UNIT 1
Force, Motion, and Energy
 

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Suggested time allotment: 8 to 10 hours

Unit 1
MODULE  

1 FORCES AND MOTION 

Overview

In Grade 7, you described an object ’s motion in terms of displacement, speed

or velocity, and acceleration. You performed activities wherein you interpreted or
created visual representations of the motion of objects such as tape charts and
motion graphs. The concepts were arrived at by studying examples of uniform
motion or objects moving in straight line at constant speed. Then you were also
introduced to non-uniform motion where the object covers unequal distances or
displacements at equal intervals of time. When a jeepney starts moving, it speeds
up. When a jeepney nears a stop sign, it slows down. The jeepney is covering
different displacements at equal time intervals and hence it is not moving at a
uniform velocity. In other words, the jeepney is accelerating.

Most of the motions we come across in our daily life are non-uniform and the
primary cause of changes in motion is FORCE. In this module, you will learn about
the effects of force on motion. Newton’s Three Laws of Motion –   the central
organizing principle of classical mechanics – will be presented and applied to real-life
situations.

 At the end of Module 1, you will be able to answer the following key
questions:

Do forces always result in motion?

What are the conditions for an object to stay at rest, to keep moving at
constant velocity, or to move with increasing velocity?
How is force related to acceleration?

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In the lower grades, you learned that an object can be moved by pushing or
pulling. In physics, this push and pull is referred to as force (F). Consider a ball on
top of a table as shown in Figure 1. If someone pushes the ball, it will move or roll
across the surface of the table (Figure 1a). And when it is again pushed in the
direction of its motion, it moves farther and even faster (Figure 1b). But when you
push it on the other side instead, opposite to the direction of its motion, the ball may
slow down and eventually stop (Figure 1c). Lastly, when you push it in a direction
different from its original direction of motion, the ball also changes its direction
(Figure 1d). Force therefore can make objects move, move faster, stop, or change
their direction of motion. But is this always the case? Can force always bring about
change in the state of motion of an object?

a. c.

b. d.

Figure 1. Effect of force on an object

Balanced and Unbalanced Forces

 An object may be acted upon by several forces. For example, an object may
be pushed and pulled in different directions at the same time. To identify which of
these forces would be able to cause change in the motion of the object, it is
important to identify all the forces acting on it.

To accurately describe the forces acting on an object, it is important for you to

be familiar first with the following terms: magnitude, direction, point of application,
and  line of action. Forces are described in terms of these properties. Magnitude 
refers to the size or strength of the force. It is commonly expressed in Newton (N).
Consider the diagram in Figure 2 showing a force, represented by the arrow, acting
on a ball. The direction of the arrow indicates the direction  of the force while the

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length of the arrow represents the relative magnitude of the force. If the force applied
on the ball is doubled, the length of the arrow is increased two times. The line of
action is the straight line passing through the point of application and is parallel to
the direction of the force.

Point of
Points to the application
direction of the
force

Line of action Line of action

F 

Figure 2. Force acting on a ball

Activity 1
Forces on objects at rest 
Objectives:

 After performing this activity, you should be able to identify the forces acting
on an object at rest.

Materials:

pen pair of scissors

string book

Procedure 

Situation 1

1. Hang a pen by a piece of string as shown in Figure 3a.

Q1. Is the pen at rest or in motion?

Figure 3a. Hanging pen

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Q2. Are there forces acting on the pen? If yes, draw the forces. You may use
arrows to represent these forces.

2. Cut the string with a pair of scissors.

Q3. What happens to the pen? What could have caused the pen’s motion? 

Situation 2

1. Place a book on top of a table as shown in

Figure 3b.

Q4. Is the book at rest or in motion?

Q5. Are  there forces acting on the book? If yes,

draw the forces acting on the book.

2. Let one member of your group push the book

in one direction and another member push it
in the opposite direction at the same time with
the same amount of push (force). Figure 3b. Book on a table

Q6. Did the book move? How will you make the
book move?

In the situations above, both the pen and the book are at rest. But this does
not mean that there are no forces acting on them. So what causes them to stay in
place? Consider the next activity.

Activity 2
Balance of forces 
Objectives:

 After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. examine the conditions when two forces balance, and 

2. explain the effect of balanced forces on the state of motion of an object.

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Materials:

4 sets spring balance

1 piece of sturdy cardboard
threads

Procedure:

1. Bore four holes around the cardboard as

shown. Label the holes A, B, C, and D.
Figure 4
2. Attach threads to the holes.

3. Attach a spring balance to thread A and another one to thread D. Hold the
cardboard to keep it still. Pull the balances along the same line such that when
released, the cardboard remains at rest.

4. When the cardboard is at rest, examine the magnitudes and directions of the
two forces by reading the spring balance.

5. Draw the line of action of the forces acting on the cardboard. Extend the lines
until they intersect. Mark the point of intersection and draw arrows starting at
this point to represent the forces acting on the cardboard.

6. Repeat steps 3 to 5 for pair B and C.

Q7. When the cardboard is at rest, how do the magnitudes and directions of the
pair of forces acting on it compare?

7. Now here is a challenge. Find out the directions of all the forces such that when
all the threads were pulled with the same amount, the cardboard will not move
or rotate when released.

Q8. If you draw the lines of action of all the forces acting on the board and extend
the lines, what will you get?

 ___________________________________________________________________

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Line of action

Tension Normal
force force
Pen Book

Force of
gravity Force of
gravity

(a) Pen (b) Book

Figure 5: Force diagram

The diagram in Figure 5 shows the forces acting on the a) pen and b) book in
 Activity 1. You learned in lower grades that all objects fall down because gravity
pulls on them towards the center of the earth. But what makes the pen and the book
stay at rest? The pen stays in place because of another force that acts on it that is
supplied by the string which we refer to in physics as tension force (T). The book, on
the other hand, stays at rest because of the upward push exerted on it by the table
which we refer to as normal force (F n). Both the tension force and normal force
counteract the pull of gravity (F g) that acts on the objects. Study the diagram. How
do the lengths of the arrows in each case compare? How do the magnitudes and
directions of the pair of forces compare?

In both cases, we can infer that the objects remained at rest because the
forces acting on them are equal in magnitude and in opposite directions and they lie
along the same line of action (Figure 5). The forces are balanced. This was also
demonstrated in Activity 2. Also, if you try out step 7 in Activity 2, you will find that the
lines of action of the four forces intersect through a single point. This also explains
why the body does not move or rotate.

Unbalanced Forces

If you cut the string connected to the pen, the pen will fall. Or if you push the
book on one side across the table, the book will move but will not continue moving if
you don’t continuously push it. The pen falls down because there is no more force
acting on it to counteract the pull of gravity. The book moves because of the push
that you applied. In other words, the forces acting on these objects are no longer

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balanced. If an object initially at rest is under an unbalanced force, it moves in the

direction of the unbalanced force.

How about if the object is already in motion, how will the unbalanced force
affect its motion?

Place a ball on the desk then push it gently to one side. Observe the motion
of the ball as it rolls down the desk. What makes the ball stop rolling after sometime?
 Again, you need to identify the forces acting on the ball. You can see in Fig. 6 that
the force of gravity and the normal force are again acting on the ball. But these
forces are balanced, and so the ball stays on top of the desk. However, there is
another force that acts on the ball along the horizontal line or along the force that set
the ball in motion. Do you still remember your lesson on friction in the lower grades?
You learned that friction is a force that acts between surfaces that are in contact with
one another. Friction in general acts opposite the direction of motion. In the case of
the rolling ball, the frictional force acts between the surfaces of the ball and the desk
and slows down the motion of the ball.

 As the ball rolls to the right as shown in Figure 6, friction acts to the left to
retard its motion. Since you did not push the ball continuously there is no force
present to balance the force of friction. So the ball slowed down and eventually
stopped.

Fn 

Ff  

Fg 

Figure 6. Forces acting on a rolling ball

 Again, due to the unbalanced force, the object changes its state of motion
hence we say that it accelerates. Note that acceleration is not  just an increase in
velocity, but also a decrease in velocity. 

Combining Forces

When we combine or add forces to determine the net or unbalanced force,

we will limit our discussion to those forces which act along the same line of action.
The algebraic signs + and  – are used to indicate the direction of forces. Unlike signs
are used for forces acting in opposite directions, like in the case of the book lying on

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the table. The force of gravity (F g) and normal force (Fn) are assigned opposite signs
- Fn is given a positive (+) sign while F g is given a negative (-) sign. If both Fg and Fn 
are given a magnitude value of 3 units, then the net force along this line (vertical) will
be:
Fnet = Fn + Fg 
= 3 units + (-3 units)
=0

If the sum of the forces equate to zero, they are considered balanced. If the
algebraic sum is not equal to zero, the forces are not balanced. The non-zero sum is
the net or unbalanced force. This unbalanced or net force would cause a change in a
body’s state of motion. 

Concept check:

Study the illustrations and answer the questions that follow.

10 units 1. A boy and a girl are pulling a heavy crate at the

same time with 10 units of force each. What is the
10 units net force acting on the object?

2. What if the boy and the girl pull the heavy crate at
the same time in opposite directions with 10 units
and 5 units of force respectively, what will be the
5 units 10 units net force on the object? Will the object move? To
what direction will it move?

3. Suppose another girl pulls the heavy crate in with 5

5 units units of force in the same direction as the girl, what
will be the net force that will act on the object? Will
5 units 10 units the object move?

Newton’s Three Laws of Motion  

The principles behind Newton’s laws of motion are very significant in

understanding the motion of objects in our universe. Their applications are all around
us. Understanding these laws therefore helps us understand why the things around
us move or behave the way they do.

Newton’s First Law of Motion: Law of Inertia  

You learned that if the forces acting on an object at rest are balanced or if
their algebraic sum equate to zero, the object stays at rest. This illustrates Newton’s

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First Law of Motion, a principle that was primarily based on the works of Galileo. The
following examples will help you understand this principle better.

Activity 3
Investigating inertia 
Objective:

 At the end of this activity, you should be able to demonstrate Newton’s fi rst
law of motion.

Materials:

empty glass 5-peso coins (5 pcs or more)

cardboard plastic ruler
1 peso coin

Procedure

Coin Cardboard
Coin Drop

1. Arrange the setup as shown

in Figure 7.

2. Slowly pull the cardboard Glass

with your hand and observe
what happens.

3. Arrange again the setup as

shown. This time, quickly Figure 7. Cardboard and coin  
flick the cardboard with your
finger. Observe again what happens.

Q9. What happens when you slowly pulled the cardboard? Explain.

Q10. What happens when you flicked the cardboard? Explain.

Stack of Coins

4. Stack the coins on a flat level surface.

5. Quickly hit the coin at the bottom with the edge of the ruler.

Q11. What happens when you hit the coin at the bottom? Why is this so?

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The examples above demonstrate the property of an object to resist any

change in its state of motion. In physics, this property is known as inertia. The coin
dropped into the glass because it was trying to remain in its state of rest. How about
in the second example? How will you explain the behavior of the coins when one of
them was hit with an edge of a ruler?

Measure of Inertia

 All objects have the tendency to resist changes in their state of motion or
keep doing what they are doing. However, changing a body’s state of motion
depends on its inertia. A more massive object which has more inertia is more difficult
to move from rest, slow down, speed up, or change its direction.

Newton's first law  states that an object at rest will stay at rest or an object
in motion will stay in motion and travel in straight line, as long as no external net
force acts on it . The object will change its state of motion only if there is unbalanced
or net force acting upon it.

Law of Inertia
 A body will remain at rest or move at constant velocity unless acted
upon by an external net or unbalanced force.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion: Law of Acceleration  

You learned that when the velocity of a moving body changes, we describe
the motion as one with acceleration. Is there any relationship between acceleration
and any unbalanced force that acts on the body? Find out in the next activity.

Activity 4
Force and acceleration
Objective:

 After this activity, you should be able to describe how the net force acting on
an object affects its acceleration.

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Procedure:

Consider this situation below:

 A group of students conducted an

experiment to determine the relationship
between the force acting on the object
and its acceleration. They used identical
rubber bands to pull the cart as shown in
Figure 8. They varied the number of
Figure 8. Cart pulled by rubber bands
rubber bands to vary the force acting on
the cart. They started with 1 rubber band,
then with 2, 3, and 4 rubber bands, making sure that they stretched the rubber bands
to the same length every time they pull the cart. They used a ticker tape timer to
determine the acceleration of the cart. A ticker tape was connected to the cart such
that when the cart was pulled, the paper tape will be pulled through the timer. And as
the paper tape was pulled through the timer, small dots are formed on the tape.

Starting with the tape for 1 rubber band, they marked the first clear dot and
every 6th  dot thereafter and cut the tape along these points (Figure 9). Then they
pasted the strips side by side in order on a graphing paper to produce the tape chart
for F=1 unit. They did the same for the other tapes to produce tape charts for F=2
units, F=3 units, and F=4 units.

Figure 9: Sample tape

 A. Tape chart analysis

1. Obtain from your teacher the copies of the tape charts produced by the
students for the 4 runs.

Q12. Compare the charts. What similarities and differences have you noticed
among them?

The length of strip in each chart represents the total distance travelled by the
cart over a time interval of 0.10 seconds. Recall that the total distance
travelled over a unit time gives the average velocity of the moving body, or
speed when travelling in straight line. Hence, each strip represents the
average velocity of the cart over a time interval  of 0.10 seconds.

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2. Examine the tape chart for F=1 unit.

Q13. What does the increase in the lengths of the strips suggest? What can you
say about the motion of the cart - is it moving in uniform motion or is it
accelerating? Is this also true with the other runs?

Q14. How do you compare the increase in length of the strips in F= 1 unit? What
does this tell you about the change in the velocity of the cart? Is this also true
with the other tape charts?

Q15. How do you compare the increase in length of the strips among the four tape
charts? Which tape chart shows the greatest increase in the length of the
strips? Which tape chart shows the least increase in the length of the strips?

3. Draw a line that passes through all the dots at the ends of the strips in F=1 unit.
Do the same for the other tape charts.

Q16. Describe the line formed. Does the same pattern exist for the other tape
charts?

B. Quantitative analysis

You can also use the tape chart to compute for the average velocity (vave),
change in velocity (∆v), and acceleration (a) of the cart for each run. Work only
on the tape chart assigned to your group. Other groups will be working on the
other charts. You may follow the simple instruction below.

4. Label each strip 1,2,3,4, and 5 as shown in Figure 10.

1 2 3 4 5

Figure10: Sample tape chart

5. Compute for the average velocity of the cart over each time interval by
measuring the length of the strip and dividing it by the time covered to travel
such distance. Example, if the length of the strip is equal to 2.5 cm, then the
average velocity during that time interval will be
vave = 2.5 cm / 0.10sec
= 25 cm/s

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Q17. How do the values of vave compare? What does this tell you about the motion
of the cart?

6. Next, determine the difference in the average velocities ( ∆v) of the cart
between two successive time intervals. Example, you can get the difference in
the average velocities between strips 1 & 2, between strips 2 & 3, and so on.

Q18. How do the computed values of ∆ v compare? What does this tell you about
the motion of the cart?

7. Recall that acceleration is defined as the change in velocity per unit of time. To
get the acceleration of the cart, divide your computed values of ∆v in step 6 by
0.10 seconds, the unit of time. Have at least three computed values of
acceleration.

Q19. How do your computed values of acceleration compare?

8. Compute for the average acceleration a ave.

9. Ask from the other groups the values of aave for the other tape charts. Record
them all in Table 1 below.

Table 1. Computed values of a ave 

Tape chart # of rubber bands Computed aave 
F = 1 unit 1

F = 2 units 2

F = 3 units 3

F = 4 units 4

Q20. In this activity, the number of rubber bands represents the magnitude or
amount of the force acting on the cart. How is acceleration of the cart related
to the amount of force acting on it?

If the net force acting on an object is constant, its velocity changes at a

constant rate over time. Hence, it is considered to be moving with constant
acceleration. In the tape chart, this is indicated by the uniform increase in length of
the strips over time. But if the force acting on the object is changed, its acceleration
will also change. In your previous activity, you noticed that as the number of rubber
bands increases, the acceleration of the cart also increases. When the net force is
doubled, acceleration is also doubled. When it is tripled, acceleration is also tripled.
We can therefore say that at constant mass, the acceleration of an object is directly
proportional to the magnitude of the unbalanced force F acting on it. This relationship
can be mathematically expressed as:

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3. Make the exposed parts of the wire touch momentarily. Do not keep them in
contact for so long.

Q22. What happened to the bulb?

4. Draw the setup and trace the path the current takes when the exposed parts of
the wires touch each other.

Q23. Explain what happened to the bulb when the exposed wires momentarily
touched.

Q24. When the exposed wires were momentarily touched the path of current was
shortened (hence the term short circuit) compared to the original path which
include the bulb. What was the effect on the resistance of the circuit when the
path of current was shortened or when a short circuit occurred?

Q25. What was the effect on the current when a short circuit occurred?

Q26. Why do short circuits cause fire?

 A short circuit happens when the exposed parts of the electrical wires touch
one another. When the exposed wires were made to touch, a shortened path was
provided for the current, hence the term short circuit. Since the path has been
shortened, current will no longer take the path through the bulb, thereby decreasing
the total resistance in the path of current. This will result in a large current in the
shortened circuit. Short circuits are dangerous especially with the high line voltage in
our houses (220V compare to 1.5V of dry cells) because the large current produced
can generate a lot of heat that could start a fire.

The current that a wire of given diameter can safely carry is indicated by its
current rating. When the current in the circuit exceeds the wire’s current rating, an
overload of the circuit  occurs. Overloading can also generate a lot of heat in the
wire that can cause a fire outbreak.

In designing electrical installations, engineers estimate the current

requirements of appliances and electrical devices the owner intends to use and
make these as the basis for selecting the appropriate size of wire in wiring the house.

When there are too many appliances plugged into one outlet (also called
octopus wiring) the loads are effectively connected in parallel and overloading may
also occur. Figure 16 shows an example of octopus wiring.

Q27. What happens to the total resistance of the circuit when more and more
appliances are connected to one outlet?

Q28. What happens to the total current?

Q29. Overloading a circuit can start a fire. Explain.

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Figure 16. Octopus wiring

Summary

Electric charges can only flow continuously in a complete circuit. The voltage
provides the energy that moves the charges in the circuit. The current is determined
by the voltage and the total resistance of the circuit. Current is directly proportional to
voltage but inversely proportional to resistance.

In a series circuit, the loads are connected to form a single pathway for
electric charges to pass. In a parallel circuit, the loads are connected to form
branches, each of which provides a separate path for current.

 A short circuit happens when the circuit offers little or no resistance to the
flow of charges. This results in a large amount of current in the circuit. When the
current in the circuit exceeds the wire’s current rating, overload of the circuit occurs.

Link

 All About Circuits. (2003-2012). Ohm’s law (again!). Retrieved from

http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_3/4.html 

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Suggested time allotment: 6 to 8 hours

Unit 1
MODULE  

5 SOUNDS

Overview

“Hey I just met you and this is crazy. So here’s my number so call me
maybe...” This is the popular song of Carly Rae Jepsen. I bet you know this song.
Can you sing the other lines? Is this the ring tone of your mobile? What about your
ring back tone? Would you want that of Maroon 5’s payphone? “ Cadd9I’m at the
 payphone trying toG  call home. Em All of my change I’ve spent Dsus4  on you...”   These
are cool, lovely tunes, and nice sounds.

The Science of Sound has gone all the way from a mere transfer of energy to
the creation of tunes and music for entertainment. Most of our gadgets are sound
embedded to amuse us. In the field of geology and oceanography, sound is used to
determine depths. The health sciences are also using sound for medical purposes.
Some animals are dependent on sound for movement. The newest focus of sound
science is on ecology where ecological patterns and phenomena are predicted
based on sounds released by the different components of the ecosystem. So, are
you ready to have fun with sounds?

In this module, you will learn sound propagation. While you learn about
sound, wave description and characteristics will also be introduced to you. Among
the characteristics, you will focus on the speed of sound. You will find out through
simple activities through which medium sound travels fastest. You will also find out
how the temperature of the medium affects the speed of sound. In the quest to
explore more about sound science, you will be acquainted with the properties of
waves, specifically reflection and refraction.

Through which medium does sound travel fastest- solid, liquid, or gas?
How does the temperature of the medium affect the speed of sound?
How are reflection and refraction manifested in sound?

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Propagation and Characteristics of Sound

Figure 1. Supersonic Figure 2. Hearing Sounds

Have you experienced hearing a sonic boom? Figure 1 shows a whitish cloud
at the tail end of the aircraft. This usually happens when the aircraft travels at a
speed faster than the speed of sound, i.e., the aircraft travels at supersonic speed
producing a sonic boom.

 A sonic boom happens when the aircraft or any vehicle breaks the sound
barrier while it accelerates and outruns the speed of sound. A loud explosive sound
is heard on the ground and is called a sonic boom. The aircraft that does this is
usually called supersonic. There are more amazing occurrences or phenomena
related to sound. Read on and find out.

  Sound Propagation

Sound consists of waves of air particles.

Generally, sound propagates and travels through air. It
can also be propagated through other media. Since it
needs a medium to propagate, it is considered a
mechanical wave. In propagating sound, the waves
are characterized as longitudinal waves. These are
waves that travel parallel to the motion of the particles.
Do all these terms and concepts seem confusing?
Let’s try the succeeding activities to get a clearer
picture of what sound waves are.

Figure 3. Propagating Sound

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Activity 1
The dancing salt and the moving beads!

Objectives:

 At the end of the activity, you will be able to infer that:

1. sound consists of vibrations that travel through the air; and

2. sound is transmitted in air through vibrations of air particles

Materials:

1 rubber band
1 piece of plastic sheet
1 empty large can of powdered milk - 800 g
1 wooden ruler
1 empty small can of evaporated milk - 400 mL
rock salt
1 dowel or 1 wooden rod
1 blue bead
4 colored beads
3 inches of tape
2 large books
scissors
5 pieces of string
paper
slinky spring
transistor radio

Procedure:

Part A: Vibrations produce sound

1. Prepare all the materials needed for the activity. Make sure that you find a work
area far enough from other groups.

2. Put the plastic tightly over the open end of the large can and hold it while your
partner puts the rubber band over it.

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3. Sprinkle some rock salt on top of the plastic.

4. Hold the small can close to the salt and tap

the side of the small can with the ruler as
shown in Figure 4. Figure 4

Q1. What happens to the salt?

5. Try tapping the small can in different spots or holding it in different directions.
Find out how you should hold and tap the can to get the salt to move and
dance the most.

Q2. How were you able to make the salt move and dance the most?

Q3. What was produced when you tapped the small can? Did you observe the salt
bounce or dance on top of the plastic while you tapped the small can?

Q4. What made the salt bounce up and down?

Q5. From your observations, how would you define sound?

6. Switch on the transistor radio and position the speaker near the large can.
Observe the rock salt.

7. Increase the volume of the radio while it is still positioned near the large can.
Observe the rock salt again.

Q6. What happened to the rock salt as the loudness is increased?

Q7. Which wave characteristic is affected by the loudness or the intensity of sound?

Part B: Transmitting sound

8. Let 2 books stand up as shown in Figure 5. Place the dowel on top of the 2
books.

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Tape ear
photo here

Figure 5. Set up for Activity 1B

9. Cut out an image of a human ear from a magazine and tape it to one of the
books.

10. Start with the blue bead. Tape the string to the mark on the dowel that is
farthest away from the ear.

11. Then tape the 4 colored beads to the other 4 marks. Make sure that all the
beads hang in a straight line.

12. The colored beads represent air particles. Create vibrations (sound) in the air
by tapping the blue bead toward the colored beads.

Q8. What happens to the other colored beads when the blue bead is tapped?

13. Create more vibrations by continuously tapping the blue bead and observe
the other beads.

Q9. Are there occasion when the beads converge then expand?

14. If the beads represent air particles, what do the converging and expanding of
the beads represent?

15. Connect one end of the slinky to a fixed point. Hold the other end then push
and pull the slinky continuously. Record your observations.

Q10. Are there converging and expanding parts of the slinky?

Q11. How then is sound classified as a wave?

16. This time shake the other end of the slinky while the other end is still
connected to the fixed point. Record your observations.

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Were you able to get good sets of data from the activity? Did you enjoy
watching the salt dance and the beads move? The salt and the beads represent
particles of air when disturbed. The disturbance encountered by the salt and the
beads causes the salt to bounce up and down and the beads to move together and
spread alternately. In grade 7, you discussed that energy is transferred or
transmitted from one object to another. Bouncing salt is also a manifestation of
energy transmission. When sound is created by tapping the small can, the wave
(sound) is transmitted by air to the larger can causing the plastic cover of the larger
can to vibrate transferring energy to the rock salt. And voila!—dancing rock salt!

What about the beads? Did you observe the alternating converging and
spreading of the beads? Compare this to your observations in the slinky spring. The
converging portions of the beads match the compressions in the slinky while the
spreading portions are the rarefactions of the slinky. With the compressions and
rarefactions, what you were able to produce is called a longitudinal wave.
Longitudinal waves are waves that are usually created by pulling and pushing the
material or medium just like in the slinky (Figure 6). Alternating compressions and
rarefactions are observed. These compressions and rarefactions move along with
the direction of the pushing and pulling activity of the material or medium. Thus, the
wave moves parallel to the motion of material or the particles of the medium. This is
known as a longitudinal wave.

Figure 6. Longitudinal wave

Figure 7. Transverse wave

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Let us compare the longitudinal wave with the other kind of wave known as a
transverse wave in Figure 7. The compressions resemble the trough while the
rarefactions are the crests. Do you still remember these characteristics of waves?
The trough is the lowest part of a transverse wave while the crest is the highest
 portion. The distance from one compression to the next or between two successive
compressions in a longitudinal wave equals the wavelength. If you count the
number of compressions passing by a certain point in 1 second, you are able to
determine the frequency  of the longitudinal wave. If you multiply the measured
wavelength and the computed frequency you will be able to determine the speed of
the wave. In equation,

There are other variations in the equation for the speed of the wave. The
period of the longitudinal wave is the reciprocal of its frequency . This means
that the speed of the wave can be expressed as the ratio of the wavelength and the
period,

Let us try to compare the characteristics of longitudinal wave with that of the
transverse wave in Activity 2.

Activity 2
Characteristics of waves: Comparing longitudinal
and transverse waves
Objectives:

 At the end of the activity, you will be able to:

1. distinguish the different characteristics of waves;

2. determine their frequency and wavelength; and
3. compute the wave speed based on the frequency and wavelength

Materials:

Pentel pen or permanent marker

stopwatch or mobile phone
meterstick
old calendar (big poster calendar) or old newspaper
metal slinky

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Procedure:

1. Place the old calendar or old newspaper on the floor. Make sure that the
newspaper or old calendar is long enough to accommodate the full length of
the slinky spring.

2. Put the slinky on top of the old newspaper or old calendar. Ask one of your
groupmates to hold one end of the slinky at the one end of the newspaper. This
will serve as the fixed end .

3. Another groupmate will hold the other end of the slinky. This is the movable
end .

4. The other members of the group should be along the sides so they can mark
the corresponding crests. Identify a reference point (point A) along the slinky
from which you are going to base your frequency count.

5. Shake the movable end. Apply just enough force to create large wave pulses.
Make sure, however, that the crest and trough parts will still be formed within
the newspaper area.

6. Another groupmate should count the number of pulses passing through point A
in a minute. This is the frequency   in waves per minute. You can convert this
later to waves per second.

7. While your classmate is creating transverse waves by shaking the slinky, note
by marking on the newspaper the crest and the trough of the created wave
pulses.

8. Trace the wave form then measure the wavelength of the wave pulses. Record
all your data on the answer sheet provided.

9. Repeat steps 5 to 8 for two more trials. Compute for the wave speed in each of
the 3 trials. Determine also the average speed of the wave in the slinky.

10. For the second set up, repeat the whole procedure (steps 1 to 9) but this time
instead of shaking the slinky, pull and push the slinky to create a longitudinal
wave.

11. Note and mark the areas/regions in the newspaper where the slinky forms
compressions and rarefactions.

12. Count the number of compressions passing through point A in a minute. This is
the frequency of the longitudinal wave in waves per minute.

13. Measure the length between 2 compressions. This is the wavelength of the
longitudinal wave. 

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14. Do this for three more trials, and then compute for the wave speed and the
average speed of the wave in the slinky.

Q12. When there are more waves passing through the reference point in a period
of time, which wave characteristic also increases?

Q13. When there are more waves passing through the reference point in a period
of time, what happens to the wavelength of the waves?

 As you have observed in Activity 2, there are many characteristics common
to both transverse wave and longitudinal wave. The difference is in the motion of
particles with respect to the direction of travel of the wave. Again, in a transverse
wave, the movement of particles is perpendicular to the direction of wave travel. In a
longitudinal wave, on the other hand, travel is parallel to the movement of the
particles (Figure 8). In longitudinal waves, compressions are created when a push is
applied on air. When air is pushed, there is a force applied on a unit area of air. From
your science in the lower grades, the force applied per unit area is called pressure.
This means that longitudinal waves are created by pressure and are also called
 pressure waves. Basically, sound as you have observed it is a longitudinal wave and
a pressure wave. Just like the transverse waves, it has wave characteristics. Its
movement is parallel to the particle motion. But do the particles in a way affect the
movement of sound? What factors affect sound speed? Let us try finding this out in
the next activities.

Figure 8. Transverse and longitudinal waves

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Activity 3
Sound race...Where does sound travel fastest?
Objective:

 At the end of the activity, you will be able to distinguish which material
transmits sound the best.

Materials:

watch/clock that ticks

mobile phone
wooden dowel 80-100 cm long
metal rod 80-100 cm long
string (1 meter)
metal spoon
3 pieces zip lock bag (3x3) or waterproof mobile phone
carrying case

Procedure:

1. Hold a ticking watch/clock as far away from your body as you can. Observe
whether or not you can hear the ticking.

2. Press one end of the wooden dowel against the back part of the watch and the
other end beside your ear. Listen very well to the ticking sound. Record your
observations.

3. Repeat step #2 using a metal rod instead of the wooden dowel. Record your
observations.

Q14. Did you hear the watch tick when you held it at arm's length? When you held
it against the wooden dowel? When you held it against the metal rod?

4. Repeat steps #1 to #3 using a vibrating mobile phone instead. Record your

observations.

Q15. Did you hear the mobile phone vibrate when you held it at arm's length?
When you held it against the wooden dowel? When you held it against the
metal rod?

5. Place the mobile phone in the waterproof carrying case and dip it in a basin of
water while it vibrates.

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Q16. Based on your observations, which is a better carrier of sound? Air or wood?
 Air or water? Air or metal? Water or metal?

6. At the center of the meter long string, tie the handle of the metal spoon. Hold
the string at each end and knock the spoon against the table to make it ring or
to create a sound. Listen to the ringing sound for a few seconds then press the
ends of the strings against your ears. Observe and record the difference in
sound with and without the string pressed against your ear.

7. Knock the spoon against the table. When you can no longer hear the sound of
the ringing spoon, press the ends of the string against your ears. Record
whether or not you could hear the ringing of the spoon again.

Q17. How did the sound of the spoon change when the string was held against
your ears?

Q18. When the ringing of the spoon was too quiet to be heard through the air,
could it be heard through the string?

Q19. Is the string a better carrier of sound than air?

So, through which material does sound travel fastest? Through which
material did sound travel the slowest? Why does sound travel fastest in solids and
slowest in air? Do you have any idea what makes sound move fast in solids?

Figure 9 shows a model for the three states of matter. Identify which is solid,
liquid or gas. Now, do you have any hint why sound moves fastest in a solid
medium? To give us a better picture of the differences of the three states of matter,
consider worksheet 1. Then with the aid of Activity No.4 entitled Chimes... Chimes...
Chimes... you will be able to determine what makes solid the best transmitter of
sound.

Figure 9. A model for the three states of matter

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Worksheet 1: Solids, Liquids, & Gases

Direction: Using several resources and references, compare the different

characteristics of solids, liquids, and gases by completing the table below.

Comparing Solids, Liquids, and Gases

Characteristics Solid Liquid Gas

Intermolecular spacing 
Volume
 Ability to flow
Compressibility

Density

Activity 4
Chimes… Chimes… Chimes… 
Objective:

 At the end of the activity, you will be able to infer using improvised chimes
that closely spaced materials are the best transmitters of sound.

Materials:

materials for chime

nylon string or thread
plastic lid or wood about 1 ½ foot long
small electric fan
scissors
nail and hammer
beads
paint
iron stand

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Procedure:

Improvised Chime

1. Go on a treasure hunt and look for items that will create a lovely sound when
they collide, such as seashells, bells, beads, spoons, forks, and stones.

2. If the items are thin enough, poke a hole through them with a nail. Then pull a
piece of string or nylon thread through each hole, and tie a knot.

3. For heavier objects, such as stones, spoons, or forks; wrap the string around
the object a few times, and rub non-toxic liquid glue over the string to hold it
in place.

4. Next, find a colorful plastic lid or a nice looking pieces of wood to serve as the
top of the wind chime.

5. Tie at least 6 of these stringed objects on the plastic lid or on the wood. Make
sure that the strands are evenly spaced and are not too far apart from each
other.

6. Finally, tie another string at the two ends of the plastic lid or on the wood for
hanging the chime.

Sounding the Chimes

1. Hang your chime in an iron stand where there is no wind source except your
handy fan.

2. With the 6 stringed objects hanging on the wooden or plastic lid, switch on
the fan and observe. This is your CHIME 1. Listen to the sound created by
your chime. Ask one of your groupmates to move away from the chime until
the sound is not heard anymore. Measure this distance from the chime to
your groupmate and record your results.

3. Repeat step #2 but add 4 more stringed objects on the chimes creating
chime with 10 stringed objects. Make sure that you tie the additional stringed
objects in between the original ones. This is your CHIME 2.

Q20. With which chime did you record a longer distance?

Q21. Which chime had more stringed objects? Which chime had more closely
spaced stringed objects given the same wooden lid?

4. Repeat step #2 but add 4 more stringed objects on the chime creating a
chime with 14 stringed objects. This is your CHIME 3. 

Q22. With which chime did you record the longest distance?

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Q23. Which chime has the most stringed objects? Which chime has the most
closely spaced stringed objects given the same wooden lid?

Q24. How would you relate the measured distance reached by the sound created
by the chime and the spacing of the stringed objects in each of the 3 chimes?

Q25. Which chime is capable of transmitting sound the best?

Q26. How would you relate the distance of the stringed objects in the chime and
the capability of the chime to transmit sound?

The speed of sound may differ for different types of solids, liquids, and gases.
For one, the elastic properties are different for different materials. This property
(elastic property) is the tendency of a material to maintain its shape and not deform
when a force is applied to the object or medium. Steel for example will experience a
smaller deformation than rubber when a force is applied to the materials. Steel is a
rigid material while rubber can easily deform and is known as a flexible material.

 At the molecular level, a rigid material is distinguished by atoms and/or

particles with strong forces of attraction for each other. Particles that quickly return to
their rest position can vibrate at higher speeds. Thus, sound can travel faster in
mediums with higher elastic properties (like steel) than it can through solids like
rubber, which have lower elastic properties.

Does the phase of matter affect the speed of sound? It actually has a large
impact upon the elastic properties of a medium. Generally, the bond strength
between particles is strongest in solid materials and is weakest in gases. Thus,
sound waves travel faster in solids than in liquids, and faster in liquids than in gases.
While the density of a medium also affects the speed of sound, the elastic properties
have a greater influence on wave speed. Among solids, the most rigid would transmit
sound faster. Just like the case of wood and metal in Activity 3.

What other factors may affect the speed of sound in a medium? What about
temperature? Can the temperature of the medium affect how sound moves? Find out
in the next activity.

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