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Evaluation of Passive Fire Safety Precautions in Sustainable Architecture:

Turkey’s Regulation on Fire Protection Analysis

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CONTEMPORARY ISSUES
IN ARCHITECTURE
ECOLOGY, URBAN ENVIRONMENT, EXPEROENCE

EDITED BY
YILDIZ AKSOY
EFE DUYAN

DAKAM BOOKS

1
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN ARCHITECTURE: ECOLOGY, URBAN ENVIRONMENT, EXPERIENCE
ISBN: 978-625-7034-05-0

Editors: Yıldız Aksoy, Efe Duyan

DAKAM BOOKS - Özgür Öztürk DAKAM YAYINLARI

December 2020 İstanbul.
www.dakam.org
Firuzağa Mah. Boğazkesen Cad., No:76/8, 34425, Beyoğlu, İstanbul.

Cover Design: D/GD (DAKAM Graphic Design)

Print: Metin Copy Plus, Mollafenari Mah., Türkocağı Cad. 3/1, Mahmutpaşa/Istanbul, Turkey.

2
CONTENTS
EDITOR'S NOTE

YILDIZ AKSOY AND EFE DUYAN ............................................................................................... 5

URBAN ISSUES AND TECHNICAL CHALLENGES

ANALYSIS OF GREEN AREAS IN URBAN NEIGHBORHOODS BETWEEN 1990 AND

2020: THE CASE OF KÜÇÜKÇEKMECE

YILDIZ AKSOY ......................................................................................................................... 7

POST-IT EFFECT: RE-PRODUCTION OF URBAN FACADES THROUGH THE

MULTIPLE “INTERFACES” IN ISTANBUL

TUBA SARI, AYLİN ARAS, MARYAM GOLABİ, İMRAN GÜMÜŞ ................................................ 23

BOLD PLANNING

LEVENT ŞENTÜRK ................................................................................................................. 35

ACADEMIC REPRODUCTIONS OF DISCRIMINATORY DISCOURSE ON HUMAN-

ENVIRONMENT RELATIONS: NEIGHBORHOOD STIGMATIZATION IN ISTANBUL

ESER YAĞCI .......................................................................................................................... 47

TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE IN RIJAL AL-MAA’ VILLAGE, SAUDI ARABIA

SALMA DWIDAR, AMANI DERBALI, HALA SIRROR, AMAL ABDELSATTAR, DONIA

ABDELGAWAD...................................................................................................................... 65

AN OVERALL EVALUATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AND

MITIGATION SMART CITY IMPLEMENTATIONS IN MEGA CITIES

ALİYE CEREN ONUR .............................................................................................................. 75

EVALUATION OF PASSIVE FIRE SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN SUSTAINABLE

ARCHITECTURE: TURKEY’S REGULATION ON FIRE PROTECTION ANALYSIS

MUAMMER YAMAN ............................................................................................................. 90

3
EXPERIENCE, PERCEPTION, THEORY

NEUROSCIENCE AND ARCHITECTURE: BASES FOR AN INTERFACE

ANA LUISA ROLIM ...............................................................................................................114

VIRTUAL EXHIBITION AND VISITOR EXPERIENCE: HOW DIGITAL STORYTELLING

ENHANCES ONLINE EXHIBITION SPACES

GIUSEPPE RESTA, EVRİM KARACAN .....................................................................................135

A STUDY ON THE SEMIOTIC PERCEPTION OF GOTHIC CHURCHES IN TURKEY

ELİF ATICI, MEHMET İNCEOĞLU ...........................................................................................155

ALOIS RIEGL, TIME AND ARCHITECTURE: RE-INTERPRETING VALUE SYSTEMS

NIKOLAOS-ION TERZOGLOU, OLGA PSARRI, MYRTO VENIZELOU .........................................168

THE PANDEMIC AND THE CITY

URBAN PLANNING FOR THE ERA OF NEW NORMAL AFTER COVID-19

CHULOH JUNG, JIHAD AWAD, NAHLA AL QASSIMI, BASSIM SALEH ......................................180

THE ARCHITECTURE OF QUARANTINE: A HISTORIC EXPLORATION OF THE

MIGRANT ANTIDOTE ARCHITECTURE

MELISSA J. HERRON, MD MIZANUR RASHID ........................................................................194

AN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN STUDIO ADVENTURE IN PANDEMIC: A

BACKWARDS DISCUSSION ON THE COMPETITION

AYŞEN Ç. ÖZTÜRK, ELİF ATICI, MERVE YAVUZ, N. SEÇİL YOLALAN ........................................203

4
EDITOR'S NOTE
Contemporary Issues in Architecture Ecology, Urban Environment, and Experience is
an edited (multi-authored) book focusing on the new trends and frontiers in
architecture. Architecture renews itself in terms of structural, aesthetical, and
functional aspects that correspond to the needs of every age. Unlike artistic creativity,
innovation in an architectural sense has to be evaluated differently as an object of use
in social life. The innovation might include technical, design, manufacturing,
management, and commercial aspects related to presenting a new (or improved)
product. In other words, innovation, as a novel idea bringing an added-value, is an
enterprise tool, in which change is used as an opportunity. Originality, on the other
hand, the quality of being special and not the same as anything else, opens up a a
discussion of how an original architectural move relates to the context, history, and
cultural background. Original and/or innovative, new social demands and new
technological apparatus challenges architecture every moment by calling out the
creativity of the designer.
Within that scope, the concepts of innovation, originality, and creativity had been
brought into focus.

YILDIZ AKSOY AND EFE DUYAN

5
URBAN ISSUES AND TECHNICAL CHALLENGES

6
EVALUATION OF PASSIVE FIRE SAFETY
PRECAUTIONS IN SUSTAINABLE
ARCHITECTURE: TURKEY’S REGULATION ON
FIRE PROTECTION ANALYSIS
MUAMMER YAMAN

ABSTRACT
The energy crises that have been experienced due to the rapid increase in consumption in the process from
the past to the present have prioritized sustainability. The fact that most of human life is carried out in
buildings has made it necessary to question the theme of sustainability in architecture. Excessive energy
consumption has increased the tendency to use renewable energy, and buildings that are self-sufficient and
provide optimum comfort conditions have emerged, especially in line with passive principles. Sustainable
building components have been created in line with different principles in building materials, building
elements and building and are constantly being developed. In the creation of sustainable building
components, it is necessary to ensure the safety of life and property for the building occupant, and to create
optimum comfort conditions depending on the building physics. In ensuring the safety of life and property
in buildings, fire, which may be a threat throughout the life cycle of the building, has been addressed, and
the necessity of providing fire safety precautions in sustainable buildings has been emphasized. For this
purpose, within the scope of the study, building components used in buildings within the scope of
sustainable architecture were discussed and examined within the scope of fire safety precautions. Within
the scope of building components, thermal insulation materials and recyclable materials in context of
building materials; double skin facades, vegetative roof and facade systems, skylights and solar tubes,
photovoltaic systems and wind turbines in context of building elements; building geometry and facade form
and atrium in context of building are discussed. Within the scope of the investigations, a comprehensive
literature review has been made and fire risk analysis has been presented in sustainable building
components. In the study, passive fire safety precautions are emphasized to those affecting the
architectural design and providing input to the project design process. From the regulation that sets out the
requirements for passive fire safety precautions, the Turkey’s Regulation on Fire Protection (TRFP) was
considered and analysed through sustainable architecture building systems. In order to contribute to the
intelligibility of the subject in the Turkey’s Regulation on Fire Protection, visualizations were made in the
relevant requirements and the evaluation of the regulation was made. As a result of the study, assessments
were made to prevent the emergence and spread of fire caused by material use. It was focused on
eliminating the risks that may cause fire and on the need to create design systems that can limit the spread
of fire. It has been determined that there are no detailed explanations within the scope of sustainable
architecture under the Turkey’s Regulation on Fire Protection. Deficiencies in fire regulation have been
identified in the areas of vegetative roof and facade systems, photovoltaic systems and wind turbines,
building form and facade geometry. Within the framework of sustainable architecture, the need for the
development and elaboration of Turkey’s Regulation on Fire Protection has been clearly stated. The
importance of informing and raising awareness of architects and engineers for fire safety precautions within
the framework of sustainable architecture have been explained.

Keywords: Sustainability, Sustainable Architecture, Fire Safety, Fire Regulations, TRFP.

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1. INTRODUCTION
Environmental problems, which have become a global problem starting from the regional level in the
process from the past to the present, have reached a problem level that can threaten humanity today.
Depletion of limited resources, starvation, environmental pollution, climate changes and frequent natural
disasters are major indicators of this problem. It is necessary to fundamental precautions and develop
solutions within the scope of the issue in order to solve the problems, especially to leave a liveable and
clean world for future generations (Bekem Kara et al., 2015). For this purpose, sustainability, which has
emerged and developed recently and can manifest itself in all functional phases of life, is an important
concept. Sustainability, as an architectural approach, should be considered and evaluated at the building
where human life takes place. Sustainability has an important theme in buildings, common living areas and
urban uses.
Sustainable architecture is an architectural approach that includes flexible and renewable space
productions designed on the basis of the use of renewable resources without harming the natural
environment of the building integrated systems in the building life cycle. Within the scope of architectural
design; ecological, socio-cultural and economic sustainability approaches should be evaluated and
transferred to the architectural project:
Ecological sustainability is based on the consideration of renewable resource use, with the protection of
resources and ecosystems at the forefront.
Socio-cultural sustainability is based on the use of social and cultural values in occupant comfort conditions.
Economic sustainability is based on long-term availability of resources and keeping costs within the optimal
value range (Özmehmet, 2012).
Unlike sustainability as a trend, preference and orientation, it is deemed necessary to consider it as a part
of architectural design process. It should be included in the design decisions that should be considered and
implemented in new buildings and existing buildings within the framework of developing and advancing
building materials and systems. For this purpose, in the buildings we use today, we encounter a number of
applied system approaches for energy production and consumption in terms of sustainability. The
establishment of valid and rational solutions in the designed systems increases the efficiency taken within
the scope of sustainability.
The basic requirement in sustainability is to create optimum comfort conditions in designs that are
considered occupant based by addressing the building life cycle. However, one of the main requirements is
to ensure the safety of life and property of building occupants. It is important that the components used in
building systems evaluated within the scope of sustainable architecture are constructed according to fire
safety precautions. It should be considered that the whole of the systems that are designed and considered
with a sustainable approach in buildings can cause fire to occur and spread within the enclosed space. In
this context, different uses of sustainable architecture should be addressed and assessments should be
made within the scope of active and passive fire safety precautions (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Relation of sustainable architecture and fire safety

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Fire safety precautions in buildings are carried out by the common field of different discipline. It is generally
formed with active and passive fire safety precautions. Active precautions; it constitutes the whole of
mechanical systems that can be applied to the building during the design process and later, perform its
function in case of fire and support passive fire safety precautions. It includes fire safety precautions such
as fire detection and warning systems, fire detectors, mechanical smoke control systems etc. Passive
precautions; it covers the fire safety precautions involved in the emergence, spreading of the fire and the
construction of evacuation systems integrated into the architectural project during the design process. It
includes fire safety precautions such as planning of horizontal and vertical fire escape routes, creating
compartment zones, selecting and applying building materials and elements in accordance with the fire
dynamics requirements. Active and passive fire safety precautions should be evaluated in a holistic manner
and should be designed in architectural projects to support each other (Demirel et al., 2017; Rahardjo and
Prihanton, 2020).
Within the scope of the study, the systems designed and applied in sustainability practices in architecture
were examined within the framework of fire safety precautions. Within the scope of the investigation,
relevant sustainable architectural systems have been identified in order to make evaluations especially for
passive fire safety precautions:
Thermal insulation materials and recyclable materials in context of building materials,
Double skin facades, vegetative roof and facade systems, skylights and solar tubes, photovoltaic systems
and wind turbines in context of building elements,
Building geometry and facade form, atrium in context of building
Risk assessments have been made for passive fire safety precautions for the systems being considered.
Precautions and safety mechanisms that can be taken with risk assessments have been focused. In the study,
Turkey fire regulation (Turkey’s Regulation on Fire Protection, TRFP) was discussed in detail within the scope
of the study, and assessments were made in terms of fire safety in sustainable architecture. In order to
contribute to the intelligibility of the regulation, visualizations were made and proposals for the
development of Turkey fire regulation were presented.

2. RELATION OF SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE AND FIRE SAFETY

Combustion occurs through the fire triangle elements (flammable material, oxygen and heat) in the
environment. The fire that occurs in an enclosed space grows and spreads when these three elements are
present in the environment. The emergence and spread of the fire in an enclosed space occurs as ignition,
growth, flashover, full development, structure fire and collapse phases. The resulting fire spreads rapidly in
enclosed space as direct, radiative and thermal plume (Champneys et al., 2013). Structural components are
an important factor in the emergence and spread of fire. For this purpose, structural components should
be designed to reduce possible fire risks and be arranged in a way to minimize fire and smoke spread. Unit
and building-based assessments should be made as an enclosed space, and fire spread should be evaluated
by determining the source location and should be transferred as input to the design process (Table 1).

92
 Unit-based Building-based
Dimensions, Proportions Dimensions, Proportions
Fire Load *MJ/m2 Fire Load *MJ/m2
(Amount of Flammable Materials) (Amount of Flammable Materials)
Heat Source Position and Energy Geometry
Building Class,
Number of Heat Sources
Interior Arrangements
Facade Openings
Fire Barrier
Table 1. Fires risk assessment criteria in enclosed space

The use of natural, unlimited and renewable materials in buildings within the framework of sustainable
architecture is the main approach. This approach covers the preference of light weight structural systems,
the use of natural light for the necessary lighting, periodic regulation of heat losses and gains, and natural
ventilation strategies. The main effects of materials and systems used for this purpose in the emergence
and spread of fire should be studied and transferred to building systems as a component of design:
The fire reaction of materials
The effect of toxic gases coming out of materials during combustion
Automatic pressurization systems and air circulation routes
Fire resistance of building elements during fire
Firefighting and extinguishing approaches should be evaluated (Krause et al., 2012).

3. FIRE SAFETY OF ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS IN SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE

The determination of fire risks within the framework of sustainable architecture makes clear the fire safety
precautions that can be developed in buildings. For this purpose, risk assessment of architectural
components established within the framework of sustainable architecture should be carried out. As a result
of risk assessments, alternative solutions that can be developed should be presented and transferred to the
architectural project. Architectural components include systems that are effective in the occurrence and
spread of fire within the buildings systematics. Within the scope of sustainable architecture, architectural
components should be explained in context of building materials, building elements and building (Figure 2).
It is important to create and classify passive fire safety precautions that can be taken with explanations.

Figure 2. Classification of architectural components within the framework of fire risks

93
3.1. Fire Safety for Building Materials
Building materials throughout the building are architectural components that pose a risk in the emergence
and spread of fire. The fire reaction classes of the materials to be used in buildings must be known. Along
with the fire reaction class are important to know the droplets, smoke and toxic gas release properties
during combustion. It should be required to know the ease of ignition of the materials used, their internal
combustion conditions, their flammability properties, and these properties should be determined by test
results obtained from accredited laboratories (Wade and Clampett, 2000). Increasing the fuel load
according to the fire reaction class of materials to fire increases the safety risks (Equation 3.1). In a possible
fire scenario, the spread of the fire accelerates and the loss of life/property increases. Thermal insulation
materials and recyclable materials were examined in the risk assessment of building materials within the
scope of sustainable architecture.

qc =∑ mvHv / Af (3.1)
2
qc = fire load (MJ/m2), Af= floor area (m ), mv= total mass of the combustible material (kg) and Hv= calorific
value of the combustible material (MJ /kg)

3.1.1. Thermal insulation materials

Thermal insulation materials include materials that are effective in providing indoor and outdoor heat
control, and regulating heat losses and gains throughout the building, ensuring indoor comfort conditions.
Thermal insulation materials are used in roofs, facades and underground building envelopes in buildings.
There are herbal and animal origin (natural) thermal insulation materials, mineral origin thermal insulation
materials and synthetic origin thermal insulation materials used for building thermal insulation (Karadayı
and Yüksek, 2016). According to the climatic data of the region, the thickness and layer order of the thermal
insulation materials change. It is recommended to use fire-resistant thermal insulation materials especially
in building envelope (facades and roofs) that are in contact with air (O2), which is necessary for combustion
to occur. It is recommended to use non-combustible thermal insulation materials in high-rise buildings and
buildings with a high risk of fire.
Fire risk assessment of the materials generally used for thermal insulation purposes has been made in Table
2. Layer, thickness and air contact of the materials in the building systems are effective on possible fire risks.
Thermal insulation materials appear as building components that should be considered in facade fires and
later in roof fires. Sandwich panels (structural insulated panels, SIP) used for thermal insulation are building
materials that should be considered, especially since they are positioned in connection with indoor and
outdoor spaces. The reaction of the material providing thermal insulation properties in the core part of
sandwich panels to fire should be known and it should be recommended to choose from non-combustible
materials.

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 Thermal Thermal
Insulation Conductivity Fire Risk Assessment
Materials (W/m K)
Rock wool, glass wool and ceramic wool are included in this group.
Mineral Wool 0.04
It shows fireproof material feature.
It is a petroleum-derived material.
Expanded
0.03-0.04 It is a flammable material.
Polystyrene (EPS)
It has the properties to release toxic gas and droplet.
It is a petroleum-derived material.
Extruded
0.03-0.04 It is a flammable material.
Polystyrene (XPS)
It has the properties to release toxic gas and droplet.
It is obtained from paper and wood fibers as recyclable materials.
Cellulose 0.03-0.05
It is a flammable material.
Cork 0.03-0.05 It is obtained from cork and is a flammable material.
It is a rigid foam material.
Polyurethane
0.02-0.03 Its compression strength is high.
(PUR)
It is a flammable material.
It is a rigid foam material.
Polyisocyanurate
0.023-0.025 Its compression strength is high.
(PIR)
It is a flammable material. Its performance is higher than PUR.
It is an insulation material obtained with core, protector and barrier.
Vacuum Insulating
0.004-0.008 While the core can be formed with flammable and non-flammable
Panels (VIPS)
material options, the barrier is produced from flammable materials.
0.04
(at lower It is similar to VIP.
Gas-Filled Panels
values in However, gas filling is done instead of vacuum.
theory)
Aerogel 0.013-0.014 Fire reactions should be determined with test standards.
Nano Insulation
Fire reactions should be determined with test standards.
Materials
Table 2. Fire risk assessment on thermal insulation materials (Jelle, 2011; Lyons, 2006)

3.1.2. Recyclable materials

The recyclable use of building materials within the scope of sustainability ensures efficient planning of
resource use. The reuse of materials taken from the building that has completed its life and the recyclable
use of materials such as the use of materials that are not obtained for construction production in building
systems is an important assessment within the framework of sustainable architecture. If recyclable
materials are used throughout the building, their reaction to fire should be known depending on the
location where they are used. The application of chemical fire retardants into the materials created provides
the required fire reaction from the material. Phase change materials, which are widely used in thermal
insulation, should be used carefully in buildings because of the structural components they contain, as they
are mostly flammable materials (Al-Janabi et al., 2014). In addition, it is important to know the fire
resistance of recyclable materials designed as a structural system.
The fire reaction classes of building materials must be determined according to the EN 13501-1 test
standard. The fire reaction classes of the materials to be used on roofs are subject to different test standard.
Roof materials must be tested according to EN 13501-5. Within the scope of the test standards, the burning
rates, flame emission, heat release, smoke and droplet properties of materials exposed to fire are tested
(EN 13501-1, 2018; EN 13501-5, 2016). As a result of the test, classification (A1, A2, B, C, D, E and F) and
smoke properties (s1, s2 and s3) and droplet properties (d0, d1 and d2) are determined for building
materials. Different classes (BROOF, CROOF, DROOF, EROOF, FROOF) are used for roof materials. The selection of

95
building materials from non-combustible materials, the absence of smoke and droplet properties are
important factor in preventing the emergence and spread of structural fire.

3.2. Fire Safety for Building Elements

In the fire risk assessment of the building elements, their effect on fire resistance and fire spread should be
investigated. Building elements must limit the spread of flame and smoke during a fire, do not perform the
burning reaction and maintain its integrity for a certain period of time. Within the scope of sustainable
architecture, double-skin facades, vegetative roofs and facade systems, skylights and solar tubes,
photovoltaic panels and wind turbines were examined within this scope.

3.2.1. Double skin facade

Double skin facades are designed systems that build a secondary facade by adding them to the first facade
of the building. The inner layer generally consists of low-e glass or solar controlled glass to provide heat
control. The outer layer, on the other hand, can be made of glass or can be constructed from alternative
materials. The gap between the inner layer and the outer layer is between 20-200 cm (Chan et al., 2009).
Air circulation is provided in the gap inside the facade. Double skin facades are made in different types
according to partitioning of the façade, type of ventilation and type of air flow (Figure 3). According to the
designer's decision, it is important to select and apply the double skin facade type with various
requirements.

Figure 3. Types of double skin facades (Motevalian, 2014)

As a result of the fire that occurs in the interior of the double skin facades, the glass in the inner layer is
broken by the effect of radiation. With the breaking of the glass, the flame and smoke in the room fill the
gap inside the facade. The flame and smoke reaching the gap quickly spread to the upper floors and affect
the other floors. The hollow space of the facade creates a chimney effect and accelerates the spread of
flame and smoke (Chow and Hung, 2006; Chow, 2013) (Figure 4).

96
 Figure 4. Fire dynamics in double skin facades (Chow, 2013)

For double skin facades, interrupting the interior gap is important within the scope of fire safety precautions.
According to the facade partitioning types, it should be preferred as box-window type, corridor type, shaft-
box type and multi-storey type respectively. At the same time, in double skin facade systems, especially the
profiles and glass materials used in the outer layer must be resistant and not falling during fire (Civelek and
Beyhan, 2019). In the case of a possible fire, interrupting the ventilation in double skin facades prevents the
rapid spread of the fire. If natural ventilation is used, closing the ventilation system; if mechanical
ventilation is used, it is important to make the active ventilation system passive. In double skin facades, in
air flow types, the interruption of air in the interior prevents the fire from continuing. If the oxygen in the
fire triangle does not present in the environment, it will ensure that the fire is taken under control and
extinguished. However, attention should be paid because the oxygen released into the environment with
the sudden air intake will cause flashes called backdraft.

3.2.2. Vegetative roof and facade systems

PVC elements, foam layers and polystyrene foam used in vegetative roof and facade systems increase the
risk of fire as flammable materials. In addition to its flammability property, oil-derived materials, the
presence of toxic gas releases and droplet properties leads to an increase in problems during fire. Instead
of using such materials, it is recommended to use prefabricated and metal materials, soil and stone origin
materials, gypsum products and mineral wool as fireproof materials (Tidwell and Murphy, 2010). It should
be known that if the plants used in the facade and roof systems dry up, they create an extra fire load on the
building. In order to reduce the risks, it is recommended to grow herbaceous plants instead of wrapped and
climbing plants. During a possible fire, the burning of dry plants and their spread to the environment causes
the fire to spread quickly. Cleaning and removing dried and spilled plants, especially from roof and facade
systems, is important within the scope of fire safety precautions.
It should be noted that if the soil layer is present in the system of building elements in vegetative roof and
facade systems, the fire department can absorb the soil's extinguishing water during the extinguishing
process. In these cases, especially when interfering with buildings that do not have an automatic
extinguishing system, the extinguishing water should be increased too much (Özgünler et al., 2018). At the
same time, vegetative roof systems should ensure that plants do not prevent fire intervention.

3.2.3. Skylights ve solar tubes

Within the scope of sustainable architecture, there is a great need for skylights and solar tubes for optimum
design of daylight in line with building and space requirements. Skylights are often preferred for the lighting
of interior and long and deep enclosed space on the roof of the building. However, designing with fire-
resistant materials is the main issue to be considered within the framework of fire safety precautions. As
the plastic material that is frequently used in architecture, the fire reaction class of polycarbonates is low,
they melt during fire and form droplets. In addition, smoke and toxic gases are released into the
environment during a fire in such materials. Within the scope of fire safety precautions, it is recommended

97
to use products approved within the framework of fire safety by making relevant fire test standards, and to
apply fire resistant glass solutions in transparent designs.
Solar tubes are used to transport daylight from the outside to the depths of the indoor space. Especially in
the connection of different compartment regions, solar tubes are problem in the spread of flame and smoke
(Tidwell and Murphy, 2010). Similarly, the connection of the solar tubes with the external environment
prevents the decrease of the oxygen level in the indoor space, making it difficult to extinguish the fire and
indirectly interfere with the fire. In order to prevent this situation, it is necessary to use dampers in solar
tubes in various regions depending on the automation.

3.3.4. Photovoltaic systems and wind turbines

Photovoltaic systems are designed to produce all or part of the energy used in buildings by the building
through the sun. Photovoltaic systems are constructed in two different ways as building-integrated and
building-adapted systems (Figure 5). Building integrated systems are integrated into the building shell,
which covers the systems decided at the building design process. Building integrated systems, the building
should be detailed within the framework of physical environmental conditions. Building adapted systems
cover systems that operate independently of the building, transferring only carrier loads to the building
(Heinstein et al., 2013). The presence of electrical equipment in photovoltaic panels poses a great risk to
fire safety. In addition, the fire reaction of materials used in building integrated and adapted systems should
be known. They should be evaluated according to their use of the building. As part of the study, the focus
was especially on building integrated photovoltaic systems.

Figure 5. Roof and facade photovoltaic panels in architecture (Zanetti et al., 2017)

In roof photovoltaic use, roof-mounted model constructions and connection equipment should be
preferred to be made of fireproof materials. Flammable material should not be positioned in the ventilation
gap located at the bottom of the panel. Firefighters should be easily accessible on the roof in case of a
possible intervention, and attention should be paid to the positioning of photovoltaic panels. Flammable

98
materials should not be used in electrical cable transits and passive firestop precautions should be taken.
Considering the relationship between the roof and the building, the use of compartments or fire walls
should be continued on the roof (Yaman and Kurtay, 2019).
There are different alternatives for design in facade photovoltaic uses. Exterior wall systems, facade
cladding and curtain wall systems, their use as an additional element in the facade are left to the designer
decisions. Particular attention should be paid to facade and floor joints in photovoltaic systems constructed
as external wall systems. Connection parts of different floors must be insulated in a way that prevents the
transmission of flame and smoke. In photovoltaic systems designed as facade cladding and curtain wall, it
is necessary to use fireproof materials in interior spaces. Similar to double skin facade systems, it is
recommended to interrupt the interior gap of the facade or to close the gap between the floors with
intumescent elements. In photovoltaic systems used as an additional element in the facade, it is used for
sunshade, spandrel, parapet or railing. It is important that the flammability class of the panel elements used
and that the flame and smoke are designed to be removed from the facade in case of a possible fire (Yaman,
2018).
Like photovoltaic systems for generating all or part of the energy used in buildings, wind turbines are also
used. But the design of wind turbines, which are built on a building, is quite difficult. It can be used within
the designer's suggestions and environmental data, including on roofs and facades. Dynamic nature of wind
direction and speed determination in environmental control complicates design decisions and affects the
efficiency of the wind turbine (Park et al., 2015). Wind turbines negatively affect the acoustic comfort of
the building and city user as noise and vibration sources, they should be evaluated and constructed with
noise control details in the design process. As part of the fire safety precautions, it is possible that fires will
occur as a result of the force of movement of the rotating arms along with the wind and the heating of the
device (Figure 6). In these cases, it is important to disconnect the electrical equipment and disable the
system and perform periodic maintenance of wind turbines.

Figure 6. Wind turbine combustion in the urban area (Uadiale et al., 2014)

3.3. Fire Safety for Building

The spread of flame and smoke to different parts and floors during a fire in buildings causes important
problems. For this purpose, limiting the spread of fire is an important criterion in fire risk assessment for
building. Building form, facade geometry and atriums should be considered and evaluated within the scope
of sustainable architecture.

99
3.3.1. Building form and facade geometry
Positioning and geometry of the building are among the parameters that should be evaluated within the
scope of fire safety in sustainable architecture. The location of the building in an open area, its relationship
with the surrounding buildings and wind should be evaluated within the scope of fire safety precautions.
Urban equipment (lighting, garbage, transformer etc.) and landscape areas around the building should be
investigated within the scope of fire risks. In the design of the building, the relationship between
topography/wind and fire should be evaluated and used as a parameter in the design process.
Building form is of crucial in the sustainable architectural design process. While making building form
decisions, attention should be paid to fire safety risks, especially when designing concave surfaces (for
example; U-shaped). The fire that occurs in the lower floors on concave surfaces tends to spread rapidly to
the upper floors. It is important to construct the factors that cause the emergence and spread of fire in both
indoor and outdoor design in this context. Not designing spaces with high fire risk (kitchen, tank, fuel room
etc.) in interior space design on concave surfaces; there should be no factors (garbage, vehicles, electrical
equipment etc.) that cause fire in the outdoor environment. Flammable materials should not be used in
exterior wall finishing systems on concave surfaces. Likewise, the fact that the materials used in exterior
wall finishing systems do not have the properties of droplet during fire reduces the spread of fire (Yan et
al., 2017).
The facade geometry is an important component in the construction of the building within the scope of
physical environmental analysis. Facade geometry should be considered as the requirements of facade
materials and building systems. Building materials and construction systems that accelerate the spread of
fire on facades should be avoided. It is suggested that the ledge used on the facade are evaluated regarding
the its material, angle, mobility and continuous/dashed fire spread (O'connor, 2008) (Figure 7). Especially
the presence of vertical ledge to the facade that can remove fire and smoke in facade systems, fireproof
materials and spandrel designs in facade slab joints have been put forward within the framework of fire
regulations (Yaman and Demirel, 2020). As the facade geometry, it is important to consider the facade
openings within the scope of fire safety precautions together with the effect of the movements on the
facade on the spread of fire. During a fire in wide facade openings, the tongue of flame spreads close to the
facade and accelerates the spread of the fire. In narrow and long windows, the tongue of flame moves away
from the facade and limits the risk of fire during a fire. Within the scope of the subject, it is important to
produce solutions within the framework of computational fluid dynamics (Saunders, 2018).

Figure 7. Relation of facade geometry and fire dynamic (O’connor, 2008)

100
3.3.2. Atrium
Sustainability as a spatial requirement within architecture, atriums have been designed to improve indoor
air quality and optimum use indoor daylight pose fire safety risks in buildings. Smoke generated during the
fire in buildings with atrium is spreading rapidly to the upper floors. Spread affects occupants on different
floors, and also affects occupants during evacuation (Xu et al., 2018). It is important to try to reduce the fire
load in buildings with atrium and to have automatic extinguishing systems. In addition, it is necessary to
have effective smoke evacuation systems, smoke curtains under the floor and mechanical pressurization
systems to control smoke in the atrium. Smoke evacuation strategies should be established depending on
where the fire occurs. In buildings with atrium, it is recommended to develop a total simultaneous
evacuation strategy, especially for occupant evacuation, and to investigate smoke analyses according to
possible fire positions (Ölmez Gültek, 2005).
The presence of atrium in buildings especially complicates compartment approaches. It is important to
prevent horizontal and vertical compartment leaks in order to control the fire regionally and to establish
proper occupant evacuation. The dimensions (width-height), location, geometry of the atrium to be
designed, the position of the pressurization systems located in the atrium, and the state of the atrium being
closed during a fire must be determined and fire safety precautions must be taken within the framework of
building performance requirements. If atriums work as a chimney effect during a fire, the safety risk for
building occupants and firefighting teams will increase more (Al-Janabi, 2013). For atrium, it is especially
important to investigate performance solutions and resolve the fire and smoke properties in atrium models
within the framework of computational fluid dynamics (Sinclair, 2004).

4. FIRE RISK ANALYSIS AND FIRE REGULATIONS IN SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE

In the determination of fire risks in sustainable architecture, it is important to determine the dangers for
the emergence, spread, control and extinguish of fire and to reveal the relationships with architectural
components (Table 3).
In the emergence of fire; being as a heat source and/or flammable product, causing explosions, releasing
toxic substances, creating an ignition source, causing continuous burning after starting to burn, accelerating
the combustion of the flammable substance and affecting the flammable substance carry great risks.
In the spread of the fire; causing fire to grow, causing smoke, disrupting the chemistry of the material in a
short time, changing the flammability, static state, smoke and flame spread of the material, causing flaming
burning in the material, changing smoke and heat transitions cause the emergence of danger scenarios.
The creation of occupant evacuation scenarios and the impact of sustainable architecture components on
evacuation scenarios should be examined. Establishing the evacuation time in the shortest time and
establishing safe evacuation and escape plans should be evaluated within the scope of sustainable
architecture and transferred to the project.
In controlling and extinguishing the fire; it should be ensured that firefighting teams have access to
extinguishing components, ensuring suppression effectiveness, having access to extinguishing equipment,
and making all kinds of access and intervention of firemen easy.
Especially, the role of the country's fire regulation is great in identifying fire risks and creating safety
precautions. Recent fires make it necessary to revision the country's fire regulation. Two basic approaches
come to the fore in the control mechanisms of national and international fire regulation. These approaches
constitute prescriptive-based regulation and performance-based regulation on systems. Prescriptive-based
regulation is created by a set of values and rules given in such a way that certain requirements are at
minimum or maximum. But today, advanced construction techniques require performance-based solutions
thanks to computer technology systems and Building Information Modelling (BIM). For this purpose, in the
field of fire safety in developed countries, the transition from prescriptive-based systems to performance-
based systems in fire regulation is gaining speed and project-specific solutions are produced within the
framework of building fire risk assessments. Some of the prominent countries in this area, such as the
United States of America, Canada, Sweden, New Zealand, Australia and the United Kingdom, are at an

101
 EIFS

Systems
panel, SIP

insulation

FRP (interior)
Mineral wools

Corridor facade
Wood (interior)

Shaft-box facade
Bamboo (interior)

Building Elements
Building Materials

Cavity, Stack effect

Spray-applied foam

Multi-storey facade
Box-window facade
Double Skin Facades
Recyclable Materials
Properties and

Structural integrated

Rigid foam insulation

Foil insulation systems

Bio-polymers (interior)

Vegetative Roof-Facade
Heat Insulation Systems

Vegetative roof systems

Phase-changed materials
Exterior insulation-finish,
Fires Safety Precautions
Sustainable Architecture

Poses potential ignition hazard

Poses potential shock hazard
Potential explosion hazard
Poses potential toxicity hazard
(Meacham, 2010; Tavares and Galea, 2009).

Readily ignitable
Burns readily once ignited
Contributes more fuel / Increased
Material affects
HRR burning

102
characteristics
Fast(er) fire growth rate
Significant smoke production /
Danger of short hazard
time deterioration
Deterioration affects burning
characteristics
Deterioration may create stability
Deterioration problem
may create smoke
Hazardous Dangers

spread
Deterioration may problem
create flame
spread
Material mayproblem
flame spread
May impact smoke/heat venting
May impact occupant evacuation
May impact FF water ability
May impact suppression
May impact effectiveness
fire apparatus access
May impact FF access and
operations
advanced phase in the development and implementation of performance-based regulation on fire safety

Relative Risk Level

Vegetative facade systems
Type of vegetation
Skylights and Solar Tubes
Skylights
Solar Tube
Photovoltaics & Wind
Turbines
Exterior cable / cable trays
Extended solar roof panels
Exterior solar shades /
awning
Buildings
Building Geometry
Building orientation
Form
Facade Geometry
Facade movements
Area of glazing
Area of combustible
material
Atrium
Atrium geometry
Atrium height
Atrium pressurization

Low Risk or N/A Moderate Risk High Risk

Present a low risk when Present a moderate risk Present a high risk when
unmitigated or is not when unmitigated unmitigated
applicable to the list FF: Fire Fighters
attributes
Table 3. Sustainable architecture fire risk analysis (Meacham et al., 2012) 1

As part of sustainable architecture, a lot of buildings have been built in the world recently and are still being
built today. Sustainable building production has gained momentum to have green building certification
systems; BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method), LEED (Leadership
in Energy and Environmental Design), DGNB (Deutshe Gesellschaft für nachhaltiges Bauen e.V.), Greenstar
(Enviromental Rating System for Buildings), CASBEE (Comprehensive Assessment System for Built
Environment Efficiency). Ecological and sustainable design in buildings developed by the Turkish Green
Building Council (ÇEDBİK) within the borders of our country national certification system (B.E.S.T-
Residential Certificate) has been developed. In light of all these developments, it is thought that sustainable

1
Within the scope of fire safety precautions risk assessments, properties of double skin facade detailing,
building form, facade movements and atrium were made by the author.

103
building designs will increase much more in future periods. In this context, the application of fire safety
precautions to be taken in the projects will be at the forefront.
Considering the national and international fire regulations, it has been determined that there are basic
requirements under two topics as passive and active fire safety precautions (Table 4). Passive fire safety
precautions are mostly taken at the project design process and include architectural and structural design
decisions. Passive fire safety precautions are taken at building materials, building elements, building and
settlement scale. Passive fire safety precautions include architectural and design applications. Active fire
safety precautions, as another safety precaution, include the whole of the mechanical systems that
contribute to passive fire safety precautions in the project. Active fire safety precautions include
applications of more engineering disciplines (Altındaş, 2020).

Passive Fire Safety Precautions Active Fire Safety Precautions

It covers the architectural and structural
It includes the whole of mechanical systems that
principles integrated with the architectural
contribute to passive fire safety precautions.
project during the design process.
Architectural design decisions Smoke detection and warning systems
Structural design decisions Emergency lighting and routing systems
Smoke control systems
Automatic extinguishing systems
Table 4. Passive and active fire safety precautions

5. FIRE SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON TURKEY FIRE REGULATION IN SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE

Turkey's Regulation on Fire Protection (TRFP), as part of the structural fire safety precautions within
Turkey's borders, entered into force in 2002 and has undergone various revisions to its current use (TRFP,
2015). The current Turkey's Regulation on Fire Protection is established as a prescriptive-based regulation.
The regulation requirements of passive fire safety precautions considered within the scope of sustainable
architecture were investigated and architectural design based solution proposals were prepared within the
scope of this issue.
In accordance with the Turkey fire regulation, there are a number of requirements in cases of use on facades
and roofs for thermal insulation materials on the building materials. Similarly, there are requirements for
fire resistance, especially when recyclable materials are a structural system, used indoors and used in a
building shell (Table 5).

104
 Related
Explanations
Provisions
Heat
Insulation All of Building Class
Materials for
Facades Building Height Requirements
> 28,50 Fireproof materials (A2-s1,d0) must be used.
2.3.27 It is necessary to use the least difficult flammable materials (C-
s3,d2). If difficult flammable materials (c-s1,d2) are used, the
Annex 2/A < 28,50
course or levelled floor should be covered with non-flammable
Annex 2/C material (A1) at a distance of 150 cm.
Annex 2/Ç
Annex 3/A
TS EN 13501-1

Heat
Insulation Roof Construction Alternative 1 Alternative 2
Materials for
Roofs Coverings BROOF Fireproof (A1)
Surface or Insulation Under Least hardly flammable Least normal flammable
2.3.28 Roof Coverings (Min C-s3,d2) (Min E - d2)
Annex 2/A Structure Systems Fireproof (A1)*
Annex 2/C * Only in High-rise and Adjacent Buildings
Annex 2/Ç
Annex 3/A
TS EN 13501-1
TS EN 13501-5

105
 Heat
Insulation
Materials &
Recycle It is expected that the materials to be used within the scope of sustainability will be
Materials tested by the relevant standards. In accordance with 2.3.29, it is expected that the
building materials will be used appropriately. The relevant provisions and annexes of
the regulation are explanatory. (Annex 2/A, 2/B, 2/C, 2/Ç, 3/A, 3/B, 3/C)
2.3.29
TS EN 13501-1
TS EN 13501-5
Table 5. Turkey fire regulation for building materials in sustainable architecture

In accordance with the Turkey's Regulation on Fire Protection, there are a number of requirements for
double skin facades on the building elements. The necessity of selecting heat insulation materials from
fireproof materials used to limit the spread of flame and smoke during a fire has been emphasized. Turkey's
Regulation on Fire Protection does not include the necessary regulations on double skin facades, vegetative
roof and facade systems, skylights and solar tubes within the scope of sustainable architecture. However,
as general approaches, solar tubes can be examined within the framework of roof and facade requirements,
compartment requirements that will be built horizontally and vertically (Table 6).

Related
Explanations
Provision
Double Skin
Facade All of Building Class
Building Height Requirements
2.3.27
> 28,50 Fireproof materials (A2-s1,d0) must be used.
Annex 2/A
It is necessary to use the least difficult flammable materials (C-
Annex 2/C s3,d2). If difficult flammable materials (c-s1,d2) are used, the
< 28,50
Annex 2/Ç course or levelled floor should be covered with non-flammable
material (A1) at a distance of 150 cm.
Annex 3/A
TS EN 13501-1

2.3.29
TS EN 13501-1
TS EN 13501-5

2.3.24 (Indirect)

106
Vegetation 2.3.28 2.3.27 2.3.29
Roofs and Annex 2/A Annex 2/A TS EN 13501-1
Facade Systems
Annex 2/C Annex 2/C TS EN 13501-5
Annex 2/Ç Annex 2/Ç
Annex 3/A Annex 3/A
TS EN 13501-1 TS EN 13501-1
TS EN 13501-5
There are no specific requirements under Turkey Fire Regulation. As general
principled decisions, investigations should be carried out in accordance with the
requirements of roof, facade and building materials.
Skylights and Skylights can be used for smoke evacuation in roof systems. For a detailed analysis,
Solar Tube Chapter 6 of the Turkey's Regulation on Fire Protection should be examined.

2.3.29
TS EN 13501-1
TS EN 13501-5

2.3.24
(Solar Tube)
(Vertical and
Horizontal
Compartment)

Photovoltaic 2.3.28 2.3.27 2.3.29

Systems anr Annex 2/A Annex 2/A TS EN 13501-1
Wind Turbines
Annex 2/C Annex 2/C TS EN 13501-5
Annex 2/Ç Annex 2/Ç
Annex 3/A Annex 3/A
TS EN 13501-1 TS EN 13501-1
TS EN 13501-5
There are no specific requirements under Turkey Fire Regulation. As general
principled decisions, investigations should be carried out in accordance with the
requirements of roof, facade and building materials.
Table 6. Turkey fire regulation for building elements in sustainable architecture

107
In accordance with the Turkey's Regulation on Fire Protection, there are a number of requirements on the
building, especially for the use of atrium. Although there are some requirements for building form and
facade geometry only on facade openings, regulations are generally required in building and facade design
decisions within the scope of fire regulation (Table 7).

Related
Explanations
Provision
Building Form There are no specific requirements under Turkey Fire Regulation. As general principled
and Facade decisions, investigations should be carried out in accordance with the requirements of
Geometry roof, facade and building materials.
Atrium

2.3.24
Annex-4

Suggestion for atrium design (Url-1)

108
 Table 7. Turkey fire regulation for building in sustainable architecture

6. CONCLUSION
Sustainable architecture components should move forward by transferring on today's architectural
knowledge. The necessity of using the principle of sustainability within the scope of architectural design
and application processes is increasing day by day. For this purpose, the role of architects especially as
designers, is important. Sustainability should be built on the use of natural resources and passive design
strategies in architecture. However, with sustainable architecture, it is essential to ensure the safety of life
and property of occupants as basic requirements. For this purpose, architects should be informed about
passive fire safety precautions.
Within the scope of sustainable architecture, various strategies should be developed at building materials,
building elements and building in the creation of passive fire safety precautions. Fire risk assessments
should be made within the scope of the strategies developed. Within the scope of the study, evaluations of
fire risk analysis in sustainable architecture were made. With these evaluations, it has been determined
that especially the use of materials has a great effect on the emergence and spread of fire. The reactions of
thermal insulation materials and recyclable materials to fire should be evaluated and building uses should
be allowed accordingly. In the risk assessment of building elements within the scope of sustainable
architecture, different building systems have been examined. In double skin facades, attention should be
paid to the spread of fire and smoke. In vegetation roof and facade systems, attention should be paid not
to increase the fire load, especially in buildings, and roofs and facades should be cleared of falling plants.
Care should be taken not to choose the materials used from petroleum-derived materials. It is important
not to use particularly flammable materials in the skylights and solar tubes, and also to evaluate smoke
evacuation possibilities. Compartment integrity should be created based on the protection of indoor
compartment systems in solar tubes. Attention should be paid to the electrical equipment of photovoltaic
systems and their integrity in the building element system used should be evaluated. Different fire safety
precautions should be considered according to roof and facade systems and should be transferred to the
project. In wind turbines, the heating of the device should be checked and the reaction of electrical
equipment to fire should be known. Periodic device maintenance is required, especially in photovoltaic
systems and wind turbines. In the building form and facade geometry, the interior and exterior formations
that may cause fire should be evaluated. Facade formations that will accelerate the spread of fire should
be avoided. Aspect ratios of facade openings and facade geometry should also be considered in this context;
fire-resistant spandrels or facade ledges should be created. In atrium designs, indoor fire spread should be
kept under control and smoke evacuation strategies should be developed. Compartment configurations,
especially those created horizontally and vertically, should be evaluated comprehensively in buildings with
atrium and recommendations should be developed.
Within the scope of sustainable architecture, Turkey’s Regulation on Fire Protection (TRFP) for passive fire
safety precautions has been investigated and examined by visualization. As a result of the investigations, it
has been determined that there are no detailed explanations within the scope of sustainable architecture

109
in the TRFP. Deficiencies in TRFP must be identified, especially in vegetation roof and facade systems,
photovoltaic panels and wind turbines, building form and facade geometry. Requirements for various
building systems are not sufficiently established and open to improvement. Considering that there are many
different system configurations in building materials, building elements and building within the scope of
sustainable architecture today, the necessity of developing fire regulations of countries arises. Turkey’s
Regulation on Fire Protection (TRFP) regulation should be developed within this framework and a different
approach to fire safety precautions in sustainable architecture should be created. It is of great importance
to analyse passive fire safety precautions for systems to be used in buildings and to transfer them to the
architectural project. It is necessary to spread the use of performance-based fire regulations and develop
project-based solution proposals. It is recommended to take steps towards the establishment and
application of passive fire safety precautions as an important topic in national and international green
building certification systems.

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