Knowledge management

ITIL® 4 Practice Guide

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22 November
2019

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Knowledge management 1

Contents
About this document 2
General information 3
Value streams and processes 18
Organization and people 29
Information and technology 36
Partners and suppliers 41
Important reminder 42
Acknowledgments 43

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Knowledge management 2

About this document

This document provides practical guidance for the knowledge management practice. It is split into five main
sections, covering:

● general information about the practice

● the practice’s processes and activities and their roles in the service value chain the organizations and
● people involved in the practice
● the information and technology supporting the practice
● considerations for partners and suppliers for the practice.

1.1 ITIL 4 QUALIFICATION SCHEME

Selected content from this document is examinable as a part of the following syllabuses:

● ITIL Specialist: Create, deliver and support

● ITIL Specialist: Direct, plan and improve
Please refer to the respective syllabus documents for details.

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Knowledge management 3

General information
2.1 PURPOSE AND DESCRIPTION

Key message

The purpose of the knowledge management practice is to maintain and improve the effective, efficient,
and convenient use of information and knowledge across the organization.

The knowledge management practice is a way of transforming information and organizational intellectual
capital into persistent value for employees and service consumers. This practice aims to provide the right
information to the right people at the right moment to build an evolutionary environment where:

● absorptive capacity is continually improved

● people are eager to learn new knowledge, unlearn old knowledge, and gain and share their experience and
insights
● decision-making capabilities are improved
● an adaptive change culture exists
● performance improves, supporting the organizational strategy
● data-driven and insight-driven approaches are used throughout the organization .

This is achieved by establishing integrated and systematic processes for knowledge asset management,
building a high interoperability knowledge environment and empowering people to develop and share
knowledge. This includes knowing and using modern technologies, data/information/knowledge management
methods, approaches for training and mentoring according to the organizational vision and needs.

The knowledge management practice contributes to every component of the ITIL service value stream. This
practice incorporates the following premises:

● Knowledge is processed and used in the context of value streams. This practice is integrated into value
streams and ensures that information is provided effectively and on time to meet the stakeholders’
expectations.
● This practice should focus on discovering and providing high-quality information (available, accurate,
reliable, relevant, complete, timely, and compliant in a defined scope).

2.2 TERMS AND CONCEPTS

There are several concepts that are important for establishing an effective knowledge management practice
in an organization. These concepts have been developed from scientific studies and practical management
experience. The concepts are recommended for organizations aiming to increase value from the information
assets that they have access to.

2.2.1 Absorptive capacity

The ability to learn is an important aspect of a person or an organization. In the case of an organization, it is
enabled and limited by the organization’s absorptive capacity. Absorptive capacity stands for an
organization’s ability to recognize the value of new information, to embed it into an existing knowledge
system, and to apply it to the achievement of business outcomes. In order to be innovative and adaptive to
change organizations should continually develop absorptive capacity. Absorption of new knowledge from
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Knowledge management 4

outside of an organization and integrating it into the knowledge system is complex and should occur
simultaneously on various levels (external, organizational, teams, and individual). It should also consider the
four dimensions of service management1.

2.2.2 Data and knowledge management

To represent the relationship between data, information, knowledge, and wisdom, the data, information,
knowledge, wisdom pyramid (DIKW), also known as the knowledge pyramid, is usually used. However, the
divisions in the management of each of the levels are not clearly defined. The organization chooses how to
name the related activities, and whether data management should be considered a part of knowledge or
information management or a separate entity focused on the management of raw data. In addition, wisdom is
usually vaguely described and not included in the description of structured processes. In this guide the term
wisdom is not discussed, apart from implying that organizations should aim to use knowledge for value co-
creation.

Organizations should define and agree the definitions and taxonomy for the knowledge management practice
to gain effective outcomes. These definitions may vary depending on the type of data involved and the
industry.

Valuable knowledge for decision-making may be obtained from outside of an organization, as well as from
inside. This may include information from articles and posts in social and corporate media; data from
surveillance and web cameras, audio recordings, and Internet of Things (IoT) devices. Much of this data is
unstructured2.

Big data management systems have emerged to work with the huge volumes of raw and often unstructured
data, and to analyse it for predictive insights. Big data analytics (BDA) introduces both challenges and
opportunities for knowledge management3.

Big data is often defined by three words, known as the 3Vs of big data: volume, velocity, and variety.
However, there are more Vs available, for example value, veracity, validity, and so on. The first 3 Vs are
essential to understanding whether an organization is dealing with big data or more traditional forms of data.

One of the Vs is variety; which is the range of sources and the formats of the raw data, and the criteria that
may impact the knowledge management practice the most as it represents the challenge that big data brings

1
Mikhailava, I., (2011). Absorptive capacity: towards a practice based view. PhD, Lancaster University
Management School, Lancaster, UK.

2
L. Uden et al. (Eds.), (2014). Knowledge management in organizations, Santiago: Springer International
Publishing pp. 1–10

3
Crane, Lesley & Self, Richard. (2014). Big Data Analytics: A Threat or an Opportunity for Knowledge
Management? [Accesses on 28/10/2019]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265531901_Big_Data_Analytics_A_Threat_or_an_Opportunity_for_
Knowledge_Management

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Knowledge management 5

to the practice. A variety of sources results in both a technical challenge and a risk to the veracity and
validity of the connected data.

To be able to trust the analysed information and accept potential knowledge, the techniques and algorithms
used for connecting data need to be carefully verified and validated.

The value of data, information, and knowledge is determined by the outcomes that it produces for
stakeholders and consumers. Knowledge does not have an intrinsic value. Knowledge should be only be
considered valuable and effective when it leads to the desired outputs and outcomes. Outcomes may be
assessed in terms of the organization’s goals and strategy, consumer satisfaction, improved practices, and so
on, depending on the context4.

2.2.3 Knowledge assets and multi-base knowledge management

environment

Organizations manage many different information assets including documents, records, databases, and so on.
These assets are also connected to many external information sources with various levels of access to the
information. Many of these assets and sources are specific to service management activities and are useful in
an organization’s development and realization of an organization’s mission and strategy. Record management
and the general administration of information assets are often the responsibilities of specific teams that are
driven by respective practices. For example, financial records are managed as a part of the service financial
management practice, and configuration records are managed as a part of the service configuration
management practice.

Knowledge asset

This is an organization’s specific information resource that is important for that organization’s operations
and value co-creation.

The knowledge management practice adds a knowledge focused view on an organization’s information sources
and assets. From this perspective, information assets are evaluated and managed as knowledge assets. The
importance of knowledge assets can be characterized by its criticality, rarity, and appropriability:

● Critical knowledge assets have a significant impact on an organization’s performance and strategy
realization.
● Rare knowledge assets are hard to find and hard to replace in the event of a loss.
● Appropriate knowledge assets can be transferred from one organization to another without a significant
loss in value.

The knowledge management practice aims to identify the most important knowledge assets across the
organization and ensure that they are effectively managed and utilized (see section 3.2.3 for details). It is

4
https://www.forbes.com/sites/stevedenning/2012/05/31/ten-things-you-need-to-know-about-managing-
knowledge/#bf6da2d118f2 [Accessed on 28/10/2019]
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Knowledge management 6

also important to ensure that an organization’s knowledge assets are effectively integrated into a knowledge
management system, where information can be accessed and used in the most effective and efficient way.

Usually, organizations use multiple independent and dependent, internal and external data sources
(databases, clouds, and so on) for knowledge management. An organization’s knowledge management system
should consider multiple heterogeneous, autonomous, and distributed data sources, and provide high
interoperability across multiple information sources. This depends on the architecture of the information and
supporting information systems (see the architecture management practice guide), but also requires agreed
process and standards for information and knowledge asset management.

An organization’s knowledge management system consists of knowledge assets and information management
systems, including, for example, configuration management database, reports and monitoring records, tickets
system storage, financial reports, and other repositories. These repositories are handled as part of the
respective practices such as: portfolio management, service financial management, IT asset management,
service catalogue management, and so on. These repositories are managed according to the common
approach defined in the knowledge management practice to ensure high interoperability and the effective
use of information across the organization.

2.2.4 SECI model of knowledge dimensions

To provide informational support for innovations and an adaptive change culture, organizations should
continuously develop their absorptive capacity through creating and using new knowledge. A knowledge
management models that can be used for this purpose is the SECI model5.

The socialization, externalization, combination, internalization (SECI) model of knowledge dimension was
developed by Ikujiro Nonaka and refined by Hirotaka Takeuchi. It is used to described knowledge sharing and
the transformation process at any level of an organization.

The model is based on two types of knowledge, explicit and tacit:

● Explicit knowledge can be transferred to others, codified, assessed, verbalized, and stored. It includes
information from books, databases, descriptions, and so on.
● Tacit knowledge is difficult to transfer to others, difficult to express, codify, and assess. It is based on
experience, values, capabilities, and skills.

It also considers two dimensions for knowledge creation:

● The conversion of tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge and vice versa.

● The transfer of knowledge from an individual to groups/organizations.
The SECI model identifies four ways of how knowledge is combined, transferred, accepted, and shared.

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Knowledge management 7

Table 2.1 How knowledge is used according to the SECI model

Knowledge sharing type Description Example

Socialization (tacit to tacit). Sharing knowledge face-to-face or A specialist could share their ideas
through experiences, such as based on his/her technical
coaching, meetings, and so on. experience from previous cases with
peers during an incident or problem
investigation.

Externalization (tacit to explicit). Describing the experience or A specialist documents a solution in

formulating the process/guidelines. a knowledge base article, or a
manager describes a procedure for
the team to follow.

Combination (explicit to explicit). Combining, analysing, and A vendor’s solutions are published,
presenting data from inside and assessed, and adopted in the
outside an organization to form new organization’s solution base.
knowledge.
ITIL best practice recommendations
are adopted by the organization and
included in their practice
guidelines. This can be supported by
large-scale databases and AI.

Internalization (explicit to tacit). An individual develops their A specialist develops his own routine
knowledge independently or through by systematically following the
formal training. organization’s guidelines and vendor
recommendations in the diagnosis
The development of knowledge is
and repair of a configuration item,
transformed into organizational
or by attending formal training.
knowledge assets.

The use and exchange of knowledge is a continual process. Figure 2.1 includes a spiral to represent the
continuity and evolution of knowledge. Knowledge sharing supports organizations and individuals by providing
them with data for data-driven decisions. It also helps to accumulate, combine, and share knowledge to make
insight-driven decisions.

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Knowledge management 8

Figure 2.1 The development of knowledge sharing

2.2.5 Data-driven and insight-driven decisions

An organization’s existing knowledge system is a key factor in the development of new knowledge. Data is at
the core of the personal and organizational decision-making process and evolution. Yet, data is not the only
source of knowledge used in decision-making. In fact, the term data-driven often implies that data equals or
includes insight6.

6
[Accessed 30/10/2019] https://www.bts.com/blog-article/business-insight/creating-an-insight-driven-
organization

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If data is assembled from facts, statistics, quantities, symbols, and so on, the exclusive use of a data-driven
approach may limit an organization’s potential to evolve and prove to be unwise7. The reasons for this
include:

● Data is merely a partial reflection of reality. The interpretation of the data relies heavily on an individual’s
experience. Different people can come to different conclusions based on the same data, or to the same
conclusion based on different data.
● Any amount of data is still insufficient. There is always missing data. Sometimes the missing data is
irrelevant for the decision, sometimes it is extremely important.
● Certain data needs to be interpreted by an individual who possesses the relevant expertise, and who has
the motivation and ability to learn and use the data8. Otherwise, the data may not bring enough or any
value.
● The available knowledge may limit innovations. There is a risk of functional fixedness, where the adopted
patterns and context prevent individuals from acting in a creative manner. Instructions and habits may
create biases about situations and objects. Many people find it hard to overcome biases, making it difficult
to find new perspectives and develop innovative ideas.
● Too much overlapping or conflicting data may cause overthinking and lead to conclusions too complex or
made too late. This is sometimes referred to as analysis paralysis.

Insight is the ability to gain an accurate and deep understanding of a subject. It may be interpreted as
knowing and feeling the underlying nature of things. Insights are a result of human intelligence (emotions,
experience, and feelings). Insights are a supplementary component of the data and are a result of an
individual’s experience and personality. Thus, the greater the experience and expertise of an individual, the
more useful their insights will be9. Insights cannot be completed by artificial intelligence.

For an organization to become insights-driven they must use all four methods from the SECI model to work
with knowledge and focus on both tacit and explicit information.

Techniques such as ALOE (asking, listening, observing, empathizing) and the development of emotional,
social, and system intelligence, support an organization’s performance and evolution1. (see the organizational
change practice and the relationship management practice for more information.)

2.2.6 People and knowledge management

There is tremendous amount of explicit knowledge both discovered and hidden, structured and unstructured,
within organizations. Nevertheless, the tacit knowledge owned by an organization is also very large. Each
individual in an organization is a valuable source of information. Yet, if this tacit knowledge is not properly

7
[Accessed 30/10/2019] https://medium.com/microsoft-design/if-you-want-to-be-creative-dont-be-data-
driven-55db74078eda

8
[Accessed 30/10/2019] https://www2.deloitte.com/ca/en/pages/deloitte-analytics/articles/becoming-an-
insight-driven-organization.html

9
[Accessed 30/10/2019] https://www.forbes.com/sites/stevedenning/2012/05/31/ten-things-you-need-to-
know-about-managing-knowledge/#bf6da2d118f2

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managed, each time an individual leaves an organization there will be a loss of valuable knowledge, or
possibly a security breach.

The knowledge management practice aims to create an environment where it will be possible to discover who
knows what, who needs to know what,, how the organization may benefit from the individuals’ knowledge,
how to make it sharable, and how to respect the individuals’ privacy. Code of conducts, ethical concerns, and
inspiring people to transform tacit knowledge into explicit can support these objectives.

Key message

Dave Snowden has proposed a series of knowledge management principles that can help in dealing with
employees’ knowledge across the organization. They include10:

• Knowledge can only be volunteered; it cannot be forced.

• You cannot make someone share their knowledge as you can never measure what they know.
• We only know what we know when we need to know it.
• Human knowledge is deeply contextual and requires stimulus for recall.
• The way we know things is not the way we report we know things.
• Failure facilitates learning better than success.
• We always know more than we can say, and we will always say more than we can write down.

No matter how experienced and capable a person is their possibilities are still limited. Diverse teams build a
stronger knowledge system when they cooperate and collaborate openly. The greater the team’s diversity in
terms of background, perspective, culture, and education, the greater the opportunity for decisive action.
Generally, a homogeneous team is more efficient but less creative.

One method to increase a team’s diversity is to empower social networking both inside and outside the
organization. Virtual connection and knowledge exchange may help to overcome the limits caused by
location, organizational structure, and culture.

Social networks may be used as one of the tools to support the knowledge management practice and
collaboration inside and outside an organization. It also can be supported by mobile technologies, sensors,
and notification systems to build systems of awareness. For example, smart offices where a screen shows the
location of other employees and if they are available for a meeting with a colleague11. Social networks help
to create communities of knowledge or practices, that may improve knowledge exchange within teams and
organizations. Social networks also reveal the knowledge that an individual possesses and who can be
approached in each situation.

When building social networks and engaging people in the knowledge management practice, it is vital to
consider ethical concerns and the risk of interruptions caused by the exposure of knowledge. (For more
information about ethics please see section 3.2.1.1 of ITIL® 4: High Velocity IT

10
[Accessed 30/10/2019] https://cognitive-edge.com/blog/rendering-knowledge/

11
[Accessed 30/10/2019] http://files.gk-facfil.webnode.com/200000004-ecf7fedf15/groth-ecscw03-ws.pdf

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2.2.7 Organization learning and knowledge management

Nowadays, individuals do not stay in a specific role for very long as there is a lot of horizontal movements
between roles, and career choices are not always connected to an individual’s professional education. To
develop absorption capacity, organizations should also have a continual process of learning and capabilities
development. This is possible through empowering people to identify and build on their skills to make their
own job meaningful and value driven.

The knowledge management practice together with the workforce and talent management practice aim to
motivate and facilitate employees to discover new, develop, enhance, and better use their capabilities. The
learning capabilities of an organization should be driven by business needs, values, and priorities. Learning in
an incremental and agile way is important for modern development teams. It may be beneficial to transition
from an annual training calendar, to scheduling training and development programmes when required. In
relation to training, organizations should also prioritize competencies for effective knowledge usage.
Employees should be taught to discover and process information in the most efficient and valuable way.

Even when the most modern technologies and digital inventions are used for the knowledge management
practice, there is still a risk that critical data will be underutilized due to the lack of skills in processing and
managing the information. These skills need to be developed as they do not emerge alongside the fast
evolution of data management technologies.

2.2.8 Consumers and knowledge management

There are at least two perspectives when considering a service consumers’ involvement in the knowledge
management practice: consumers as participants and requestors of knowledge management activities; and a
consumers’ organizations as a source of information for the service provider.

The integration of technology between service consumers and service providers creates an immense amount
of unstructured and structured data in operational activities. This data, if used properly, has a potential to
maximize stakeholders’ value, improve organizations’ performance, increase meaningful user and customer
journeys, and strengthen enduring relationships. For example, the analysis of information requested by users
can help organizations identify areas where the user journey may be improved or identify areas for additional
training or instruction.

Relationships between service consumers and service providers may involve various levels of integration and
formality (see Table 3.1 of ITIL Foundation for more information about relationships between organizations).
Whether or not a service consumer’s representatives are directly involved in the service provider’s knowledge
management activities depends on the level and form of the service relationship.

The knowledge management practice together with the portfolio management, strategy management, and
service level management practices aims to design methods that will be used to capture, store, access, and
analyse data regarding service consumers to improve sales, consumers retention, and engagement. (For more
information about the service consumers’ journey please see DSV.)

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2.3 SCOPE

The knowledge management practice supports all value streams and can be used with any other practice as
they all create and use data and knowledge. The knowledge management practice includes
data/information/knowledge collection, research, processing, analysis, improvement, presentation, and
technical assistance. This practice is also aligned with training, skills development, learning, as well as
innovation and research initiatives. The scope of the knowledge management practice includes:

● Establishing an organization wide environment for effective information exchange and knowledge
management, including culture, techniques and procedures, and tools and skills.
● Understanding knowledge assets and providing recommendations for their effective management and use.
● Monitoring and improving effectiveness of knowledge use across the organization.
● Discovering and providing information on demand, where no readily available knowledge is available.
Table 2.2 Activities related to the knowledge management practice that are described in other
practice guides
Activity Practice guide
Knowledge assets use, processing and management All other practices
Knowledge management methods and tools application All other practices
Defining organization’s requirements for knowledge
Strategy management
management
Risk management

Workforce and talent management

Relationship management

Organizational change management

Portfolio management

Service catalogue management

Service configuration management

Implementation of knowledge management methods

Relationship management
and tools at all levels of the organization
Organizational change management

Workforce and talent management

Strategy management

Continual improvement

Project management

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Knowledge management 13

Change of IT infrastructure related to the knowledge Change enablement

management digitization
Release management

Business analysis

Deployment management

Software development and management

Service validation and testing

Portfolio management

Service catalogue management

Service configuration management

Knowledge risks assessment and control Risk management

Costs control, financial evaluation of knowledge Service financial management

related activities
Managing access to data, information and knowledge Information security management
in compliance to security requirements
Automation of data storage, transfer, archiving Infrastructure and platform management

Software development and management

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Knowledge management 14

2.4 PRACTICE SUCCESS FACTORS

Practice success factor (PSF)

A complex functional component of a practice that is required for the practice to fulfil its purpose.

A practice success factor (PSF) is more than a task or activity; it includes components from all four
dimensions of service management. The nature of the activities and resources of PSFs within a practice may
differ, but together they ensure that the practice is effective.

The knowledge management practice includes the following PSFs:

● The creation and maintenance of valuable knowledge and its transfer and usage across an organization.
● The effective use of information for enabling decision-making across an organization.

2.4.1 Creation and maintenance of a culture of effective sharing and

the application of valuable knowledge across the organization
The culture of effective knowledge sharing and application is a system of beliefs, attitudes, values, and
expectations shared by people in an organization about knowledge, including data and information. It
determines the people’ ability to identify, understand, use, analyse, learn, unlearn, transfer, present, and
discuss information in a way that supports an organization’s vision and strategy.

The knowledge management practice describes techniques and tools that can only be effective when used
within the correct cultural context, in the correct way, at the right moment, and with commitment from the
stakeholders. The knowledge management practice culture varies between organizations and may be a source
of a competitive advantage. When developing a knowledge transfer strategy and culture, an organization
should find a way to overcome each of these barriers according to its needs.

The culture of knowledge transfer can be established by stressing the value and importance of sharing
knowledge and creating an open atmosphere both within and across the teams. In essence, an organization
must create a work environment that encourages people to:

● to ask questions
● to challenge existing knowledge and consider alternative perspectives
● to hear others and be heard
● to learn and unlearn
● to increase intelligence in the areas where needs have been identified (conversational, emotional, social,
intrapersonal, interpersonal, and so on)
● to help people overcome their fear of punishment due to their mistakes
● to help people overcome their fear of judgement when asking or documenting data
● to help people overcome their worry about being replaced if they share knowledge
● to set a priority for sharing knowledge in a complicated operational routine (due to a lack of time or
meeting places for sharing).

This change in culture will not only impact internal relationships but will also affect cooperation with service
consumers, partners, and suppliers.

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Knowledge management 15

It is important to use such practices as workforce and talent management, organizational change
management, relationship management, strategy management, continual improvement management, and
supplier management to assist the knowledge management practice with establishing a culture of effective
knowledge sharing and application.

2.4.2 Enabling effective information support for decision-making across

an organization
The knowledge management practice includes the identification and usage of methods and tools to create a
knowledge management system to support decision-making across the organization. Organizations that are
more successful in implementing the knowledge management practice develop both technology and people-
oriented aspects (like developing a learning culture and focusing on the competencies to use, collect, and
share information throughout the organization).

According to surveys results12 there are three important areas where information systems should be used to
improve decision-making:

● getting the right information at the right time

● ensuring access to information in multiple places (location, means, and time)
● sending instant alerts when things go wrong.
The quality of information is also vitally important for the knowledge management practice. There are
several factors which affect the quality of information, that should be considered when designing and
maintaining knowledge management systems13:

● errors in the information collected (for example customers or employees enter inaccurate data, service
desk agent enter incomplete data to save time), data collection design (for example asking the wrong
questions or the wrong respondents)
● information from different external and internal systems are not aligned in the entry standards and format
● poor system design which causes information loss
● potentially valuable information is not shared and is lost in an organization’s unstructured data
● loss of information in the migration from one system to another
● loss of information in poorly integrated systems
● ineffective presentation or hard to use interfaces

Information about the past is available through databases, web-based resources, and other data sources. To
predict the future, those making decisions should rely on an insight-based approach, which uses intuitive and

12
Xu J., Quaddus M. (2013) Using Information Systems for Supporting Decision Making. In: Managing
Information Systems. Atlantis Press, Paris

13
Mayer & Schaper 2010; Chui & Fleming 2011; Bloomberg Businessweek Research Services 2011

Milley & Wood 2010; Haag, Baltzan & Phillips 2008, p. 388

Information Systems that Really Support Decision-Making by Gio Wiederhold, Journal of Intelligent Information
Systems March 2000, Volume 14, Issue 2–3, pp 85–94

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Knowledge management 16

creative thinking, combined with forecasting tools and intelligent data analysis. These tools may also assess
the effects of alternative decisions.

The knowledge management practice is crucial for the shift-left approach, that can support, for example, the
incident management, service request, service validation and testing, and release management practices.
Within these practices the knowledge management practice is an input for the shift-left approach.

The knowledge management practice should identify improvement opportunities for the knowledge
management system, processes, tools, or other resources, with the aim of improving the practice and the
associated stakeholders’ experience.

It is important to ensure that improvements are not only initiated but also effectively implemented. An
approach to implementing improvement is described in the continual improvement practice guide. It is also
important to use multiple practices in the context of value streams to maintain the momentum of continual
improvement.

2.5 KEY METRICS

The effectiveness and performance of the ITIL practices should be assessed within the context of the value
streams to which each practice contributes. As with the performance of any tool, the practice’s performance
can only be assessed within the context of its application. However, tools can differ greatly in design and
quality, and these differences define a tool’s potential or capability to be effective when used according to
its purpose. Further guidance on metrics, key performance indicators (KPIs), and other techniques that can
help with this can be found in the measurement and reporting practice guide.

Key metrics for the knowledge management practice are mapped to its PSFs. They can be used as KPIs in the
context of value streams in order to assess the contribution of the practice to the effectiveness and efficiency
of those value streams. Some examples of metrics are given in Table 2.3.

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Knowledge management 17

Table 2.2 Examples of key metrics for the practice success factors

Practice success factors Key metrics

Creation and maintenance of culture of valuable Compliance of the knowledge management practice culture
knowledge transfer and usage across the organization with formally stated requirements

Stakeholders’ satisfaction with the knowledge management

practice culture adoption and acceptance

Absorption capacity

Adoption of the knowledge management practice across

the organization

Enabling effective informational support for decision- Stakeholder satisfaction with the informational support for
making across an organization decision making

Compliance of information with formally stated

requirements, according to audit reports

Information quality (accuracy, completeness, consistency,

uniqueness, and timeliness)

Knowledge management tools effectiveness

Users’ satisfaction with knowledge management tools

There are several methods for measuring an organization’s intangible assets which can be applied to the
knowledge management practice14.

The correct aggregation of metrics into complex indicators will make it easier to use the data for the ongoing
management of value streams, and for the periodic assessment and continual improvement of the knowledge
management practice. There is no single best solution. Metrics will be based on the overall service strategy
and priorities of an organization, as well as on the goals of the value streams to which the practice
contributes.

14
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ctions_for_Future_Research

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Value streams and processes

3.1 VALUE STREAM CONTRIBUTION
Like any other ITIL management practice the knowledge management practice contributes to multiple value
streams. It is important to remember that a value stream is never formed from a single practice. The
knowledge management practice combines with other practices to provide high-quality services to consumers.
The main value chain activities to which the practice contributes are:

● improve
● deliver and support.
The contribution of the knowledge management practice to the service value chain is shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 The contribution of the knowledge management practice to the service value chain

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Knowledge management 19

3.2 PROCESSES
Each practice may include one or more processes and activities that may be necessary to fulfil the purpose of
that practice.

Process

A set of interrelated or interacting activities that transform inputs into outputs. A process takes one or
more defined inputs and turns them into defined outputs. Processes define the sequence of actions and
their dependencies.

Knowledge management activities form three processes:

● establishing and maintaining the four dimensions of service management

● on demand information discovery
● information model management and integration

Establishing and maintaining the knowledge management environment and

four dimensions of service management
The process ensures the existence and improvement of the environment where all stakeholders understand
the nature of knowledge and are willing to create, use, and transfer it15. The process is focused on:

● changing obsolete patterns of knowledge usage

● building and the continual improvement of the organizational culture that enables valuable knowledge
usage and transfer
● empowering the learning environment within an organization
● continual improvement of knowledge management practice in general
● identifying the knowledge asset within an organization
● identifying the way to create and transfer knowledge and manage knowledge assets (tacit to explicit,
structured and unstructured).

When developing the principles of the knowledge management practice culture and building the knowledge
management capabilities, an organization should consider all four dimensions of service management as well
as external factors. (See ITIL® 4: Foundation Edition Chapter 3 for more information.)

15
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Table 3.1 Inputs, activities, and outputs of nurturing organizational culture of knowledge usage
and sharing process
Key inputs Activities Key outputs

Knowledge management stakeholder’s Understand current culture of Knowledge Management

satisfaction assessment knowledge usage and knowledge approach
sharing
Previous improvement results Scope of Knowledge
Review external and internal management assets
Policies and regulatory requirements
requirements and factors of influence
knowledge management
Financial guidelines and constraints
Optimize response, identify practice improvement plan
Improvements proposals from improvements
Templates, instructions and
relationship, workforce and talent
Promote and empower usage of guidance for knowledge
management practices, organizational
knowledge management practice management lifecycle
change, other practices
across the organization management
Risk information
Review knowledge management Recommendations and
practice application and initiate approach for knowledge system
improvements building and maintenance

Data and information quality

guidelines

Change requests

Requirements and information

for organizational change
management, workforce and
talent management,
relationship management

Materials for knowledge

management trainings and
learning environment
empowerment

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Knowledge management 21

Figure 3.2 Workflow of Establishing and maintenance of knowledge management environment

Table 3.2 Example of activities for management of nurturing organizational culture of

knowledge usage and sharing process

Activity Example

Understand current culture of knowledge usage and Knowledge manager together with management team,
knowledge sharing service owners, and others relevant to the
stakeholders review and analyse:

● Organizational information and knowledge flows

● Results and progress of knowledge management
practice improvement and requests for knowledge
management improvement from other practices
● Employees, customers, and partners satisfaction
● Other information that may help to understand if
the organization knowledge management is up to
date and meets the needs of the organization

This is done regularly (interval-based, for example

once or twice per year) or as a response to a
significant change of the inputs (event-based).

The knowledge manager with the support of the

management team nominates people and assigns the
roles of the knowledge management team members.

Review external and internal requirements and factors The knowledge manager and knowledge management
of influence team members continually review and analyse:

● External factors that impact knowledge system

● Available emerging practices for data, information
and knowledge management

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Knowledge management 22

● Requirements and recommendations for knowledge

management for relevant industries (like GDPR, ISO
30401, ISO 900, and so on)
● Data analysing techniques and methods
● Other valuable information for supporting a
knowledge sharing environment

Optimize response and identify improvements Based on the outputs of the previous steps, the
knowledge manager together with the knowledge
management team members should identify the
optimal response of the knowledge management
approach to organizational strategy. (It is important to
keep in mind that not all best practices and new
approaches should be implemented and used
immediately. The organization should only use those
that suits its vision.)

Review initiatives and initiate improvements

The knowledge manager reviews the practice and
registers all of the required and identified knowledge
management related to the improvement initiatives
via the continual improvement register. The relevant
members of the organization processes it with the
involvement of the continual improvement practice.

Promote and empower usage of knowledge The knowledge manager and knowledge management
management practice across the organization team members create relevant guidance, training
materials (text, videos, podcasts, and so on), and
share information via the relevant channels, conduct
training, and support organization members in their
knowledge management activities.

Information about adoption of the promoted patterns

and stakeholders’ satisfaction is used as input for the
process.

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On-demand information discovery

This process focuses on the discovery and provision of new information in response to unusual and non-routine
requests. It requires extra effort and competencies in the investigation and integration of findings into an
organization’s knowledge system. This process is used when a unique or rare request for information is raised,
and the information requested cannot be obtained via the available information systems and patterns.
Examples of scenarios where this process is used include:

● non-standard business analysis to validate a hypothesis

● assessment of emerging technology or business practice
● assessment of other external influences, such as new regulations
● complex requests that are rare, and therefore have not been standardized or automated.

The process supports these knowledge needs by accessing resources and the people with the required
information inside and outside the organization.

Table 3.3 Inputs, activities, and outputs of the management of informational support for
specific area

Key inputs Activities Key outputs

Information request Registration of information request A set of information in requested

format
Access to internal and external Research and data collection
sources of information Updated internal knowledge
Information processing and
storages
Information security policies presentation
Information usage reports
Financial guidelines and constraints Information acceptance

Policies and regulatory requirementsKnowledge integration and review

Figure 3.3 shows a workflow diagram of the on-demand information discovery process.

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Knowledge management 24

Table 3.4 Activities of the on-demand information discovery process

Activity Example

Registration of information request The knowledge manager or assigned knowledge

management team member accepts information
request in agreed format (usually includes: area of
information, purpose of requested information,
currently available sources, requested format, timing,
and so on)

Research and data collection The knowledge manager or knowledge management

team member identifies roles and people that are
likely to be involved in the research and assigns (or
requests resource allocation) them to work on the
request.

Assigned specialists and analysts:

Agree on time that they devote for the research and

expected outputs of the research.

Agree on data selection criteria

Obtain and review available data and information

according to the requested area and purpose in
internal and external sources, in accordance with the
agreed procedures and constraints

Interview people and support tacit-to- explicit

knowledge transfer

Information processing and presentation Assigned members of the knowledge management

team analyse and structure the collected data and
presents it in the agreed format.

Resulting outputs are provided to the agreed group of

stakeholders.

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Information acceptance Agreed stakeholders (information requester and/or

other intended recipients) review the research output
and confirm acceptance, including:

● information quality
● outputs format
● timeliness of the presentation.
If the information is not accepted, the request can be
returned to research step of the processed, or
cancelled (if not relevant anymore, or cannot be
viably fulfilled).

Knowledge integration and review Accepted information is reviewed to assess

opportunities for integration into organization’s
knowledge management systems.

Based on the assessment results, the information may

be:

● Stay in exclusive possession of the intended

recipients (unique one-off requests, or classified
information)
● Integrated into an organization’s knowledge
management system and published (subject to
classification and access policies)

A decision to standardize the information request and

make the information available on a permanent basis
can be initiated (to be assessed and acted upon using
the process of establishing and maintenance of
knowledge management environment described in
section 3.2.1.

Knowledge asset management

The process is focused on the management of knowledge assets throughout their lifecycle and the effective
integration of the knowledge asset into an organization’s knowledge management practice environment.
Knowledge assets may represent the collective and individual, structured and unstructured, tacit and explicit
data and information. Examples include incidents records, applications source code, service level
agreements, technical documentation, and so on. The scope and level of specification of knowledge assets
are defined as part of the ‘establishing and maintenance of knowledge management environment’ process in
conjunction with architecture management, information security management, service configuration
management and other practices.

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Table 3.5 Inputs, activities, and outputs of knowledge assets management

Key inputs Activities Key outputs

Information assets used by the Knowledge asset discovery

organization
New and updated knowledge assets
Information security policies
Knowledge assets analysis and
Data and information quality classification
Knowledge assets management
guidelines
guidelines
Information about errors in
Development of knowledge asset
knowledge system
management guidelines
Knowledge asset management
Stakeholders feedback and
assignments
satisfaction data
Guideline assignment and
communication
Knowledge asset management
reports

Knowledge asset management

assignment acceptance

Knowledge asset review and

improvement initiation

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Knowledge management 27

Figure 3.4 Workflow diagram of the knowledge asset management process

Table 3.6 Activities of the knowledge asset management process

Activity Examples

Knowledge asset discovery The knowledge manager and members of the knowledge
management team analyses the information assets of the
organization. This activity is performed regularly, or can be
triggered by:

● introduction of new information assets

● feedback of knowledge users
● knowledge asset management review findings
● request from a stakeholder.

Information about new or changed knowledge assets is passed to

relevant team members for analysis and classification.

Knowledge assets analysis and Assigned members of the knowledge management team evaluates
classification the importance of the knowledge assets and identifies the
appropriate management guidelines and the responsible team or
role to assign the knowledge asset management responsibilities
to.

If no applicable guideline has been identified (in case of new type

of knowledge asset discovery or because the guideline library is
incomplete), the development of a new management guideline is
initiated.

Development of knowledge asset The knowledge manager is assisted by relevant specialists who
management guidelines develop the guidelines for the management of the newly
discovered knowledge asset. This includes assessment of the
applicable policies. Wherever possible, available guidelines are
reused. Agreed guidelines should include recommendations on

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who should take responsibility for the management of the

information asset.

When a guideline is agreed, it is assigned to the appropriate team

or person to manage the information assets.

Guideline assignment and communication When applicable guideline is identified, it is assigned to

appropriate team or person to manage the information assets.

Knowledge asset management assignment The specialist team or person reviews the assignment and accepts
acceptance or rejects it. Rejections should be explained in enough detail to
facilitate reanalysis and re-assignation.

If the assignment is accepted, the team or person responsible for

the management of the information asset follows the guideline as
part of their usual work in the context of value streams and
practices where the information asset is used.

Knowledge asset review and improvement The knowledge manager performs a review of the information
initiation asset management to assess the applicable key metrics of the
practice and initiate improvements in the information asset
management process and the practice in general. Improvement
initiatives are communicated to the relevant stakeholders and
managed through the continual improvement practice.

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Organization and people

4.1 ROLES, COMPETENCIES, AND RESPONSIBILITIES
The practice guides do not describe the practice management roles such as practice owner, practice lead, or
practice coach. They focus instead on the specialist roles that are specific to each practice. The structure and
naming of each role may differ from organization to organization, so any roles defined in ITIL should not be
treated as mandatory, or even recommended. Remember, roles are not job titles. One person can take on
multiple roles and one role can be assigned to multiple people.

Roles are described in the context of processes and activities. Each role is characterized with a competency
profile based on the model shown in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Competency codes and profiles

Competency Competency profile (activities and skills)
code
L Leader Decision-making, delegating, overseeing other activities, providing
incentives and motivation, and evaluating outcomes

А Administrator Assigning and prioritizing tasks, record-keeping, ongoing

reporting, and initiating basic improvements

C Coordinator/communicator Coordinating multiple parties, maintaining

communication between stakeholders, and running awareness campaigns

М Methods and techniques expert Designing and implementing work techniques,

documenting procedures, consulting on processes, work analysis, and continual
improvement

Т Technical expert Providing technical (IT) expertise and conducting expertise-

based assignments

Knowledge manager
The knowledge manager role can be performed by a dedicated person or the responsibilities can be taken by
the person or team responsible for the specific knowledge management practice area and is capable enough
to coordinate it efficiently.

The role of the knowledge manager should focus less on coordinating and completing actions through
knowledge asset management, but rather to create a knowledge management culture and competencies for
the organization’s evolution.

The role is typically responsible for:

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● coordinating the knowledge management culture and capabilities building process

● defining and assigning knowledge team roles
● ensuring that the knowledge asset management process is known and run in relevant SVS parts according to
the organizations structure, strategy, and needs
● empowering, mentoring, and leading the knowledge team
● formally communicating decisions through the knowledge management practice lifecycle to the
stakeholders and affected parties
● monitoring and reviewing the activities of the teams that are involved in the knowledge management
practice
● conducting regular and ad hoc practice analyses, and initiating improvements to the practice, procedures,
used methods, and tools
● developing the organization’s expertise in the methods and approaches for the knowledge management
practice
● creating an environment permeated by psychological safety, mutual respect, and trust where employees
choose to learn, unlearn, use and share knowledge in agreed way
● holding the knowledge team accountable and empowering commitment.
The competency profile for these roles is LACMT, though the importance of each of these competencies varies
from activity to activity. Examples of the roles which can be involved in knowledge management activities are
listed in Table 4.2, together with the associated competency profiles and required skills.

Knowledge management team

The knowledge management team is a team of people with different competencies who work together and
lead the knowledge management practice to achieve the desired outcomes. The shared leadership is a set of
shared practices that should be executed by people at all levels of the organizational structure. The role can
be assigned to people all over an organization depending on their experience, competencies, and according to
a specific project/process/task.

The knowledge management practice team together with the knowledge manager are responsible for the
definition, communication, and execution of the knowledge management strategy, plans, and guidelines. It is
expected that the knowledge management team will apply its ingenuity and contribute ideas and efforts to
the effective knowledge management practice across the organization.

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Other roles involved in organizational knowledge management activities

Table 4.3 Examples of roles with responsibility for organizational knowledge management
activities

Activity Responsible roles Competency Special skills

profile

Establishing and maintenance of knowledge management environment

Understand current culture Knowledge manager CAT Knowledge and understanding of an

of knowledge usage and organization’s strategy and
Management team
knowledge sharing structure.
HR director and team
Knowledge of the services and
Service owner products

Product owner Analytical skills.

Relationship manager

Supplier manager

Review external and Knowledge manager AC Knowledge of data management

internal requirements and methods, BDA trends, other
Management team
factors of influence knowledge management related
HR team information.

Information security team Information processing

Product owner Analytical skills

Service owner

Optimize response, Knowledge manager AMCT Knowledge of an organization’s

identify improvements strategy, structure, and goals
Risk manager

Information security
manager Understanding of the knowledge
management methods and tools
Financial manager

Service owner

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Product owner Knowledge of the services and

products
Relationship manager

Supplier manager

Review initiatives and

Knowledge manager AMC Knowledge of social networks
initiate improvements
communication methods
Knowledge management
team

Continual improvement Presentational skills

manager

Organizational change
Mentoring, consultancy, and
manager
coaching
HR manager

Knowledge of conversational
intelligence and nonviolent
communication methods

Promote and empower

Knowledge manager CL Knowledge of continual
usage of knowledge
improvement method
management practice Management team
across the organization
Service owner

Product owner

HR team

On-demand information discovery

Understanding of knowledge
Registration of information Knowledge manager TA
management practice and
request
Knowledge management registration procedures
team

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Research and data Knowledge management ATC Knowledge of data research and
collection team analysis methods

Product owner

Service owner

Relationship manager

Supplier manager

Business analyst

Technical specialists

Information processing and Knowledge management ACT Analytical skills

presentation team
Presentational skills
Product owner
Knowledge in a related to a request
Service owner area

Relationship manager

Supplier manager

Business analyst

Technical specialists

Information acceptance Any role in the TA Understanding of the purpose and

organization context of the information request

Analytical skills

Knowledge integration and Knowledge manager MTC Analytical skills

review
Knowledge management
team
Understanding of knowledge
Service owner management practice

Product owner

Configuration manager Knowledge and understanding of

organization’s strategy and
Risk manager
structure.

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Information security team

Knowledge assets management

Knowledge asset discovery Knowledge manager AT Good knowledge of the

organization’s informational
Knowledge management
environment, analytical skills
team

Knowledge assets analysis Knowledge manager AT Good knowledge of the knowledge

and classification management guidelines and
Knowledge management
procedures
team

Service owner
Analytical skills
Product owner

Configuration manager

Risk manager

Information security team

Development of knowledge Knowledge manager ACT Good knowledge of the knowledge

asset management management guidelines and
Knowledge management
guidelines procedures
team

Service owner
Analytical skills
Product owner

Configuration manager
Good knowledge of the
Risk manager
organization’s management
Information security team practices, organizational structure
and responsibilities

Communication skills

Guideline assignment and Knowledge manager C Communication skills

communication
Knowledge management
team
Good knowledge of organizational
structure and responsibilities

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Knowledge asset Any specialist or manager AT Analytical skills

management assignment role in the organization
acceptance
Good knowledge of own and related
responsibilities and associated roles

Knowledge of the products, services

and information resources

Knowledge asset review Knowledge manager ATMC Good knowledge of the knowledge
and improvement initiation management guidelines and
Service owner
procedures
Product owner

Configuration manager
Analytical skills
Risk manager

Information security
Good knowledge of the
manager
organization’s management
practices, organizational structure
and responsibilities

Communication skills

4.2 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES AND TEAMS

The knowledge manager role may be associated with a formal job title but it is common practice to have a
dedicated person within an organization who oversees the knowledge management practice. However, such
structures are more likely to be found in larger organizations with a complex management system or where
the knowledge management practice is mature and the importance of the knowledge assets are recognized.

Formal teams for the practice may include a knowledge management team and temporary teams assigned for
a specific knowledge management activity or project. The most common and effective practice is to identify
the people responsible for the knowledge management practice in every team: product, functional, or
management. The knowledge management practice should be integrated into every activity and every
practice, instead of being kept isolated within a dedicated formal structure.

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Information and technology

5.1 INFORMATION EXCHANGE

● The effectiveness of the knowledge management practice is based on the quality of the
information used. This includes, but is not limited to, information about: organizational strategy
and values organizational structure
● knowledge management methods and tools
● services and their architecture
● partners and suppliers
● policies and requirements which regulate organizational structure
● requested knowledge, including:
● expected benefits for the employees and the organization as whole
● estimated time and cost of information and knowledge research, use, share
● regulations affecting the information and knowledge stakeholder satisfaction with the practice.

This information may take various forms. The key inputs and outputs of the knowledge
management practice are listed in section 3.

To avoid losing valuable knowledge through organizational changes and onboarding/offboarding

new customers, employees, and partners organizations should consider the knowledge
management practice as an important participant through OCM, customer journey, and supplier
management.

5.2 AUTOMATION AND TOOLING

Data science technology, software platforms, virtual reality, artificial intelligence, machine
learning, IoT (internet of things), and other new approaches continually evolve to leverage
knowledge management strategies.

In most cases, the work of the knowledge management practice can significantly benefit from
automation. This may involve the solutions outlined in Table 5.1 when automation is both possible
and effective.

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Table 5.1 Automation solutions for organizational change management activities

Process activity Means of automation Key functionality Impact on the

effectiveness of the
practice

Establishing and maintenance of knowledge management environment

Understand the current Social software, Data analysis, informationHigh, especially in a big
culture of knowledge analytical and reporting presentation, and size organization with
usage, and knowledge tools sharing. complex structure
sharing
Talent management and
HR tools

Knowledge search tools

Knowledge visualization
tools

Review external and Knowledge search tools Collecting best practices, High
internal requirements new approaches,
Data Science
and factors of influence requirements, and other
Techniques
information outside the
Big data tools organization

External analytical
portals and libraries

Social software
(including platforms for
experience exchange
between organizations)

Legal information
portals

Optimize response, Analytical and solution Data analysis, decision Medium

identify improvements modelling tools making and presentation
to stakeholders
Knowledge visualization
tools

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Review initiatives and Knowledge visualization Information presentation Medium to high,

initiate improvements tools and sharing through especially in a big size
organization organization with
Social software
complex structure
Communication tools
Promote and empower
Project management Communicating, and Medium to high,
usage of knowledge
tools, communication initiating improvement especially in a big size
management practice
systems, collaboration actions organization with
across the organization
systems complex structure

On-demand information discovery

Registration of Ticketing and workflow Enabling and controlling High, especially for
information request systems, knowledge knowledge management large volumes of
search tools process workflow; requests for
prioritization of backlog information support
and workflow
management; workflow
visualization

Research and data Knowledge search tools Enabling data research, Very high
collection efficient choice and
Content repositories collection

Decision support tools

Big data tools

Data Science
Techniques

External analytical
informational portals
and libraries

External professional
social networks

legal information
portals

Information processing Knowledge visualization Formalization and High, especially for

and presentation tools structuring research large volumes of

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results in a requested requests for

Decision support tools
format. Presenting information support
Data analytics tools outputs to stakeholders

Information acceptance Ticketing and workflow Enabling efficient way to Low to medium
systems get feedback from
stakeholder. Quick and
traceable remote
acceptance/rejection of
information

Knowledge integration Content repositories Integrate new High, especially for

and review information and large volumes of
Knowledge search tools
knowledge into existing requests for
Knowledge visualization knowledge system and information support
tools communicate changes to
stakeholders
Social software

Communication tools

Knowledge assets management

Knowledge asset Content repositories Review and find Very high

discovery requested knowledge
Knowledge search tools
asset
Knowledge visualization
tools

Social software

Knowledge assets Content repositories Create, add, update Very high

analysis and knowledge asset
Knowledge search tools
classification
Knowledge visualization
tools

Social software

Development of Knowledge visualization Analysis, formalization High

knowledge asset tools, and structuring of
management guidelines knowledge assets

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Decision support tools

Data analytics tools

Knowledge visualization
tools

Guideline assignment Knowledge visualization Presenting outputs to Medium to high

and communication tools, stakeholders especially for
organizations with
Social software
complex structure
Communication tools and/or large volumes of
knowledge flows

Knowledge asset Ticketing and workflow Enabling efficient way to Low to medium
management systems get feedback from
assignment acceptance stakeholder. Quick and
traceable remote
acceptance/rejection of
information

Knowledge asset review Content repositories Knowledge assets usage High

and improvement in a right moment in a
Knowledge search tools
initiation convenient way
Knowledge visualization
tools

Social software

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Partners and suppliers

Very few services are delivered using only an organization’s own resources. Most, if not all, depend
on other services. These are often provided by third parties (see section 2.4 of ITIL® Foundation:
ITIL 4 Edition for a model of a service relationship).

An organizations’ absorption capacity increases both from involving suppliers to enable the
knowledge management practice activities and from recognizing partners as a source of
information (even those suppliers and partners who are not related to the practice’s support
function). Information and knowledge exchange are vital for any actions and where it interacts and
cooperates with external stakeholders in the SVS.

Related risks should be considered when planning the cooperation and knowledge sharing
interfaces with partner organizations. For example, the risk of losing expertise. Any activity
outsourced to a partner organizations results in the loss of key in-house expertise and knowledge.
Yet, to mitigate this risk an organization should include knowledge management practice actions
with partners in onboarding/off-boarding procedures.

Where organizations aim to ensure fast and effective knowledge management practice, they
usually try to agree to close cooperation with their partners and suppliers, removing formal
bureaucratic barriers in communication, collaboration, and decision-making. All parties in such
relationships should aim for mutual transparency and visibility of the changes that may affect the
other parties (see the supplier management practice guide for more information).

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Important reminder
Most of the content of the practice guides should be taken as a suggestion of areas that an
organization might consider when establishing and nurturing their own practices. The practice
guides are catalogues of topics that organizations might think about, not a list of answers. When
using the practice guides, organizations should always follow the ITIL guiding principles:

● focus on value
● start where you are
● progress iteratively with feedback
● collaborate and promote visibility
● think and work holistically
● keep it simple and practical
● optimize and automate.

More information on the guiding principles and their application can be found in section 4.3 of
ITIL® Foundation: ITIL 4 Edition.

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Acknowledgments
AXELOS Ltd is grateful to everyone who has contributed to the development of this guidance.
These practice guides incorporate an unprecedented level of enthusiasm and feedback from across
the ITIL community. In particular, AXELOS would like to thank the following:

8.1 AUTHORS
Julie Mohr, Antonina Klentsova

8.2 REVIEWERS
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