1

Methods of Weed Control

Objectives of Weed Control and Management :

 The main purpose of weed management is to reduce weed population to levels that will not significantly
reduce crop yield. Presence of weeds in a crop does not necessarily lead to significant reduction in
yield.

Control Methods:
1. Preventive methods- approaches that reduce production and germination of weed seeds and vegetative
propagules and minimize their establishment and spread.

Examples
a. Use of high quality, disease and weed seed-free planting materials – Use certified seeds or
planting materials in order to prevent the introduction of unwanted weeds and diseases in the
area.
b. Control of weeds before they produce seeds or vegetative propagules – Control the weeds
before they produce flowers or even earlier to prevent seed formation.. Perennial weeds that
produce vegetative propagules should be controlled before the propagules are formed. Many
weed species produce thousands of seeds per plant in one season, e.g Rottboelia
cochichinensis (Itchgrass) which is capable of producing more than 700 seeds per hill. This
high productive capacity allows the weeds to persist and spread readily

2. Physical/cultural methods
a. Proper land preparation and management of weed seeds and vegetative propagule reserves in
the soil.
-essential for providing a weed-free condition which is favorable for planting
and crop growth.
-Initial plowing buries weeds and stubbles from the previous crop. It also
allows weed seeds to germinate resulting to weed flushes.
-Harrowing the field will enhance weed germination and will subsequently kill the emerging
weeds by cultivation.
b. Handweeding/slashing.
-Weeds are controlled by uprooting or with the use of various small local
hand implements, like bolos, by slashing.
-Handweeding by uprooting is effective in many vegetable crops, home
gardens and as supplementary control methods in many crops.
c. Hoe weeding .
-suitable for many vegetable crops and is used as supplementary control to
other methods of weed control.
d. Interrow cultivation
- may be done with animal or tractor drawn implements
- requires lesser labor than uprooting weeds or hoe weeding but does not provide
effective control of weeds within crop rows.
- needs to be supplemented with hand weeding or hoe weeding for the control of
weeds along crop rows.
e. Mulching
-mulching materials may include soil, organic materials(such as rice straws,
rice hulls, sugarcane bagasse, sawdust) or plastic.

Effects of Mulching :
1. may reduce light available to the crops and serving as a barrier to weed
emergence.

-Rice straws, rice hulls, sugarcane bagasse, and sawdust were shown to provide
effective control of weeds in transplanted tomatoes in the Philippines.
-Rice straw mulches have been effective in controlling weeds in
transplanted onions and cabbage, bush sitao, mungbean and corn.
2. Organic mulches improve fertility of the soil
3. conserve moisture in the soil.
 2

f. Water management or flooding

- effectively used in transplanted lowland rice.
- Many weed species will not germinate under submerged conditions

g. .Use of competitive crop varieties/cultivars

- use plant varieties which are adapted to the locality and grows rapidly. A crop that
produces a canopy ahead than the weeds may suppress the growth of the latter.

h. Multiple cropping
This method could use either of the following :
a. spatial ( intercropping) – use crops that produce leaf canopies ahead than the
weeds thus suppressing weed growth.
b. temporal (crop rotation or sequential cropping) – this method will result in breaking the
cycle of specific crop-weed associations and in suppressing crop growth..

i. Burning
This is used on areas not planted with crops like along the roads, railroads and other vacant
areas which need clearing out of weeds.
Can be used to get rid of weeds on fields planted with crops resistant to heat like sugarcane

4. Biological Control – it is the deliberate use of weed’s natural enemies, such insects and
pathogens, to suppress or reduce the weed population.

Types of Biological Control :

1. Classical or inoculative approach – this uses host specific imported living organisms, such as
insects or pathogens, from the native country of origin to control or suppress the growth of weeds in
another country.

- this is the most commonly used technique against weeds.

Examples of insects used against weeds are :

a. Cyrtobagous salviniae - a curculionid beetle from Brazil which was successfully used
against the floating fern, Salvinia molesta (also originated from Brazil) in Passi, Iloilo
in 1989 and other countries where this weed species was introduced.
b. Uroplata girardi – a chrysomelid beetle used against Lantana camara in Mindanao in
1985.
c. Cactoblastis cactorum – a moth larvae from Argentina used against the
prickly pear cactus (Opuntia stricta) in Australia
d. Agasicles hygrophila - an alligator weed flea beetle used to control the
alligator weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides) both of which are from South America
e. Pareuchates pseudoinsulata – a moth from Trinidad whose larvae were
used to control the Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata) from Central and South America.

2. Inundative or augmentative approach – this uses very large numbers of existing and locally
occurring natural enemies by mass rearing and periodically releasing them in the field to augment
the natural populations.

Fungal pathogens are the common biocon agents utilized in inundative approach. The active
ingredient in the biocontrol material is a fungus and since its propagules are spores or fragments of a
mycelium, it is either called biological herbicide, bioherbicide or mycoherbicide.

The bioherbicide approach involves the application of an inoculum of a weed pathogen in

a manner analogous to chemical herbicide application.

Examples of bioherbicides are :

 De Vine – the first fungal pathogen commercially made available in 1981.
- It is a liquid formulation of Phytophthora palmivora
- Was used against the strangler vine, Morrenia odorata in Florida citrus orchards.
 Collego – another mycoherbicide commercially made available in the US in 1982.
- a dry powder formulation of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides sp. aeschynomene.
- Was used to control the northern jointvetch, Aeschynomene virginica in rice and
soybeans in Arkansas, Louisiana and Mississippi
 3

The biological control agents are often host specific and usually will control only one species
of weeds. It should be combined with other control methods to obtain broad spectrum control of
common weed species complex associated with most crops in the field.

3. use of other biotic agents such as mammalian and avian herbivores

- The herbivores used include grazing animals like sheeps, goats and cattles which are
pastured in mature plantation crops like palm oil, coconuts, mangoes, etc.
- White amur or grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella which was used against weeds in
the USSR, Europe and US.

4. Chemical Control – This method involves the use of herbicides for selective control of weeds with minimum
or no injury to the crop. The use of herbicides substantially reduces the labor requirement for weed control and
provides early season control of weeds within crop rows. Safety precautions on the label should be strictly
followed. Improper use of herbicides may result in crop injury, poor or ineffective weed control and drift or
residue problems.

Classification of Herbicides:
Herbicides can be classified according to :
a. Time of application
1. Preplant herbicides – These are applied after land preparation but before the crop is
planted. The herbicide is volatile and needs to be incorporated in the soil before
planting. This is also used to control existing vegetation before the crop is planted.
2. Preemergence herbicides – These are applied after the crop is planted but before the
weed or crop emerge.
3. Postemergence herbicides – These are applied after the emergence of the crop or the
weeds .

b. Movement in plants
1. Contact herbicides – these are herbicides whose phytotoxic effects are
manifested at the sites on the plants where the spray droplets are deposited.
2. Translocated herbicides – these are herbicides whose phytotoxic effects are manifested
at and away from the sites on the plants where the spray droplets are deposited. The
herbicide is translocated to other parts of the plant following the flow of food nutrients.

c. Selectivity
1. Non-selective herbicides – these are herbicides that have a broad spectrum activity. It
kills all plants.
2. Selective herbicides – these are herbicides that kill some plants leaving others
practically unharmed.

UNIT 4. OTHER PESTS

In addition to insect pests, diseases and weeds infesting, infecting and competing with our crops,
respectively, other pests include rats/rodents, birds, snails/slugs, and other animals(e.g.farm animals) . Among
these, the rats are considered of economic importance in both upland and lowland crops. Under lowland
condition, snails, preferably the golden apple snail had gained widespread damage of the early stages of growth
of the rice plants, especially in the direct seeded method of planting rice.

A. Rats

Rats pose a real problem and challenge to Philippine agriculture. The outbreaks that periodically occurred
in the past have brought incalculable miseries in terms of food shortages and loss of livelihood among our
farmers. Today, we still suffer localized staggering losses caused by rats to rice, corn, and many other
important crops. Rats may occur at all stages of growth of the crop production and storage.

According to Fiedler and Sumangil (1985) there are about 45 species of rats in the Philippines but only five
are important pests which include the following:

 The common Philippine Field Rat, Rattus rattus mindanensis Mearns

- medium-sized, adults about 175g
- generally smaller than the Norway rats
- tail uniformly dark usually longer than the head plus body
 4

- general color is cinnamon-buff with dark streaks on upper parts, lighter color on
underparts
- is the most widely distributed and most destructive of the rat species in the Philippines.
- Found in dry and irrigated croplands, forest edges and human habitations

 The Asian Ricefield Rat, Rattus argentiventer Robinson and Kloss

- generally smaller than the R. r. mindanensis
- dorsal pelage has “salt and pepper” appearance
- tuft of orange hair near base of ear; tail shorter than the head plus body
- general color of the upperparts similar to R .r. mindanensis but underparts usually light
gray to whitish
- locally prevalent in some crop areas in Mindoro and Mindanao

 The Polynesian Rat , Rattus exulans (Peale)

- smaller than the ricefields rat; hind foot less than 30 mm
- fur soft; tail nearly as long as head plus body
- upper parts generally dark smokey gray with some off-color streaks, underparts lighter
colored; an agile climber
- found in the lowlands as well as croplands of higher elevation.

 The Norway Rat, Rattus norvegicus (Berkenhout)

- larger and heavier (greater than 200 g) than the ricefield rats
- thick tail lighter underneath, shorter than head plus body
- fur short with many long thickened, grooved hairs
- long vibrissae (whiskers) on snout
- upperparts usually brownish, underparts grayish, but color variations common; feet white
- found all over the Philippines, commensal with man
- essentially an urban pest creating problems in health and sanitation, food and grain
storage, structural damage and fire hazards, and garbage disposal; reported to be an
agricultural pest in the ricefields of Iloilo

 The Philippine Mouse, Mus musculus castaneous Waterhouse

- markedly smaller (12 g) than the Polynesian rat and the ricefield rat
- fur short and soft; upper parts generally brownish, underparts light drab
- eyes and ears prominent; tail length about equal to or longer than head plus body; widely
distributed and closely associated with man
- an important pest in urban and rural domiciles, gnawing wood work and feeding on
stored grains.

Economic Importance of Rats

Rats have poor eyesight but have a very sensitive sense of smell, hearing and touch. Whiskers(vibrisses)
and guard hairs (elongated hairs in their short fur) are contact structures that guide them in the dark. Their tails
are used as balancers and brace when climbing. The rat’s chisel-like incisors grow continuously to an extra 6-9
inches during its lifetime. Thus, to regulate its length it needs to gnaw on any hard or soft objects and this
explains the extreme damage caused by rats.

Rats may live for more than three years in cages but hardly reach one year in the field because of the
presence of predators and other environmental factors. At the age of 1.5 months old the female rat is ready to
reproduce. The gestation period is about 21 days with about 8 youngs per delivery. The female rat can
reproduce 4 times in a year and weans about 10 youngs on the average. If left undisturbed a pair of male and
female rats together with their offsprings could reproduce about 1,270 rats per year.

Rats usually move at night and can travel at an average of 20-40 meters from their nests. They are also
triggered to migrate to long distances when their environment is altered by fire, flood or lack of food. Rats are
also great diggers. They dig holes for breeding purposes but rarely use holes abandoned by other rats. The
pregnant rats usually close the burrows with soil and open it when the youngs are capable of limited
movements.

Rats prefer to feed on rice plants and grains. Corn and fruits serve as secondary food.
 5

Methods of Rat Control (Pava, 1995)

1. Environmental manipulation – this aims to modify the environment of rats
a. reducing food sources
b. rat proofing of farm harborage by clean culture
2. Mechanical means – use of devices or instruments used to kill rats
a. crop trapping
b. blanket (grasstrap)
3. Chemical methods – this method employs the use of poison to kill rats.
a. acute poisons – cause death of affected organisms after ingestion.
Example – Sodium flouroacetate (compound 1080), thallium sulfate, zinc phosphide
and others.
b. slow acting poisons – induce death several days after ingestion of the poison
Example – Warfarin, racumin, chlorphacenone, coumarin, tomarin, etc.
c. fumigants – poisoning used to kill rats in burrows
Example – cyanogas, cyanoline, cyamag
d. chemosterilants – used to sterilize male or female rats or both.
Example – Myrlan
4. Biological control – uses living organisms that can kill rats
a. predators – cats, hawks, owls, snakes
b. parasites – bacteria and viruses.
- not thoroughly used because it can also cause diseases to
human beings.

B. Golden Snail, Pomacea canaliculata

The golden snail is an invertebrate belonging to Phylum Mollusca, Kingdom Gastropoda. It was
introduced in the Philippines in 1982 to provide extra income and to increase protein in Filipino diet. The
government promoted their production and distribution as a national livelihood program. However, by 1986 it
was reported to cause severe damage on lowland rice and since then it had continuously pose a problem in
rice production

Nature of Damage
The golden snail prefers to infest rice on its seedling and early vegetative stages. It lays eggs in mass on
stems of plants protruding from the water surface, on plants growing on the dikes, or any material found above
the water level. The eggs hatch after a month and both adult and immature stages feed on rice. They develop
slowly and could survive in the field for a year or more. They usually hibernate underneath the soil during the
dry season and emerge from the paddy soil once irrigation water or rain is introduced into the area.

Control :
1. collect eggs and snails by handpicking and destroy them
2. construct small canals within the rice paddies where water will drain. Golden snails will
congregate on these canals. Handpick the trapped golden snails or apply molluscicides
on these canals.
3. Use older seedlings. Young seedling of the dapog method are more susceptible to snail
damage. For early maturing rice varieties use 25-30 days old seedlings.
4. Maintain water at 2-3 cm for the first 15 days after transplanting. Alternate flooding and
draining of paddies minimize snail population.
5. Put stakes measuring 90 cm long and 2.5 cm wide near water inlets, outlets and other
strategic places for the snails to deposit their eggs. Collect and destroy the eggs
deposited on stakes every morning.
6. Trap large size snails which follow the flow of water into the rice paddies with the use of a
wire screen.
7. Pasture ducks 3-45 days after transplanting or immediately after harvesting until the land
is ready for the next crop.
Spray molluscicides only on small canals where golden snails congregate. Avoid blanket
spraying to minimize hazards to the rice ecosystem.

UNIT 5. PESTICIDE CALCULATION

To achieve the desired results in pest control, one must know how to calculate the quantity of
pesticide required to make a recommended application of foliar spray, dust or granules.
 6

A commercial formulation of a pesticide is a mixture of inert and active ingredients. Only the
active ingredient kills the pests; the inert ingredient is an additive in the formulation which improve storability,
application and other characteristics of the pesticide. The recommended rate or dosage of an insecticide may
be expressed in :

1. Percent concentration of the active ingredient (a.i.) in the spray solution;

2. Weight (kg) or volume (liter) of active ingredient per area to be treated (ha.);
3. Liter or kilogram of the formulated product (FP) per hectare to be treated.

One must also have to remember the following measurements/equivalents:

Area: 1 hectare = 10,000 square meters

1 acre = 4,000 square meters or 0.4 ha.
Volume :
1 liter = 1,000 milliliters(ml)= 1,000 cubic centimeter (cc)
Weight: 1 kilogram = 1,000 grams (g)

Before any calculation can be made, three of the following 5 informations must be known:

1. The recommended weight in kg or liters of active ingredient per ha or liter(s) of the

formulated product to be applied per hectare;
2. Percent spray concentration to be applied;
3. Amount of spray solution per hectare when applying foliar spray;
4. Percent active ingredient of the insecticide in the commercial formulation; and
5. Area in hectare to be treated.

Problem Solving Examples:

a. Recommended rate of EC,WP, F based on % concentration of spray solution.

Problem:
You wish to apply 320 liters/ha of spray solution to a 0.5 ha area. If you will use Padan
10WP at a recommended concentration of 0.04%. How many liters of Padan
10WP will you use?

Solution :

First compute 320 liters x 0.5ha. = 160 liters of spray volume

or solution needed to spray for a 0.5 ha area.

Formula:
Liters of Amount of spray vol. X % spray conc.
Commercial =_______________________________
Formulation Percent a.i in a formulation

Application :

160 liters x 0.04 % = 0.64 liters

10%

How many loads are needed if 1 sprayer load is 16 liters?

No. of sprayer loads = 160 liters = 10 loads

16

. How many liters of the commercial formulation are needed or

required per sprayer load?

Liters of the comm. formulation = 16 liters x 0.04% = 0.064 liters.

10%
 7

b. Recommended rate of EC, WP, F based on kg a.i./ha

Problem :
You were instructed by the farm technician to apply Sevin 70WP at the rate of 0.75
kg a.i./ha to control infestations of insect pests attacking tomatoes.How
many kg of Sevin 70WP will you use to treat a 0.5 hectar area?

Solution :

. Formula :
kg of comm. formulation = Rec. rate x area to be treated x 100%
Percent a.i. in a comm. Formulation
Application :

kg of comm. formulation = 0.75 kg a.i./ha x 0.5 ha x 100%

70%
= 0.536 kg or 536 grams

c. Recommended rate of dust and granules based on kg a.i./ha.

Problem:

Furadan 3G is applied at the rate of 0.5 kg a.i./ha to control corn

seedling maggots and corn borer. How many kilograms of Furadan 3G will you need for
a 0.5 hectar?

Solution :

. Formula :
kg of granules or dust = Rec. rate (kg/ha) x Area (ha) x 100%
% a.i. in dust or granules

Application :

kg of granules or dust = 0.5 kg kg a.i./ha x 0.5 ha x 100% = 8.33 kg

3%
d. Recommended rate based on the amount of the formulated product (FP) in liters or
kg/ha.
d.1. Given: Recommended rate of FP = 1 liter/ha = 1000 ml/ha.
Specified spray volume = 320 liters/ha
Area to be treated = 0.5 ha.

d.2.Problem : How many liter(s) of the commercial product or formulated

product are needed to treat 0.5 ha area?
d.3. Solution:

d.3.1. Formula:
Liter(s) of FP = Recommended rate of FP x Area (ha)

d.3.2. Application:
Liter(s) of FP = 1 liter/ha x 0.5 ha
= 0.5 liter or 500 ml

d.3.3. No. of loads needed if 1 sprayer load is 16 liters?

No. of sprayer loads = 320 liters x 0.5 ha

16 liters
= 10 loads

d.3.4. No. of FP per sprayer load

No. of sprayer load = 1 liter of FP/ha x 0.5 ha

10 loads
= 0.05 liters or 50 ml
 8

Table 1. Examples of Herbicides

Common Name Trade Name Crop ( Selectivity) & Time & Manner of
Target Weed Application

Atrazine Gesaprim 80WP Banana (S) Bl, G pre-emergence

Atrazine 80WP coffee (S) Bl, G pre- & post emergence
Corn
Mango
Rubber
Sugarcane
Bentazon Basagran 48EC Rice (S) Bl, G, SG post emergence
Bispyribac
Sodium Nominee 100SC Rice (S), Bl, G, SG post memergence
Butachlor Machete 60EC Rice (S) G, SG pre emergence
Lambast 5G
Lambast EC
Paragras 60EC
Sonic 60EC
Blade 60EC
Butachlor +
2,4-D Rogue EC Rice (S) G, Bl, SG pre-emergence
Butachlor +
Propanil Advance EC
Tornado EC Rice (S) G, Bl. SG early post emergence
DSR – 6-8 days
Twister EC TPR – 3-6 days
Toro EC

Butachlor +
Safener Direk 800 Rice (S) G, SG, Bl pre-emergence
Cyclosulfamuron Invest 10WP Rice (S) Pre-emergence &
Early post-emergence
Cyhalofop-butyl Clincher 100 EC Rice (S) G Post-emergence
7-18 days
2,4-D Amine Miracle 2,4-D Amine Sugarcane (S) Bl, SG post-emergence
Hedonal SL Sorghum 25-30 days
2,4-D Amine
2,4-D Ester Weedkill Rice (S) Bl,SG Pre-emergence
2,4-D Ester Corn 3-5 days
2,4-D Ester G Post-emergence
15-25 days
Fentrazamide +
Propanil Lecspro 44WP Rice (S) G,SG,Bl pre-emergence
Glyphosate Roundup EW non-crop (NS,
Power Translocated) post-emergence
Spark
MCPA Agroxone rice (S) Bl, SG pre-emergence
Karet 40 corn Hormone type Rice-3-6 days
Sugarcane post-emergence
15-25 days
Oxadiazon Ronstar 25 EC rice (S) G, SG, Bl pre-emergence
Paraquat Gramoxone non-crop (NS, contact) post-emergence
Pendimethalin Herbadox 33EC corn (S), G,Bl pre-emergence
Rice
Cotton, onion
Sugarcane
Quizalofop-P-
Ethyl Assure II EC Potato (S) G pot-emergence
Soybean 3 months after
Peanut planting
Vegetable
9