JEE (MAIN+ADVANCED)

RELATION
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
HEIGHT & DISTANCE, STATISTICS
MATHEMATICAL REASONING
 CONTENT
S.No Pages
THEORY
01. Relation 01
02. Mathematical Induction 07
03. Height and Distance 11
04. Statistics 13
05. Mathematical Reasoning 29

EXERCISE
06. Exercise–1 (Relation) 37
07. Exercise–2 (Relation) 39
08. Exercise–3 (Mathematical Induction ) 40
09. Exercise–4 (Mathematical Induction ) 42
10. Exercise–5 (Height & Distance) 43
11. Exercise–6 (Height & Distance) 45
12. Exercise–7 (Statistics) 48
13. Exercise–8 (Statistics) 52
14. Exercise–9 (Mathematical Reasoning) 55
15. Exercise–10 (Mathematical Reasoning) 57
16. Answer Key 59
 RELATION, MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION, HEIGHT & DISTANCE,
STATISTICS, MATHEMATICAL REASONING

RELATION

This chapter deals with establishing binaryrelation between elements of one set and elements of another
set according to some particular rule of relationship.

1. CARTESIAN PRODUCT:
The Cartesian product of two sets A, B is a non-void set of all ordered pairs (a, b),
where a  A and b  B. This is denoted by A × B
 A × B = {(a, b) | a  A and b  B}
e.g. A = {1, 2}, B = {a, b}
A × B = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b)}

Note : (i) A × B  B × A (Non-commutative)

(ii) n(A × B) = n(A) n(B) and n(P(A × B)) = 2n(A) n(B)
(iii) A = and B = A × B = 
(iv) IfAand B are two non-empty sets having n elements in common then (A× B) and (B ×A) have
n2 elements in common.
(v) A × (B  C) = (A × B) (A × C)
(vi) A × (B  C) = (A × B) (A × C)
(vii) A × (B – C) = (A × B) –(A × C)

Illustration :
If n(A) = 7, n(B) = 8 and n(A  B) = 4, then match the following columns.
(i) n(A  B) (a) 56
(ii) n(A × B) (b) 16
(iii) n((B × A) × A) (c) 392
(iv) n((A × B) (B × A)) (d) 96
(v) n((A × B)  (B × A)) (e) 11

Sol. (i) n(A  B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A  B) = 7 + 8 – 4 = 11 Ans. (e)

(ii) n(A × B) = n(A) n(B) = 7 × 8 = 56 = n(B × A) Ans. (a)
(iii) n((B × A)× A) = n(B × A). n(A) = 56 × 7 = 392 Ans. (c)
(iv) n((A × B)  (B × A)) = (n((A  B))2 = 42 = 16 Ans. (b)
(v) n((A × B)  (B × A)) = n(A × B) + n(B × A) – n(A × B)  (B × A)
= 56 + 56 – 16 = 96 Ans. (d)

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Illustration :
If A = {2, 4} and B ={3, 4, 5}, then (A  B) × (A  B) is
(1) {(2, 2), (3, 4), (4, 2), (5, 4)}
(2) {(2, 3), (4, 3), (4, 5)}
(3) {(2, 4), (3, 4), (4, 4), (4, 5)}
(4) {(4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5)}

Sol. A  B = {4} and A  B = {2, 3, 4, 5}

 (A  B) × (A  B) = {(4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5)} Ans. (4)
2. RELATION:
Every non-zero subset of A × B defined a relation from set A to set B.
If R is a relation from A  B
R : {(a, b) | (a, b)  A × B and a R b}

Highlights :
Let A and B be two non empty sets and R : A  B be a relation such that R : {(a, b) | (a, b)  R,
a  A and b  B}.
(i) 'b' is called image of 'a' under R.
(ii) 'a' is called pre-image of 'b' under R.
(iii) Domain of R : Collection of all elements ofAwhich has a image in B or Set of all first entries
in A × B.
(iv) Range of R : Collection of all elements of B which has a pre-image inAor Set of all second
entries inA × B.
Note :
(1) It is not necessary that each and every element of set A has a image in Set B and each and every
element of set B has a preimage in Set A
(2) Elements of setAhaving image in B is not necessary unique.
(3)Basically relation is the number of subsets ofA× B
number of relations = no. of ways of selecting a non zero subset ofA × B
= mnC0 + mnC1 + ........ + mnCmn
= 2mn

Illustration :
Given A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {2, 4, 5}. A relation defined
aRb  a and b are relatively prime or co-prime (i.e. HCF is 1),
find domain and range of R.
Sol. R = {(1, 2), (1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 5), (3, 2), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 5), (5, 2), (5, 4)} ]
Domain of R {1,2,3,4,5}
Range of R {2,4,5}

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Illustration :
A = {Jaipur, Patna, Kanpur, Lucknow} and B = {Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar}
aRb  a is capital of b, a  A and b  B
Sol. R = {(Jaipur, Rajasthan), (Patna, Bihar), (Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh) }

Illustration :
If A = {1, 3, 5, 7}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8}
Relation is aRb  a > b, a  A, b  B
Sol. R = {(3, 2), (5, 2), (5, 4), (7, 2), (7, 4), (7, 6) }
Domain = {3, 5, 7}
Range = {2, 4, 6}

Representation of a Relation :
1. Roster form : In this form we represent set of all ordered pairs (a,b) such that (a,b)R
where  a  A, b  B
2. Set builder notation : Here we denote the relation by the rule which co relates the two set
3. Arrow - diagram (Mapping): This the pictorial notation of any relation .

Illustration :
Let A = {–2, –1, 4} B = {1, 4, 9}
A relation from A to B i.e. a R b is defined as a is less than b.
This can be represented in the following ways.
1. Roster form :
R = {(–2, 1), (–2, 4), (–2, 9), (–1, 1), (–1, 4), (–1, 9), (4, 9)}
2. Set builder notation :
R = {(a, b): a  A and b  B, a is less than b}
3. Arrow - diagram :

A B

–2 1

–1 4
4 9

Empty relation: No elements ofA is related to any elements of A.

Universal relation: Each elements ofA is related to every element ofA.

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3. INVERSE RELATION:
If relation R is defined fromAto B then the inverse relation would be defined from B toA, i.e
R: A  B  aRb where a  A, b  B
R–1: B  A  bRa where a  A, b  B

Here Doman of R = Range of R–1

and Range of R = Domain of R–1
 R–1 = {(b, a) | (a, b)  R}
A relation R is defined on the set of 1st ten natural numbers.

e.g. N is a set of first 10 natural nos.  N = {1, 2, 3, ..., 10} & a, b  N

aRb  a + 2b = 10

R = {(2, 4), (4, 3), (6, 2), (8, 1)}

R–1 = {(4, 2), (3, 4), (2, 6), (1, 8)}

4. IDENTITY RELATION:

A relation defined on a set A is said to be an Identity relation if each & every element of A is related to
itself & only to itself.

e.g. A relation defined on the set of natural nos. is

aRb  a = b where a & b  N
R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), .........}
R is an Identity relation

5. CLASSIFICATION OF RELATIONS:

(I) Reflexive: Arelation defined on a setAis said to be an Identity relation if each & every element ofAis
related to itself.
i.e. if (a, b)  R then (a, a)  R. However if there is a single ordered pair of (a, b)  R such (a, a)
 R then R is not reflexive.

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e.g. A relation defined on (set of natural numbers)

aRb  'a' divides 'b' a, b  N
R would always contain (a, a) because every natural number divides itself and hence it is a reflexive
relation.

Note: Every Identity relation is a reflexive relation but every reflexive relation need not be an Identity.

(II) Symmetric: A relation defined on a set is said to be symmetric if aRb  bRa.

If (a, b)  R then (b, a) must be necessarily there in the same relation.

EXAMPLES:
A relation defined on the set of lines.
(1) aRb  a || b
It is a symmetric relation because if line is | | to 'b' then the line 'b' is | | to 'a'.
where (a, b)  L {L is a set of | | lines}
(2) L1RL2  L1  L2 It is a symmetric relation
L1, L2  L {L is a set of lines}

(3) aRb  'a' is borther of 'b' is not a symmetric relation as 'a' may be sister of 'b'.

(4) aRb  'a' is a cousin of 'b'. This is a symmetric relation.

If R is symmetric
(1) R = R–1
(2) Rangle of R = Domain of R

(III) Transitive:Arelation on set Ais said to be transitive if aRb and bRc implies aRc
i.e. (a, b)  R and (b, c)  R then (a, c)  R
Here a, b, c need not be distinct.

EXAMPLES:
(1) A relation R defined on a set of natural numbers N with rule aRb  a<b
R: {(1, 2), (1, 1)}.
In this relation a, b, c are not distinct but it is transitive. It is neither reflexive nor symmetric as (2, 1) is
missing. Minium number of ordered pair that must be added to make it reflexive, symmetric and transitive
is 2 i.e. (2, 1) and (2, 2).

(2) OnlyTransitive R = {(x, y) | x < y, x  N, y  N}

OnlySymmetric R = {(x, y) | x + y = 10, x  N, y  N}

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6. EQUIVALENCE RELATION:

If a relation is Reflexive, Symmetric and Transitive then it is said to be an equivalence relation.

EXAMPLES:
(1) A relation defined on N
xRy  x=y
R is an equivalence relation.

(2) Relation defined on the set of integer (I)

Prove that: xRy  (x – y) is even is an equivalence relation.

Asking: A = {1, 2, 3, 4}; R = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (1, 1), (4, 4), (1, 3), (3, 3), (3, 2)} then
(A) R  S  T (B) R  T  S (C) S  T  R (D) R  S  T

(3) R = {(1, 2), (2, 3)} add minimum number of ordered pairs to make it an equivalence relation.
{(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (2, 1), (3, 2), (1, 3), (3, 1)} = 7

(4) A = {1, 2, 3, ......., 13, 14}

R = {(x, y) | 3x – y = 10} RST

R = {(x, y) | x is factor of y} R ST

R = {(x, y) | x is father of y} RST

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MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

INTRODUCTION :
In algebra, there are certain results that are formulated with n number of terms in them, where n is a
natural number (i.e. a positive integer). Those results can be proved by a specific technique, known as
the principle of mathematical induction.We use the symbol P(n) (read "Pof n") to denote some proposition
which depends on the positive integer n. For example, P(n) might denote the sum of the first n odd
positive numbers, that is
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + ...... + (2n – 1) = n2
where n = 1, 2, 3, .........., n.

 FIRST PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION :

The proof of the proposition P(n) by mathematical induction for all n  N consists of the following three
steps :
Step-1. Verification step
Verify that the proposition P(n) is true for n = 1, i.e., the first natural number or the smallest positive
integer. This is also called the basic step of the induction.

Step-2. Induction step

Assume that the proposition will also be true for some n = k  1, i.e. we assume P(k) to be true. This is
called the induction step.

Step-3. Generalization step

If P(k) is true, then prove that the proposition is also true for n = (k + 1), which is the next positive integer
(i.e. the next natural number), i.e. we have to prove that P(k + 1) must also be true. In this step we prove
that the implication P(k)  P(k + 1) is true.
Next we generalize the result by saying that, since the proposition is proved to be true for n = k + 1, then
it must also be true for n = k, and hence the proposition will be true for all n belonging to the set of natural
numbers.

 SECOND PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION :

Step-1. Verification step

Verify that the proposition P(n) is true for n = r, where r is some fixed integer.

Step-2. Induction step

Assume that the proposition P(n) is true for n = r, r + 1, r + 2,....., m.

Step-3. Generalization step

Prove that the proposition P(n) is true for n = m + 1. Thus, if true, we generalize the result by saying that
since the proposition is true for n = M + 1, then it must also be true for n = r, r + 1, r + 2,......., m as
assumed in Step 2. Thus, the proposition is true for all n  r belonging to the set of natural numbers.

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SOLVED EXAMPLES

1 1 1
Q.1 By mathematical induction,   ...  is equal to
1· 2 · 3 2 · 3 · 4 n (n  1) (n  2)

n (n  1) n (n  3) n (n  2)
(A) (B) (C) (D) None of these
4(n  2)(n  3) 4(n  1)(n  2) 4(n  1)(n  3)

1 1 1 n (n  3)
Sol. Let P(n) :   ...  =
1· 2 · 3 2 · 3 · 4 n (n  1) (n  2) 4(n  1)(n  2)
(i) For n = 1

1 1 1(1  3) 1
L.H.S. = 1 · 2 · 3 = and R.H.S. = 4(1  1) (1  2) =
6 6
 P(1) is true.
(ii) Let P(k) be true, then

1 1 1
P(k) : 1 · 2 · 3  2 · 3 · 4  ...  k (k  1) (k  2)

k (k  3)
= 4(k  1) (k  2) ........(1)

(iii) For n = k + 1,

1 1 1 1 (k  1) (k  4)
P(k + 1) : 1 · 2 · 3  2 · 3 · 4  ...  k (k  1) (k  2) + (k  1) (k  2) (k  3) = 4 (k  2) (k  3)

1 1 1 1
L.H.S. = 1 · 2 · 3  2 · 3 · 4  ...  k (k  1) (k  2) + (k  1) (k  2) (k  3)

k (k  3) 1
= 4 (k  1) (k  2) + (k  1) (k  2) (k  3) [From Eq. (1)]

k ( k  3)2  4 k 3  6k 2  9k  4 ( k  1) 2 ( k  4)
= = =
4 ( k  1) ( k  2) ( k  3) 4( k  1) ( k  2) ( k  3) 4( k  1) ( k  2) ( k  3)

(k  1) (k  4)
= 4 (k  2) (k  3) = R.H.S.

Hence, P(k + 1) is true.

Hence, by the principle of mathematical induction for all n  N, P(n) is true. Ans. (B)

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Q.2 For all n  N, (3) (52n + 1) + 23n + 1 is divisible by

(A) 17 (B) 19 (C) 21 (D) 23
Sol. P(n) : 3(52n + 1) + 23n + 1
P(1) : 3(53) + 24 = 3(125) + 16
= 375 + 16 = 391 = 17(23)
So, P(1) is divisible by 17.
Let P(k) : 3(52k + 1) + 23k + 1 = 17m
 P(k + 1) : 3(52k + 3) + 23k + 4 = 17
L.H.S. of P(k + 1) = 3(52k + 3) + 23k + 4
= 3(52k + 1) (52) + (23k + 1) (23)
= (17m – 23k + 1) (25) + 8(23k + 1) [Assuming P(k) to be true]
= 17(25m) – 25(23k + 1) + 8(23k + 1)
= 17 (25m) – 17(23k + 1)
= 17 (25m – 23k + 1) = 17
Thus, P(k + 1) is divisible by 17 whenever P(k) is divisible by 17. Hence P(n) is divisible by 17 for all
n  N. Ans. (A)

Q.3 If x2n – 1 + y2n – 1 is divisible by x + y, then n is

(A) a positive integer (B) an even positive integer
(C) an odd positive integer (D) none of these
Sol. P(n) : x2n – 1 + y2n – 1
P(1) : x1 + y1 = x + y, which is divisible by x + y
Let P(k) : x2k – 1 + y2k – 1 = (x + y) m
 P(k + 1) : x2k + 1 + y2k + 1 = (x + y) 
L.H.S. of P(k + 1) = x2k + 1 + y2k + 1
= x2 (x2k – 1) + y2(y2k – 1)
= x2 [m(x + y) – y2k – 1] + y2 (y2k – 1) [Assuming P(k) to be true]
= (x + y) (mx2) – y2k – 1(x2 – y2)
= (x + y) [mx2 – y2k – 1(x – y)] = (x + y)
Thus, P(k + 1) is divisible by (x + y) whenever P(k) is divisible by (x + y). Hence P(n) is divisible by
x + y for all n  N, i.e. for all positive integers. Ans. (A)

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Q.4 When P(n) = 9n – 8n is divided by 8, then the remainder is

(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 1 (D) 7
Sol. n
P(n) = 9 – 8 n

 P(1) = 9 – 8 = 1
 P(1) – 1 = 0 which is divisible by 8
 1 is the remainder when P(n) is divided by 8
Now, P(2) = 92 – 82 = 17 = 16 + 1.
Remainder is 1, when divided by 8. Ans.(C)

Q.5 Let P(n) = 23n – 7n – 1, then P(n) is divisible by

(A) 63 (B) 36 (C) 49 (D) 25
Sol. P(n) : 23n – 7n – 1
P(1) : 23 – 7 – 1 = 8 – 7 – 1 = 0
P(2) : 26 – 7(2) – 1 = 64 – 14 – 1 = 49.
which is divisible by 49
Let P(k) : 23k – 7k – 1 = 49m
 P(k + 1) = 23k + 3 – 7(k + 1) – 1 = 49 
L.H.S. of P(k + 1) = 23k + 3 – 7(k + 1) – 1
= (23k) (23) – 7k – 7 – 1
= (49m + 7k + 1) (8) – 7k – 8 [Assuming P(k) to be true]
= 49(8m) + 56k + 8 – 7k – 8
= 49(8m + k) = 49.
Thus, P(k + 1) is divisible by 49 whenever P(k) is divisible by 49. Hence P(n) is divisible by 49 for all
n  N. Ans.(C)

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HEIGHT & DISTANCE

ANGLES OF ELEVATION AND DEPRESSION :

(i) Angle of elevation :
Let P be an object and OX be a horizontal line; an observer at O to perceive the object P has to elevate
his eye from the direction OX to the direction OP.As such, we define XOP as the angle of elevation
of P at O.
P

on
ati
rv
se
ob
of
Angles of
ne
Li

Elevation
O X

(ii) Angle of depression :

Let P be an object and OX be a horizontal line; an observer at O to perceive the object P has to depress
his eye from the direction OX to the direction OP.As such, we define XOP as the angle of depression
of P at O.
O X
Angles of
Depression
Li
ne
of
ob
se
rv

P
at
io
n

(iii) Angular elevation :

If PM is perpendicular to OX, then the angle XOP is also called the altitude or the angular elevation of
MP at O.

(iv) Bearing of a point :

Let NS and EW stand for lines in the north-south and east-west directions respectively then the acute
angle which the line OAmakes with NS is called the bearing of the point Afrom O.
The bearing ofAmay be indicated precisely, by giving the size of the angle and specifying whether it is
measured from ON (or OS) and whether to east (or west). For example, in figure, OA is in the direction
30º east of north. Thus, the bearing is written as N 30º E.
N
A

30º

W E
O

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To express one side of a right angled triangle in terms of other sides :

A
Let AB = h (hypotenuse) and let ABC = . The side opposite to  is
a perpendicular p and the remaining side is base b.
b = p (cot ) P h
p = b(tan )
p = h(sin )
b = h(cos ) C b B

  a sin(  )
(a) If AD = BE, then x = y tan   (b) h=
 2  sin(  )
A
y
 h
B a 

h
 
E D C
x

H sin(  ) h cot 
(c) h= and H =
cos  cos  cos   cos 

 H

h


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STATISTICS

1. DEFINITION :

STATISTICS : A set of concepts, rules and procedures that help us to :

Organize numerical information in the form of tables, graphs and charts;
 Understand statistical techniques underlying decisions that affect our lives and well-being; and
 Make informed decisions.

2. DATA :

Facts, observations and information that come from investigations.

Generally three types of data are used

(i) Ungrouped data, Raw data or individual series :

(ii) Discrete frequency or ungrouped data :

Definition :
Data consist of n distinct values x1, x2 ……, xn occuring with frequency f1, f2 , ……, fn respectively.
This data in tabular form is called discrete freqency distribution.

(iii) Continuous frequency or grouped data :

Definition :
A continuous frequencyDistribution is a series in which the data are classified into different class intervals
without gaps along with their respective frequencies.

3. MEASURES OF CENTRAL VALUE :

Measure of central value gives rough idea about where data points are centred. Mean, mode, median
are three measure of central tendency.

(A) MEAN :
The mean is the most common measure of central tendency and the one that can be mathematically
manipulated. It is defined as the average of a distribution is equal to the X / N. Simply, the mean is
computed bysumming all the scores in the distribution (X) and dividing that sum bythe total number of
scores (N).

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(I) Arithmetic mean of individual series (Ungrouped data) :

If the series in this case be x1, x2, x3, ......., xn ; then the arithmetic mean x is given by

n
Sum of the series x1  x 2  x 3  ......  x n 1
i.e., x = =
N
= N  xi .
Number of terms i 1

(II) Arithmetic mean for discrete frequency distribution :

If the terms of the given series be x1, x2,........, xn and the corresponding frequencies be f1, f2, ......., fn,
then the arithmetic mean x is given by,,

f1x1  f 2 x 2  ........  f n x n 1 n  n 
x = =  fi x i .   fi  N 
 
N N i 1  i 1 

(III) Arithmetic mean for grouped or continuous frequency distribution :

1 n
Arithmetic mean ( x ) =A +  fi ( x i  A) ,
N i 1

where A= assumed mean, f = frequency and x – A= deviation of each item from the assumed mean.

(IV) Combined Arithmetic mean :

If x i (i = 1, 2, ......, k) are the means of k-component series of sizes ni, (i = 1, 2, ..., k) respectively, then
the mean x of the composite series obtained on combining the component series is given bythe formula

n
 nixi
n1x1  n 2 x 2 .........  n k x k i 1
x = = n .
n1  n 2  .....  n k
 ni
i 1

(V) Weighted Arithmetic Mean :

Weighted arithmetic mean refers to the arithmetic mean calculated after assigning weights to different
values of variable. It is suitable where the relative importance of difference items of variable is not same.
WeightedArithmetic Mean is give by
n
 WiXi
XW  i 1
n
 Wi
i 1

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Properties of arithmetic mean :

If each of the values of a variable 'X' is increased of decreased by some constant k, then arithmetic mean
also increased of decreased by k.
Similarlywhen the value of the variable 'X' are multiplied/divided byconstant sayk, arithmetic mean also
multiplied /divided bythe same quantity k.

Illustration :
The mean weight of 150 persons in a group is 60 kg. The mean weight of men in the group is 70 kg and
that of the women is 55 kg. Find the number of men and women.
Sol. Number of person = 150; their mean weight = 60 kg;
mean weight of men ( x1 ) = 70 kg and

mean weight of women ( x 2 ) = 55 kg

Let n1 and n2 be the number of men and number of women respectively.
We know that the total number of persons (n1 + n2) = 150 or n2 = 150 – n1.
We also know that the mean weight of all persons
(n1x1  n 2 x 2 )
(x ) 
n1  n 2

70n1  55n 2
or 60 =
150
or 3n1 = (1800 – 1650) = 150
or n1 = 50 and n2 = 100

Illustration :
Find the mean of the following data :

Marks obtained 10  20 20  30 30  40 40  50 50  60 60  70 70  80
Number of students 2 3 8 14 8 3 2

Sol. Method-1 :
Marks Number of
Mid - points fi xi
obtained students
10  20 2 15 30
20  30 3 25 75
30  40 8 35 280
40  50 14 45 630
50  60 8 55 440
60  70 3 65 195
70  80 2 75 150
40 1800

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7 7
N=  fi = 40,  fi x i = 1800
i 1 i 1

1 7 1800
x 
N i1
fi x i =
40
= 45

Method-2 :
10  80
Asumed mean a = = 45, h = 10
2
Marks Number of x i  45
Mid - points d i  fidi
obtained students 10
10  20 2 15 3 6
20  30 3 25 2 6
30  40 8 35 1 8
40  50 14 45 0 0
50  60 8 55 1 8
60  70 3 65 2 6
70  80 2 75 3 6
40 0

7
 fi di 0
x =a+ i 1
= 45 + × 10 = 45
N 40

(B) MEDIAN :

(a) Definition : The median is the score that divides the distribution into halves; half of the scores are above
the median and half are below it when the data are arranged in numerical order. The median is also
referred to as the score at the 50th percentile in the distribution.

Calculation of median :

(i) Individual series : If the data is raw, arrange in ascending or descending order. Let n be the number of
observations.
th
 n 1
If n is odd, Median = value of   item.
 2 

1  n
th
n 
th 
If n is even, Median =  value of   item  value of   1 item  .
2  2 2  

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(ii) Discrete series :In this case, we first find the cumulative frequencies of the variable arranged in ascending
th
n 
or descendingorder and the median is given byMedian =   1 observation, where n is the cumulative
2 

frequency.

(iii) For grouped or continuous distributions : In this case, following formula can be used.

N 
  C
2  i
Median = l +
f

where l = Lower limit of the median class

f = Frequency of the median class
N = The sum of all frequencies
i = The width of the median class
C = The cumulative frequency of the class preceding to median class.

(b) Quartile :As median, divides a distribution into two equal parts, similarlythe quartiles, quantiles, deciles
and percentiles divide the distribution respectively into 4, 5, 10 and 100 equal parts. The jth quartile is

 N 
 j C
given by Qj = l +  10  i.
 f 
 

Illustration :
The marks obtained by 10 students in an examination are 22, 26, 14, 30, 18, 11, 35, 41, 12, 32. What
is the median mark?
Sol. Number of students (n) = 10 and marks obtained by them = 22, 26, 14, 30, 18, 11, 35, 41, 12, 32
Arranging the given marks in the ascending order, we get 11, 12, 14, 18, 22, 26, 30, 32, 35, 41.
Since the number of students is even, therefore median of their marks

 10   10  2 
= Arithmetic mean of   and   marks
2  2 
= Arithmetic mean of 5th and 6th marks

22  26
= = 24 Ans.
2

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Illustration :
Calculate the median of the following data:

Wages per week (in Rs) 10  20 20  30 30  40 40  50 50  60 60  70 70  80

Number of worker 4 6 10 20 10 6 4

Sol. Calculation of Mean Deviation from Median

Wages per Mid-Values Frequency Cumulative

week (in Rs.) (xi) (fi) Frequency
10-20 15 4 4
20-30 25 6 10
30-40 35 10 20
40-50 45 20 40
50-60 55 10 50
60-70 65 6 56
70-80 75 4 60
N = fi
= 60

N
Here, N = 60. So = 30.
2

N
The cumulative frequency just greater than = 30 is 40 and the corresponding class is 40-50.
2
So, 40-50 is the median class.
 l = 40, f = 20, h = 10, F = 20

N
F
2 30  20
Now, Median = l   h = 40   10 = 55 Ans.
f 20

(C) MODE :
Mode is the most frequent score in the distribution.Adistribution where a single score is most frequent
has one mode and is called unimodal. When there are ties for the most frequent score, the distribution is
bimodal if two scores tie or multimodal if more than two scores tie.
Mode for continuous series

 f f 
Mode = l1 +  1 0   i
 2f1  f 0  f 2 

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Where, l1 = The lower limit of the model class

f1 = The frequency of the model class
f0 = The frequency of the class preceding the model class
f2 = The frequency of the class succeeding the model class
i = The size of the model class.

Symmetric distribution :
A distribution is a symmetric distribution if the values of mean, mode and median coincide. In a symmetric
distribution frequencies are symmetrically distributed on both sides of the centre point of the frequency
curve.

mean = median = mode

A distribution which is not symmetric is called a skewed distribution. In a moderately asymmetric

distribution, the interval between the mean and the median is approximately one-third of the interval
between the mean and the mode i.e., when have the following empirical relation between them,
Mean – Mode = 3 (Mean – Median)  Mode = 3 Median – 2 Mean. it is known as Empirical relation.

Positively skewed :
A distribution is positively skewed when is has a tail extending out to the right (larger numbers) When a
distribution is positivelyskewed, the mean is greater than the median reflecting the fact that the mean is
sensitive to each score in the distribution and is subject to large shifts when the sample is small and
contains extreme scores.

Mean > Median > Mode

Mode Median Mean

Negatively skewed :
A negativelyskewed distribution has an extended tail pointing to the left (smaller numbers) and reflects
bunching of numbers in the upper part of the distribution with fewer scores at the lower end of the
measurement scale.

Mean < Median < Mode.

Mean Median Mode

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In a moderatelyasymmetric distribution, the interval between the mean and the median is approximately
one-third of the interval between the mean and the mode i.e., when have the following empirical relation
between them,
Empirical formula : mode = 3 median – 2 mean
Mean  Mode
Coefficient of skewness =


Limitations of central values :

An average, such as the mean or the median only locates the centre of the data and does not tell us
anything about the spread of the data.

4. MEASURES OF SPREAD OR DISPERSION :

Measures of variability provide information about the degree to which individual scores are clustered
about or deviate from the average value in a distribution i.e.,
The degree to which numerical data tend to spread about an average value is called the dispersion of the
data. The four measure of dispersion are
(i) Range (ii) Mean deviation
(iii) Variance (iv) Standard deviation

Important Note :
(a) A small value for a measure of dispersion indicate that the data are clustered closely(the mean is therefore
representative of the data).
(b) A large value of dispersion indicates that the mean is not reliable (it is not representative of the data).

(i) Range :
The simplest measure of variability to compute and understand is the range. The range is the difference
between the highest and lowest score in a distribution. Because it is based solely on the most extreme
scores in the distribution and does not fully reflect the pattern of variation within a distribution, the range
is a very limited measure of variability.
LS
Coefficient of range :
L S
L = Largest value
S = Smallest value

(ii) Mean deviation :

The arithmetic average of the deviations (all taking positive) from the mean, median or mode is known as
mean deviation.

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(a) Mean deviation from ungrouped data (or individual series)

1 n
Mean deviation =  x i  M .
N i 1

n
Where  x i  M is the sum of modulus of the deviation of the variate from the mean (mean, median
i 1

or mode) and N is the number of terms.

(b) Mean deviation from continuous series :

Here first of all we find the mean from which deviation is to be taken. Then we find the deviation
x i  M of each variate from the mean M and multiplythese deviations by the corresponding frequency

1 n n
So, Mean deviation =  fi x i  M , where N =  fi .
N i 1 i 1

Illustration :
The scores of a batsman in ten innings are : 38, 70, 48, 34, 42, 55, 63, 46, 54, 44. Find the mean
deviation about the median.
Sol. Arranging the data in ascending order, we have
34, 38, 42, 44, 46, 48, 54, 55, 63, 70
Here n = 10. So, median is the A.M. of 5th and 6th observations.
 46  48 
 Median, M =   = 47
 2 
Calculation of Mean Deviation
xi |di| = |xi – 47|
38 9
70 23
48 1
34 13
42 5
55 8
63 16
46 1
54 7
44 3
Total  |di| = 86

1 86
 M.D. =  di = = 8.6 Ans.
n 10

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Illustration :
Calculate the mean deviation from the median of the following data:

Age 16  20 21  25 26  30 31  35 36  40 41  45 46  50 51  55
Number 5 6 12 14 26 12 16 9

Since given data is not continuous frequency distribution but we can make it continuous frequency
distribution by subtracting lower limit by 0.5 and adding 0.5 to upper limit of every group.
Sol. Calculation of Mean Deviation from Median

Age Mid-Values Frequency Cumulative |di|

(xi) (fi) Frequency = |xi – 38| f|di|
15.5-20.5 18 5 5 20 100
20.5-25.5 23 6 11 15 90
25.5-30.5 28 12 23 10 120
30.5-35.5 33 14 37 5 70
35.5-40.5 38 26 63 0 0
40.5-45.5 43 12 75 5 60
45.5-50.5 48 16 91 10 160
50.5-55.5 53 9 100 15 135
N =  fi fi |di|
= 100 = 735

N
Here, N = 100. So = 50.
2

N
The cumulative frequency just greater than = 50 is 63 and the corresponding class is 35.5-40.5.
2
So, 35.5-40.5 is the median class.
 l =35.5, f = 26, h = 5, C = 37

N
C
2  50  37 
Now, Median = l   h = 35.5     5 = 38 Ans.
f  26 

f i | d i | 735
Mean Deviation from median = = = 7.35 Ans.
N 100

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(iii) Variance or Var(X) or 2 :

The variance is a measure based on the deviations of individual scores from the mean. As noted in the
definition of the mean, however, simplysumming the deviations will result in a value of 0.The get around
this problem the variance is based on squared deviations of scores about the mean. When the deviations
are squared, the rank order and relative distance of scores in the distribution is preserved while negative
values are eliminated. Then to control for the number of subjects in the distribution, the sum of the

squared deviations,  (X  X ) 2 , is divided by N(population). The average of the sum of the squared
deviations is called the variance.

(a) Variance of individual observations :

If x1, x2, ……, xn are n values of a variable X, then

2
1 n 1 n 2 1 n 
Var(X) =
n
 (xi  X) = n 
2
i 1
x i    x i 
 n i 1 
i 1

= Mean of squares – Squares of Mean

(b) Variance of discrete frequency distribution :

If x1, x2, ……, xn are n values of a variable X and corresponding frequencies of them are f1, f2, ……fn

2
 n 
1 n 2  1 
n n
1
=  fi x i    fi x i    fi  N 
Var (X) =  fi ( x i  X ) 2
N i 1
 
N i 1  N i 1   i 1 

(c) Variance of a grouped or continuous frequency distribution :

1 2  1  
2
xi  X
Var (X) = h2   fi u i    fi u i   ui =
 N N   h

where h = Class width

Properties :
(1) If x1, x2, x3....., xn be n values of a variable X. If these values are changed to x1 + a, x2 + a, ....xn + a,
where a  R, then the variance remains unchanged.
(2) If x1, x2, ......., xn values of a variable X and let 'a' be a non-zero real number. Then, the variance of the
observation ax1, ax2,......,axn is a2 Var(X).

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(iv) Standard Deviation :

The standard deviation (s or ) is defined as the positive square root of the variance. The variance is a
measure in squared units and has little meaning with respect to the data. Thus, the standard deviation is
a measure of variability expressed in the same units as the data. The standard deviation is verymuch like
a mean or an "average" of these deviations.

Combined Standard Deviation :

If there are two sets of observations containing n1 & n2 items with respective mean x1 & x 2 and
standards deviations 1 & 2, then the mean x and the standard deviations of n1 + n2 observations,
taken together, are

n1x1  n 2 x 2
x = n1  n 2

2 =
1
n1  n 2
   
n1 12  d12  n 2 22  d 22 
where d1 = x – x1 , d2 = x – x 2

Illustration :
Calculate the mean and standard deviation of first n natural numbers.
Sol. Here xi = i = i = 1, 2,........, n. Let X be the mean and be the S.D. Then,

1 n 1 n 1
X =  i =  i = (1 + 2 + 3 + ...... + n)
x
n i 1 n i1 n

n (n  1) n 1
 X = =
2n 2

2
1 n 2 1 n  1 2  n 1
2
=   x i     x i 
2 2
and 2  2 = (1  2  ......  n )   
n  i 1   n i 1  n  2 

2
n ( n  1)(2n  1)  n  1  ( n  1)( 2n  1) ( n  1) 2 n 2 1
 2 =    2 =  = Ans.
6n  2  6 4 12

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Illustration :
The mean and variance of 7 observations are 8 and 16 respectively. If 5 of the observations are
2, 4, 10, 12, 14, find the remaining two observations.
Sol. Let x and y be the remaining two observation. Then,
Mean = 8
2  4  10  12  14  x  y
 =8  42 + x + y = 56
7
 x + y = 14 .....(i)
Variance = 16
1 2
 (2 + 42 +102 + 122 + 142 + x2 + y2) – (Mean)2 = 16
7
1
 (4 + 16 +100 + 144 + 196 + x2 + y2) – 64 = 16  460 + x2 + y2 = 7 × 80
7
 x2 + y2 = 100 .....(ii)
Now, (x + y)2 + (x – y)2 = 2(x2 + y2)
 196 + (x – y)2 = 2 × 100  (x – y)2 = 4  x – y = ±2
If x – y = 2, then x + y = 14 and x – y = 2  x = 8, y = 6
If x – y = –2, then x + y = 14 and x – y = –2  x = 6, y = 8
Hence, the remaining two observations are 6 and 8.

Illustration :
Find the variance and standard deviation for the following distribution:

Classes 30  40 40  50 50  60 60  70 70  80 80  90 90  100
Frequency 3 7 12 15 8 3 2

Sol. Calculation of Variance and Standard Deviation

Frequency Mid-point x – 65
Class
(fi ) yi = i yi2 fi yi fi yi2
(xi) 10
30-40 3 35 –3 9 –9 27
40-50 7 45 –2 4 –14 28
50-60 12 55 –1 1 –12 12
60-70 15 65 0 0 0 0
70-80 8 75 1 1 8 8
80-90 3 85 2 4 6 12
90-100 2 95 3 9 6 18
N = 50 –15 105

Therefore x = A +
 fi yi × h = 65 – 15 × 10 = 62
50 50

 2  = ((10 50 105  (15)2  =

2
h2 )
= 2 N  f i y i    f i yi
2 1
variance 2 2 [5250 – 225] = 201
N 50) 25
and standard deviation () = 201 = 14.18 Ans.

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Illustration :
The mean and standard deviation of 20 observations are found to be 10 and 2 respectively. On rechecking,
it was found that an observation 8 was incorrect. Calculate the correct mean and standard deviation in
each of the following cases:
(i) If the wrong item is omitted.
Sol. We have , n = 20, X = 10 and  = 2
1
 X = x i  xi = n X = 20 × 10 = 200  Incorrect xi = 200
n
1
and,  = 2  2 = 4  x i 2 – (Mean)2 = 4
n
1
 x i 2 – 100 = 4  xi2 = 104 × 20  Incorrect xi2 = 2080
20
(i) When 8 is omitted from the data.
If 8 is omitted from the data, then 19 observations are left.
Now Incorrect xi = 200  Correct xi + 8 = 200  Correct xi = 192
and Incorrect xi = 2080  Correct xi2 + 82 = 2080  Correct xi2 = 2016
2

192
 Correct mean   10.10
19
1
 Correct variance = (Correct xi2) – (Correct mean)2
19
2
2016  192 
 Correct variance =  
19  19 
38304  36864 1440
Correct variance = =
361 361

1440 12 10
 Correct standard deviation = = = 1.997
361 19

Analysis of Frequency Distributions :

Measures of dispersion are unable to compare two or more series which are measured in different units
even if they have the same mean. Thus, we require those measures which are independent of the units.
The measure of variability which is independent of units is called coefficient of variation (C.V.). The
coefficient of variation is defined as

C.V. = × 100
X

where  and X are the standard deviation and mean of the data.
For comparing the variability of two series, we calculate the coefficient of variation for each series. The
series having greater C.V. is said to be more variable or conversely less consistent, less uniform less
stable or less homogeneous than the other and the series having lesser C.V. is said to be more consistent
(or homogeneous) than the other.

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Illustration :
The following values are calculated in respect of heights and weights of the students of a section of
Class XI :
Height Weight
Mean 162.6 cm 52.36
Variance 127.69 cm 2 23.1361 kg2
Can we say that the weights show greater variation than the heights ?
Sol. To compare the variability, we have to calculate their coefficients of variation
Given Variance of height = 127.69 cm2
Therefore Standard deviation of height 127.69 cm = 11.3 cm
Also Variance of weight = 23.1361 kg2
Therefore Standard deviation of weight = 23.1361 kg = 4.81 kg
Now, the coefficient of variations (C.V.) are given by
Standard Deviation
(C.V.) in heights = × 100
Mean

11.3
= × 100 = 6.95
162.6

4.81
and (C.V.) in weight = × 1000 = 9.18
52.36
Clearly C.V. in weights is greater than the C.V. in heights
Therefore, we can say that weights show more variability than heights.

IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS :
1. Raw Data :
Data collected in original form.

2. Frequency :
The number of times a certain value or class of values occurs.

3. Frequency Distribution :
The organization of raw data in table form with classes and frequencies.

4. Categorical Frequency Distribution :

A frequencydistribution in which the data is only nominal or ordinal.

5. Ungrouped Frequency Distribution :

A frequency distribution of numerical data. The raw data is not grouped.

6. Grouped Frequency Distribution :

A frequency distribution where several numbers are grouped into one class.

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7. Class Limits :
Separate one class in a grouped frequency distribution from another. The limits could actually appear in
the data and have gaps between the upper limit of one class and the lower limit of the next.

8. Class Boundaries :
Separate one class in a grouped frequency distribution from another. The boundaries have one more
decimal place than the raw data and therefore do not appear in the data. There is no gap between the
upper boundary of one class and the lower boundary of the next class. The lower class boundary is
found by subtracting 0.5 units from the lower class limit and the upper class boundaryis found by adding
0.5 units to the upper class limit.

9. Class Width :
The difference between the upper and lower boundaries of anyclass. The class width is also the difference
between the lower limits of two consecutive classes or the upper limits of two consecutive classes. It is
not the difference between the upper and lower limits of the same class.

10. Class Mark (Midpoint) :

The number in the middle of the class. It is found by adding the upper and lower limits and dividing by
two. It can also be found by adding the upper and lower boundaries and dividing by two.

11. Cumulative Frequency :

The number of values less than the upper class boundary for the current class. This is a running total of
the frequencies.

12. Relative Frequency :

The frequency divided by the total frequency. This gives the percent of values falling in that class.

13. Cumulative Relative Frequency (Relative Cumulative Frequency) :

The running total of the relative frequencies or the cumulative frequency divided by the total frequency.
Gives the percent of the values which are less than the upper class boundary.

14. Histogram :
A graph which displays the data by using vertical bars of various heights to represent frequencies.
The horizontal axis can be either the class boundaries, the class marks, or the class limits.

15. Frequency Polygon :

A line graph. The frequency is placed along the vertical axis and the class midpoints are placed along the
horizontal axis. These points are connected with lines.

16. Ogive :
Afrequency polygon of the cumulative frequencyor the relative cumulative frequency. The vertical axis
the cumulative frequency or relative cumulative frequency. The horizontal axis is the class boundaries.
The graph always starts at zero at the lowest class boundary and will end up at the total frequency
(for a cumulative frequency) or 1.00 (for a relative cumulative frequency).

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MATHEMATICAL REASONING

STATEMENT:
A sentence is called a mathematically acceptable statement if it is either true or false but not both.
Astatement is neither imperative, nor interrogative nor exclamatory.Asentence which is a request, or a
command is not a statement .
Ex : The following are the statements
(a) 6 is less than 8
(b) 2 is an odd number
(c) Every square is a rectangle
(d) New Delhi is in India

Note : A sentence which is both true and false simultaneously is not a statement. Such a sentence is called a
paradox.

OPEN STATEMENT :
A declarative sentence containing variable (s) is an open statement if it becomes a statement when the
variable(s) is (are) replaced by some definite value (s).
e.g. s = x is an integer
s is true if x is integer and false if x is not integer.

COMPOUND STATEMENTS :
A compound statement is a statement which is made up of two or more statements. In this case, each
statement is called a component statement.
e.g.All rational numbers are real and all real numbers are complex.
The component statement are
p : all rational numbers are real
q : all real numbers are complex numbers

CONJUNCTION :
Compound statement are combined by the word "and "() the resulting statement is called a conjunction
denoted as p  q.
e.g. A point occupies a position and its location can be determined.
The component statement are
p : Apoint occupies a position
q : Its location can be determined
Both statements are true.

Imp. : Do not think that a statement with "And" is always a compound statement.
e.g. Amixture of alcohol and water can be separated by chemical methods.
(Here "And" refers to two things).
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Note :
(i) The compound statement with 'And' is true if all its component statements are true.
(ii) The compound statement with 'And' is false if any of its component statements is false (this includes the
case that some of its component statements are false or all of its component statements are false).

The following truth table shows the truth values of p  q (p and q ) and q  p (q and p) .

Truth Table (p  q, q  p)
p q pq qp
T T T T
T F F F
F T F F
F F F F
Rule : p  q is true only when p and q are true.

Remark : The above truth table shows that p  q = q  p.

DISJUNCTION OR ALTERNATION :
Compound statements p and q are combined by the connective 'OR' (), then the compound statement
denoted as p  q (p or q) so formed is called a disjunction.
e.g. Two lines in a plane either intersect at one point or they are parallel.

Sometimes we use the connective 'either ... or ... ' to obtain p  q and read p  q as 'either p or q'.

Note :
(i) A compound statement with an 'Or' is true when one component statement is true or both the component
statement are true.
(ii) A compound statement with an 'Or' is false when both the component statements are false.

Truth Table (p  q, q  p)
p q pq qp
T T T T
T F T T
F T T T
F F F F
Rule : p  q is false only when both p and q are false.

Imp. : e.g. Astudent who has taken biology or chemistry can apply for M.Sc. microbiology program.
This means that student who have taken both biology and chemistry or only biology or only chemistry
can apply for the microbiology program. This is example of inclusive "Or". In this case truth table is
same as p  q.

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Imp. : e.g. Student can take French or Sanskrit as their third language.
This means that student have to choose only one subject from French and Sanskrit. It exclude the case
when one student can choose both subject. This is case of exclusive "Or". This is represented
as p  q or p  q. Truth table for exclusive or is as follows.

Truth Table (p  q)
p q p  q or p  q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F
Rule : p  q is true only when one of p and q is
true and the other is false.

NEGATION (OR DENIAL) :

The denial of a statement is called the negation of the statement denoted as ~ .
e.g. p : Everyone in Germany speaks German.
~ p : it is false that everyone in Germany speaks German.

While forming the negation of a statement, phrases like, "It is not the case" or "It is false that" are also
used.
e.g. p : All integers are rational numbers".
~ p : Atleast one integer is not a rational number.

If p is true then ~ p must be false and if p is false then ~ p must be true

Truth Table (~ p)
p ~p ~ (~ p)
T F T
F T F
Rule : ~ is true only when p is false.

It may be noticed that ~ (~p) = p. Also p and ~ p are contrary.

e.g. the statements 'x is an even number' and ' x is an odd number' are contrary if x is a whole number
because both the statements cannot have the same truth value.

Imp. : If may be observed that negation is not a binary operation, it is a unary operation i.e. a modifier.
1. ~ p is true iff p is false.
2. ~ p is false iff p is true.

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Quantifiers :
Quantifiers are phrases like "There exists" and "for all".

Negation of Quantifiers
(i) P = There exist a number which is equal to its square .
~ P There does not exist a number which is not equal to its square.
(ii) P = For every real number x, x is less than x + 1.
~ P = There exist a number for which x is not less than x + 1.

IMPLICATION :
There are three types of implications :
(i) "If …… then "
(ii) "Onlyif "
(iii) "If and onlyif "

(1) "If …… then " type of compound statement is called conditional statement.
The statement 'if p then q' is denoted by p  q (to be read as 'p implies q') or by p  q. Note that
p  q also means

(i) p is sufficient for q (ii) q is necessary for p (iii) p only if q

(iv) p lead to q (v) q if p (vi) q when p
(vii) if p, then q

e.g. p : a number is a multiple of 9

q : a number is a multiple of 3.
Then p  q or p  q

p  q is false only when p is true and q is false. Truth table for p  q is as follows.

Truth Table (p  q, q  p)
p q pq qp
T T T T
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T
Rule : p  q is false only when p is true and q is false.

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(2) "If and only if " type of compound statement is called Biconditional or equivalence or 'double
implication'. Symbolically 'p iff q' is represented by p q or by p q.
(i) p is a necessary and sufficient condition for q.
(ii) q is necessary and sufficient condition for p.
(iii) If p then q and if q then p
(iv) q if and only if p.
e.g. p : If the sum of digits of a number is divisible by 3, then the number is divisible by 3.
q : If a number is divisible by 3, then the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
Anumber is divisible by 3 if and only if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
The following are other illustrations which actually do not appear to be so but they infact are
biconditional.
(i) If you work hard only then you can succeed.
(ii) You can go on leave only if your boss permits. The truth table for biconditional is as follows:

Truth Table (p  q, q  p)
p q pq qp
T T T T
T F F F
F T F F
F F T T
Rule : p  q is true only when both p and q have the
same truth value.

CONTRAPOSITIVE AND CONVERSE :

Contrapositive and converse are certain other statements which can be formed from a given statement
with "if...........then".
Contrapositive of p  q is ~q  ~ p
e.g. If a number is multiple of 6 then it is multiple of 2.
Contrapositive If a number is not multiple of 2 then it is not multiple of 6.
Converse of p  q is q  p
e.g. If the angles of a triangle are equal then it is equilateral triangle.
Converse is if triangle is equilateral then angles of triangle are equal.

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Truth Table (p  q)
p q pq Contrapositive Converse
(~q  ~p) (q  p)
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T T T

Note : Truth table for p  q is same as its contrapositive.

NEGATION OF IMPLICATION :
If p and q are two statements, then
~ (p q) = p  ~ q [ p  q  ~ p  q]
Proof :
p q pq ~ (p  q) p q ~q p~q
T T T F T T F F
T F F T T F T T
F T T F F T F F
F F T F F F T F

Negation of Biconditional statement or equivalence theorem :

If p and q are two statement, then
~ (p  q) = (p  ~ q)  (q  ~ p)
Proof :
p  q = (p  q)  (q  p)
 ~ (p  q) = {(p  q)  (q  p)}
= [~ (p  q)]  [~ (q  p)]
= (p  ~ q)  (q  ~ p)

TAUTOLOGIES AND FALLACIES :

The compound statements (or propositions) which are true for any truth value of their components are
called 'Tautologies '.
e.g. 'p  ~ p' is a tautology, p being logical statement. This is illustrated by the truth table given below
which shows onlyTs in the last column.

Truth Table (p  ~ p)
p ~p p~p
T F T
F T T

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The negation of tautology is called a fallacy or a contradiction i.e. a proposition which is false for any
truth value of their components is called a fallacy. For example 'p  ~ p' is a fallacy, p being any logical
statement. This is illustrated by the truth table given below which shows only Fs in the last column.

Truth Table (p  ~ p)
p ~p p~p
T F F
F T F

Note :
(i) p  q is true iff at least one of p and q is true.
(ii) p  q is true iff exactly one of p and q is true and the other is false.
(iii) p  q is true iff both p and q are true.
(iv) A tautology is always true.
(v) A fallacyis always false.

ALGEBRA OF STATEMENTS :

Statements satisfy many laws some of which are given below -

(1) Idempotent Laws : If p is any statement then
(i) p  p = p (ii) p  p = p
(2) Associative Laws : If p, q, r are any three statements, then
(i) p  (q  r) = (p  q)  r (ii) p  (q  r) = (p  q)  r

(3) Commutative Laws : If p, q are any two statements, then

(i) p  q = q  p (ii) p  q = q  p

(4) Distributive Laws : If p, q, r are any three statements, then

(i) p  (q  r) = (p  q)  (p  r) (ii) p  (q  r) = (p  q)  (p  r)

(5) Identity Laws : If p is any statement, t is tautology and c is a contradiction, then

(i) p  t = t (ii) p t = p (iii) p  c = p (iv) p  c = c

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(6) Complement Laws : If t is a tautology, c is a contradiction and p is any statement, then

(i) p  (~p) = t (ii) p  (~p) = c (iii) ~ t = c (iv) ~ c = t

(7) Involution Law : If p is any statement, then ~ (~p) = p.

(8) De-morgan's Law : If p and q are two statements, then

(i) ~ (p  q)  (~p)  (~q) (ii) ~ (p  q)  (~p)  (~q)

(i) Proof :
~ (p  q)  (~p)  (~q)

p q pq ~(p  q) ~p ~q (~p)  (~q)

T T T F F F F
T F T F F T F
F T T F T F F
F F F T T T T

(ii) Proof :
~ (p  q)  (~p)  (~q)

p q pq ~(p  q) ~p ~q (~p)  (~q)

T T T F F F F
T F F T F T T
F T F T T F T
F F F T T T T

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RELATION
EXERCISE-1
Q.1 Let R be a relation on the set N of natural numbers defined by nRm  n is a factor of m
(i.e. n | m). Then R is
(A) Reflexive and symmetric. (B) Transitive and symmetric
(C) Equivalence (D) Reflexive, transitive but not symmetric

Q.2 Let L denote the set of all straight lines in a plane. Let a relation R be defined by  R     , ,   L.
Then R is -
(A) Reflexive (B) Symmetric (C) Transitive (D) None of these

Q.3 The relation R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3)} on the set A = {1, 2, 3} is -
(A) Reflexive but not symmetric (B) Reflexive but not transitive
(C) Symmetric and transitive (D) Neither symmetric nor transitive

Q.4 Given the relation R = {(2, 3), (3,4)} on the set {2, 3, 4}. The number of minimum number of ordered
pairs to be added to R so that R is reflexive and symmetric –
(A) 4 (B) 5 (C) 7 (D) 6

Q.5 The minimum number of elements that must be added to the relation R = {(1, 2), (2, 3)} on the set
{1,2,3}, so that it is equivalence is-
(A) 4 (B) 7 (C) 6 (D) 5

Q.6 Let R : A  A, A is set of all children in a family such that x R y  x is brother of ‘y’
(where x, y  A), then R is-
(A) Reflexive (B) Symmetric (C) Transitive (D) Equivalence relation

Q.7 For real numbers x and y, we write x R y  x – y + 2 is an irrational number. Then the
relation R is -
(A) Reflexive (B) Symmetric (C) Transitive (D) None of these

Q.8 Let R be a relation defined in the set of real numbers by a R b  1 + ab > 0. Then R is-
(A) Equivalence relation (B) Transitive
(C) Symmetric (D) Anti-symmetric

Q.9 The relation R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3)} on the set A = {1, 2, 3} is -
(A) Reflexive but not symmetric (B) Reflexive but not transitive
(C) Symmetric and transitive (D) Neither symmetric nor transitive

Q.10 If A = {2, 3} and B = {1, 2}, then A × B is equal to -

(A) {(2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 1), (3, 2)} (B) {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 3)}
(C) {(2, 1), (3, 2)} (D) {(1, 2), (2, 3)}
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Q.11 The relation "less than" in the set of natural numbers is

(A) Only symmetric (B) Onlytransitive (C) Only reflexive (D) Equivalence relation

Q.12 A relation R is defined from {2, 3, 4, 5} to {3, 6, 7, 10} by xRy  x is relatively prime to y. Then
domain of R is
(A) {2, 3, 5} (B) {3, 5} (C) {2, 3, 4} (D) {2, 3, 4, 5}

Q.13 Let R1 be relation defined by R1 = {(a, b) | a  b, a, b  R}. Then R1 is

(A)An equivalence relation on R (B) Reflexive, transitive but not symmetric
(C) Symmetric, Transitive but not reflexive (D) Neither transitive nor reflexive but symmetric.

Q.14 Let R = {(1, 3), (4, 2), (2, 4), (2, 3), (3, 1)} be a relation on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. The relation R is
(A) Reflexive (B)Transitive (C) Not symmetric (D)Afunction

Q.15 If R is a relation from a finite setAhaving m elements to a finite set B having n elements, then the number
of relations from Ato B is-
(A) 2mn (B) 2mn – 1 (C) 2mn (D) mn

Q.16 Let L be the set of all straight lines in the xy-plane. Two lines 1 and 2 are said to be related by the
relation R if 1 is parallel to 2. Then the relation R is -
(A) Reflexive (B) Symmetric (C) Transitive (D) Equivalence

Q.17 The relation R defined in A = {1, 2, 3} by aRb if |a2 – b2|  5. Which of the following is false
(A) R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (2, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2)}
(B) R–1 = R
(C) Domain of R = {1, 2, 3}
(D) Range of R = {5}

Q.18 Let N denote the set of all natural numbers and R be the relation on N × N defined by
(a, b) R (c, d) if ad (b + c) = bc (a + d), then R is-
(A) Symmetric only (B) Reflexive only
(C) Transitive only (D) An equivalence relation

Q.19 The relation R defined on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} by R = {(x, y) : | x2 – y2 | < 16} is given by
(A) {(1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 1), (2, 3)} (B) {(2, 2), (3, 2), (4, 2), (2, 4)}
(C) {(3, 3), (3, 4), (5, 4), (4, 3), (3, 1)} (D) None of these

Q.20 Let A = {2, 3, 4, 5} and let

R = {(2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (2, 3), (3, 2), (3, 5), (5, 3)} be a relation in A. Then R is -
(A) Reflexive and transitive (B) Reflexive and symmetric
(C) Reflexive and antisymmetric (D) None of these

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EXERCISE-2
Q.1 Let R = {(1, 3), (4, 2), (2, 4), (2, 3), (3, 1)} be a relation on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. The relation R is-
(A) transitive (B) not symmetric (C) reflexive (D) a function
[AIEEE-2004]
Q.2 Let R = {(3, 3), (6, 6), (9, 9), (12, 12), (6, 12), (3, 9), (3, 12), (3, 6)}, be relation on the set
A = {3, 6, 9, 12} . The relation is -
(A) reflexive and transitive only (B) reflexive only
(C) an equilvalence relation (D) reflexive and symmetric only [AIEEE-2005]
Q.3 Let W denote the words in the English dictionary. Define the relation R by : R = {(x, y)  W × W | the
words x and y have at least one letter in common}. Then R is – [AIEEE 2006]
(A) reflexive, symmetric and not transitive (B) reflexive, symmetric and transitive
(C) reflexive, not symmetric and transitive (D) not reflexive, symmetric and transitive

Q.4 Let R be the real line. Consider the following subsets of the plane R × R :
S = {(x, y): y = x + 1 and 0 < x < 2}
T = {(x, y) : x – y is an integer}.
Which one of the following is true ? [AIEEE 2008]
(A) Both S and T are equivalence relations on R (B) S is an equivalence relation on R but T is not
(C) T is an equivalence relation on R but S is not (D) Neither S nor T is an equivalence relation on R

Q.5 If A, B and C are three sets such that A  B = A  C and A  B = A  C, then - [AIEEE 2009]
(A) A = B (B) A = C (C) B = C (D) A B = 

Q.6 Consider the following relations

R = {(x, y) | x, y are real numbers and x = wy for some rational number w} ;
  m p  
S =   ,  m, n, p and q are integers such that n, q  0 and qm = pn  . Then
  n q  
(A) R is an equivalence relation but S is not an equivalence relation
(B) Neither R nor S is an equivalence relation
(C) S is an equivalence relation but Ris not an equivalence relation
(D) R and S both are equivalence relations [AIEEE 2010]
Q.7 Let R be the set of real numbers.
Statement-1 : A = {(x, y)  R × R : y – x is an integer} is an equivalence relation on R.
Statement-2 : B = {(x, y)  R × R : x = y for some rational number } is an equivalence relation on R.
(A) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is true and Statement-2 is the correct explanation of Statement-1.
(B) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is false and Statement-2 is not the correct explanation of Statement-1
(C) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is false [AIEEE 2011]
(D) Statement-1 is false, Statement-2 is true.
Q.8 If X = {4n – 3n – 1 : n  N} and Y = {9(n – 1) : n  N}, where N is the set of natural numbers,
then X  Y is equal to
(A) Y (B) N (C) Y – X (D) X [JEE- Main 2014]
Q.9 Let Aand B be two sets containing four and two elements respectively. Then the number of subsets of
the set A × B, each having at least three elements is
(A) 275 (B) 510 (C) 219 (D) 256 [JEE Main 2015]
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MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

EXERCISE-3

Q.1 For all n  N, a2n – 1 + b2n – 1 is divisible by

(A) a + b (B) (a + b)2 (C) a3 + b3 (D) none of these

Q.2 The greatest positive integer which divides (n + 1) (n + 2) (n + 3) ..... (n + r) for all n  N is
(A) r (B) r! (C) n + r (D) (r + 1)!

Q.3 49n + 16n – 1 is divisible by

(A) 3 (B) 64 (C) 19 (D) 29

Q.4 The statement P(n) : 1 × 1! + 2 × 2! + 3 × 3! + .... + n × n! = (n + 1)! – 1 is

(A) true for no n (B) true for all n > 1 (C) true for all n  N (D) none of these

Q.5 For all n  N, cos  cos 2 cos 4 ...... cos (2n – 1) is equal to
sin(2 n  ) sin(2n ) cos(2n )
(A) (B) n (C) n (D) None of these
2 sin  2 sin  2 cos 

Q.6 23n – 7n – 1 is divisible by

(A) 64 (B) 36 (C) 49 (D) 25

Q.7 If 10n + 3 · 4n + 2 + k is divisible by 9 for all n  N, then the least positive integral value of k is
(A) 5 (B) 3 (C) 7 (D) 1

Q.8 For all n  N, 10n + 3 · 4n + 2 + 5 is divisible by

(A) 23 (B) 3 (C) 7 (D) 1

Q.9 If xn – 1 is divisible by x – k, then the least positive integral value of k is

(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4

13 13  23 13  23  33
Q.10 The sum of n terms of the series   + ....
1 1 3 1 3  5

n (n  1)3 (n  2) n (2n 2  9n  13) 4n 2  1

(A) (B) (C) (D) none of these
24 24 5

2
sin 2 nx
Q.11 For all n  N,  sin x
dx is equal to
0

1 1 1 1 1 1
(A) 1    ....  (B) 1    .... 
2 3 n 3 5 2n  1
(C) 0 (D) none of these

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Reasoning Type
Q.12 Statement-1 : 32n  n  N leaves the remainder 1 when divided by 8.
Statement-2 : 9n = 1 + 8.
(A) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is correct explanation for statement-1.
(B) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation for statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false.
(D) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true.

Q.13 Statement-1 : P(n) = n2 + n + 1 is an odd natural number  n  N.

Statement-2 : If 1 is added to an even number, then it becomes an odd number.
(A) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is correct explanation for statement-1.
(B) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation for statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false.
(D) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true.

Q.14 Statement-1 : The greatest positive integer which divides (n + 11) (n + 12) (n + 13) (n + 14)  n  N
is 24.
Statement-2 : The product of any r consecutive integers is divisible by r!.
(A) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is correct explanation for statement-1.
(B) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation for statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false.
(D) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true.

Q.15 Statement-1 : The digit in the unit place of 183! + 3183 is 7.

Statement-2 : 183! has unit place 0 and 34k + 3 ends with 7.
(A) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is correct explanation for statement-1.
(B) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation for statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false.
(D) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true.

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EXERCISE-4

Q.1 If an = 7  7  7  ..... having n radical signs, then bythe method of mathematical induction which

is true ?
(A) an > 7,  n  1 (B) an > 3,  n  1 (C) an < 4,  n  1 (D) an < 3,  n  1
[AIEEE - 2002]

Q.2 Let S(K) = 1 + 3 + 5 + ..... + (2K – 1) = 3 + K2. Then which of the following is true ?
(A) S(1) is correct
(B) S(K) = S(K + 1)
(C) S(K)  S(K – 1)
(D) Principle of mathematical induction can be used to prove the formula [AIEEE-2004]

1 0  1 0 
Q.3 If A = 0 1 and I =
  0 1 , then which one of the following holds, for all n  1, the principle of

mathematical induction ?
(A) An = 2n – 1 A + (n – 1) I (B) An = nA + (n – 1) I
(C) An = 2n – 1 A – (n – 1) I (D) An = nA – (n – 1) I [AIEEE 2005]

Q.4 If x > – 1, then the statement (1 + x)n > 1 + nx is true for

(A) all n  N (B) all n > 1
(C) all n > 1 provided n  N (D) none of these [Pb. CET 2005]

Q.5 The statement P(n) : 1 × 1! + 2 × 2! + 3 × 3! + ....... + n × n! = (n + 1)! – 1 is

(A) true for all n > 1 (B) not true for any n
(C) true for all n  N (D) none of these [Him. CET 2005]

Q.6 The remainder when 82n – (62)2n + 1 is divided by 9 is

(A) 2 (B) 7 (C) 8 (D) 0 [AIEEE 2009]

Q.7 Statement-1: For each natural number n, (n + 1)7 – n7 – 1 is divisible by 7.

Statement-2: For each natural number n, n7 – n is divisible by 7.
(A) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is correct explanation for statement-1.
(B) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation for statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false.
(D) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true. [AIEEE 2011]

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HEIGHT AND DISTANCE

EXERCISE-5

Q.1 If a flagstaff 6m high placed on the top of a tower throws a shadow of 2 3 m on the ground, then the
angle that the sun makes with the ground is
(A) 15º (B) 30º (C) 45º (D) 60º

Q.2 An observer on the top of a tree finds the angle of depression of a car moving towards the tree to be 30º.
After 3 min, this angle becomes 60º.After how much more time, will the car reach the tree?
(A) 4 min (B) 4.5 min (C) 1.5 min (D) 2 min

Q.3 The angle of elevation of the top of a tower from point A due south of the tower is and from point B
due east of the tower is . If AB = d, the height of the tower is
d d d d
(A) (B) (C) (D)
tan 2   tan 2  tan 2   tan 2  cot 2   cot 2  cot 2   cot 2 

Q.4 From the top of a cliff of height a, the angle of depression of the foot of a certain tower is found
to be double the angle of elevation of the top of the tower of height h. If  is the angle of elevation,
then its value is

2h 2h a 2h
(A) cos–1 (B) sin–1 (C) sin–1 (D) tan–1 3 
a a 2h a

Q.5 The angles of depression of the top and the foot of a chimney as seen from the top of a second chimney,
which is 150 m high and standing on the same level as the first are  and  respectively, then the distance
4 5
between their tops when tan  = and tan  = is
3 2
150
(A) m (B) 100 3 m (C) 150 m (D) 100 m
3

Q.6 The top of a hill observed from the top and bottom of a building of height h is at angles of elevation p and
q respectively. The height of the hill is
h cot q h cot p h tan p
(A) (B) (C) (D) None of these
cot q  cot p cot p  cot q tan p  tan q

Q.7 A flagstaff 5m high is placed on a building 25 m high. If the flagand building both subtend equal angles on
the observer at a height 30 m, the distance between the observer and the top of the flag is

5 3 3 2 5 2
(A) (B) 5 (C) 5 (D)
2 2 3 3

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Q.8 If the angle of elevation of a cloud from a foot h metres above a lake is  and the angle of depression of
its reflection in the lake is , then the height is

h sin(  ) h sin(  ) h sin(  )

(A) (B) (C) (D) None of these
sin(  ) sin(  ) sin(  )

Q.9 Statement-1: A flagstaff of length 100 m stands on tower of height h. If at a point on the ground, the
angles of elevation of the tower and top of the flagstaff are 30° and 45°, then

h = 50 3  1 m. 
Statement-2: A flagstaff of length d stands on tower of height h. If at a point on the ground, the angles

d cot 
of elevation of the tower and top of the flagstaff are  and , then h = .
cot   cot 
(A) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is correct explanation for statement-1.
(B) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation for statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false.
(D) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true.

Q.10 Statement-1: Over a towerAB of height 10 m, there is a flagstaff BC.AB and BC are making equal
angles at a point distant 15 m from the footAof the tower. The height of the flagstaff is
30 m.
Statement-2: Over a towerAB of height h metres, there is a flagstaff BC. AB and BC are making
equal angles at a point distant d metre from the foot Aof the tower. The height of the

h (d 2  h 2 )
flagstaff is metres.
(d 2  h 2 )

(A) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is correct explanation for statement-1.
(B) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation for statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false.
(D) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true.

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EXERCISE-6

Q.1 From a point on the level ground, the angle of elevation of the top of a pole is 30°. On moving 20 m
nearer, the angle of elevation is 45°. Then the height of the pole (in metres) is
(A) 10( 3  1) (B) 10( 3  1) (C) 15 (D) 20 [EAMCET 2002]

3 3
Q.2 The upper   th portion of a vertical pole subtends an angle tan 1   at a point in the horizontal
4 5
plane through its foot and at a distance 40 m from the foot.Apossible height of the vertical pole is
(A) 40 m (B) 60 m (C) 80 m (D) 20 m
[AIEEE 2003]

Q.3 A tower subtends angles , 2 and 3 respectively at points A, B and C, all lying on a horizontal line
through the foot of the tower. Then AB/BC is equal to
sin 3 sin 2
(A) (B) 1 + 2 cos 2 (C) 2 cos 2 (D)
sin 2 sin 
[EAMCET 2003]

Q.4 A person standing on the bank of a river observes that the angle of elevation of the top of the tree on the
opposite bank of the river is 60° and when he retires 40 m away from the tree, the angle of elevation
becomes 30°. The breadth of the river is
(A) 20 m (B) 30 m (C) 40 m (D) 60 m [AIEEE 2004]

Q.5 An aeroplane flying with uniform speed horizontally 1 km above the ground is observed at an elevation
of 60°. After 10 s if the elevation is observed to be 30°, then the speed of the plane (in km/h) is
240 120
(A) (B) 200 3 (C) 240 3 (D) [EAMCET 2004]
3 3

Q.6 A tower of x metres high has a flagstaff at its top. The tower and the flagstaff subtend equal angles at a
point distant y metres from the foot of the tower. Then the length of the flagstaff (in metres) is
y( x 2  y 2 ) x( y2  x 2 ) x(x 2  y2 ) x(x 2  y2 )
(A) (B) (C) (D)
(x 2  y2 ) (y2  x 2 ) (x 2  y2 ) (x 2  y2 )
[EAMCET 2005]

Q.7 ABCD is a rectangular field. Avertical lamp post of height 12 m stands at the corner A. If the angle of
elevation of its top from B is 60° and from C is 45°, then the area of the field is
(A) 48 2 sq. m (B) 48 3 sq. m (C) 48 sq. m (D) 12 2 sq. m
[Kerala CEE 2005]

Q.8 When the length of the shadow of the pole is equal to the height of the pole, then the elevation of the
source of light is
(A) 75° (B) 60° (C) 45° (D) 30° [DCE 2006]

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Q.9 Atower subtends an angle  at a point A in the plane of its base and the angle of depression of the foot
of the tower at a point b feet just above A is . Then the height of the tower is
(A) b tan  cot  (B) b cot  tan  (C) b cot  cot  (D) b tan  tan 
[Kerala CEE 2006]
Q.10 Atower stands at the centre of a circular park.Aand B are two points on the boundary of the park such
that AB ( = a) subtends an angle of 60° at the foot of the tower and the angle of elevation of the top of
the tower from A or B is 30°. The height of the tower is
2a a
(A) (B) 2a 3 (C) (D) 3 [AIEEE 2007]
3 3
Q.11 A house of height 100 m subtends a right angle at the window of an opposite house. If the height of the
window is 64 m, then the distance between the two houses is
(A) 48 m (B) 36 m (C) 54 m (D) 72 m [WBJEE 2007]

Q.12 On one bank of a river, there is a tree. On another bank, an observer makes an angle of elevation of 60°
at the top of the tree. The angle of elevation of the top of the tree at a distance 20 m away from the bank
is 30°. The width of the river is
(A) 20 m (B) 10 m (C) 5 m (D) 1m [BCECE 2007]

Q.13 AB is a vertical pole with B at the ground level andAat the top.Aman finds that the angle of elevation
of the pointAfrom a certain point C on the ground is 60°. He moves away from the pole along the line
BC to a point D such that CD = 7 m. From D, the angle of elevation of the pointAis 45°. Then the height
of the pole is
7 3 1  7 3 1 
(A)  m (B)  m
2  3 1 2  3 1 

(C)
7 3
2

3 1 m  (D)
7 3
2

3 1 m  [AIEEE 2008]

Q.14 A house subtends a right angle at the window of an opposite house and the angle of elevation of the
window from the bottom of the first house is 60°. If the distance between the two houses is 6 m, then the
height of the first house is
(A) 8 3 m (B) 6 3 m (C) 4 3 m (D) None of these
[DCE 2008]
Q.15 From the top of a hill h metres high, the angles of depressions of the top and the bottom of a pillar are
 and , respectively. The height (in metres) of the pillar is
h (tan   tan ) h (tan   tan ) h (tan   tan ) h (tan   tan  )
(A) (B) (C) (D)
tan  tan  tan  tan 
[EAMCET 2008]

Q.16 P is a point on the segment joining the feet of two vertical poles of heights a and b. The angles of elevation
of the tops of the poles from P are 45° each. Then, the square of the distance between the tops of the
poles is
a 2  b2
(A) (B) a2 + b2 (C) 2(a2 + b2) (D) 4(a2 + b2)
2
[EAMCET 2008]
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Q.17 A flagpole stands on a building of height 450 ft and an observer on a level ground is 300 ft from the base
of the building. The angle of elevation of the bottom of the flagpole is 30° and the height of the flagpole
is 50 ft. If  is the anlge of elevation of the top of the flagpole, then tan  is equal to
4 3 9 3
(A) (B) (C) (D) [Kerala CEE 2008]
3 3 2 2 5
Q.18 The elevation of an object on a hill is observed from a certain point in the horizontal plane through its
base, to be 30°. After walking 120 m towards it on the level ground, the elevation is found to be 60°.
Then the height of the object (in metres) is
(A) 120 (B) 60 3 (C) 120 3 (D) 60 [BCECE 2008]

Q.19 The angle of elevation of the top of a hill from a point is .After walking b metres towards the top of a
slope inclined at an angle  to the horizon, the angle of elevation of the top becomes . Then, the height
of the hill is
b sin  sin(   ) b sin  sin(   ) b sin (   ) sin (   )
(A) (B) (C) (D) b sin  sin(    )
sin(   ) sin(   ) sin(   )
[DCE 2009]
Q.20 From the top of a tower, the angle of depression of a point on the ground is 60°. If the distance of this
1
point from the tower is m, then the height of the tower is
3 1

4 3 3 3 3 3 3
(A) m (B) m (C) m (D) m
2 2 2 2
[Kerala CEE 2009]
Q.21 A bird is sitting on the top of a vertical pole 20 m high and its elevation from the point O on the ground
is 45°. It flies off horizontally straight away from the point O.After one second, the elevation of the bird
from O is reduced to 30°. Then the speed (in m/s) of the bird is

(A) 20 3  1  
(B) 40 2  1  
(C) 40 3  2  (D) 20 2
[JEE- Main 2014]
Q.22 If the angles of elevation of the top of a tower from three collinear points A, B and C, on a line leading
to the foot of the tower, are 30°, 45° and 60° respectively, then the ratio, AB : BC is
(A) 1 : 3 (B) 2 : 3 (C) 3 : 1 (D) 3 : 2
[JEE Main 2015]
Q.23 Aman is walking towards a vertical pillar in a straight path, at a uniform speed.At a certain pointAon the
path, he observes that the angle of elevation of the top of the pillar is 30°.After walking for 10 minutes
from Ain the same direction, at a point B, he observes that the angle of elevation of the top of the pillar
is 60°. Then the time taken (in minutes) by him, from B to reach the pillar, is
(A) 5 (B) 6 (C) 10 (D) 20 [JEE Main 2016]
Q.24 Let a vertical towerAB have its endAon the level ground. Let C be the mid-point ofAB and Pbe a point
on the ground such that AP = 2AB. If BPC = , then tan  is equal to
6 1 2 4
(1) (2) (3) (4) [JEE (Main) 2017]
7 4 9 9

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STATISTICS

EXERCISE-7

Q.1 The mean weight of 9 items is 15. If one more item is added to the series, the mean becomes 16.
The value of 10th item is
(A) 35 (B) 30 (C) 25 (D) 20
Q.2 In the frequencydistribution of the discrete data given below, the frequency k against value 0 is missing.
Variable x : 0 1 2 3 4 5
Frequency f : k 20 40 40 20 4
If the mean is 2.5, then the missing frequency k will be
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 3 (D) 4
Q.3 The value of mean, median and mode coincides, then the distribution is
(A) positive skewness (B) symmetrical distribution
(C) negative skewness (D) all of the above
Q.4 Let mean of n item be x . If each rth item is increased by 2r. Then new mean will be
n n2
(A) x (B) x  (C) x  (D) x  n  1
2 2

Q.5 The SD of 15 items is 6 and if each item is decreases by 1, then standard deviation will be
91
(A) 5 (B) 7 (C) (D) 6
15

Q.6 The sum of squares of deviations for 10 observations taken from mean 50 is 250. The coefficient of
variation is
(A) 10% (B) 40% (C) 50% (D) none of these
Q.7 Mean of n items is x. If these n items are increased by 12, 22, 32,....., n2 successively, then mean gets
increased by

n  12n  1 n n  12n  1 n2
(A) (B) (C) (D) remains same
6 6 2

Asseration and Reason

Q.8 Suppose two groups of scores A and B are such that A = (x, x + 2, x + 4) and B = (x – 2, x + 2, x + 6).
Statement-1 Group B has more variability than groupA.
Statement-2 The value of mean for group B is more than that of groupA.
(A) Statement-1 is true, Statement -2 is true; Statement-2 is a correct explanation for Statement-1
(B) Statement-1 is true, Statement -2 is true; Statement-2 is not a correct explanation for Statement-1
(C) Statement-1 is true, Statement -2 is false
(D) Statement-1 is false, Statement-2 is true

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ax  b a
Q.9 Statement-1 The standard deviation of variable is 
c c

Statement-2 The standard deviation of a linear equation is  × | coefficient of x |

(A) Statement-1 is true, Statement -2 is true; Statement-2 is a correct explanation for Statement-1
(B) Statement-1 is true, Statement -2 is true; Statement-2 is not a correct explanation for Statement-1
(C) Statement-1 is true, Statement -2 is false
(D) Statement-1 is false, Statement-2 is true

Q.10 The A.M. of 2n + 1C0, 2n + 1C1, 2n + 1C2,........, 2n + 1Cn is

2n 2n 22n 22 n
(A) (B) (C) (D)
n n 1 n (n  1)

91 8
Q.11 If the variate takes the values 0, 2, 4, 8,..... 2n with frequencies nC0, nC1, nCn and if the mean is ,
2n
then n equals
(A) 4 (B) 6 (C) 5 (D) none of these

Q.12 The mean value of the median and mean of the odd divisors of 360 is
(A) 13 (B) 7 (C) 6 (D) 10

Q.13 If data is less scattered about its mean then which of the following is not always true
(i) Coefficient of variance is small
(ii) Standard deviation is large.
(iii) Variance is small.
(iv) Mode is large.
(A) only (i) (B) only(iv) (C) (i) and (iv) (D) (ii) and (iv)

7 5 1 1
Q.14 If a variable takes the discrete values  + 4,  – ,  – ,  – 3,  – 2,  + ,  – ,
2 2 2 2
 + 5 ( > ), then the median is
5 1 5
(A)   (B)   (C)  – 2 (D)  
4 2 4

Q.15 Mean deviation of the series a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 2nd from its mean is
n  1d nd n (n  1)d (2n  1)d
(A) (B) (C) (D)
2n  1 2n  1 2n  1 n n  1

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Q.16 Asample of 35 observations has the mean 80 and s.d. as 4.Asecond sample of 65 observation from the
same population has mean 60 and s.d. 3. The s.d. of the combined sample is
(A) 5.85 (B) 5.58 (C) 10.12 (D) None of these

Q.17 Consider the following statements :

1
1. The AM of first n natural numbers is n (2n + 1).
6
2. In a moderately symmetric distribution, QD  MD  SD
Which of these is(are) not correct ?
(A) Only (1) (B) Only (2) (C) Both (1) and (2) (D) None of these

Q.18 The standard deviation of 25 numbers is 40. If each of the numbers is increased by 5, then the new
standard deviation will be
21
(A) 40 (B) 45 (C) 40  (D) none of these
25

Q.19 The mean and S.D. of the marks of 200 candidates were found to be 40 and 15 respectively. Later, it
was discovered that a score of 40 was wrongly read as 50. The correct mean and S.D. respectively are
(A) 14.98, 39.95 (B) 39.95, 16.12 (C) 39.95, 224.5 (D) none of these

Q.20 The average of n numbers x1, x2, x3, ……, xn is M. If x1 is replaced by x, then the new average is

(n  1)M  x1  x (n  1)M  x1  x nM  x1  x
(A) M – x1 + x (B) (C) (D)
n n n

Q.21 The variance of ,  and  is 9, then variance of 5, 5 and 5 is

9 5
(A) 45 (B) (C) (D) 225
5 9

Q.22 The mean of n items is x . If each item is successively increased by 3, 32, 33, ......, 3n, then new mean
equals

(A) x 
3n1
(B) x  3
3  1
n
(C) x 
3n
(D) x  3
3  1
n

n 2n n 2n

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Q.23 Find the median from the following distribution

Marks ( x ) 0  10 10  20 20  30 30  40 40  50 50  60
No. of students 10 20 30 50 40 30

(A) 30 (B) 45 (C) 36 (D) 40

Q.24 An automobile driver travels from plane to a hill station 120 km distant at an average speed of 30 km per
hour. He then makes the return trip at an average speed of 25 km per hour. He covers another 120 km
distance on plane at an average speed of 50 km per hour. His average speed over the entire distance of
360 km will be
30  25  50
(A) km/hr (B) (30 + 25 + 50)1/3
3

3
(C) km/hr (D) None of these
1 1 1
 
30 25 50

Q.25 For a frequency distribution 7th decile is computed by the formula :

N  N 
  C   C
7  i  10  i
(A) D7 = l + (B) D7 = l +
f f

 7N   10 N 
  C   C
 10  i  7  i
(C) D7 = l + (D) D7 = l +
f f

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EXERCISE-8
Q.1 In a class of 100 students there are 70 boys whose average marks in a subject are 75. If the average
marks of the complete class is 72, then what is the average of the girls ?
(A) 73 (B) 65 (C) 68 (D) 74
[AIEEE-2002]

Q.2 The median of a set of 9 distinct observation is 20.5. If each of the largest 4 observations of the set is
increased by 2, then the median of the new set
(A) is increased by 2 (B) is decreased by 2
(C) is two times the original median (D) remains the same as that of the original set
[AIEEE-2003]

Q.3 In an experiment with 15 observations on x, the following results were available

 x 2  2830 ,  x  170
One observation that was 20, we found to be wrong and was replaced by the correct value 30. Then,
the corrected variance is
(A) 78.00 (B) 188.66 (C) 177.33 (D) 8.33 [AIEEE-2003]

Q.4 Consider the following statements :

(1) Mode can be computed from histogram.
(2) Median is not independent of change of scale.
(3) Variance is independent of change of origin and scale.
Which of these is/are correct?
(A) only (1) (B) Only (2) (C) Only (1) and (2) (D) (1), (2) and (3)
[AIEEE-2004]

Q.5 In a series of 2n observations, half of them equal a and remaining half equal – a. If the standard deviation
of the observations is 2, then a equals

1 2
(A) (B) 2 (C) 2 (D) [AIEEE-2004]
n n
Q.6 If in a frequency distribution, the mean and median are 21 and 22 respectively, then its Mode is
approximately
(A) 24.0 (B) 25.5 (C) 20.5 (D) 22.0 [AIEEE-2005]

Q.7 Let x 1, x2,....., xn be n observations such that  xi2  400 and  x i  80 . Then, a possible value of
n among the following is
(A) 12 (B) 9 (C) 18 (D) 15 [AIEEE-2005]

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Q.8 Suppose, a population A has 100 observations 101, 102,......, 200 and another population B has 100
observations 151, 152, ..., 250. If VA and VB represent the variances of the two population respectively,
VA
then is
VB
9 4 2
(A) (B) (C) (D) 1 [AIEEE-2006]
4 9 3

Q.9 The average marks of boys in a class is 52 and that of girls is 42. The average marks of boys and girls
combined is 50. The percentage of boys in the class is
(A) 40 (B) 20 (C) 80 (D) 60 [AIEEE-2007]

Q.10 The mean of the numbers a, b, 8, 5, 10, is 6 and the variance is 6.80. Then, which one of the following
gives possible values of a and b ?
(A) a = 3, b = 4 (B) a = 0, b = 7 (C) a = 5, b = 2 (D) a = 1, b = 6
[AIEEE-2008]

Q.11 If the standard deviation of the observations – 5, – 4, – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 is 10 . The standard

deviation of observations 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25 will be
(A) 10  20 (B) 10  10 (C) 10 (D) None of these
[DCE-2008]

Q.12 Median of C0, 2nC1, 2nC2, 2nC3,........, 2nCn (where n is even) is

2n

2n 2n 2n
(A ) Cn (B) C n 1 (C) C n 1 (D) None of these
2 2 2
[UP SEE-2008]

Q.13 If the mean deviation of number 1, 1 + d, 1 + 2d, ....., 1 + 100 d from their mean is 255, then d is
equal to
(A) 10.0 (B) 20.0 (C) 10.1 (D) 20.2 [AIEEE - 2009]

n2 1
Q.14 Statement-1 The variance of first n even natural numbers is .
4
n n  1
Statement-2 The sum of first n natural numbers is and the sum of squares of first n natural
2
n n  1 2n  1
numbers is .
6
(A) Statement-1 is true, Statement -2 is true; Statement-2 is a correct explanation for Statement-1
(B) Statement-1 is true, Statement -2 is true; Statement-2 is not a correct explanation for Statement-1
(C) Statement-1 is true, Statement -2 is false
(D) Statement-1 is false, Statement-2 is true [AIEEE-2009]

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Q.15 If the variable takes the values 0, 1, 2,......, n with frequencies proportional to the binomial coefficients
C(n, 0) , C(n, 1), C(n, 2),......, C(n, n) respectively, then the variance of the distribution is

n n n
(A) n (B) (C) (D) [DCE-2009]
2 2 4

Q.16 For two data sets, each of size 5, the variances are given to be 4 and 5 and the corresponding means are
given to be 2 and 4, respectively. The variance of the combined data set is
5 11 13
(A) (B) (C) 6 (D) [AIEEE - 2010]
2 2 2

Q.17 A scientist is weighing each of 30 fishes. Their mean weight worked out is 30 gm and a standard deviation
of 2 gm. Later, it was found that the measuing scale was misaligned and always under reported every fish
weight by 2 gm. The correct mean and standard deviation (in gm) of fishes are respectively
(A) 32, 2 (B) 32, 4 (C) 28,2 (D) 28, 4
[AIEEE - 2011]

Q.18 If the mean deviation about the median of the numbers a, 2a, .......50a is 50, then |a| equals :
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 6 [AIEEE - 2011]

Q.19 Let x1, x2, ........., xn be n observations, and let x be their arithmetic mean and 2 be their variance.
Statement 1: Variance of 2x1, 2x2, ...., 2xn is 42.
Statement 2: Arithmetic mean of 2x1, 2x2, ...., 2xn is 4 x .
(A) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is correct explanation for statement-1.
(B) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation for statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false.
(D) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true. [AIEEE - 2012]

Q.20 All the students of a class performed poorly in Mathematics. The teacher decided to give grace marks of
10 to each of the students. Which of the following statistical measures will not change even after the
grace marks were given?
(A) median (B) mode (C) variance (D) mean
[JEE - Main 2013]
Q.21 The variance of first 50 even natural numbers is
437 833
(A) (B) (C) 833 (D) 437
4 4
[JEE- Main 2014]

Q.22 The mean of the data set comprising of 16 observations is 16. If one of the observation valued 16 is
deleted and three new observations valued 3, 4 and 5 are added to the data, then the mean of the
resultant data, is
(A) 15.8 (B) 14.0 (C) 16.8 (D) 16.0
[JEE Main 2015]

Q.23 If the standard deviation of the numbers 2, 3, a and 11 is 3.5, then which of the following is true?
(A) 3a2 – 23a + 44 = 0 (B) 3a2 – 26a + 55 = 0
(C) 3a2 – 32a + 84 = 0 (D) 3a2 – 34a + 91 = 0 [JEE Main 2016]

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MATHEMATICAL REASONING

EXERCISE-9

Q.1 Which of the following is not a statement ?

(A) Every set is a finite set (B) 8 is less than 6
(C) Where are you going ? (D) Thesum of interior angles of a triangle is 180 degrees

Q.2 Which of the following is a statement ?

(A) May you live long ! (B) May God bless you !
(C) The sun is a star (D) Hurrah! We have won the match

Q.3 Negation of "2 + 3 = 5 and 8 < 10" is

(A) 2 + 3  5 and 8 < 10 (B) 2 + 3 = 5 or 8 / 10
(C) 2 + 3  5 or 8 / 10 (D) None of these

Q.4 Negation of "Manu is in class X orAnu is in class XII" is

(A) Manu is not in class X but Anu is in class XII
(B) Manu is not is class X but Anu is not in class XII
(C) Either Manu is not in class X or Anu is not in class XII
(D) None of these

Q.5 Truth value of the statement "if p then q" is false when
(A) p is true, q is true (B) p is true, q is false
(C) p is false, q is true (D) p is false, q is false

Q.6 Let p and q be two statements. Then, ~ p  q   ~ p  ~ q  is a

(A) tautology (B) contradiction
(C) neither tautology nor contradiction (D) either tautology or contradiction

Q.7 Let p  q  r   p  q   p  r  . Then, this law is known as

(A) Commutative law (B)Associate law (C) De-Morgan's law (D) Distribute law

Q.8 The false statement in the following is

(A) p  ~ p  is a contradiction (B) (p  q)  (~ q  ~ p) is a contradiction
(C) ~ (~ p)  p is a tautology (D) p  (~ p) is a tautology

Q.9 If p : Ram is smart.

q : Ram is intelligent.
Then, the symbolic form Ram is smart and intelligent, is
(A) p  q  (B) p  q  (C) p ~ q  (D) p ~ q 

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Q.10 A compound sentence formed by two simple statements p and q using connective 'or' is called
(A) conjunction (B) disjunction (C) implication (D) none of these

Q.11 The contrapositive of p  ~ q is

(A) ~ p  q (B) ~ q  p (C) q  ~ p (D) None of these

Q.12 If p = ABC is equilateral and q = each angle is 60°. Then, symbolic form of statement
(A) p  p (B) p  q (C) p  q (D) p  q

Q.13 If p = He is intelligent
q = He is strong.
Then, symbolic form of statement.
"It is wrong that he is intelligent or strong," is
(A) ~ p  ~ p (B) ~ p  q  (C) ~ p  ~ q (D) p ~ q

Q.14 If p and q are two statements, then statement p  q  ~ q is

(A) tautology (B) contradiction
(C) neither tautology nor contradiction (D) None of the above

Q.15 If p and q are two statements, then ~ p  q   ~ q  p 

(A) tautology (B) contradiction
(C) neither tautology nor contradiction (D) either tautology or contradiction

Q.16 Which is a statement ?

(A) x + 1 = 6 (B) 5  N (C) x + y < 12 (D) None of these

Q.17 If p : Aman is happy.

q : Aman is rich.
Then, the statement, "If a man is not happy, then he is not rich" is written is
(A) ~ p  ~ q (B) ~ q  p (C) ~ q  ~ p (D) q  ~ p

Q.18 ~ (p  q)  (~ p q) is logically equivalent to

(A) ~ p (B) p (C) q (D) ~ q

Q.19 The compound statement p  (~ p  q) is false, then the truth values of p and q are respectively
(A) T, T (B) T, F (C) F, T (D) F, F

Q.20 ~ [~ p  (p  q)] 
(A) p  q (B) q  p (C) T (D) F

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EXERCISE-10

Q.1 The statement p  (q  p) is equivalent to [AIEEE- 2008]

(A) p  (p  q) (B) p  (p  q) (C) p  (p  q) (D) p  (p  q)

Q.2 ~ (p  q)  (~ p  q) is logically equivalent to

(A) ~ p (B) p (C) q (D) ~ q [DCE- 2008]

Q.3 If p, q, r are simple propositions, then (p  q)  (q  r) is true, then

(A) p, q, r are all false (B) p, q, r are all true
(C) p, q are true and r is false (D) p is true and q and r are false [DCE- 2008]

Q.4 Statement-1 : ~ (p  ~ q) is equivalent to p  q.

Statement -2 : ~ (p  ~ q) is a tautology
(A) Statement-1 is true, Statement -2 is true; Statement-2 is a correct explanation for Statement-1
(B) Statement-1 is true, Statement -2 is true; Statement-2 is not a correct explanation for Statement-1
(C) Statement-1 is true, Statement -2 is false
(D) Statement-1 is false, Statement-2 is true [AIEEE-2009]

Q.5 Let S be a non-empty subset of R. Consider the following statement

P : There is a rational number x  S such that x > 0.
Which of the following statements is the negation of the statement P ?
(A) There is a rational number x  S such that x  0
(B) There is no rational number x  S such that x  0
(C) Every rational number x  S satisfies x  0
(D) x  S and x  0  x is not rational [AIEEE-2010]

Q.6 The only statement among the following that is a tautology is

(A) A  A  B (B) A  A  B
(C) A  A  B  B (D) B  A  A  B [AIEEE-2011]

Q.7 Consider the following statements

P : Suman is brilliant Q : Suman is rich R : Suman is honest
The negation of the statement "Suman is brilliant and dishonest if and only if Suman is rich" can be
expressed as : [AIEEE-2011]
(A) ~P ^ (Q  R) (B) ~ (Q  (P ^ ~ R)) (C) ~ Q  ~P ^ R (D) ~ (P^ ~ R)  Q

Q.8 The negation of the statement

"If I become a teacher, then I will open a school", is
(A) Neither I will become a teacher nor I will open a school.
(B) I will not become a teacher or I will open a school.
(C) I will become a teacher and I will not open a school.
(D) Either I will not become a teacher or I will not open a school. [AIEEE-2012]

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Q.9 Consider
Statement-I: (p  ~ q)  (~ p  q) is a fallacy..
Statement-II: (p  q)  (~ q  ~ p) is a tautology.
(A) Statement-I is true, Statement-II is true, Statement-II is not a correct explanation for Statement-I.
(B) Statement-I is true, Statement-II is false.
(C) Statement-I is false, Statement-II is true.
(D) Statement-I is true, Statement-II is true, Statement-II is a correct explanation for Statement-I.
[JEE- Main 2013]

Q.10 The statement ~ (p  ~ q) is

(A) a fallacy (B) equivalent to p  q
(C) equivalent to ~ p  q (D) a tautology
[JEE- Main 2014]

Q.11 The negation of ~ s  (~ r  s) is equivalent to

(A) s  ( r  ~ s) (B) s  r (C) s  ~ r (D) s  ( r  ~ s)
[JEE Main 2015]

Q.12 The Boolean Expression (p  ~ q) q  (~p  q) is equivalent to

(A) p  ~ q (B) ~ p  q (C) p  q (D) p  q
[JEE Main 2016]

Q.13 The following statement (p  q)  [(~p  q)  q] is

(1) a tautology (2) equivalent to ~ p  q
(3) equivalent to p  ~ q (4) a fallacy
[JEE (Main) 2017]

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ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE-1
Q.1 D Q.2 B Q.3 A Q.4 B Q.5 B
Q.6 C Q.7 A Q.8 C Q.9 A Q.10 A
Q.11 B Q.12 D Q.13 B Q.14 C Q.15 A
Q.16 D Q.17 D Q.18 D Q.19 D Q.20 B
EXERCISE-2
Q.1 B Q.2 A Q.3 A Q.4 C Q.5 C
Q.6 C Q.7 C Q.8 A Q.9 C
EXERCISE-3
Q.1 A Q.2 B Q.3 B Q.4 C Q.5 B
Q.6 C Q.7 A Q.8 B Q.9 A Q.10 B
Q.11 B Q.12 A Q.13 A Q.14 A Q.15 A
EXERCISE-4
Q.1 B Q.2 B Q.3 D Q.4 C Q.5 C
Q.6 A Q.7 A
EXERCISE-5
Q.1 D Q.2 C Q.3 D Q.4 D Q.5 D
Q.6 B Q.7 B Q.8 A Q.9 D Q.10 D
EXERCISE-6
Q.1 B Q.2 A Q.3 B Q.4 A Q.5 C
Q.6 B Q.7 A Q.8 C Q.9 A Q.10 C
Q.11 A Q.12 B Q.13 C Q.14 A Q.15 A
Q.16 C Q.17 A Q.18 B Q.19 A Q.20 C
Q.21 A Q.22 C Q.23 A Q.24 3
EXERCISE-7
Q.1 C Q.2 D Q.3 B Q.4 D Q.5 D
Q.6 A Q.7 A Q.8 C Q.9 A Q.10 D
Q.11 B Q.12 D Q.13 D Q.14 A Q.15 C
Q.16 C Q.17 A Q.18 A Q.19 B Q.20 D
Q.21 D Q.22 B Q.23 C Q.24 C Q.25 D
EXERCISE-8
Q.1 B Q.2 D Q.3 A Q.4 D Q.5 C
Q.6 A Q.7 C Q.8 D Q.9 C Q.10 A
Q.11 C Q.12 A Q.13 C Q.14 D Q.15 D
Q.16 B Q.17 A Q.18 C Q.19 C Q.20 C
Q.21 C Q.22 B Q.23 C
EXERCISE-9
Q.1 C Q.2 C Q.3 C Q.4 D Q.5 C, D
Q.6 C Q.7 D Q.8 B Q.9 A Q.10 B
Q.11 C Q.12 D Q.13 C Q.14 C Q.15 C
Q.16 B Q.17 A Q.18 A Q.19 B Q.20 A
EXERCISE-10
Q.1 C Q.2 A Q.3 B Q.4 C Q.5 C
Q.6 C Q.7 B, D Q.8 C Q.9 A Q.10 B
Q.11 B Q.12 D Q.13 1
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