists of two phasors with equal
length but opposite angles and direction of rotations
this type of line spectrum is two sided since it
includes negative frequencies
• The amplitude spectrum has even symmetry while
the phase spectrum has odd symmetry
• One sided or two sided are pictorial waves of
representing sinusoidal of phasor functions
• The amplitude spectrum in one sided or two side
conveys more information than phase spectrum

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Draw the two sided line spectrum of the
given signal
w (t) = 7 – 10 cos ( 40π - 60⁰ ) + 4 sin 120πt
Rewriting the above signal
first term = 7 cos 2π0t
Second term = – 10 cos ( 40π - 60⁰ )
= 10 cos ( 2π 20t + 180⁰ - 60⁰)
= 10 cos (2π 20t + 120⁰)
Third term = 4 sin 120πt = 4 cos ( 2π 60 t -90⁰ )

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Lec 7 summary

• Transmission loss, gain in cable system

• Transmission loss, gain in radio system
• Signal and spectrum
• Classification of signal(periodic/non periodic, deterministic/random,
energy/power, odd/even, CT/DT, analog/digital
• Phasors, line spectra
• Line spectrum conventions (one sided, two sided spectrum)

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Communication system
TC-307
EL, Lecture 8, week 3
Course Instructor: Nida Nasir
Negative frequency
• negative frequency does NOT describe the rate of periodic variation of a sine or a cosine.
It describe the direction of rotation of an exponential sinusoid and its rate of revolution.

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 Fourier theory
• cosine wave has the same shape as a sine wave but leads the
sine wave by 90°.
• A harmonic is a sine wave whose frequency is some integer
multiple of a fundamental sine wave. For example, the third
harmonic of a 2-kHz sine wave is a sine wave of 6 kHz.
• Fourier theory tells us is that we can take a nonsinusoidal
waveform and break it down into individual harmonically
related sine wave or cosine wave components.
• The more higher harmonics that are added, the more the
composite wave looks like a perfect square wave

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Fourier Series for Periodic signals
1. Trigonometric Fourier series formulas
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + σ∞ 𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡
• The coefficient of trignometric fourier series is given by
following equation
𝑡
𝑎0 = 1/T ‫׬‬0 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑡
𝑎𝑛 = 1/T ‫׬‬0 𝑓 𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑤𝑡 𝑑𝑡 n = 1,2,3,4……
𝑡
𝑏𝑛 = 1/T ‫׬‬0 𝑓 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑤𝑡 𝑑𝑡 n = 1,2,3,4……

• At, n=0 gives average / dc value

• At, n=1 gives first/fundamental harmonic
• At, n=2 gives second harmonic

• Trigonometric Fourier series gives one sided line

spectrum

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2. Exponential Fourier series
f 𝑡 = σ∞𝑛=−∞ n 𝑐 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑓° 𝑡
n = 0, 1, 2, ……
• The coefficient of exponential Fourier series is given by
following equation
𝑡 − 𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑓𝑜t
𝑐𝑛 = 1/T ‫𝑒 𝑡 𝑓 ׬‬ dt

• At, n=0 gives average / dc value

• At, n=1 gives first/fundamental harmonic
• At, n=2 gives second harmonic

• Exponential Fourier series gives two sided line

spectrum

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Conversion of trigonometric to exponential F.S

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F.S time
domain
expressions of
non sinusoidal
waveforms

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F.S freq domain
plots of
non sinusoidal waveforms

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Sinc function

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Lec 8 summary
• Negative freq
• Fourier theory
• FS for periodic signals (trigonometric , exponential F.S)
• Conversion of trigonometric to exponential F.S
• F.S time domain expressions of non sinusoidal waveforms and their
freq domain line spectrum plots
• Rectangular pulse train and its freq domain(Sinc function)

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Communication system
TC-307
EL, Lecture 9, week 3
Course Instructor: Nida Nasir
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

• In AM, the carrier frequency remains constant during the modulation process, but
its amplitude varies in accordance with the modulating signal.
• An increase in the amplitude of the modulating signal causes the amplitude of the
carrier to increase. Both the positive and the negative peaks of the carrier wave
vary with the modulating signal.
• An imaginary line connecting the positive peaks and negative peaks of the carrier
waveform (gives the exact shape of the modulating information signal). This
imaginary line on the carrier waveform is known as the envelope.

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• we can express the sine wave carrier with the simple expression
vc = Vc sin 2πfc t
vc represents the instantaneous value of the carrier sine wave voltage; Vc represents
the peak value of the constant unmodulated carrier sine wave; fc is the frequency of
the carrier sine wave; and t is a particular point in time during the carrier cycle.
• A sine wave modulating signal can be expressed with a similar formula
vm = Vm sin 2πfmt
where vm instantaneous value of information signal, Vm peak amplitude of
information signal, fm frequency of modulating signal.

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• modulating signal uses the peak value of the carrier rather than zero as its reference
point. The envelope of the modulating signal varies above and below the peak carrier
amplitude.
• When the amplitude of the modulating signal is greater than the amplitude of the carrier,
distortion will occur, causing incorrect information to be transmitted.
• In amplitude modulation, it is important that the peak value of the modulating signal be
less than the peak value of the carrier. Mathematically, Vm ≤ Vc

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• the peak value of the carrier is the reference point for the modulating signal; the
value of the modulating signal is added to or subtracted from the peak value of the
carrier. The instantaneous value of either the top or the bottom voltage envelope 1
v1 = Vc + vm = Vc + Vm sin 2πfmt
• Thus, we can write the instantaneous value of the complete modulated wave 2 by
substituting v1 for the peak value of carrier voltage Vc as follows:
v2 = v1 sin 2πfct
• Now substituting the value for v1 and expanding, we get the following:
v2 = (Vc + Vm sin 2πfmt) sin 2πfct
v AM= Vc sin 2πfct + (Vm sin 2πfmt) (sin 2πfct)

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• v2 is the instantaneous value of the AM wave (or AM),
• Vc sin 2πfc t is the carrier waveform, and
• (Vm sin 2πfmt) (sin 2fc t) is the carrier waveform multiplied
by the modulating signal waveform. This expression shows
characteristic of AM as it is the product of the carrier and
modulating signals.
• The circuit used for producing AM is called a modulator.
Circuits that compute the product of two analog signals are
also known as analog multipliers, mixers, converters,
product detectors, and phase detectors.
• A circuit that changes a lower-frequency baseband or
intelligence signal to a higher-frequency signal is usually
called a modulator.
• A circuit used to recover the original intelligence signal from
an AM wave is known as a detector or demodulator.

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 Modulation Index and Percentage of Modulation
• modulation index m (also called the modulating factor or
coeficient, or the degree of modulation), is the ratio m = Vm/ Vc
• Vm is the peak value of modulating signal, and Vc is the carrier
voltage (unmodulated value).
• Multiplying the modulation index by 100 gives the percentage of
modulation.
For example, if the carrier voltage is 9 V and the modulating signal
voltage is 7.5 V, the modulation factor is 0.8333 and the percentage
of modulation is 0.833 x 100 = 83.33.
• The modulation index should be a number between 0 and 1.
• If the amplitude of the modulating voltage is higher than the
carrier voltage, m will be greater than 1, causing distortion of the
modulated waveform. resulting in a condition called
overmodulation.
• If the amplitude of the modulating signal is less than the carrier
amplitude, no distortion will occur. The ideal condition for AM is
when Vm = Vc, or m = 1, which gives 100 percent modulation.

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 Percentage of Modulation

• When the AM signal is displayed on an oscilloscope, the modulation index can be

computed from Vmax and Vmin.
• The peak value of the modulating signal Vm is one-half the difference of the peak
and trough values: Vm = Vmax - Vmin
2
Vmax is the peak value of the signal during modulation, and Vmin is the lowest value,
or trough, or trough, of the modulated wave.

• The peak value of the carrier signal Vc is the average of the Vmax and Vmin values:
Vc = Vmax + Vmin
2
• The modulation index is m = Vmax - Vmin / Vmax + Vmin

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Example :Suppose that on an AM signal, the Vmax (p2p) on the
oscilloscope screen is 5.9 divisions and Vmin( p–p) is 1.2 divisions.
a. What is the modulation index?
m = Vmax - Vmin / Vmax + Vmin
m =5.9-1.2 / 5.9+1.2 = 4.7/ 7.1 = 0.662

b. Calculate Vc, Vm, and m

Vm = Vmax – Vmin = 5.9 -1.2 / 2= 2.35V
2
Vc = Vmax + Vmin =5.9 +1.2 / 2= 3.55V
2

m= Vm/Vc = 2.35/ 3.55 = 0.662

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Sidebands and the Frequency Domain

Side frequencies, or sidebands, occur in the frequency spectrum directly above

and directly below the carrier frequency. They occur at frequencies that are the
sum and difference of the carrier and modulating frequencies.
Sideband Calculations
• When only a single-frequency sine wave modulating signal is used, the
modulation process generates two sidebands.
• The upper sideband fUSB and lower sideband fLSB are computed as
fUSB = fc + fm and fLSB = fc - fm
where fc is the carrier frequency and fm is the modulating frequency.
• The existence of sidebands can be demonstrated mathematically, starting with the
equation for an AM signal; V AM= Vc sin 2 π fc t + (Vm sin 2 π fmt) (sin
2 π fc t)

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• By using the trigonometric identity that says that the product of two
sine waves is
sin A sin B = cos (A - B) - cos (A + B)
2 2
• substituting this identity into the expression a modulated wave,
VAM= Vc sin 2 π fc t - (Vm/2) cos 2πt(fc-fm) + (Vm/2) cos 2πt( fc+fm)
where the first term is the carrier; the second term, containing the
difference fc - fm, is the lower sideband; and the third term, containing the
sum fc + fm, is the upper sideband.

Example, assume that a 400-Hz tone modulates a 300-kHz carrier. The

upper and lower sidebands are
fUSB = 300,000 + 400 = 300,400 Hz or 300.4 kHz
fLSB = 300,000 - 400 = 299,600 Hz or 299.6 kHz
• The time-domain display of AM gives no obvious indication of the
existence of the sidebands, therefore frequency domain is used.

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Frequency-Domain Representation of AM

• A plot of signal amplitude versus frequency is referred to as a frequency-

domain display. A test instrument known as a spectrum analyzer is used
to display the frequency domain of a signal.
• Whenever the modulating signal is more complex than a single sine wave
tone, multiple upper and lower sidebands are produced by the AM
process.
For example, voice signal consists of many sine wave components of
different frequencies mixed together. Recall voice frequencies occur in the
300- to 3000-Hz range. Therefore, voice signals produce a range of
frequencies above and below the carrier frequency

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 AM Bandwidth
For example, if the carrier frequency is 2.8
MHz (2800 kHz), then the maximum and
minimum sideband frequencies are
fUSB = 2800 +3 = 2803 kHz
fLSB = 2800 - 3 = 2797 kHz
BW = fUSB - fLSB = 2803 - 2797 = 6 kHz
• The bandwidth of an AM signal is twice the
highest frequency in the modulating signal:
BW = 2fm
where fm is the maximum modulating
frequency.
In the case of a voice signal whose maximum
frequency is 3 kHz, the total bandwidth is
simply BW = 2(3 kHz) =6 kHz

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Example: An AM broadcast station has a total bandwidth of 10 kHz. AM broadcast stations are spaced every
10 kHz across the spectrum from 540 to 1600 kHz, illustrated in Fig. 3-10. The sidebands from the first AM
broadcast frequency extend down to 535 kHz and up to 545 kHz, forming a 10-kHz channel for the signal. The
highest channel frequency is 1600 kHz, with sidebands 2595 and 1605kHz

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 AM Power

• The total transmitted power PT is the sum of the carrier power Pc and
the power in the two sidebands PUSB and PLSB:
PT = Pc + PLSB + PUSB

• The power in an AM signal is distributed and calculated by:

VAM= Vc sin 2 π fc t - (Vm/2) cos 2πt(fc-fm) + (Vm/2) cos 2πt( fc+fm)
where the first term is the carrier, the second term is the lower
sideband, and the third term is the upper sideband.

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• For power calculations, rms values must be used for the voltages. We can convert
from peak to rms by dividing the peak value by ˨2 or multiplying by 0.707.
• The rms carrier and sideband voltages are then
VAM= 1/√𝟐 {Vc sin 2 π fc t + (Vm/2) cos 2πt( fc+fm) - (Vm/2) cos 2πt(fc-fm) }
• P = V2/R, where P is the output power, V is the rms output voltage, and R is the
resistive part of the load impedance, which is usually an antenna.
PT = (Vc /√𝟐 )2 /R + (Vm/2√𝟐)𝟐/𝑹 + (Vm/2√𝟐)𝟐/𝑹
= Vc2/2R + Vm2/8R + Vm2/8R
• m = Vm /Vc; we can write Vm = mVc
PT = Vc2/2R + (mVc)2/8R + (mVc)2/8R
• Since the term Vc2/2R is equal to the rms carrier power Pc, hence
PT = Vc2/2R { 1+ m2/4 + m2/4} = Pc { 1+ m2/2}

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Example, if the carrier of an AM transmitter is 1000 W and it is modulated 100 percent(m
= 1), the total AM power is
PT = 1000 (1 + 12/2) = 1500 W
Here 1000 W of it is in the carrier. That leaves 500 W in both sidebands. Since the
sidebands are equal in size, each sideband has 250 W.

• For a 100 percent modulated AM transmitter, the total sideband power is always
one-half that of the carrier power.
Example, A 50-kW transmitter carrier that is 100 percent modulated will have a sideband
power of 25 kW, with 12.5 kW in each sideband. The total power for the AM signal is the
sum of the carrier and sideband power, or 75 kW.
• When the percentage of modulation is less than the optimum 100, there is much less
power in the sidebands.
Example, for a 70 percent modulated 250-W carrier, the total power in the composite AM
signal is
PT = 250 (1 + 0.72/2) = 311.25W
Of the total, 250 W is in the carrier, leaving 311.25 - 250 = 61.25 W in the sidebands. There
is 61.25/2 or 30.625 W in each sideband.

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• the power in the sidebands depends on the value of the modulation
index. The greater the percentage of modulation, the higher the
sideband power and the higher the total power transmitted.
• The power in each sideband PSB is given by
PSB = PLSB = PUSB =Pc m2/4
Example, if the carrier power is 100 W, then at 100 percent
modulation, 50 W will appear in the sidebands, 25 W in each. The total
transmitted power is the sum of the carrier and sideband powers,150 W.
• The carrier power represents two-thirds of the total transmitted
power.
Assuming 100-W carrier power and a total power of 150 W, the carrier
power percentage is 100/150 = 0.667, or 66.7 percent.
The sideband power percentage is thus 50/150 = 0.333,or 33.3 percent

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•The carrier itself conveys no information. The carrier can be
transmitted and received, but unless modulation occurs, no
information will be transmitted.
•When modulation occurs, sidebands are produced.
•All the transmitted information is contained within the sidebands.
•Only one-third of the total transmitted power is allotted to the
sidebands, and the remaining two-thirds is wasted on the carrier.
•Despite its inefficiency, AM is still widely used because it is
simple and effective. It is used in AM radio broadcasting, CB
radio, TV broadcasting, and aircraft tower communication.

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Lec 9 summary

• AM expression
• modulation index
• Percentage of Modulation( under, over, exact)
• Sidebands and frequency domain
• AM bandwidth
• AM power

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