KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND BUILDING ENGINEERING

TCBE 4102 SANITATION

EDITED LECTURE NOTES

BY
ACHAYE CHARLES

COURSE OUTLINE

1.0 Introduction to Environmental Sanitation

 Sanitation & Health

 Definition and Objectives of Sanitation

 Classification of Wastes and Sanitation Systems

 On-site Sanitation Systems for Rural & Low Income Urban Communities

 Simple Pit Technology, Two Pit Latrine Systems

 Pour Flash Sanitation Technologies

 Septic Tank

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 COURSE OUTLINE

2.0 Waste Water Engineering

Conventional Sewerage System

 Waste Water Collection System

 Estimation Of Waste Water Flow

 Hydraulics Requirements & Design of Sanitary Sewer System

 Sewer Appurtenances

 Plumbing System

 Small Bore Sewerage System

 Simplified Sewerage System

 Storm Water and Sullage Drainage System Design

3.0 Waste Water Treatment & Disposal

 Waste Water Characteristics

 Sewage Treatment Methods

 Preparatory Treatment

 Primary Treatment

 Secondary Treatment

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COURSE OUTLINE

 Attached growth System

 Suspended Growth System

 Effluent Disposal

 Sludge Treatment and Sludge Disposal

4.0 Solid Waste Management

 Waste Water Characteristics

 Sewage Treatment Methods

 Preparatory Treatment

 Primary Treatment

 Secondary Treatment

 Attached growth System

 Suspended Growth System

 Effluent Disposal

Sludge Treatment and Sludge Disp

TEXT & REFERENCE

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1.0 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION

Environmental sanitation is a set of actions geared towards improving the quality of the
environment and controlling of environmental factors that form links in disease
transmission. By doing so, the hope is that living conditions will improve and health
problems will decrease. The “solid waste management”, “water and wastewater treatment”
,“industrial waste treatment” and “environmental pollution control”, all fall under the
umbrella of environmental sanitation.

According to WHO (World Health Organization, 1950), environmental sanitation refers all
condition that affect health, including the control of water supply, excreta and wastewater
disposal, refuse disposal, housing condition, food protection, atmospheric conditions and the
safety of the working environment.

DEFINITIONS OF SANITATION

1. Sanitation is the hygienic means of promoting health through prevention of human

contact with the hazards of wastes.

2. Sanitation refers to all conditions that affect health, with regard to dirt and infection
and especially to the drainage and disposal of sewage and refuse from house.

3. Sanitation may be defined as the science and practice of effecting healthful and
hygienic conditions and involves the study and use of hygienic measures such as:

 Safe, reliable water supply;

 Proper drainage of wastewater; Proper disposal of all human wastes;

 Prompt refusal of all refuse.

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 OBJECTIVES OF SANITATION

The principal objectives of providing sanitary facilities are:

 To have improved public health

 To minimize environmental pollution

TRANSMISSION OF DISEASES

1. Excreta from infected persons can cause infection in other persons can cause infection in
other persons in two different ways:

2. Pathogens in the excreta of an infected person reach another person and initiate infection.
These are the excreted infections.

3. Infections in other persons are caused by transmission of excreted pathogens via insects
such as flies and mosquitoes and rodents such as rats, which act as vectors.

Infected Excreta New Infections

Infected Excreta Vector Breeding

The number of pathogens excreted is termed the excreted load, which is governed by:

4. Latency (time to become infective)

5. Persistence (time of survival)

6. Multiplication (time to multiply)

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Fig: Fecal –oral transmission routes of diseases

EFFECTS OF SANITATION

Sanitation prevents infection, which may occur in different forms through different transmission
media such as:

• Ingestion of food or drinking water contaminated with feces

• Ingestion of beef infected with tapeworms
• Contact with contaminated water
• Contact with contaminated soil
• Insect vectors

WATER, SANITATION AND HEALTH

Water supply and safe disposal of human wastes are most important for the protection of
health. It is important to understand that the improvement of health is not possible without
sanitary disposal of human wastes. However, neither sanitation nor water supply alone is
good enough for health improvement. It is now well established that health education or

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hygiene promotion must accompany sufficient quantities of safe water and sanitary disposal
of excreta to ensure the control of water and sanitary related diseases.

Figure: Interrelationship between water, sanitation and health education

CLASSIFICATION OF WASTES

Human Wastes or Human Excreta:

Refers to only human faeces and urine.

• Usually not combined with other liquid or solid wastes.

• Also known as night soil, when collected without dilution in large volumes of water.

Municipal Sewage/ Wastewater:

Liquid waste conveyed by a sewer.

• May include domestic and industrial discharges as well as storm water, groundwater,
infiltration and inflow.

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Domestic Sewage:

Liquid Wastes, which originate in the sanitary conveniences, e.g., water closets, urinals,
bath, sinks etc. of the dwellings, commercial facilities and institutions in a community.

Sullage:

Liquid discharges from kitchens, wash basins etc. and excludes human excreta.

• Less foul than domestic sewage.

• Can be discharged through open surface drains in unsewered areas.

Industrial Wastes:

Include the liquid discharges from spent water in different industrial processes such as
manufacturing and food processing.

Storm Water:

It is the surface runoff during and immediately after rainfall, which enters sewer through
inlets.

• It is not as foul as sanitary or industrial sewages.

• It can be carried through open drains or channels and disposed of in natural rivers or
streams without any treatment.

Solid Wastes:

It includes all materials which are normally solid and are discarded as useless or unwanted
during human activities.

• Domestic solid waste is a composition of organic food wastes, paper and paper
products, wood, plastics, leather and rubber materials, rags and textile products,
glass, metals, inert stone and other bulky wastes.

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 • Solid wastes from factories and industries often consist of packaging, spoiled
material and unwanted by-products.

FUNCTIONS OF SANITATION SYSTEM

A sanitation system involves all arrangements necessary to store, collect, process and delivers
human wastes or other forms of wastes back to nature in a safe manner. With respect to human
waste management, sanitation systems may be considered to have the following functions -

• Excretion and storage

• Collection and transportation
• Process / Treatment
• Disposal / Recycle

TYPES OF SANITATION SYSTEM

1) Based on the fact, whether the waste is stored, treated and disposed of at the point of
generation or transported to somewhere else for treatment and / or disposal,
sanitation systems may be divided into the following two categories –
i) On-site systems
ii) Off-site systems

2) Based on the methods of collection and conveyance, sanitation systems are of the
following types –
a) Dry systems
b) Wet systems
3) Based on the fact, whether the systems allows infiltration, sanitation systems are of
two types as follows –
• Permeable / Unconfined systems
• Confined systems

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 ON-SITE SANITATION SYSTEMS
(FOR RURAL & LOW INCOME URBAN COMMUNITIES)

Wastes are collected, treated and disposed of at the point of generation. Examples are – pit
latrines and septic tank systems. Widely used in rural areas of both developed and
developing countries, even in urban areas in absence of costly sewerage systems.
Modification of this system includes ventilated pit latrine, pour-flush single and double-pit
latrines, aqua privies, septic tanks and so on.

The principles of on-site system are-

• Infiltration of liquids into the soil.

• Solids are retained, digested aerobically and have to be removed or a new pit has to
be dug at regular intervals.
• It is primarily designed to dispose of human excreta.
• Wastewaters from cooking, clothes washing and bathing are collected in small drains
&disposed of in soakaways for infiltration.
• This system is most suitable for sparsely settled rural areas with low population
density and low water consumption because of the system‟s dependence on the
infiltration capacity of the soil for the disposal of the liquid portion of excreta.
• This system is not feasible for areas with high population density, high water
consumption, and low infiltration rate of soil or high groundwater table.

OFF-SITE SANITATION SYSTEMS

• Waste is collected and transported to somewhere else for treatment and disposal.
• Example bucket latrine systems and conventional sewerage systems.
• The basic elements of this system are collection, transportation, treatment and
disposal and/or reuse.
• The waste is collected either through house sewers or manually using buckets or
vaults; transported either by cart, truck or sewer system to a suitable distant place
where it is treated prior to disposal or reuse.

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 • Collection and transportation of the wastes through a sewer reticulation system
requires that the waste be diluted by water. It is essential, piped water supply be
available in areas where this system is to be applied.
• This waterborne system is by far the most satisfactory system of waste disposal
provided sufficient funds are available for its construction and maintenance.

DRY SANITATION SYSTEMS

In dry systems no water is used for dilution of the wastes. They are usually applied in un-
sewered areas with no piped water supply, e.g., pit latrine systems (on-site) and bucket
latrine systems (off-site).

WET SANITATION SYSTEMS

In the wet system, the waste is diluted with flushes of water .Suitable for where piped water
supply systems are available, e.g., septic tank systems (on-site) and conventional sewerage
systems (off-site)

PERMEABLE/UNCONFINED SYSTEMS

The liquid part of the wastes is allowed to infiltrate. Cause potential pollution of the
groundwater. Example - pit latrines.

CONFINED SYSTEMS

The liquid portion of the wastes is not allowed to infiltrate into the ground; as such there is
no potential for groundwater pollution. Example – aqua privies, septic tanks etc.

CRITERIA FOR GOOD SANITATION SYSTEM

 Simple and inexpensive in construction and operation.

 Should not contaminate surface soil, surface water or groundwater.
 Minimum handling of excreta and free from odor and unsightly conditions.

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  No access to flies, insects and animals.
 Should use little or no water.
 Should require little supervision and maintenance.
 Should handle all waste and wastewater.
 Should use little or no mechanical equipment.

APPROPRIATENESS OF SANITATION SYSTEMS

Purpose of sanitation:

i. Health
ii. Privacy
iii. Convenience
iv. Cleaner Environment
v. Prestige/Status

A good sanitation system should, therefore, be able to meet all the different requirements of
the people.

Suitability of Sanitation System:

• Level of Water supply

• Population Density

Level of Water supply:

 On site pit latrine system would not be appropriate with piped water supply.
 Water borne sewerage system (e.g., conventional sewerage system) is not a feasible
option with bucket carried or hand-pump water supply.

Population Density:

 On site system is more appropriate for low-density rural setting.

 Off-site systems more suitable for high density urban centers.

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PERSPECTIVE: BANGLADESH

Important factors for sanitation in Bangladesh

 Housing density
 Water supply service level
 Difficulties associated with pit latrines
 Operation and maintenance
 Soil permeability
 Groundwater pollution

Po
URBAN Dry Off-site Sanitation Wet Off-site
pul
ati Sanitation
on
De
RURAL Wet On-site
nsi Dry On-site
ty Sanitation
Sanitation

Dug Hand Stand-post House Connection

well Pump

Level of water supply

FIGURE: APPROPRIATENESS OF SANITATION SYSTEMS

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 WASTE WATER ENGINEERING

1 .Conventional Sewerage System

 Waste Water Collection System
 Estimation Of Waste Water Flow
 Hydraulics Requirements & Design of Sanitary Sewer System
 Sewer Appurtenances
 Plumbing System
 Small Bore Sewerage System
 Simplified Sewerage System
 Storm Water and Sullage
 Drainage System Design

2. Waste Water Treatment & Disposal

• Waste Water Characteristics
• Sewage Treatment Methods
 Preparatory Treatment
 Primary Treatment
 Secondary Treatment
 Attached growth System
 Suspended growth System
• Effluent Disposal
• Sludge Treatment and Sludge Disposal

WHY WASTE WATER ENGINEERING?

OBJECTIVE
With increasing population, urbanization and industrialization, production of wastes and
waste water have been increasing tremendously.

a) To provide an overview of sanitation and the wastewater systems.

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 b) To acquire knowledge on basic wastewater treatment and process design.

REFERENCE TEXT:

nd
1. “Water Supply and Sanitation”: Ahmed and Rahman, 2 ed./reprint, ITN-Bangladesh,
2005

2. “Environmental Engineering” by Peavy, Rowe and Tchobanoglous, Int’l edition,

McGraw-Hill, 1991.

3. “Wastewater Engineering” Metcaff and Eddy .

4. Any standard undergraduate textbook on Wastewater Engineering.

5. Some Examples:

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 SANITATION TECHNOLOGIES

LOW-COST SANITATION TECHNOLOGIES

1. Pit Latrine.
2. Pour-flush Latrines (where a water seal is maintained with low-volume of flushing)

All forms of pit latrines are not fully sanitary. With slight modifications in design and with some
interventions conventional pit latrines could be improved to be hygienic.

PIT LATRINES

The major types of pit latrines include:

 Simple or “Home-made” pit latrines

 Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) Latrines

 Reed Odorless Earth Closet (ROEC)

Most common and simplest form of excreta disposal in developing countries consists of manually
dug or bored hole into the ground, an appropriate seat or squatting slab and a shielding
superstructure

Urine and other liquids soak into the ground and solid materials are retained and decomposed in
the pit

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 THREE FORMS OF PIT LATRINE

Direct pit latrine- Excreta falls directly into a pit underneath the user

Off-set pit latrine- Excreta pass through a short pipe or a channel to a pit a few meters away

Partly off-set pit latrine- When part of the pit is under the shelter and part is outside

 The pit should be as large as possible, however, it should not be more than 1.5 m
(commonly 1.0-1.5 m) wide, and otherwise construction of cover slab will be more
expensive.
 Soils with permeability below 2.5 mm/hour are unsuitable for pit latrines, as liquid
fraction of excreta is unable to infiltrate into soil.
 Pits in unstable soils must be fully lined (otherwise, collapse of superstructure). Materials
used: concrete blocks, bricks, cement-stabilized soil blocks, masonry, perforated oil drums
etc.
 A distance of at least 10.0m should be provided between pit and a source of drinking
water (to avoid possible contamination).
 At least 2m distance between pit bottom and water table.
 Adequate ventilation by leaving openings above and below door or by constructing a
spiral wall without door.
 Depth of pit: depends on ground water table, soil condition. 5-ring pits (@ 1 ft. per ring)
are common.

Effective Pit Volume:

V=C×P×N

Where: V = Effective volume of the pit, m3,

C = Solids accumulation rate, m3/person/year

P = Number of persons, expected to use the latrine

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 N = Design life in years

Total size of pit latrine can be determined from:

V = 1.33 × C × P × N (for latrines ≤4.0m in depth)

The factor 1.33 is incorporated to ensure a clear space above the remains of the excreta at the end
of design period, allows 75% of the pit to be filled at the end of design period.

Typical values of C:

 Wet pit: 0.04 m3/person/year (0.02 - 0.04)

 Dry pit: 0.06 m3/person/year (0.03 - 0.06)

(Note: Accumulation rate is lower for wet pit (i.e., pit below GWT) because biodegradation is
faster under wet condition)

Effective Pit Volume (V)

V = (πd2/4) h .... (2)

Where:- d = diameter of pit

h = effective depth of pit

Assuming a suitable diameter (maximum permissible diameter is 1.5 m) of pit, the effective pit
depth, h can be obtained. Then the total depth will be effective depth plus the desired free space
above inlet of the pit. Usually a free space of 0.5 m is kept at top of the pit.

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Therefore,

Total Depth of pit, H = Effective Depth of Pit, h + 0.5 m

Excreta deposited into the pit have two essential components-

1. Liquid fraction of excreta (mainly urine, small amount of water due to anal cleansing, slab
cleaning )
2. Fecal solids in excreta that are digested anaerobically to produce
(i) gases such as methane, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide, which are
exhausted from the pit via the vent pipe, and
(ii) (ii) soluble compounds which are either further oxidized in the pit or are carried
into the surrounding soil by infiltrating liquid fraction.

In dry pits (not extend below groundwater table), solids accumulation rate varies between 0.03
and 0.06 m3/person/year and in wet pits between 0.02 and 0.04 m3/person/year (for design, 0.06
and 0.04). Accumulation rates are lower in wet pits because biodegradation is faster under wet
conditions than under just conditions in dry pits.

Advantages

 Low investment for construction. Enables construction without depending on expert

inputs.
 Design is readily available; local materials can be used
 Free from the risk of falling a child into it and hence suitable for children.
 Excrements are better contained than in open defecation.
 Unit can serve one or several households.
 Easy operation and maintenance.
 Pit latrines use no water for flushing.

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Disadvantages

 Potential odour and flies problem in simple pit latrine.

 Require access to open ground and digging of new pits or emptying of existing ones every
few years.
 Emptying of pits can be very difficult (may require manual labour, pits may collapse).
Also manual de-sludging poses health hazard
 Toilets cannot be situated in houses, hence lack of privacy and safety concerns especially
during night time.
 Re-location of individual leach-pits difficult in densely populated areas
 They cannot be used at all in crowded areas, on rocky ground, where the groundwater
level is high or in areas periodically flooded

Operation and maintenance

• Regular cleaning of squatting slab

• A tight fitting lid should be placed on squatting hole
• Water should be available for anal cleansing
• Sprinkling of ash or sawdust to reduce smell and insect breeding
• Non-biodegradable materials like stone, glass, plastics etc. shouldn‟t be thrown into pit,
since reducing effective pit volume.
• Emptying of pit (manually or mechanically)
• Constructing a new pit & emptying existing one.

VENTILATED IMPROVED PIT (VIP) LATRINE

Scope of use
Families that use solid materials like newspaper, stone, etc. for anal cleansing are not
recommended to use pour-flush latrines as water seal is likely to become blocked or broken. In
such cases a latrine direct access to the pit is more appropriate and therefore, ventilated improved
pit (VIP) may be a good solution.
Basic difference from other pit latrines

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The basic difference of VIP Latrine from pit latrine is, it requires a vent pipe and design should be
such that it maintains continuous airflow. This also increases the cost of super structure.
Elements of ventilated pit Latrines:
• Pit;
• Cover slab;
• Vent pipe - large enough ≥ 150mm dia. to allow free passage of air with fly screen
• Super structure.
Types of ventilated pit Latrines:
(1) Single Pit VIP Latrine
• Suitable where mechanical emptying is possible when the pit is full
• Manual emptying is not recommended as the excreta at the top are fresh and potentially
dangerous for the emptier
• Usually designed for longer life (e.g., 10 years) where feasible and act as permanent
structure.
• When a single pit VIP latrine becomes full, there are two options-
i) Construction of a new latrine
ii) Emptying the existing pit

(2) Twin Pit VIP Latrine

• Two separate pits, with the superstructure located centrally over the off-set pits.
• The slab covering the pit has two squat holes, one over each pit.
• Only one hole and pit are used at a time. The hole over the other piut is covered by a
concrete plug.
• When the pit is full (e.g., in 1-3 years), its squat hole is covered up and the second pit is
put into service. When the second pit is full, the contents of the first pit are removed and it
is put back into service. This cycle continues.
Main advantages of VIP Latrine:
• Minimum water requirement;
• Control odor and insects;
• Low-cost;

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• Easy to construct and maintain.
Major problems with VIP Latrine:
• Requirement of unobstructed ventilated pipe (even 0.5m higher than surrounding building)
makes the latrine more suitable for low-density area than high-density urban area;
• Improper design / climatic condition (may not be suitable to maintain air flow);
• Potential for groundwater pollution.

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 DESIGN CONSIDERATION OF VIP LATRINES:

Design life-
• Single pit VIP : 1-3 years
• Twin pit VIP : at least 10 years
Pit Dimension-
 Cross section ≤ 2 m2, to avoid cover slab with larger spans.
Example: VIP latrines serving single household:
Pit dimension: 1-1.5 m diameter, 1-1.5 meter width (square)
Vent Pipe:
Material: PVC, micro PVC, brick etc.
Height: 500mm higher than roof (flat roof), 500 mm above the highest point of roof (sloping roof)

Internal diameter: enough to achieve a ventilation rate of 20m3/hr

Current Recommendation:
Minimum internal size of vent pipe- PVC: 150 mm dia
Brick: 230 mm square
Others: 230 mm dia
Fly screen specification-
Purpose: to prevent passage of mosquitoes, flies
Size: aperture≤1.2mmX1.5mm
Material: corrosion resistant, able to withstand intense rainfall,
high temperature, sunlight; preferably stainless steel.
Relocation & emptying of pits:
There are options; constriction of new latrines on an adjacent site or emptying the existing pit. It
depends on several factors.

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REED ODOURLESS EARTH CLOSET (ROEC)
 The Reed odourless earth closet (ROEC) is a variation on the ventilated improved pit latrine.

 With ROEC, the pit is fully off-set from the superstructure and is connected to the squatting
plate by a curved chute as shown in the following figure.

Figure: The Reed Odourless earth Closet (ROEC)

 The ROEC is fitted with a vent pipe to control odour and insect nuisance. It is claimed that
the chute, in conjunction with the ventilation stack, encourages vigorous air circulation
down the latrine, thereby removing odours and discouraging flies.
 This latrine is common in southern Africa. The design considerations and design principles
of ROEC are similar to those of a single pit VIP latrine.

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Advantages of ROEC:
 Larger pit can be used

 Pit can be easily emptied

 people feel more secure when using the latrines

 Aesthetically more acceptable

Disadvantages of ROEC:
 The ROEC chute easily become with excreta, thereby providing a possible site for fly
breeding and odour nuisance
 Regular cleaning of the chute either by a long-handled brush or by small amount of water
Potential for groundwater pollution

Problems to solve:

1. Local authority in a village is offering pre-cast concrete rings of 1.0 m diameter and 0.3 m
depth of concrete slab to cover it at a subsidized rate. Design a simple pit latrine for a
family of 7. The soil is unconsolidated/loose and the GWT is 5.0 m below the ground
surface. The family wants the latrine to serve for 4 years. (Note: Change design parameter
as you find appropriate.)

2. Repeat the problem 1, if the latrine has to serve 2 families, each with 7 members. GWT is
high, located 4.0 m below the ground surface. Design life cannot be less than 2 years and a
2.0 m gap must be provided between the pit bottom and GWT.

3. A farmer excavated 1.5 m x 2.0 m x 2.5 m (depth) pit for construction of a room which he
now wants to convert into a pit latrine. Requirements/ constraints are:
Water availability is limited .Excreta cannot be seen through squatting hole.
Design a suitable latrine and find design life for 6 persons. Consider low GWT.
The pit is to be constructed as a permanent one with brick lining.

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 Remember:
a) Design up to the number of rings.
b) Check for GWT provision.
c) Show the detailing.

Solutions of Problems:

Problem 1:
Effective Pit Volume
V=C×P×N

Where, C = 0.06 m3/person/year

P=7

N = 4 years

V= 0.06 × 7 × 4 = 1.68 m3

(Considering dry pit)

Cross sectional area of pit = (πd2/4) = 0.785 m2
Effective Pit depth = 1.68/0.785 = 2.14 m
Design Pit depth = 2.14 + 0.5 = 2.64 m (free board/space =0.5m)
No. of rings required = 2.64/ 0.3 = 8.8 ≈ 9 rings
(Height of ring = 0.3m) But to use more than 5-6 rings is not
realistic.

Considering N = 3 yrs
V = 0.06 × 7 × 3 = 1.26 m3
Effective Pit depth = 1.26/0.785 = 1.61 m
Design depth = 2.11 m

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Rings required = 2.11/ 0.3 = 7 rings.
Possible but construction could be
difficult.
Actual depth of pit = 7 × 0.3 = 2.1 + 2 = 4.1m

Consider N = 2 yrs
V = 0.84 m3

Effective Pit depth = 1.07 m

Design depth = 1.57 m
Rings required = 1.57/ 0.3 = 5.23 ≈ 6 rings
Actual depth of pit = 6 × 0.3 = 1.8 m
1.8 + 2 = 3.8 < 5m (ok)

Also recommended:
 A vent pipe for the pit (150 mm dia. PVC pipe, top of the vent pipe is 500mm higher than
highest point of roof)
 Use of suitable cover for the squatting hole, when latrine not in use

Problem 2:
Depth of GWT = 4m
4-2 = 2m; Pit bottom cannot be more than 2m below ground surface.
Now,
V = C × P × N = 0.06 × 7 × 2 × 3 = 1.68 m3
Effective Pit depth = 1.68/0.785 = 2.14 m
Design depth = 2.14 + 0.5 = 2.64m > 2m; Cannot be recommended.
Consider twin pit (or single pit with regular desludging)
If twin pit is considered, eff. Depth of each = 2.14/2 = 1.07m
Design depth = 1.07+ 0.5 = 1.57m
No. of rings = 1.57/ 0.3 = 5.23 ≈ 6 rings

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Actual design depth = 6 × 0.3 = 1.8m
Design life for twin pit; N = (0.785 × (1.8-0.5) × 2) = 2.43yrs

Problem 3:
Water availability is low; hence pour flash is not an option. Offset pit required. The probable
solution may be ROEC.
Lining is required for ROEC, keeping provision of 0.5m for pit lining.

V = (1.5-0.5) × (2-0.5) × (2.5-0.5) = 3.0 m3

Low GWT; consider dry pit
C = 0.06 m3/person/year
Now, V = C × P × N
3.0 = 0.06 × 6 × N = 1.68 m3
N = 8.33 yrs ≈ 8 yrs
If GWT is higher, no other way to avoid it
Use C = 0.04 m3/person/year (wet pit)

WATER SEAL (POUR-FLUSH) TECHNOLOGIES:

 A further improvement to the pit latrine can be obtained with a water-seal.

 The pour-flush latrine has three major components parts: (a) the superstructure, (b) The
latrine pan with its integral water seal and (c) a single or altering twin leach pits.
 Water-seal is a U-pipe filled with water, attached below the squatting pan that completely
prevents passage of flies and odours.
 The water-seal is only 15-25 mm deep and the latrine can be flushed by hand using 1.5 to
2.0 litres of water.
 The latrine can also be located, if desired inside the house with off-set pit.

 Small quantity of water used in a pour flush toilet is sufficient to carry the excreta to a
soakage pit up to 80m away.

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Types of Pour-flush Pit Latrine:

(1) Direct Pit Pour-flush Latrine

This is the modification of the simple pit latrine in which the squatting plate is provided with a 25
mm water seal and is placed directly over the pit.

Figure: The Direct Pit Pour-flush Latrine

(2) Off-set Pit Pour-flush Latrine

In this system, a completely off-set pit is connected to the pour-flush pan by a short length of 100
mm diameter pipe. This type of latrine can be installed inside the house, as it is free from faecal
odour and insect problems, thus avoiding the need for a separate superstructure.

These latrines can be of two types – (a) single off-set pit pour-flush latrine and (b) alternating twin
offset pit pour-flush latrine.

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 Figure: Single Off-set Pit pour-flush Sanitary Latrine

Alternating twin off-set pit pour-flush latrine

 The alternating twin-pit system comprises (a) a squatting pan and (b) a Y-junction for
directing excreta from squatting pan to either of the two leach pits.
 The pits are used alternately and at a given time only one pit is in use. When the first pit is
full, the flow of excreta is directed to the second pit through a Y-junction and contents of
the first pit are left to decompose.
 The contents of the first pit decompose to safe, pathogen-free humus within 18 to 24
months.
The contents of the first pit may then be dug out and the pit is kept ready for reuse.

30
 Figure: Alternating twin off-set pit pour-flush latrine

Functions of pour-flush latrines:

• After each use, the latrine is manually pour-flushed with about 2-3 liters of water
(compared to 10-20 liters used in conventional toilets)
• The water seal provides a barrier against odour and insect.
• From excreta, flush water and wash water around 10-20 liters/capita/day (lpcd) of
wastewater enter into the pit.
• The pit has to provide sufficient volume for solids storage, as well as sufficient area for
the wastewater to infiltrate into the soil.
• It requires that the soil has sufficient long term infiltrative capacity. If the soil is unsuitable
for infiltration, the liquid effluent can be removed by other means e.g., by connection to
the sewerage system if available.

Suitability of pour-flush latrine types:

31
 • Pour-flush latrines may be used in both rural and urban areas provided they are
appropriately designed and that they can rely on water availability for flushing, and for
maintaining the water seal.
• Single pits may be appropriate in urban areas only if they can be desludged mechanically
by a vacuum tanker, since their contents are nor pathogen free.
• Twin-pits are recommended if the pits are to be desludged manually, as the resting period
ensures that the contents to be removed are substantially free of pathogens.

Design Considerations for Pour-flush Latrines

 The shape of pits can be circular, square, rectangular or even triangular depending on the
shape and size of the site.
 Minimum water requirement is 1.5 to 2.0 liters for flushing the toilet.
 For ease in emptying and avoiding the possibility of groundwater pollution pits will be
shallow in depth. In most areas in Bangladesh pits should not exceed 1.8 m.
 Pits may be lined with burnt clay, concrete, brick masonry, or even bamboo.
 A free space should be kept over inlet of the pit. In practice, 0.5 m of free space at top of the
pit is usually kept above the inlet.
 Bottom of pit should remain undisturbed and unsealed.
 Safe distance between pits and tubewells or any other water body should be at least 10 m.
 Permeability of surrounding soil is important for function of the pit latrines. Sandy or silty
soil with/without clay is considered ideal. For pits in compacted clayey soil of low
permeability, such as in the Barind Tract, a sand envelope of at east 0.3 meter should be
provided around the pits.
 Distance between two pits for twin pit latrines should be, at least, equal to the effective
depth of pits, which is measured from the inlet pipe to bottom of the pit.

32
Design for pits of Pour-flush Latrines

Leach pits for pour-flush Latrines have to be designed for storage and digestion of excreted solids
as well as infiltration of the liquid waste into the surrounding soil. Designing for storage and
digestion of solids is exactly the same as for other pit latrines. Infiltration of the liquid effluent
requires sufficient pit-soil interface area depending on the long-term infiltration capacity of the
soil.

Pit effluent enters the soil first by infiltrating the pit-soil interface, which is partially covered in a
bacterial slime layer, and then by percolating away through the surrounding soil. It is suggested
that simple percolation tests, which measure how quickly clean water passes thorough undisturbed
soil, should not be used to measure infiltration of pit effluent. The long-term infiltration rate
depends on the type of soil and suitable design values are given in Table 1.

Table 1: Design Values for Long-term Infiltration Rates for Wastewater into Various Soils
Soil Type Long term infiltration rate, I (l/m2-day)

Sand 50
Sandy loam 30
Porous loam, porous silty clay loam 20
Compact silty loam, clay 10

The side wall area required for infiltration, (Ai, m2) depends on the wastewater flow (Q, l/day) and
the long-term infiltration rate according to the following relationship:

Ai = Q / I

The wastewater flow depends on the number of users, frequency of flushing, flush volume, urine
volumes and amount of water used for anal cleansing. Generally the flow varies between 5-20 lcd.

The pit volume, Vi (m3) corresponding to the sidewall area can now be calculated. For a circular
pit of diameter, D,

33
 Vi = πD2 h/4 ........... (1)

Where h, the height of the sidewall area = Ai / πD

Vi = Ai D/4

i.e., Vi = QD / 4I ............ (2)

For alternating twin-pits, the effective volume of each pit is calculated either using this equation
or Vs = C x P x N, whichever is greater.

For single pit pour-flush latrines, the effective volume is given by:

V = Vs + Vi ........... (3)

This estimate however, is slightly conservative as some infiltration would also occur through the
side wall area corresponding to Vs. But this better allows restoration of the infiltrative capacity
after emptying; In case of alternative twin-pits this restoration occurs during the rest period.

Advantages of Pour-flush Pit Latrine:

 Less expensive compared to conventional latrines.

 Offers appropriate and hygienic solution for excreta disposal.

 Requires less volume of water for flushing (1-3 lit/flush only).

 Can be upgraded to connect to a sewerage system or septic tank system.

 Eliminates odour release, insect and fly breeding. Safe for children.
 Can be located inside the house.

 Potential for resource recovery using the sludge as soil conditioner.

 Easy construction and maintenance.

 Twin pit latrine can serve as a permanent structure because of its pits is used alternatively.

34
Disadvantages of Pour-flush Pit Latrine:

 Requires separate sullage disposal facilities.

 Water (at least 4 litres / person / day) must be available throughout the year.

 Water seal may be clogged easily if garbage is thrown into it.

 Construction is difficult and expensive in areas with high ground water and shallow soil
overlying hard rock.
 Risk of polluting ground water and/or nearly water sources.

 Construction and maintenance of twin pit pour-flush latrine is difficult.

SEPTIC TANK:

• A septic tank is a key component of the septic system, a small-scale sewage treatment
system common in areas with no connection to main sewage pipes provided by local
governments or private corporations.
• The term "septic" refers to the anaerobic bacterial environment that develops in the tank
and that decomposes or mineralizes the waste discharged into the tank.
• Scope: Wherever the conventional sewerage system has not been feasible due to technical
or economic reasons.
• A septic tank is a buried watertight receptacle.
• It is designed and constructed to -
 receive wastewater from a home
 separate the solids from the liquid
 provide limited digestion of organic matter
 store solids
 allow the clarified liquid to discharge for further treatment and disposal
• Settleable solids and partially decomposed sludge settle to the bottom of the tank and
gradually build up.
• A scum of light-weight material including fats and greases rises to the top.

35
 • The partially treated effluent is allowed to flow through an outlet structure just below the
floating scum layer.
• Partially decomposed liquid can be disposed of through soil absorption systems, soil
mounds, evaporation beds or anaerobic filters depending upon the site conditions.

Processes in the Septic Tank:

 No external or internal moving parts or added chemicals are used

 The natural processes that take place within the tank are complex and interact with each
other.
 The most important processes that take place within the tank include -
 separation of suspended solids,
 digestion of sludge and scum,
 stabilization of the liquid and
 growth of microorganisms.

Figure: Components of a Septic Tank

(a) Separation of suspended solids

36
It is a mechanical process which results in the formation of three distinct layers in the septic tank -
a layer of sludge at the bottom, a floating layer of scum on the top and a relatively clear layer of
liquid in the middle.

(b) Digestion of sludge and scum

Anaerobic bacteria degrade the organic matter in the sludge as well as in the scum and as a result
of this bacterial action, volatile acids are formed at the first instance and eventually are converted
mostly to water, carbon dioxide and methane.

(c) Stabilization of the liquid

Organic materials in the liquid are stabilized by anaerobic bacteria, which break down complex
substances into simpler ones in a process similar to the one that take place in the sludge layer.

(d) Growth of microorganisms

A large variety of microorganisms grows, reproduce and die during the biodegradation processes
that take place in the tank. Most of them are attached to organic matter and are separated out with
the solids. Although there is an overall reduction in the number of microorganism, a large number
of bacteria, viruses, protozoa and helminths survive through the processes in the tank and remains
active in the effluent, the sludge and the scum.

As the influent enters into an anaerobic Septic Tank, it separates into 3 distinct layers:

1) the sludge layer at the bottom

2) the floating layer of scum on the top
3) a relatively clear zone of liquid in the middle.

Performance of a Septic Tank:

Under normal design conditions

37
  reduction in BOD is 25-
50%
 reduction in suspended solids is up to 70%

The factors affecting the performance of a septic tank are –

 Retention time
 Ambient temperature
 Nature of the influent wastewater e.g., organic content of the wastewater
 Positions of the inlet and outlet devices in the tank

Design of a Septic Tank:

Based on Brazilian septic tank code.

The tank is considered to be made up of four zones, each of which serves a different function:

 Scum storage zone

 Sedimentation zone
 Sludge digestion zone
 Digested sludge storage zone
a) Scum storage

Scum accumulates at approximately 30-40 % of the rate at which sludge accumulates, so

the tank volume for scum storage (Vsc) can be taken as 0.4 times the volume for sludge
storage (Vsl). i.e.. Vsc = 0.4 Vsl .......... (1)

b) Sedimentation

The time required to allow sedimentation of settleable solids decreases with the number of people
served according to the following equation:

th = 1.5 – 0.3 log (Pq) .......(2) where,

38
th = minimum mean hydraulic retention time
for sedimentation. days

P = contributing population
q = wastewater flow per person, l/day
Retention times in septic tanks are longer than those normally employed in raw sewage
sedimentation tanks. This is because of the fact that septic tanks are required to intercept solid that
enter the tanks with waste inflow as well as solids, which rise up from the sludge layers through
flotation by the gases produced due to anaerobic digestion. Often a minimum mean hydraulic
retention time of one day is used. The value of th used should not be less than 0.2 days.

The tank volume for sedimentation, Vh (m3) is given by:

Vh = 10-3 P q th ................. (3)

Figure: Components of a septic tank

(c) Digestion

39
The time needed for the anaerobic digestion of the settled solids (td, days) varies with
temperature (T °C) and is given by the equation:

td =1853 T-1.25 ................... (4)

Alternate method of estimating td

td =30(l.035)35-T ............. (5)

The volume of fresh sludge is around 1.0 litre/person/day. This is digested in td days when it
passes to the sludge storage zone. So the average volume of digesting sludge present during the
period td is 0.5 lcd. Thus the volume of the sludge digestion zone, Vd (m3), is given by: Vd
-3
=0.5 x l0 P td .......... (6)

(d) Sludge storage

The volume of the sludge storage zone depends on the rate of accumulation of digested sludge (C,
m3 per person per year) and the interval between successive desludging operations (N, years).

Design values for sludge accumulation rates are taken as:

C = 0.06 m3/person year for N < 5

C = 0.04 m3/person year for N > 5

Vsl=C X P X N

Overall design capacity:

V=Vsc+Vh+Vd+Vsl

=Vh+Vd+1.4Vsl

Clear space depth:

The clear space depth, which is the minimum acceptable depth of the sedimentation zone just
prior to desludging, comprises the submerged scum clear depth and the sludge clear depth.

40
The submerged scum clear depth is the distance between the underside of the scum layer and the
bottom of the outlet „tee‟ and should be at least 75 mm.

The sludge clear depth is the distance between the top of the sludge layer and the bottom of the
outlet „tee‟.

The minimum value of the sludge clear depth is related to the tank surface area, A, as follows:

dsc= 0.82 - 0.26 A .......... (10)

subjected to a minimum value of 0.3 m.

Thus the minimum total clear space calculated as (0.075 + dsc ) must he compared with the depth
required for sedimentation, i.e., (Vh /A) and the greater depth chosen.

Shape and dimension:

-Tanks with greater surface area and reasonable depth are preferred, since higher surface area
increases sludge storage capacity.

-A rectangular (long narrow) tank is more satisfactory than square or cylindrical.

-A tank with rectangular shape is favored with a length three times its width.

Compartmentation:

A two compartment tank is reported to be better than a single compartment tank of equal capacity
for the removal of BOD, suspended solids and organic colloids.

One of the reasons for this is trapping action of the second compartment.

Common form –

First compartment (inlet side) being 2/3 rd of the total length and second compartment being 1/3
rd of the total length.

41
Inlet device:

A sanitary tee, an elbow or a specially designed inlet device.

Inlet pipe:

dia ≥100 mm, gradient ≤ 1.5%.

Inlet tee:

Diameter will not be less than the diameter of the inlet pipe. Top limb should rise at least 150 mm
above water level, bottom limb should extend 450 mm below water level (must extend beyond top
and bottom of scum layer).

Outlet device:

Ability of outlet device to retain sludge and scum is a major factor in the overall performance of a
septic tank.

 usually a T junction
 bottom of horizontal leg should be below the level of inlet pipe.
 vertical leg must be extended beyond the top and bottom of the scum layer.

Treatment and Disposal of sludge and scum:

 sludge and scum must be removed from the tank when they occupy 2/3 rd of tank
capacity.
 sludge disposal should be done with caution because of survival of pathogens.
 desludging is usually carried out in every 2-5 years.
 in some tropical countries septic tank sludge is used as soil conditioner and fertilizer for
fish ponds.

42
Disposal of septic tank effluent:

 Effluent from septic tank is only partially treated and still contains high concentration of
microorganisms, BOD, Phosphorus, Nitrogen etc. So, effluent should not be directly
discharged into public water course or land.
 Sub-surface soil absorption is usually the best method of septic tank effluent disposal
(concern: groundwater contamination).

Sub-surface soil
absorption:
3 types commonly used-
a) Absorption trenches

b) Absorption pits or soakage pits (Soakways)

c) Disposal to nearby sewer (e.g., SBS)

43
a) Absorption trenches

-Effluent flows by gravity from septic tank through a closed pipe and distribution box into
perforated pipes in trenches. Usually the pipes consist of open-jointed drainage tiles. Bacteria in
the soil help to purify the effluent.

b) Soakaway

Waste from the toilet, and generally domestic wastewater, is flushed into the settling chamber
where it is retained for at least 24hrs to allow settlement and biological digestion. Partially treated
liquids then pass out of the tank and into the subsoil drainage/soakaway system. Digested sludge
gradually builds up in the tank and requires eventual removal by tanker.

44
-Deep excavations used for sub-surface disposal of septic
tank effluent.

-Absorption pits are recommended as an alternative when

absorption fields or trenches are not practicable and where the
topsoil is underlain with porous soil or fine gravel.

-Effluent flows through pit walls made of open jointed bricks,

into the surrounding soil.

-Typical diameter of pit 2 to 3.5 m, and depth 3 to 6 m

depending upon the amount of wastewater flow, infiltration
capacity of soil and level of GWT.

c) Small bore solid-free sewer

-As for the septic tank and soakaway except that the liquid effluent is conveyed by a system of
smalldiameter pipes to a communal treatment point (which may be off-site treatment works
reached either via existing sewerage or by tanker).

Design Problem (Septic Tank and Soakage Pit)

1) Design a septic tank to serve a household of ten persons who produce 90 lpcd of
wastewater. The tank is to be desludged in every three years.

2
2) If the soil is sandy loam with a long-term infiltration rate of about 30 l/m day, design a
soakage pit for the disposal of effluent from the septic tank of the previous examples.

45
 SEWERED SANITATION
Outline
 Introduction:-
Some definitions, Contaminants of concern in wastewater treatment, Classifications and
comparison of wastewater treatment methods,
 Waste stabilization ponds (WSPs) – Types and advantages of waste stabilization ponds,
process of wastewater treatment in waste stabilization ponds, principles of pond design –
Anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds; pond lay out, pond construction, operation and
maintenance of WSPs,
 Conventional wastewater treatment – Preliminary treatment, primary sedimentation,
Trickling filters,
 Activated Sludge Systems (ASS),
 Operation and maintenance of sewerage systems,

 Self-purification in surface water bodies.

Objective
This chapter is about a form of excreta and wastewater management using sewers. It is often
referred to as „sewered sanitation‟ or „off-plot/off-site sanitation‟. The objective of this chapter is
to introduce to you the concepts in wastewater treatment using waste stabilization ponds as well
as conventional wastewater treatment processes, and thereafter, the design procedure of both
systems. At the end of this chapter therefore, you should be able to enumerate the factors
affecting choice of a wastewater treatment system, understand the design and operating principles
of sewerage and therefore be able to follow the procedure of planning and designing sewerage
systems. However, this chapter leaves out the design of sewage conveyance systems, which you
will cover in fourth year. This chapter therefore exclusively covers sewage treatment systems.

46
Introduction

Some Definitions

• Sewer: A pipe or conduit, generally closed, but normally not flowing full, which carries
sewage.
• Sanitary Sewer: A sewer carrying sanitary sewage and is designed to exclude storm
sewage, infiltration, and surface inflow. Industrial waste may be carried in sanitary sewers,
depending upon its characteristics.
• Wastewater is the liquid waste conveyed by a sewer and may include domestic and
industrial discharges as well as storm sewage, infiltration and inflow.
• Industrial wastewater includes the liquid discharges from spent water in different
industrial processes such as manufacturing and food processing.
• Domestic (sanitary) sewage: Is the liquid waste, which originates in the sanitary
conveniences, e.g., water closets (WCs), urinals, baths, sinks etc of dwellings, commercial
or industrial facilities, and institutions. This is sometimes also referred to as black water.
• Sewerage: Refers to the entire system of collection, treatment and disposal of sewage
through a system of reticulation sewers.
• Sewered Sanitation: The process of wastewater management from a community, which
involves collection and transportation of the wastewater from the source to a centralised
treatment plant and/ or final disposal area.

The basic functional elements of a conventional sewerage system include the house connections
for collection of household or institutional wastewater, a network of sewer systems for collection
and conveying the wastewater, a treatment plant for processing the wastewater, and the receiving
environment (water or land) for disposal of the treated wastewater. Of the total system, the major
investment is made in the collection and conveyance of wastewater through a network of
reticulation sewers. The design of such reticulation sewers will be covered in fourth year.

47
NB: Sometimes wastewater is collected, transported and disposed of without treatment. This is
common practice especially in the developing countries. In fact, over 90% of sewage in
developing countries is discharged without any treatment (Esrey, 2000). The major reason for this
is that sewerage is unaffordable by the community, i.e., very high initial cost; very expensive
maintenance; lack of skilled ma power for design, construction, operation and maintenance and
therefore very complex for poor communities.

Question: What are the advantages and disadvantages of sewered sanitation versus non-sewered
sanitation?

Advantages: -
Improved hygiene and health standards, better control of groundwater pollution, space economy,
provide employment, convenience, tourist attraction etc.

Disadvantages:
Down stream areas potentially receive pollution i.e., there is concentration of pollutants to one
disposal point – the downstream; high cost for construction, operation and maintenance; high
water demand; high levels of nutrients are discharged into the environment and may potentially
lead to eutrophication of water bodies, etc.

As mentioned above, details of wastewater collection and transportation will be studied in 4th
year. For now, it will suffice to mention that wastewater can be transported in either separate
(domestic sewage and storm water in different sewers) systems or combined (both storm water
and domestic sewage in one sewer) systems. Additionally, sewers may be gravity flow (no
pumping, open channel flow - most suitable) or pressure flow (with pumping).

In this chapter therefore, we will concentrate on the principles and methods of wastewater
treatment. However, first, we shall look at the contaminants of concern in wastewater treatment,
i.e., the parameters that are of interest in wastewater treatment. This helps in appreciating
different aspects of treatment plant design and operation, keeping in mind the fact that we design
the plant to maximise the efficiency of contaminant removal.

48
Important Contaminants of Concern in Wastewater Treatment

Contaminants Reason for Importance

Suspended solids Suspended solids can lead to the development of sludge deposits and
anaerobic conditions when untreated wastewater is discharged in the aquatic
environment.
Biodegradable Composed principally of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats, biodegradable
organics organics are measured most commonly in terms of BOD and COD. If
discharged untreated to the environment, their biological stabilisation can
lead to the depletion of natural oxygen resources and to the development of
septic conditions.
Pathogens Communicable diseases can be transmitted by the pathogenic organisms in
wastewater.
Nutrients Both nitrogen and phosphorus, along with carbon, are essential nutrients for
growth. When discharged to the aquatic environment, these nutrients can
lead to the growth of undesirable aquatic life. When discharged in excessive
amounts on land, they can also lead to the pollution of groundwater.
Priority pollutants Organic and inorganic compounds selected on the basis of their known or
suspected carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, teratogenicity, or high acute
toxicity. Many of these compounds are found in wastewater.
Refractory These organics tend to resist conventional methods of wastewater treatment.
organics Typical examples include surfactants, phenols, and agricultural pesticides.
Heavy metals Heavy metals are usually added to the wastewater from commercial and
industrial activities and may have to be removed if the wastewater is to be
reused.
Dissolved Inorganic constituents such as calcium, sodium, and sulphate are added to the
inorganics original domestic water supply as a result of water use and may have to be
removed if the wastewater is to be reused.

49
Classifications of Wastewater treatment methods

The above table elucidates the need for the treatment of wastewater before it is disposed of or
reused. There are two major classifications of wastewater treatment methods. These are:
i) Stabilization ponds (which provide ideal conditions for wastewater treatment in the hot
climates of many developing countries); and
ii) Conventional wastewater treatment methods for industrialized (but also temperate) countries.

In recent years, there has been growing interest in the use of wetlands (constructed or natural) for
wastewater treatment. Before we look at the principles behind the different wastewater treatment
methods, let us compare the two common wastewater treatment methods namely the conventional
wastewater treatment and stabilization pond systems.

Comparison of conventional and stabilization pond wastewater treatment Systems

Parameter Conventional Treatment Stabilization Ponds
1.Purification Very good Very good except for large algae
2.Pathogenic Not suitable Very good
removal
3.Capital costs High Little capital investment (if land is
cheap)
4.Land requirement Relatively small Large and relatively flat
5.Trained/skilled Highly required in design and Easy to design, operated by unskilled
manpower operation personnel
6.Spares and Highly required Very little or none required
machinery
7.Energy High Nearly none
requirement
8.Vector and flies Very little danger from Danger eminent
mosquitoes

50
Waste Stabilization Ponds

These are natural and simple methods of oxidizing organic wastes and killing or removing
microorganisms. Stabilization ponds are large shallow basins enclosed by earthen embankments
and can be constructed for small communities, e.g. schools and hospitals, or for a large city.
Ponds allow treatment through natural and physical processes and normally require no
mechanical parts or any other equipment. Their rate of operation increases with ambient
temperature and hence they are particularly suitable for hot climates.

Definition:

Stabilisation may be defined as the biological process by which wastewater organics are
converted into soluble products, gases and cell tissues.

Advantages of wastewater stabilization ponds

• Lowest operation and maintenance costs for required treatment efficiency (unskilled
labourers required for cutting grass round the pond and removing scum from the pond
surface) Greater pathogen removal.
• Flexibility with respect to hydraulic and organic shock loads (over short time intervals)

• Ability to treat a wide variety of wastes (industrial, agricultural, etc.) Can be

designed for easy alteration of treatment efficiency.
• Easy reclamation of land if later required.
• Algae produced in ponds are a potential for high protein food that can be exploited for fish
farming.

Types of stabilisation ponds

There are three main types of stabilisation ponds namely: -

a) Anaerobic ponds: Biological processes take place in absence of oxygen
b) Facultative ponds: The bottom has no oxygen while the top has oxygen, and

51
c) Maturation ponds: Aerobic-biological activity in the presence of oxygen.

The figure below represents the relative design and the efficiency characteristics of the three pond
systems.

Figure : Processes of wastewater stabilisation in ponds

a) Anaerobic Ponds
Anaerobic ponds are used for the treatment of high strength organic wastewater that also contains
a highsuspended solids concentration, e.g. industrial wastewater. Wherever they are necessary,
they are always placed first in a series of waste stabilisation ponds. In anaerobic ponds, organic
matter is removed by sedimentation and biological digestion by anaerobic bacteria. This produces
gases like H2S, CO2, NH3 and CH4 and soluble nutrients. Sludge is left behind.

b) Facultative Ponds
Facultative ponds are used for BOD and pathogen removal. They can be the first ponds in a series
of treatment ponds or they can be preceded by an anaerobic pond. In facultative ponds,
stabilisation is brought about by a combination of aerobic, anaerobic and facultative bacteria.

A detail of the processes that take place in facultative ponds is shown in the figure below.

52
Fig. 2: Schematic representation of a facultative waste stabilization pond (after Tchobanoglous
and Burton, 1991)

A facultative pond has three zones: -

i. A surface zone where aerobic bacteria and algae exist in a symbiotic relationship.
ii. An anaerobic bottom zone where settled solids are decomposed by anaerobic bacteria. 30%
BOD reduction occurs here.
iii. An intermediate zone that is partly aerobic and partly anaerobic, in which organic matter
decomposition is carried out by facultative bacteria.

53
In facultative ponds, CO2 produced in the organic oxidation serves as a carbon source for the
algae. The presence of algae and natural re-aeration in the surface layer ensures maintenance of
aerobic conditions in that layer.

c) Maturation Ponds
These ponds are intended mostly for pathogen removal. Pathogens die off as WW slowly passes
through the pond (inhospitable environment and long retention times). They are used to upgrade
the effluent from a facultative pond or from another maturation pond, and should not receive
untreated wastewater. Because of their low concentration of organic matter and their high algal
concentration, maturation ponds are aerobic for the whole of their depth. Due to oxygen supplied
by algae, ammonia in the wastewater is converted to nitrate.

Principles of Pond Design

Pre-design considerations

Before ponds can be designed, the following factors should be considered: -

(a) Volume of sewage to be treated: This depends on

 The estimated population of the design area
 The per capita water consumption
 The design life of the system (usually between 30 to 50 years).

(b) The strength of the sewage: This is measured by its Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
usually in mg/l. Sewage strength is estimated as: -

BOD contribution per person per day design population

Total wastewater production per day (m3)

= BOD (mg/l) or BOD (g/m3)

54
The BOD contribution per person per day depends on people's diet and sanitation methods but in
most tropical countries, it is about 40 g per person per day.

Industrial contribution can be included by:

 determining the total BOD contribution for each source of industrial
effluent
 .considering that the waste is contributed by a given number of
people.

(c) The desired quality of the final effluent from the pond system: This will depend on the
final use to which the effluent will be put or how it will be disposed of.

The three common criteria used for determination of effluent quality are
 BOD as a measure of organic content;
 Suspended solids, SS; and
 Faecal coliform, FC as a measure of bacteriological quality.

Suspended solids are not very important in the tropics since they are largely the result of algae, a
constituent of rivers which occurs naturally in high concentrations in the tropics. The following
table shows the suggested effluent standard for irrigation and discharge

Suggested Effluent Standards For irrigation and discharge

Method of Reuse/disposal BOD mg/l Faecal Coliform No/100ml

Irrigation of trees, cotton and other non-edible crops 60 50,000

Irrigation of citrus fruit trees, fodder crops and nuts 45 10,000

Irrigation of deciduous fruit trees, sugar cane, cooked vegetables and 35 1,000
sports playing fields

Discharge to a receiving stream 25 5,000

Unrestricted crop irrigation, including parks and lawns 25 100

55
Preliminary Treatment

This is done by
a) Screening to remove rags and other large objects that will float and cause problems in the
ponds. Screens can be raked manually or mechanically.
b) Grit removal (where necessary) especially for tropical countries where sewers carry a lot of
grit. This can be achieved by either
 constructing grit removal channels through which sewage passes, or
 constructing a sump below the inlet to the first pond. This is easier to construct and
maintain as sludge/ grit is removed during desludging.

Anaerobic Ponds

The following design criteria is used for anaerobic ponds

• Organic loading, BOD: 100 - 400 g/m3.d depending on climate

• Retention time = volume of tank, m3 / discharge (m3/d) = 1-2 days
• BOD removal: 60-80 %
• Pond depth: 2-4 m
• Sludge accumulation rate = 30-40 l/person/year and desludging period every 2-5 years
(when pond is half full of sludge); manually, by pump or mechanically.

Design of anaerobic ponds is based on the volumetric BOD loading v. Thus

LiQ
v

V
Where Li = influent BOD concentration in mg/l (or g/m3)

Q = influent flow rate m3/d

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 V = volume of pond in m3

v= volumetric BOD loading in g/m3.d (the weight of BOD5 per unit volume per
day)

Facultative ponds

The design criteria normally used for these ponds are as follows:-
Retention time: 5-30 days

Pond depth: 1-1.5 m

Desludging period: 10-15 years

Question: Why is the sludge build up in facultative ponds much less than in anaerobic pond?
(Loading of raw sewage per m2 of pond area is much lower)

Pond design is based on the maximum BOD load per unit area, which will ensure a substantial
aerobic zone. As biological activity is dependent on temperature, higher BOD loading can be
applied for higher temperatures; without risking pond failure when it becomes fully anaerobic.

The following empirical formula is commonly used: -

10LiQ

s = 20T - 120 Kg/ha.d or s

A
where s = BOD surface loading (Kg/ha.d)
T = average ambient temperature in the coldest month in C
Free board <= 0.5 m (height of the embankment surrounding the
ponds) No solid fences

57
Why are these last two recommendations necessary? (for free wind movement which aids in re-
aeration, protection from erosion, etc).

Maturation Ponds

Design criteria: -
Retention time: 5-7 days per pond

Pond depth: 1-1.5 m

Desludging period: Virtually no desludging required but need for periodic vegetation control.

Maturation pond design is based on the required bacteriological quality of the effluent. The
number of faecal coliforms per 100 ml of effluent can be estimated from the equation: -

Ni
Ne
1 Kbt *

Where Ne = the number of FC/100 ml of effluent

Ni = the number of FC/100 ml of influent

Kb = first order rate constant for bacteria removal (d-1). Kb is temperature dependent;
given by;

Kb = 2.6(1.19) T-20

Where T = average ambient temperature of the coldest

month t* = retention time (days)

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For a series of ponds, the number of coliforms can be calculated for each pond or the number can
be calculated for the effluent of the last pond from the expression: -

Ni
N
e n

(1 Kbt1*)(1 Kbt2*)........(1 Kbtn*)

tn* = retention time for the nth pond

N.B. If several maturation ponds are in series, they will be most efficient in removing bacteria if
they all have the same retention time. This is in line with Marai‟s Theorem which states that the
maximum efficiency in a series of ponds is achieved when the retention time in each pond is the
same.

Pond layout

From the foregoing, it is clear that a single pond cannot achieve the recommended effluent
quality. Hence ponds are commonly arranged in series of combinations aimed at achieving a
satisfactory effluent quality (Fig. 3). Anaerobic facultative ponds are normally arranged in
parallel (to allow for one line to be put out of service during maintenance). Maturation ponds are
arranged in series for satisfactory performance.

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 Alternative ponds layout

F = Facultative; M = Maturation, A = Anaerobic

Fig. 3: Combinations of waste stabilization ponds in series

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NB: Parallel arrangements of ponds also exist, especially for anaerobic facultative ponds. In such
cases, the flow into ponds is divided thereby resulting into reduced flows in the individual ponds
arranged in parallel. Again, as already mentioned, this allows for one set of ponds to be put out of
operation during maintenance and repair works.

Pond Construction

Ponds are constructed with trapezoidal cross-sections. The embankments are simple and cheap to
build, where possible using available materials e.g. homogeneous soil with clay or silt content.
 For highly permeable soils, a lining (clay or plastic) should be used to protect the ground /
groundwater from contamination.
 Embankments usually have a side slope of 1:3 and should be protected from erosion at the
water level for a vertical distance of 0.2 m above water level.
 Embankment crests should be wide enough for vehicles and should be approximately 0.5 m
above pond level.
 Pond inlets for anaerobic and facultative ponds should discharge below the surface to ensure
maintenance of anaerobic conditions.
 Inlet discharges should be least 10 m from the edge of the pond to reduce the possibility of
sludge banks building up at the pond edge.
 Interpond connections should be as simple as possible to allow flexible operation and
expansion of the system.
 Pond inlets and outlets should be sited where they will keep effluent from direct travel across
ponds- i.e.
preferably diagonally.
 Anaerobic ponds should have means for complete emptying for desludging.  L:W is usually
in the ratio 2-3 to 1

Pond operation and maintenance

A well-maintained pond system will yield a good quality effluent with little
labour. a) Vegetation around embankments should be kept short to

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 - encourage wind mixing
- discourage mosquito bleeding.
b) Scum (due to rising gases) should be broken or removed and buried.
c) Algae in the maturation pond can be controlled through fish culturing, thus increasing SS
removal and recovering resources.
d) Odours can be controlled (if they occur) by adding an anaerobic or facultative pond in series
to avoid overloading.
e) Discharge and quality monitoring should be done to ensure proper treatment.

N.B. Where stabilisation ponds have not existed before, a small demonstration unit should be
operated first prior to a large installation, to check on the presented design formulae.

Design Example
Design a waste stabilisation pond system to serve a population of 8000 people with a per capita
wastewater contribution of 100 litres per day. The effluent is to be discharged into a receiving
stream. a) Use facultative and maturation ponds only and
b) Including anaerobic pre-treatment

Compare the required pond areas

You are informed that the average temperature of the coolest month is 18 C, the BOD
contribution is 40 g/ capita .day, the influent quality is 108 FC/100 ml and the volumetric loading
rate for the anaerobic ponds is to be 250 g/m3.d.

Solution
Given:
Population 8000
Wastewater contribution 100 l/c.d.
BOD contribution 40 g/c.d.
Bacteria content 108 FC/100ml

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Min. monthly temperature 18 C
Required effluent quality < 5000 FC/100 ml

v for anaerobic ponds 250 g/m3.d

Sewage flow 800 m3/d

Total BOD load, LiQ = 8000*40 = 320 Kg/d

a) Facultative and maturation ponds only

i.) Facultative pond:

Surface loading rate

s = 20T - 120
= 360 -120
= 240 Kg / ha.d

BODload 320Kg /d
hencemid deptharea
surfaceloading rate 240Kg /ha.d

= 1.33 ha
Select pond depth (1.0 - 1.5
m) say 1.5 m
Therefore pond volume = area x depth
= 1.33 x 104 m2 x
1.5 m = 20,000 m3
volume 20000m3

Check retention time: 3

discharge 800m /d

= 25 days (between 5 & 30 days) OK

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ii.) Maturation ponds

Ni
Ne n

(1 Kbt1*)(1 Kbt2*)........(1 Kbtn*)

(Should be less than 5000 FC/100ml)

(t* = 5-7 days)
Kb = 2.6 x 1.19(18-20)

= 1.8 d-1

Try 2 maturation ponds with t* = 7 days

each. 8
10
Ne 2 13064FC /100ml (inadequate)
(1 1.8 25)(1 1.8 7)
Try 3 maturation ponds with t* = 5 days each
108
Ne 3 2174FC /100ml OK

(1 1.8 25)(1 1.8 7)

Pond volume = Q x t* = 800 x 5 = 4000

m3 - Assume pond depth = 1.3 m (1 -
1.5 m)

volume 4000m3 2

mid depth area of pond 3077m

depth 1.3m

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Total pond system area
= 1.33 x 104 m2 + 3 x 3077 m2
= 22564 m2

b) Including anaerobic treatment system

i.) Anaerobic pond

LiQ 320Kg /d 103 3

Pond volume 3 1280m

v 250g /m .d

V 1280
Retentiontime,tan* 1.6days(between1&2days)OK
Q 800
Chose pond depth = 3 m (normally 2-4 m)

volume 1280m3 2

mid deptharea 430m depth 3m

ii.) Facultative pond

Surface loading rate, s = 20T - 120

= 240 Kg/ha.d
Assuming 60% (60 - 80 %) of BOD load is removed in the anaerobic pond,

Total BOD load =320 x 40 % = 128 Kg/d

128Kg /d
Mid depth pond area 0.533ha
240Kg /ha.d
Assuming a pond depth of 1.5 m,

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Pond volume = 0.533 x 104 x 1.5

= 8000 m3

V 8000
Checkretentiontimet* 10days(5 30d)OK
Q 800

iii.) Maturation ponds

Kb = 2.6 x 1.19-2 = 1.8 d-1
Try 2 ponds with t* = 5 days

108
Ne 2 3662FC /100ml ( 5000FC /100ml)OK
(1 2.6 1.6)(1 2.6 10)(1 2.6 5)

Maturation pond volume = Qt*

= 800 x 5
= 4000 m3
Assuming a pond depth of 1.3 m (as before)

volume 4000m3 2 mid

deptharea 3077m depth 1.3m

Comparison of pond areas

Without anaerobic pond With aerobic pond

Anaerobic pond -- 427

Facultative pond 13333 5333

Maturation ponds 9231 6154

22564 m2 11914 m2

Land saving using anaerobic pre-treatment is about 50%.

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Qns. Should we always include anaerobic treatment to minimise land requirement?
What can be the disadvantages of anaerobic pond system inclusion (especially when not
necessary?)

Problem
3
12,000 m / d of domestic wastewater with a BOD concentration of 580 mg/l and a FC content of
5 x 10 7 FC/100 ml is to be treated by a pond system (facultative and maturation). If the average
temperature in the coolest month of the year is 19 C and the required bacterial quality of the
effluent is less than 100 FC /100ml.
a) Design the pond system (dimensions and retention times).
b) Redesign the pond system if anaerobic ponds are introduced for pre-treatment of the same
sewage. The pond depth is 4 m. State any other assumptions / criteria used.
c) For the systems designed above, show the possible pond layouts (number of each type of
pond, design lines).
d) If the pond system in part a) was constructed in a temperate region where the average

temperature in the coolest month is 6 C, what would be the dimensions and retention times
of the ponds to achieve satisfactory quality of the effluent?
Comment on your results.
Constructed Wetlands Technology
Constructed wetlands (CWs) are planned systems designed and constructed to employ wetland
vegetation to assist in treating wastewater in a more controlled environment than occurs in
natural wetlands. Constructed wetlands are shallow basins filled with substrates, usually soil or
gravel, and planted with vascular vegetation (macrophytes) tolerant to flood conditions.
Constructed wetlands are used to aerobically and anaerobically degrade a variety of pollutants
from wastewater. The primary pollutants targeted by the designers of constructed wetlands are
biodegradable organic matter measured as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), suspended solids,
pathogens (fecal coliform), phosphorous and nitrogen. Other pollutants removed are organic
compounds, heavy metals, and acid mine drainage.

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Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment can be categorized as either Free Water Surface
(FWS) or Subsurface Flow (SSF) systems. In FWS systems (Figure 1), the flow of water is above
the ground, and plants are rooted in the sediment layer at the base of water column. In SSF
systems, water flows though a porous media such as gravels or aggregates, in which, the plants
are rooted (Fig. 2). Table 1 illustrates the type of wetlands, vegetation types and water column
contacts in constructed wetlands.

Figure 1: Surface Flow Wetland (Pipeline 1998)

There are other configurations but they are all varieties of the two types. Nutrient supply to the
emergent vegetation is from the wastewater flowing through the substrate.

Constructed wetlands are used to aerobically and anaerobically degrade a variety of pollutants
from wastewater. The primary pollutants targeted by the designers of constructed wetlands are
biodegradable organic matter measured as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), suspended solids
and nitrogen. Other pollutants removed are phosphorous, organic compounds, pathogens, heavy
metals, and acid mine drainage.

68
Figure 2: Sub-surface flow wetland (Pipeline 1998)

Table 1: Vegetation type and water column contact in constructed wetlands

Constructed wetland type Type of Section in contact with water

vegetation column

Free water surface (FWS) Emergent Stem, limited leaf contact

Floating Root zone, some stem / tubers

Submerged Photosynthetic part,

possibly root zone

Subsurface flow (SSF) Emergent Rhizome and root zone

SSF systems are most appropriate for treating primary wastewater, because there is no direct
contact between the water column and the atmosphere. There is no opportunity for vermin to
breed, and the system is safer from a public health perspective. The system is particularly useful
for treating septic tank effluent or grey water, landfill leachate and other wastes that require
removal of high concentrations organic materials, suspended solids, nitrate, pathogens and other

69
pollutants. The environment within the SSF bed is mostly either anoxic or anaerobic. Oxygen is
supplied by the roots of the emergent plants and is used up in the Biofilm growing directly on the
roots and rhizomes, being unlikely to penetrate very far into the water column itself. SSF systems
are good for nitrate removal (denitrification), but not for ammonia oxidation (nitrification), since
oxygen availability is the limiting step in nitrification.

FWS systems are very appropriate for polishing secondary and tertiary effluents, and for
providing habitat. The environment in the FWS systems is generally aerobic at, and near, the
surface, tending toward anoxic conditions near the bottom sediment. The microbial film grows on
all available plant surfaces, and is the main mechanism of pollutant removal. FWS usually
exhibits more biodiversity than does SSF systems.

The advantages of CW include the following:

• They have significantly lower total lifetime costs and often lower capital costs than
conventional treatment systems (ITCR, 2003).
• They are able to treat wastewaters with very different constituents and concentrations
• They have lower air and water emissions and secondary wastes (Halverson, 2004)
• Operation and maintenance costs are low
• They are able to tolerate high fluctuations in flow and pollutant concentrations.
• They are capable of treating multiple or mixed contaminants
• They are capable of treating multiple or mixed contaminants

( SOLID WASTE- LANDFILL TO FOLLOW)

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