Teacher: ___________________________________

Mathematical Methods CAS

Unit 1 and 2

2021

Unit 1: Unit 2:
 Linear  Advanced Functions
 Quadratics  Exponentials &
 Cubics & Polynomials Logarithms
 Circular Functions  Differentiation
 Integration
 Probability
Topic 1: Linear
1.2 Linearly related variables, linear equations and inequations

Variables in direct proportion

Two quantities or variables which vary directly, or are in direct proportion or direct variation,
have a linear relationship.

In any application of direct proportion/variation, it is essential to know which variable is the

explanatory and response variables.

Independent/Explanatory Variable:

Dependent/Response Variable:

Example 1:
A bicycle hire company charges $20 per hour for hiring a single bicycle. State the
explanatory and response variables.

For any variables x and y , if y is directly proportional to x :

 Then y=kx , where k is called the constant of proportionality
 The graph of y against x is a straight line through the origin

Example 2:
The volume of a cone of fixed base radius is directly proportional to its height. If the volume
is 96 π cm3 when the height is 6 cm, calculate the constant of proportionality.

A linear equation of the form y=mx+c , where there is a constant, is called part variation.

Linear Equations
A linear equation involves a variable which has an index of one. For example, 2 x−2=3 is a
linear equation because the power of x is one, whereas 4 x2 −2=10 is not linear because
the power of x is 2.

When we solve linear equations, we are finding the value of the unknown variable.

Example 3:
Solve the following equations

a) 5 x+ 3=−4(1−x)

5 x +2
b) −1+ =10
3

4 x−5 x +4
c) − =1
6 12
A literal equation contains pronumerals rather than known numbers. Solving literal
equations follows the same rearrangement rules as solving linear equations.

Example 4:
Solve the following equations for m.

a
a) b− =cd
m

b) md−k =d +mc

Linear inequations

An inequation involves an inequality sign rather than an equals sign. Solving inequations
follows the same process as solving equation except for one variation, when you divide by a
negative you must change the inequality sign around.

Example 5:

−2 x
Solve ≥−8
3
Systems of 2 ×2 simultaneous linear equations

When you solve simultaneous equations you are finding the point of intersection between
the two lines. Algebraically this can be done two ways: by substitution or by elimination.

Substitution Method is used when one or both equations are in the form y=¿ or ¿ .

Follow the steps below:

 Label the equations as equation 1 and equation 2
 Substitute equation 1 or 2 into the other equation
 Solve for the single unknown variable
 Substitute the variable into either equation 1 or 2 to find the other unknown variable
 Write the point of intersection as either a coordinate point or in words as required

Elimination method is used when both equations are in the form ax +by =c

Follow the steps below:

 Label the equations as equation 1 or equation 2
 *sometimes you will have to use multiplication to create equations that can be
eliminated*
 Eliminate a variable by adding or subtracting one equation from the other
 Solve for the unknown variable left after elimination.
 Substitute the variable into either equation 1 or 2 to solve for the other unknown
variable
 Write the point of intersection as either a coordinate point or in words as required

Example 6:
Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations:

a) 3 x+ y=6 and y=x +2

b) 2 x+3 y =12 and x + y=5

Solving problems using equations

When solving problems in context we must follow the steps outlined below:
 Define the variables
 Construct equation/s
 Solve the problem as required
 Write answers in the context of the problem

Example 7:
The length of a rectangle is 12 cm greater than twice the width. If the perimeter of the
rectangle is 48 cm, calculate the length and width.

1.3 Systems of 3 ×3 simultaneous linear equations

In order to solve 3 ×3 equations complete the following:

 Reduce the 3 ×3 system to a 2 ×2 system by eliminating the same variable from two
different pairs of equations
 Solve the 2 ×2 system of simultaneous equations using an elimination or substitution
methods to obtain the values of these two variables
 Substitute these values for two variables into an original equation to obtain the
value of the third variables

Example 8:
Solve the following simultaneous equations for x , y , z .
2 x+3 y −z=3
5 x+ y+ z=15
4 x−6 y + z=6
1.4 Linear graphs and their equations

Steady rates of change and gradient

A rate of change is simply the gradient of a linear graph. It represents the amount of change
over time (generally). A steady rate of change means the change is constant and does not
vary.

The gradient or slope cane be found as:

rise y 2− y 1
m= =
run x 2−x 1

where (x 1 , y 1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 ) are points on the line.

Gradient can be described as positive, negative, zero or undefined as shown below:

Sketching lines from their linear rules

To sketch a linear graph from the equation you simply need two points on the line. To find
two points, substitute values for x into the equation to find y , plot the points and join
together to create the linear graph.

You should always label axes intercepts when sketching so be sure to find x and y
intercepts.

Example 9:
Sketch the line given by y=2 x−3 on the axes below labelling all intercepts.

Forming equations of lines

There are two forms to finding the equation of a linear graph, point-gradient form and
gradient-intercept form.

Point-gradient form:
A line with gradient m and passing through point ( x 1 , y 1 ) has the equation:
y− y1 =m( x−x 1)

Gradient-intercept form:
A line with a gradient m and y−¿intercept c has the equation:
y=mx+c
Example 10:
Find the equation of the line shown below:

1.5 Intersections of lines and their applications

Intersection of lines

Two lines of different gradients will always intersect with each other. To find out where we
can solve simultaneous equations.

The point of intersection is sometimes called the solution. Lines can have one, none or
infinitely many solutions:

There is:
 A unique solution if m1 ≠ m 2
 No solution if m1=m2 and c 1 ≠ c 2
 Infinitely many solutions if m1=m2 and c 1=c2
Concurrent lines

If three or more lines intersect at a common point they are said to be concurrent.

Example 11:
Determine if the following lines are concurrent:
x +4 y=13
5 x−4 y=17
−3 x+ 10 y =5

1.6 Coordinate geometry of the straight line

Collinearity

Three or more points that lie on the same line are said to be collinear.

m AB=m BC

Example 12:
Find the value of b if three points (3 , b), (4 , 2b) and (8 , 5−b) are collinear.
Angle of inclination of a line to the horizontal

If θ is the angle a line makes with the positive direction of the x−¿ axis, and m is the gradient
of the line, then a relationship between the gradient and the angles can be found using
trigonometry.

tanθ=m

In the case of an obtuse angle, the angle θ=180°−φ where φ is acute.

−a
If the gradient of the line is m=
then, using trigonometry,
b
a
tan φ= and therefore θ=180°−tan −1
b
a
b ||

Example 13:
Calculate, correct to 2 decimal places, the angle made with the positive direction of the x−¿
axis by the line which passes through the points (1 ,−8) and (5 ,−2).
Parallel

Parallel lines have the same gradient.

m1=m2

Perpendicular lines

Perpendicular lines are lines that cross each other at 90 degrees. There are two ways to
confirm if two lines are perpendicular to each other:

m1 × m2=−1
−1
m 2=
m1

Example 14:
Show that the following lines are perpendicular to each other:
y=0.2 x +4
y=−5 x−2

1.7 Bisection and lengths of line segments

The midpoint of a line segment

The point of bisection of a line segment is its midpoint. This point is equidistant from the
endpoints of the interval.

The coordinates of the midpoint of a line segment with endpoints (x 1 , y 1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 ) are:

Midpoint= ( x +2 x , y +2 y )
1 2 1 2
The perpendicular bisector of a line segment

The line which passes through the midpoint of a line segment and at right angles to the line
segment is called the perpendicular bisector if the line segment.

To find the equation of the perpendicular bisector:

−1
 Its gradient is since it is perpendicular to the line segment AB
mAB
 The midpoint of the line segment AB also lies on the perpendicular bisector

Example 15:
Determine the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line segment joining the points
A(−6 , 0) and B(−3 , 10)

The length of a line segment

The length of a line segment is the distance between its endpoints. It is found using
Pythagoras Theorem.

√ 2
The length of AB= ( x2 −x1 ) + ( y 2 − y 1)
2

where A and B are the endpoints of a line segment.

Topic 2: Quadratics
3.2 Quadratic equations with rational roots

Quadratic equations and the Null Factor Law

The Null Factor Law states that, for any a and b , if the product ab=0 then a=0 or b=0
or both a=0 and b=0.

In order to find the solutions/roots/zeros of a quadratic equation, you must first set the
equation equal to zero and factorise.

Example 1:
Find the roots of the following quadratic equations:

2
x + 11 x=−18

2
x + 2 x−3=0

2
3 x =−10 x−3

2
9 x −21 x +10
3 x−5
Solving Perfect Squares

There are two methods to solving perfect squares: the Null Factor Law or the Square Root
method.

Square Root Method: Null Factor Law Method:

2 2
x =25 x =25
x=± √ 25 x 2−25=0
x=± 5 ( x−5 ) ( x+ 5 )=0
x=± 5

Example 2:
Solve the following quadratic equations using first the Null Factor Law then also using the
Square Root method.

2
2 x −72=0

2
9 x −16=0
Equations that reduce to quadratic form

Substitution techniques can be used to solve equations of the form a x 4 +b x 2 +c=0. By

substituting a variable for x 2 you can reduce this quartic equation to a quadratic for solving
purposes. Once you solve for the variable in the quadratic equation you substitute x 2 in for
the variable to find the solutions.

Example 3:
Solve the following equations for x

4 2
2 x −8 x =0

3.3 Quadratics over R

Factorisation over R

When x 2−16 is factorised as (x−4)(x +4) it is said to be factorised over Q because the
solutions are rational numbers. In order to factorise x 2−5 we must use surds; this means we
must factorise over R .

Completing the square can be used for factorising over R when we have a monic quadratic
equation.

Example 4:
Solve the following quadratics:
2
0=x +5 x−2

2
2 x −10 x + 4=0
The discriminant

The discriminant tells us, without factorising, how many solutions a quadratic equation will
have and if they will be rational (Q) or irrational (R).

Recall:

Given that a x 2 +bx+ c=0 then the discriminant is ∆=b 2−4 ac

If:
 ∆ <0, there are no real solutions
 ∆=0 , there is one real solution
 ∆ >0, there are two real solutions

Further from previous knowledge of the discriminant:

For a quadratic a x 2 +bx+ c with real factors a , b , c ∈Q then:

 If ∆ is a perfect square, then the quadratic factorises over Q

 If ∆ >0 but not a perfect square then the quadratic factorises over R (i.e. the
factorisation contains surds)

Quadratic Equations with real roots

The choices of method to consider for solving the quadratic equation a x 2 +bx+ c=0 are:

 Factorise over Q and use the Null Factor Law

 Factorise over R by first completing the square and then using the Null Factor Law
−b ± √ b −4 ac
2
 Use the Quadratic Formula x=
2a

Equations of the form √ x=ax +b

Equations of the form √ x=ax +b can be transformed into a quadratic by completing the
following steps:
2
1. Transform the x component: √ x=a ( √ x ) + b
2. Let u=√ x : 2
u=a u +b
3. Solve the quadratic equation: 0=a u2−u+ b
4. Determine the value of x once you know the value of u
3.4 Applications of Quadratic Equations

Quadratically related variables

For variables x and y , if y is directly proportional to x 2, then y=k x2 where k is the constant
of proportionality.

The most common scenario involving quadratically related variables is the calculation of the
area of a circle dependent on its radius.

We can also have quadratically related variables when y is a sum of two parts, where one
part is constant. This would look like y=c+ k x2 . Or when there are more than two parts,
2
y=c+ k 1 x +k 2 x . This would mean there are two constants of proportionality, one for the
linear component and one for the quadratic component of the equation.

Example 5:
The surface area of a sphere is directly proportional to the square of its radius. When the
radius is 5 cm, the area is 100 π c m2. Calculate the radius when the area is 360 π c m2.
3.5 Graphs of Quadratic Polynomials

The graph of y=x 2 and transformations

The simplest parabola has the equation y=x 2

It’s key features are as follows:
 Symmetrical about the y−¿axis
 The axis of symmetry has the equation x=0
 The graph is concave up (opens upwards)
 It has a minimum turning point, or vertex, at ( 0,0 )

There are four types of transformations of y=x 2, these include dilation, horizontal and
vertical translations and reflections.

Dilations are caused by changing the coefficient of x 2 in an equation.

For an equation y=a x2 the following applies:

 If a> 0 then the graph is narrower
 If 0< a<1 then the graph is wider
 a is called the dilation factor

Vertical translations are caused by adding or subtracting a constant, k , to x 2.

 Addition will result in a vertical translation in the positive y−¿direction

 Subtraction will result in a vertical translation in the negative y−¿direction
Horizontal translations are caused by adding or subtracting a constant, h . This would result
in a translated equation of y= ( x −h )2.
 Adding a constant h , will result in a horizontal translation in the negative x−¿
direction
 Subtracting a constant h , will result in a horizontal translation in the positive x−¿
direction

Reflections of the graph y=x 2 are caused by multiplying the equation by −1.

A reflected graph has the equation y=−x2 and has the following properties:

 It is symmetrical about the y−¿axis

 Has an axis of symmetry with the equation x=0
 The graph is concave down (opens downwards)
 It has a maximum turning point, or vertex, at (0,0).

Sketching parabolas from their equations: y=a x2 +bx +c , y=a( x−x 1)( x −x2 ) and
2
y=a ( x−h ) +k

When sketching parabolas the key points required are the following:
 The y−¿intercept
 The turning point (vertex)
 Any x−¿ intercepts

There are a variety of methods one can use for finding the key features of the parabola.
Some are more appropriate that the other depending on the equation provided.
 To find the y−¿intercept To find the vertex To find any x−¿ intercepts
 From the equation  In the form Solve by setting y=0 using
y=a x +bx +c , the y−¿
2 2
y=a ( x−h ) +k , the any of the following
intercept is (0 , c ) turning point is (h , k ) methods:
 Any method of
 In any other form, set  Use the axis of factorisation and the
x=0 and solve for y −b Null Factor Law
symmetry x=
2a
 Use the Quadratic
Formula

Example 6:
Given the equation y=3 x 2−6 x−7 determine all the key features of the graph and sketch
below.
3.6 Determining the rule of a quadratic polynomial from a graph

As a guide:
 If the turning point is given, then use y=a ( x−h )2 +k
 If the x−¿ intercepts are given, then use y=a(x−x 1)(x −x2 )
 If three points are given on the graph, then use y=a x2 +bx +c

Example 7:
Determine the rules for the following parabolas

Example 8:
Determine the equation of the parabola that passes through the points (−3,0 ) , (−2 ,1 ) and
(0 ,−3).
3.7 Quadratic Inequations

Sign diagrams of quadratics

A sign diagram is like a ‘squashed’ graph with only the x−¿ axis being shown. It indicates the
values of x where the graph of a quadratic polynomial has positive, negative or zero for the
corresponding y−¿values.

To draw a sign diagram of a x 2 +bx+ c :

 Find the zeros of the quadratic expression
 Start the sign diagram below the axis if a< 0 and above the axis if a> 0
 Either touch or cut through the axis at each zero depending whether the zero is a
repeated one or not

Example 9:
Draw a sign diagram for the given equations:

2
y=x −3

y= ( x −3 )( x +2 )
Solving Quadratic Inequations

When solving quadratic inequations, treat the inequality as an equals sign until you split off
to use the Null Factor Law. Once you’ve reached that point, you simply need to solve the
inequality in the same way you would solve linear inequalities.

Example 10:
Solve the following inequalities:
a) x 2+ 3 x −10≤ 0

b) 2 x2 −7 x> 4

c) −6 x 2−6 x +12<0

d) −x 2 ≤ 2 x−3
Intersections of lines and parabolas

In some situations we need to sketch a linear line and a parabola on the same axes. We
must ensure to label any points of intersection between the two. To do this we use
simultaneous equations.

There are three possible options for intersection between a line and a parabola:
 No points of intersection.
 One point of intersection. If this is occurs then the linear line is called the tangent
line.
 Two points of intersection.

Example 11:

Determine the point of intersection between the line y=x + 4 and the parabola
y=x 2 +2 x−3

Example 12:
For what values of m would the line y=mx−2 and y=x 2−2 x−4 have at least one solution?
3.8 Quadratic Models and Applications

Maximum and minimum values

The greatest or least value of a quadratic model is often of interest. A quadratic reaches its
maximum or minimum value at the turning point. The y−¿value of the coordinate of the
vertex represents the maximum or minimum value in a quadratic model.

Example 13:
A gardener jas 30 metres of edging to enclose a rectangular area using the back fence as
one edge.
a) Show the area function is A=30 x −2 x 2 where A square metres is the area of the
garden bed of width x metres.

b) Calculate the dimensions of the garden bed for its maximum area.

c) What is the maximum area that can be enclosed?

Topic 3: Polynomials
4.2 Polynomials

Classification of polynomials

A polynomial is an algebraic expression in which the power of the variable is a positive

whole number. For example, x 2+ 3 x −1 is a polynomial because all the powers of x are
1
positive whole numbers, whereas 2 −3 x +5 is not because we can rewrite it as
x
−2
x −3 x +5 and there exists negative powers.

 The degree of a polynomial is the highest power of the variable.

 The leading term is the term containing the highest power of the variable.
 If the coefficient of the leading term is 1 then the polynomial is said to be monic.
 The constant term is the term that does not contain a variable.

A polynomial of degree n has the form a n x n +an −1 x n−1+ …+an x+ a0,

where n ∈ N and the coefficients a n , a n−1 , … , a1 , a0 ∈ R .

The leading term is a n x and the constant term is a 0.

n

Example 1:
For each of the following expressions determine:
a) The degree of the polynomial (if possible)
b) The coefficient of the leading term
c) The constant term
d) The type of coefficients (over Q or over Z)

A. 6 x 3 + x+7 x 2−3

1 3 4 2
B. 5 x− x +2 x +1−3 x
2
When working with polynomials we often refer to it as P( x ), said as ‘ P of x ’, rather than
using y . The value of the polynomial P( x ) when x=a is written as P(a). To evaluate the
polynomial, you simply use substitution.

Example 2:

Evaluate P ( 2 ) for the polynomial P ( x ) =5 x −3 x 3 +6 x 2−4

Polynomials are called identically equal if the coefficients of like terms are equal. To find
unknown coefficients in a polynomial, when we know an identically equal polynomial, we
use a method called ‘equating coefficients’.

Example 3:

If, 3 x 4−7 x 3 +2 ( 3 x −4 )=a x 4 +b x 3 +cx +d , determine the values of a , b , c ,∧d .

Operations on polynomials

Addition, subtraction and multiplication applied to two or more polynomials is fairly straight
forward. Addition and subtraction involves the collection of like terms and multiplication is
similar to expanding brackets.
Example 4:

If P ( x ) =3 x 4 +4 x 3−7 x 2 +2 x−1 and Q ( x ) =5 x2−3 x +9 then find:

a) P ( x ) +Q( x )

b) 2 P ( x )−4 Q ( x )

Division of polynomials is much more complex. There are two ‘by-hand’ methods for
dividing polynomials.

Method 1: Inspection
This method can be used if the polynomial is being divided by another polynomial of an
equal or lesser degree. In this method, you will:

 express the numerator in terms of the denominator

 split the expression into the sum of partial fractions
remainder
 simplify the division as: quotient +
divisor
Example 5:
Complete the following polynomial divisions:

x−12
a)
x+3

2 x 3 +5 x2 −x−2
b)
x +2

4 x +7
c)
2 x +1
Method 2: Algorithm for long division of polynomials

The steps in the long division algorithm are:

1. Divide the leading term of the divisor into the leading term of the dividend
2. Multiply the divisor by the quotient
3. Subtract the product from the dividend to for a remainder of lower degree
4. Repeat the process until the degree of the remainder is lower than the degree of the
divisor.

Example 6:

Using the process of long division of polynomials, divide x 3+ 2 by x +6

Example 7:

Divide P ( x ) =8 x3 +6 x 2−5 x +15 by 2 x+1

4.3 The Remainder and Factor Theorems

The Remainder Theorem

The remainder obtained when dividing a polynomial P( x ) by a linear divisor ( x−a) is of

particular interest because if the remainder is zero, then the linear divisor is a factor of the
polynomial.

The Remainder Theorem states that:

If a polynomial P(x ) is divided by (x−a) then the remainder is P(a).

Note:
 If P( x ) is divided by ( x +a) then the remainder would be P(−a) since replacing x by
– a would make the ( x +a) term equal zero.
 Likewise, if P( x ) is divide by (ax +b) then the remainder would be P
−b
a ( )
Example 8:
Using the remainder theorem, determine the remainder of the polynomial
P ( x ) =2 x 3−x 2−6 x +3 if it is divided by:

a) x−3

b) 2 x−1

Are either of the linear divisors in Example 8 factors of the polynomial?

The Factor Theorem

In order for a divisor to also be a factor the remainder would have to be equal to zero.

Therefore:

If P( x ) is a polynomial and P ( a )=0 then ( x−a) is a factor of P( x ).

Example 9:

Show that (x +4 ) is a factor of Q ( x ) =x3 +6 x 2−7 x−60

Example 10:

Given that 2 x−5 is a linear factor of 2 x3 + a x 2−9 x +10 , determine the value of a and write
the polynomial in its complete form.
Factorising Polynomials

Before factorising cubic or higher order polynomials, you must check to see if any standard
methods can help simplify, for example highest common factors or a grouping technique
that will result in a linear factor or difference of perfect squares.

If no standard techniques will help, you should use the Remainder and Factor Theorems,
since a remainder of zero is a linear factor.

For cubics, it is standard to use the Factor Theorem to find a linear factor and then complete
the following:
 Divide the cubic polynomial by the linear factor. This should give you a quadratic
quotient.
 Factorise the quadratic using standard quadratic factorising techniques
 The final factorising form of the cubic polynomial will be the linear factor multiplied
with the factorised quadratic.

Note: For cubic polynomials there may be up to three linear factors.

To help find the first linear factor, first consider the factors of the leading term coefficient
and the factors of the constant term for use in the Factor Theorem.

factor of constant
x=
factor of coefficient

So if from the Factor Theorem x=3 then the linear factor would be ( x−3)

Example 11:
Factorise the cubic polynomial Q ( x ) =x3 −7 x 2+ 4 x +12
Alternatively, once you have one linear factor you can use an equating coefficients
technique, as demonstrated in the next example.

Example 12:
Factorise the polynomial P ( x ) =6 x 3−11 x 2−3 x +2

Polynomial Equations

Solving polynomial equations is done by using the Null Factor Law.

You must factorise the polynomial first.

Example 13:
Solve 2 x3 −x 2−6 x+ 3=0 for x
4.4 Graphs of Cubic Polynomials

The graph of y=x 3 and transformations

The graph y=x 3 has the following key features:

 A STATIONARY POINT OF INFLECTION (SPOI) at (0,0)
 The shape changes from concave down to concave up at the SPOI.
 There is only one x−¿ intercept at (0,0)
 The y−¿intercept is at ( 0,0 )

Once you know the basic shape of a cubic polynomial it can be dilated, reflected and
translated in much the same way as a parabola.

Dilation

A dilation factor 0< a<1 will make the graph wider.

A dilation factor greater than 1 will make the graph narrower.

Reflection

The graph is reflected in the x−¿ axis when it is multiplied by −1, i.e. y=−x3
Horizontal Translation

A translation along the x−¿ axis is achieved with the addition or

subtraction of a constant to the x term being cubed.

For example y= ( x −3 )3 has a horizontal translation of 3 units in the

positive x−¿ direction.

Similar to quadratic graphs, the signs change for horizontal

translations.

Vertical Translation

A translation along the y−¿axis is achieved with the addition or

subtraction of a constant to the cubed term.

For example y=x 3−5 has a translation of 5 units in the negative

y−¿direction.

Similar to quadratics graphs, the sign indicates the direction for a

vertical translation.

Key features of a cubic with the equation y=a ( x−h )3 +k :

 Stationary point of inflection at (h , k )
 a is the dilation factor
 h is the horizontal translation
 k is the vertical translation
 If a is negative, the graph has been reflected.
 The y−¿intercept is when x=0
 The x−¿ intercept is when y=0

Cubic graphs will always have at least one x−¿ intercept, but sometimes they do NOT have a
stationary point of inflection. Cubics that cannot be expressed as y=a ( x−h )3 +k will not
have a stationary point of inflection. These graphs will be expressed as a product of a linear
and a quadratic factor, where the quadratic factor cannot be factorised.
Cubic graphs with two and three x−¿ intercepts

Cubic polynomials that can take a variety of shapes depending on their zeros and dilations.
In some situations, there will be more than one x−¿ intercept.

This will occur if the polynomial can be factorised fully to be in the form
y=(x−a)(x−b)( x−c) , where using the Null Factor Law it is easy to see that there are
three intercepts at a , b , and c .

When there are two identical linear factors, y= ( x −a ) ( x−a ) ( x−b )=( x−a )2 ( x −b) there will
be two x−¿ intercepts.

Example 14:
Sketch the graph of y=2 x 3−3
4.5 Equations of Cubic Polynomials

Finding equations of cubic graphs

In order to find the equation of a cubic polynomial graph you need to know the coefficients
of the general form y=a x3 +b x 2 +cx +d . The information you are provided with will
determine which format of the equation you will start with.

As a rule:
 If there is a stationary point provided, use y=a ( x−h )3 +k form
 If the x−¿ intercepts are provided, use y=a( x−x 1)( x −x2 )(x−x 3) or the repeated
2
factor form y=a ( x−x 1) ( x−x 2)
 If four points on the curve are provided, use the form y=a x3 +b x 2 +cx +d

Example 15:
Determine the equation of the cubic that has a stationary point of inflection at (−2 , 2) and
intersects the y−¿axis at 10.
Example 16:
Determine the equation of the curve shown:

Example 17:
Determine the equation of the cubic graph that passes through the points (−2 , 9), (0 , 1),
(−4 ,−15) and (1 , 0).
Cubic inequations

Solving cubic inequations is similar to solving quadratic inequations. We can use the graph
or a sign diagram to help display the solutions to inequations. The cubic inequation sign
diagrams are shown below:

To solve a cubic inequation:

 Rearrange the terms in the inequation, if necessary, so that one side of the
inequation is zero.
 Factorise the cubic expression and calculate its zeros.
 Draw the sign diagram, or the graph, of the cubic
 Read from the sign sign diagram or graph the set of values of x which satisfy the
inequation.

Example 18:
Solve the x 3+ 3 x 2 +2 x←6
Intersections of cubics with linear and quadratic graphs

If P( x ) is a cubic polynomial and Q(x ) is either a linear or quadratic polynomial, then the
graphs of P( x ) and Q(x ) will intersect when P ( x ) =Q(x) and will have solutions for x when
P ( x ) −Q ( x )=0.

For intersections between cubic, linear and quadratic graphs there will be either 1, 2, or 3
points of intersection.

Example 19:
Determine the points of intersection between the graph y=3 x 3 +2 x2−4 x +1 and the graph
y=4 x +1

Example 20:
Determine the points of intersection between the graph y=5 x 3−10 x 2+ 2 x−3 and the
graph y=x 2−7
4.6 Cubic models and applications

Practical models which use cubic polynomials will generally always have restrictions on the
variables in use. It is extremely important to consider the domain restrictions in answering
cubic modelling questions.

It is important to note that in order to solve polynomial modelling problems, the equation
must be written in terms of one variable.

Example 21:
A girl uses 140 cm of wire to make a frame of a cuboid with a square base as shown.

The base length of the cuboid is x cm and the height is h cm.

a) Write an equation for the volume in terms of x

b) Determine the volume of the cuboid when the base area is 81 c m3

 c) What is the maximum volume that the cuboid can have?

d) What are the dimensions of the cuboid for it to have a maximum volume?

5.2 Quartic Polynomials

 
Graphs of quartic polynomials of the form y=a ( x−h )4 + k
 
The simplest quartic polynomial graph has the equation y=x 4
 

The graph y=(x−h)4 + k has the following key features:

 A turning point at ( h , k )
 If a > 0, the turning point is a minimum, if a < 0, the turning point is a maximum
 Axis of symmetry with an equation: x=h .
 0, 1 or 2 x intercepts
 
Example 22:
 
Sketch the graph of:
1 4
y= (x+ 3) −4
4
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Quartic polynomials which can be expressed as the product of linear factors
 

A quartic polynomial may have up to 4 linear factors since it is of fourth degree.

The possible combinations of these linear factors are:
 Four distinct linear factors y= ( x −a ) ( x−b)(x −c)( x−d)
2
 One repeated linear factor y=(x−a) (x−b)(x −c)
2 2
 Two repeated linear factors y=(x−a) ( x−b)
3
 One factor of multiplicity 3 y=(x−a) ( x−b)
 One factor of multiplicity 4 y=(x−a)4
 

 
The single factor identifies an x intercept where the graph cuts the x−¿ intercept; a
repeated factor identifies a turning point; a multiplicity of 3 identifies a stationary point of
inflection.
 
Example 23:
 
Sketch the graph of y=(x +2)(2−x)3
 

 
5.3 Families of Polynomials

Graphs of y=x n , where n ∈ N and n is odd

 

 
 
The key features of the graphs of odd-degree polynomials with equation y=a( x−h)n +k
where n is an odd integer, 3 or greater:
 
 There is a stationary point of inflection at ( h , k )
 If a> 0, then as x → ± ∞ , y →± ∞
 If a< 0, then as x → ± ∞ , y →∓ ∞
n
 There is one x−¿ intercept which is calculated by solving a ( x−h ) + k=0
 There is one y−¿intercept which is calculated by substituted x=0 .
 
Example 24:
 
1 5
Sketch the graph of y= (x +2) −7
16
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Graphs of y=x n , where n ∈ N and n is even
 
 

 
 
If n is an even positive integer, the key features of the graph of the family of even-degree
polynomials y=a(x−h)n +k where n is an even integer:
 There is a turning point at (h , k )
 For a> 0, the turning point is a minimum; for a< 0, the turning point is a maximum
 For a> 0, as x → ± ∞ , y → ∞
 For a< 0, as x → ± ∞ , y →−∞
 The axis of symmetry has the equation x=h
 There may be 0, 1 or 2 x−¿ intercepts
 There is one y−¿intercept
 
Example 25:
 
Sketch the graph of y=(x−2)6−1
Effect of multiplicity of zeros and linear factors
 
The graph of y= ( x −a ) ( x−b )2 ( x−c )3 ( x−d ) would:
 Cut the x−¿ axis at x=a and x=d
 Touch the x−¿ axis at x=b
 Have a stationary point of inflection at x=c
 
 
 
Example 26:
 
Sketch the graph of y=(x +2)2 (2−x)3
 

 
Topic 4: Circular Functions
9.2 Trigonometric ratios

Using trigonometric ratios we can find unknown side lengths and angles of right-angled
triangles.

Recall for finding lengths:

Opposite
sin θ=
Hypotenuse

Adjacent
cos θ=
Hypotenuse

Opposite
tanθ=
Adjacent

And for finding angles, we use the inverses.

Exact values for trigonometric ratios

Recall the triangles using angles 30 ° , 45° , 60 °:

Area of a triangle

It is possible to find the area of a triangle using trigonometry as follows:

1
Area= ab sin C
2

where a , b and C are drawn from the triangle.

Example 1:
An A-frame house has an angle at the roof apex of 30 ° and two side lengths each 7 metres
as shown. Calculate the exact area of the front of the house.
9.3 Circular measure

Radians

An alternative measure of angles is radians. The measurement of radians is related to the

length of an arc of a circle. To help with measuring in radians we use π .

π radians=180 °

180
To convert radians to degrees, multiply by
π

π
To convert degrees to radians, multiply by
180

Using radians in calculations

The length of an arc can be found using the formula:

Length of an arc ( l ) =r × θ

Example 2:
3π
A circle has a radius of 6 cm. An arc length of cm forms part of the circumference of the
4
circle. Find the angle the arc subtends at the centre of the circle:
a. In radians
b. In degrees
9.4 Unit Circle

Trigonometric points

This unit circle has a centre at (0,0) and a radius of 1 unit.

The Cartesian equation is given by x 2+ y 2=r 2

By constructing right-angle triangles within the unit circle we can find any point on the
circumference, where the coordinate points would be given by (cos θ ,sin θ) as shown
above.

The point on the circumference can also be denoted by P[θ].

Example 3:
On the unit circle below, label the boundaries with relevant reference angles in both
degrees and radians.
Example 4:
Calculate the Cartesian coordinates of the point P [ ]
3π
4
and show the position of this point
on the unit circle below.

The unit circle and the Tangent function

The tangent of the unit circle is found using sine and cosine as follows:

sin θ
tan θ=
cos θ

It is important to remember that at 90 ° and 270 ° the tangent function is undefined.

Example 5:
Given f ( θ )=sin θ, find f ( π6 )
9.5 Symmetry Properties

To find symmetrical points on the Unit Circle, it is necessary to understand the CAST
diagram and reference angles.

Recall:

The ‘CAST’ diagram helps us remember which trigonometric ratios are positive in which
Quadrants:

 C- Cosine
 A- All
 S- Sine
 T- Tangent

Reference angles are an acute angle from Quadrant 1, which help us find corresponding
angles in the other Quadrants as seen below:

If the reference angle in Quadrant 1 is θ then the corresponding angles would be:
 In Quadrant 2- π−θ
 In Quadrant 3- π +θ
 In Quadrant 4- 2 π −θ

Example 6:
Given the reference angles θ below, find the corresponding angle in the Quadrant stated:

π
a. Quadrant 3
6

π
b. Quadrant 4
5
 π
c. Quadrant 2
10
Using this knowledge we can form equivalent trigonometric states for every quadrant:

Quadrant 2:

 sin ( π−θ )=sin ( θ )

 cos ( π−θ )=−cos ( θ )
 tan ( π −θ )=−tan ( θ )

Quadrant 3:

 sin ( π +θ )=−sin (θ )
 cos ( π +θ )=−cos ( θ )
 tan ( π +θ )=tan ( θ )

Quadrant 4:

 sin ( 2 π −θ )=−sin ( θ )
 cos ( 2 π−θ )=cos ( θ )
 tan ( 2 π−θ )=−tan ( θ )

Example 7:
Using symmetry properties, find the equivalent trigonometric statement for the Quadrant
stated:

a. sin ( 34π ) Quadrant 1

b. cos ( 57π ) Quadrant 4

c. tan ( 76π ) Quadrant 2

10.2 Trigonometric Equations

To solve trigonometric equations, we need to use the knowledge of the unit circle and
‘CAST’ to find unknown angles.

Solving trigonometric equations across finite domains

When solving a trigonometric equation, such as sin x=a for values 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 π , you must
consider the following:
 The domain 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 π
 The sign of a , positive or negative
 Which quadrants the solution a exists in for that trigonometric equation
 Then find x using either your knowledge of the special triangles or inverse
operations
More often than not, you will find more than one solution for x . And sometimes you may
need to rearrange the equation to find a form similar to the one above.

Example 8
Solve the following equations to obtain the values of x in radians:

1
a. sin x= for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 π
2

b. 2 cos x=−√ 3 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 π

c. √ 3 tan x+ 3=0 for −π ≤ x ≤ π

Solving equations with domain changes

Sometimes you will find that a transformation is applied to the period of a trigonometric
function which will impact on the domain and therefore the solutions.

Normally we would have the following form, sin ( x )=a for values 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 π .

If the new equation has the form sin 2 x=a for values 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 π , then we can actually say
that for sin 2 x=a the domain is 0 ≤ 2 x ≤ 4 π . This is done by multiplying each endpoint of the
domain by 2.

Example 9:
Solve the following trigonometric equations for the unknown value x :

a. 2 cos 3 x=√ 3 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 π

x
b. 2 sin =−1 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 π
2

Sometimes we will need to use our knowledge of other areas of mathematics to help solve
trigonometric equations, as seen in the next example:

Example 10:
Solve for x over the domain 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 π
−cos x
a. 2
sin x+ 2sin x +1=0 b. sin x=
√3
10.6 Trigonometric Relationships

Pythagorean Identity

Using Pythagoras theorem and the knowledge of the unit circle we can develop the
Pythagorean Identity. The Pythagorean identity helps us solve more complex trigonometric
equations.

Pythagorean Identity:

2 2
sin x+ cos x=1

And through this we can also get the following rearrangements:

2 2
sin x=1−cos x
2 2
cos x=1−sin x

Example 11:
Simplify the following:

sin 3 x+sin x cos2 x

cos3 x+ cos x sin 2 x

Example 12:
3 3π
Given that cos x= and ≤ x ≤2 π , find sin x and tan x
5 2
Complementary properties of sine and cosine

In Geometry, complementary angles add up to 90 ° , using this knowledge it is clear to see a

complementary relationship between sine and cosine.

Complementary properties:

sin ( π2 −θ)=cos ( θ )
cos ( π2 −θ )=sin ⁡(θ)
Complementary properties also apply in Quadrant 2, 3 and 4, however there are slight
differences according to positive/negative solutions.

Quadrant 2:
cos( π2 +θ )=−sin ⁡(θ)
sin ( + θ )=cos ( θ )
π
2

Quadrant 3:
cos ( 32π −θ )=−sin ⁡(θ)
sin ( −θ )=−cos ⁡(θ)
3π
2
Quadrant 4:
cos ( 32π +θ )=sin ⁡(θ)
sin ( +θ ) =−cos ⁡(θ)
3π
2

Using the knowledge of complementary and symmetry properties we can find equivalent
trigonometric relationships no matter the angle.

Example 13:
a. Simplify sin ( π2 + θ )

b. Given that 0 ≤ x ≤
π
2
and cos x=sin
π
12( )
find the value of x
9.6 Graphs of Sine and Cosine

Graphs of sine and cosine form a continuous wave. The graphs of sine and cosine can be
plotted using the boundary values from continuous rotations, clockwise and anticlockwise,
around the unit circle:

π 3π
x 0 π 2π
2 2

sin ⁡(x) 0 1 0 −1 0
cos ⁡( x) 1 0 −1 0 1

The standard graphs are shown below over the domain [−4 π , 4 π ]:

y=sin x

y=cos x
The key features of the graphs are outlined below:

Period for Equilibrium

Equation Amplitude Range
one cycle position

y=sin ⁡(x ) 2π 1 [ −1,1 ] y=0

y=cos ( x ) 2π 1 [ −1,1 ] y=0

As you can see in the above table, the two graphs have very similar properties. The
differences between the two graphs are mainly distinguishable in their x−¿ and y−¿
intercepts.

Example 14:

a. Sketch the graph of f : [−2 π , π ] → R , f ( x )=sin ( x ) on the axes below.

b. How many maximums occur over the domain [−2 π , π ] and what are their
coordinates?
10.3 Transformations of Sine and Cosine

There are four possible transformations that can be performed on a circular function. They
include changes to the period and amplitude (dilations), and changes to position (vertical
and horizontal translations).

The features of the graphs y=a sin ( n ( x−h ) ) + k and y=a cos ( n ( x−h )) + k :

2π
 Period is
n
 Amplitude is a for a> 0
 Graph is reflected if a< 0
 Equation for the line of equilibrium is y=k
 Phase shift of h units along the x−¿ axis
 Range is [k−a , k +a]

Dilations and reflections:

For equations y=a sin(x) and y=a cos( x ), a affects the amplitude. It is considered a
dilation factor of a from the x−¿ axis parallel to the y−¿axis.

For equations y=sin(nx ) and y=cos ⁡( nx), n affects the period. It is considered a dilation
1
factor of from the y−¿axis parallel to the x−¿ axis.
n

If n is a whole number, then the period of the graph will be shorter:

If n is a fraction, then the period of the graph will be longer:

If a< 0, then it is a reflection in the x−¿ axis.

Example 15:
Consider the following equations and state the amplitude and period

a. y=3 cos (2 x)

1
b. y= sin
4
x
3 ()

c. y=2sin ( π6 x )
Vertical Translations:

When a number is added or subtracted from the sine or cosine function, then a vertical
translation occurs. Essentially this means that the equation for the horizontal equilibrium
line is translated vertically. The translation will also affect the range of the graph.

For an equation: y=a sin ( x ) + k , a translation of k units in the positive y−¿direction has
occurred.

For an equation: y=a cos ( x )−k , a translation of k units in the negative y−¿direction has
occurred.

When a vertical translation has occurred, the range will be: [k−a , k +a] and the equation
for the equilibrium line will be y=k .

Example 16:
Sketch the graph of the equation y=2sin( 2 x )−3 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 π on the axes below.
Horizontal translations:

For circular functions, a horizontal translation is known as a phase shift.

For an equation:
y=sin(x−h), a horizontal translation of h units along the positive x−¿ axis has occurred.
This can also be written as:
“a phase shift of h from the graph of y=sin ⁡( x )”

For and equation:

y=sin( x+ h), a horizontal translation of h units along the negative x−¿ axis has occurred.
This can also be written as:
“a phase shift of −h from the graph of y=sin ⁡(x )”

Example 17:
Sketch the graph of y=−2cos ( x −π ) for x ∈[0 , 2 π ] on the axes below.
Example 18:
State the sequence of transformations performed on the graph y=sin(x)in order to get the

(
graph y=−2sin 3 x− −5
π
2)

Example 19:
Determine two possible equations of the graph shown below:
10.4 Applications of Sine and Cosine

Many application problems that involve circular functions often involve tides, water depths,
and temperatures. This is because over time these things fluctuate forming a pattern of
highs and lows.

Example 20:
The temperature, T ° C , in a town over a day is modelled by the function with the rule:
T =17−8 cos ( )
πt
12
Where t is the time in hours after midnight, 0 ≤ t ≤ 24.

a. What is the temperature at midnight?

b. What are the maximum and minimum temperatures reached?

c. At what times of the day, to the nearest minute, are temperatures warmer than
20 ° C ?

d. Sketch the graph for the temperatures over a day.

Example 21:
For each of the following, construct a formula involving a circular function which could be
used to model the situation described:

a. Water depths in a canal vary between a minimum of 3 metres and a maximum of 6

metres over a 24 hour period. There are three points during the 24 hours in which
the water is at 6 metres in depth.

b. At a certain town just south of the Arctic Circle, the number of hours of daylight
varies between 2 and 22 hours during a 365 day year.
10.5 Tangent Graphs

The graph of a tangent function is distinctly different to the graphs of sine and cosine. There
still exists some repetition, but the graph is not continuous. This means that there are
asymptotes in the graph of a tangent function.

The asymptotes in a tangent graph are vertical asymptotes.

−3 π π π 3π 5π
These occur, generally, when x= ,− , , , .
2 2 2 2 2
π
It is clear to see a pattern here, the vertical asymptotes occur at odd multiples of .
2

The tangent graph y=tan ⁡( x ) for the domain x ∈[0 , 2 π ] is shown below:

The following are the general features of the function y=tan ( x )

 The period of the graph is π . Two cycles are completed over the domain x ∈[0 , 2 π ]
 The range of the graph is R
 The x−¿ intercepts occur at x=0 , π ,2 π ,3 π , …
 The y−¿intercept occurs at (0,0)
 The mean position of the graph is at y=0. The points that occur at mean position
are points of inflection.
π 3 π 5π
 The equation of the asymptotes are x= , , ,…
2 3 2
 The asymptotes are one period apart
 The x−¿ intercepts are one period apart. They will also lie exactly half way between
two asymptotes.
Example 22:
Sketch the graph of y=tan( x ) for x ∈ [ −3 π
2
,π
]
Transformations of the tangent function

The general form of the tangent y=tan ⁡( x ) can be transformed through dilations from the x
and the y axis, reflections, vertical translations and horizontal translations.

Dilations from the x−¿ axis are caused by ' a ' in the equation y=a tan( x )
 If a> 1 the graph will appear narrower
 If 0< a<1 the graph will appear wider

Reflections in the x−¿ axis will occur if a is negative.

 Dilations from the x−¿ axes DO NOT affect asymptotes. This means the
widening/narrowing will occur within the boundaries of the asymptotes in the graph.
 Dilations from the x−¿ axes DO NOT affect the period of the tangent function

For example, below are the graphs of y=tan ⁡( x ) and y=3 tan( x) , blue and red respectively,
for values x ∈[0 , 2 π ]
Vertical translations along the y−¿axes are caused by ' k ' in the equation y=tan ( x )+ k .

 Adding or subtracting a constant ' k ' will cause the points of inflection in the tangent
graph to also be translated.
 Vertical translations DO NOT affect the asymptotes of the function.
 Vertical translations DO NOT affect the period of the standard tangent function

Example 23:
Sketch the graphs of y=−tan ( x )+ 1and y=2 tan( x)over the domain −π ≤ x ≤ π on the axes
below:
Period changes for the tangent function: y=tan ⁡( nx)
1
 A dilation factor of from the y−¿axis has been applied. This will cause a change in
n
the period.
π
 If n> 0, then y=tan ⁡( nx) has a period of
n
 Altering the period WILL change the position of the asymptotes in the graph
 The x−¿ intercepts will still be half way between the asymptotes of the graph

Finding the equations of the asymptotes when a period change has occurred can be done by
π
solving: nx= , then adding or subtracting multiples of the period of the graph.
2

Example 24:
For the equation y=3 tan(2 x) determine:

a. The period of the function

b. The equations of the asymptotes over the domain 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 π

c. The x−¿ intercepts over the domain 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 π

Horizontal translations along the x−¿ axis are caused by ' h ' in the equation y=tan ⁡( x −h)
 If h is positive, it will cause a horizontal translation in the negative x−¿ direction
 If h is negative, it will cause a horizontal translation in the positive x−¿ direction
 Does not affect the period of the graph
 The x−¿ intercepts can be found by solving for when y=0
 The y−¿intercept can be found by solving for when x=0

A horizontal translation WILL affect the positions of asymptotes. The position of asymptotes
π
can be found by solving x−h= , then adding or subtracting by multiples of the period.
2

Example 25:

( π2 ) over the domain [−3 π , 3 π ] determine the following:

For the graph f ( x )=3 tan x +
a. The period

b. The equations of the asymptotes

c. The x−¿ and y−¿intercepts

d. Sketch the graph below:

 Unit 2
Topic 5: Advanced Functions

6.2 Functions and relations

 
Relations
 
A mathematical relation is any set of ordered pairs. This may be in the form of:
 A set of points, e.g. A={ (−2 , 4 ) , ( 1 ,5 ) ,(3 , 4) }
 An equation, e.g. B= { ( x , y ) : y =2 x }
 An inequation, e.g. C= { ( x , y ) : y ≤2 x }
 
Domain and Range
 
For any set of ordered pairs (x , y ), the domain is the set of all x−¿ values and the range is
the set of all y−¿values.
 
The domain of A={ (−2 , 4 ) , ( 1 ,5 ) ,(3 , 4) } is {−2 , 1, 3 } and the range is { 4 , 5 }
 
Note for most polynomial relations, the domain is R (the set of all real values).
 
Functions
 
A function is a set of ordered pairs in which every x−¿ value is paired to a unique y−¿value.
 

All functions pass the 'vertical line test'.

Any vertical line that cuts the graph must do so exactly once.
 
 
Example 1:
For each of the following, state the domain and range, and whether the relation is a
function or not.
 
a. { ( 1 , 4 ) , ( 2 , 0 ) , ( 2 , 3 ) ,(5 ,−1) }
 
 
 
 

 
 
b. {( x , y ) : y=4−x 3 }
 
 
 
 

 
Type of correspondence
 
A function has a:
 One-to-one correspondence if a horizontal line cuts its graph exactly once
 Many-to-one correspondence if a horizontal line cuts its graph more than once
 
A relation, which is not a function, has a:
 One-to-many correspondence if a horizontal line cuts its graph exactly once
 Many-to-many correspondence if a horizontal line cuts its graph more than once
 
Horizontal and Vertical Line Tests: Tests for Correspondence
 
Example 2:
 
Identify the type of correspondence and state whether the relation is a function or not.
 
a. y= ( x +3 )2 ( x+ 2 )
 
 
 
 
 
 
b. { ( 1 , 3 ) , ( 2 , 4 ) ,(1, 5) }
 
 

 
Function Notation
 
We shall refer to a function as y=f ( x ).
 
For f ( x )=x 2 then f ( 2 ) =22=4

Formal function mapping notation is written using set notation and defines the domain,
codomain and the rule.

f : R → R , f ( x ) =x2
 

Example 3:
Given the function g :¿ → R , g ( x ) =3 ( x −2 )3−5, calculate the following:

a. g(−1)

b. g ( 8 )

c. State the domain

 d. State the range

e. If g ( x )=2, find the value of x

Example 4:
 
Consider f ( x )=a+bx , where f ( 1 ) =2 and f (−1 ) =6
 
a. Calculate the values of a and b and state the function rule.
 
 
 
 
 
b. Evaluate f (0)
 
 
 
 
 
c. Calculate the value of x for which f ( x )=0
 
 
 
6.3 Equation of a circle

The equation of a circle with centre (h , k ) and radius r is:

 
2 2 2
(x−h) +( y−k ) =r
 
 
Example 5:
 
a. State the domain and range of the circle with equation:
 
(x−2)2+( y +3)2=9
 
 
 
 
 
 
b. Sketch the graph.
 

 
Example 6:
 
Find the centre, radius, domain and range of the circle with equation:
 
2 x2 +2 y 2−12 x+ 8 y −4=0
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 

Semicircles
 

A semi-circle will have the equation of the form:

 
y= √ r −(x−h) +k ( y−¿values above y=k )
2 2

 
y=−√ r 2−¿ ¿ ( y−¿values below y=k )
 
 
Example 7:
 
a. Sketch the graph of y= √ 4−( x−2)2 and state the domain and range.
 

 
 
b. For the circle of 9 x 2+ 9 y 2=1 state the equation of the lower semicircle and state its
domain and range.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Tangents to circles
 
Consider a straight line intersecting a circle.
 If there are 2 points of intersection, the line is called a 'secant'. The line segment
joining these points is called a 'chord'.
 If there is exactly 1 point of intersection, the line is called a 'tangent' touching the
circle. The gradient of the tangent line will be perpendicular to the gradient of the
line joining the centre of the circle with the point on the circumference.
 
Example 8:
 
For the circle with equation (x +2)2 + y 2=19 , determine:
 
a. The equation of the tangent at the point (2 , 2) on the circumference of the circle.
 
 
 
 
 
 
b. The number of intersections the line y +3 x+ 4=0 makes with the circle.
 
 

6.4 The rectangular hyperbola and the truncus

1
The graph of y=
x
 
1
The rule y=x −1 or y= is called a hyperbola.
x
 

 
 There is a vertical asymptote x=0 (the y-axis).
 There is a horizontal asymptote y=0 (the x-axis).
 Domain is R ¿ {0 ¿}.
 Range is R ¿ {0 ¿}.
 The graph is a function with a one-to-one correspondence.
 
 
Dilation from the x−¿ axis:
2
 The graph of y= has a dilation factor of 2 from the x−¿ axis.
x
 

 
Vertical translation:
1
 The graph of y= +2 translates the graph 2 units in the direction of the positive y−¿
x
axis.
 The horizontal asymptote has equation y=2.
 

 
Horizontal translation:
1
 The graph of y= translates the graph 2 units in the direction of the positive x−¿
x−2
axis.
 The vertical asymptote has equation x=2.
 

 
Reflection in the x-axis:
−1
 The graph of y= reflects the graph in the x−¿ axis.
x
 

 
General equation of a hyperbola
 
The general equation of a hyperbola is:
 
a
y= +k
x−h
 
 Vertical asymptote at x=h
 Horizontal asymptote at y=k
 Domain is R ¿ {h ¿}
 Range is R ¿ {k ¿}
 If a< 0, the graph is reflected in the x−¿ axis
 |a| gives the dilation factor from the x−¿axis
 
Example 9:
 
−1
Sketch the graph of y= −2 stating the domain and range.
x−3
  

 
 
Forming the equation
 
x−1
The function y= is a function that is difficult to sketch.
x−2
 
However, using division it can be expressed in "proper rational function" form.
 
x−1 1
y= = +1
x−2 x−2
 
This is now recognisable as a hyperbola and its asymptotes can be obtained.
Example 10:
 
2 x+3
a. Identify the asymptotes of the hyperbola of equation y=
x +1
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
b. Form the equation of the hyperbola in the general form.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Inverse Proportion
 
The hyperbola is known as the "inverse proportion graph".
 
In general, the following rules apply:
1
 ' y is inversely proportional to x ' is written as y ∝ .
x
k
 If y is inversely proportional to x , then y= where k is the constant of
x
proportionality.
 This can also be expressed as xy=k .
 
Example 11:
 
In a container of gas, the volume, V, is inversely proportional to its pressure, P. A container
of 50 cm3 is filled with a gas under a pressure of 75 cm of mercury.
 
a. Find the relationship between volume and pressure.
 
 

 
 
 
b. The container is connected to an empty container of 100cm3. Find the pressure in the
two containers.
 
 
 
 

 
1
The graph of the truncus y=
x2
 
1
The rule y=x −2 is also written as y= 2 . This is called a 'truncus'.
x
 

 
Key features:
 Vertical asymptote is x=0 ( y−¿axis)
 Horizontal asymptote is y=0 ( x−¿ axis)
 Domain is R ¿ {0 ¿}
+¿ ¿
 Range is R
 The graph is a function with a many-to-one correspondence
 
Example 12:
 
Sketch the graph of the following function, stating its domain and range:
 
1
y= 2
+2
( x+1)
 
 

6.5 The relation y 2=x

Key features:
 Domain R+¿∪ {0} ¿
 Range R
 Turning point (vertex) at
(0,0)
 Horizontal axis of
symmetry at y=0
 One-to-many
correspondence

 
Transformations of the graph y 2=x
 
The general form of the relation of ( y−k )2=a(x −h)
 
Key features:
 Vertex at (h , k ).
 The axis of symmetry is y=k .
 If a> 0, the graph opens to the right; if a< 0, the graph opens to the left.
 There is always one x−¿ intercept.
 There may be 0, 1 or 2 y−¿intercepts.
 

Example 13:
For the following relation, state the coordinates of the vertex, sketch the graph and state
the domain and range.
 
2
( y−3) =2(x+1)
 
 

 
Determining the rule for the sideways parabola

Using the general formula and simultaneous equations, it is possible to find the equation for
this type of graph, as seen below in the next two examples.

Example 14: 
Determine the equation of the relation with rule ( y−k )2=a ( x−h ) and vertex (2 , 7) which
passes through the point (1,2).
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
Example 15:
Determine the equation of the sideways parabola which contains the three points
(−4,2 ) ,(−3,0) and (0 ,−2) .
 
 
 

 
 
 
 

 
The square root function
 
Although y 2=x is not a function, it is made up of two branches.
The upper branch is the function y= √ x and the lower branch is the function y=−√ x .
Individually these branches can be called a function, but together they do not.
 
The graph of y= √ x
1
The square root function is defined by y= √ x or y=x 2 . Therefore, it is not a polynomial
function.
 
Key features:
 Endpoint (0, 0)
 As x → ∞ , y → ∞
 Domain is R+¿∪ {0} ¿
 Range is R+¿∪ {0} ¿
 One-to-one
correspondence

 
Variations of the basic graph
 
Up until now, we have dealt with reflections in the x−¿ axis only. Now we will also have
reflections in the y−¿axis. For the graph y= √ x when it is reflected in the y−¿axis we get
the equation: y= √−x seen below in pink. The equation y=−√−x is a reflection in the x
and y axes.
 
 

 
Transformations of the square root function
 
The general form of the square root function is y=a √ x−h+k
 
Key features:
 Endpoint (h , k )
 If a> 0, the endpoint is a minimum
 If a< 0, the endpoint is a maximum
 Either 0 or 1 x−¿ intercepts
 Either 0 or 1 y−¿intercepts
 Domain is ¿ (or ¿ in the case of reflections in the y−¿axis)
 Range is ¿ if a > 0 or ¿ if a < 0
 

Example 16:
Sketch y=4 √ 1−x +2, stating its domain and range.
 

 
 
Determining the equation of a square root function
If a diagram is provided, then it will be clear whether to use the positive or negative square
root form for the equation. If no diagram is provided, a quick sketch will provide insight for
you.

Example 17:
Form a possible equation for the square root function shown.

 
 
 
 
6.6 Other Functions and Relations

Maximal domains

When we are presented with a function y=f ( x ) where it is easily recognisable what type of
graph it is, we can easily define the domain. For example, for f ( x )=x 3 then the domain is R .
This can be called the maximal or implied domain. 

However, sometimes a relation is not familiar and as a result identifying the domain is not
easily achieved. To help find maximal domains we have the following rules:

The maximal domain of

 y=f ( x )± g( x) is defined for d f ∩ d g, where d f and d g are the domains of f and g

respectively.

g(x )
 y= is defined everywhere except when f ( x )=0
f ( x)

 y= √ f (x) is defined for the domain when f (x) ≥ 0

g(x )
 y= is defined for the domain when f ( x)>0
√ f (x)

Example 18:
Identify the maximal domain of the functions with the following rules:

3x
a) y= 2
x −16

b) y= √3−2 x

2 x+ 3
c) y=
√ 6 x−2
 3
d) y= 2
−5
x +2
 
Inverse relations and functions
 
In the case of finding the inverse of a function, the domain of the original function becomes
the range of its inverse; the range of the original function becomes the domain of its
inverse. Essentially this means x and y swap position in the equation.
 
The equation of the inverse
 
To obtain the equation of the inverse:
1. Interchange x and y in the equation of the original relation or function
2. And rearrange to make y the subject

x
The graphs of a pair of inverses (e.g. y=2 x and y= ) are symmetric about the line y=x
2

If the inverse of a function f is itself a function, then the inverse function is denoted by f −1

Note: For f −1 to exist, f must be a one-to-one function.

 
 
Example 19:
 
Consider the linear function f : [ 0 , 3 ) → R , f ( x )=5 x +3
 
State the domain and determine the range of f .
 
 
 
 
 
 
State the domain and range f −1, the inverse of f
 
 
 
 
 
Express the rule for the inverse function.
 
 
 
 
 
Sketch the graphs of y=f (x ) and y=f −1 (x )
 

 
The inverse of y=x 3
 
1
The inverse of the cubic function y=x 3 is y= √3 x .This is also written as y=x 3
 

 
Example 20:
For the function f : [ 0,4 ] → R , f ( x ) =x ( x−2 )2

a. State the domain and range of f ( x)

b. Determine whether the inverse will be a function or not

c. Sketch both the function and the inverse on the axes below:
Hybrid Functions (Piecewise functions)
 
A hybrid function is a function that may take a different form over different sections of its
domain. It can appear to have sharp points/turns or even breaks in its graph.

When sketching piecewise functions it is important to note the domain for each “piece” of
the graph.
 

For instance,
 
y= {−xx , x <1
x ≥1 }
Example 21:
 
Consider the function
 

{ }
2
f (x)= x , x <1
−x x ≥1
 
Evaluate f (1)
 
 
 
 
 
Sketch the graph of f (x) and state the domain and range.
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
6.7 Transformations of Functions

Dilations from the axes

Dilation from the x−¿ axis by factor a

 

For any function y=af ( x) is the dilation of

y=f ( x ) by a factor of a from the x−¿ axis.

 
Dilation from the y−¿axis by factor a

For any function y=f ( ax ) is the dilation

of y=f (x ) by a factor of a from the y−¿
axis.

()
x
f
Note: f (2 x ) is equivalent to 1
2

 
Horizontal and vertical transformations
 
For any function:
 y=f ( x−h ) is the image of y=f (x ) under a horizontal translation of h units to the
positive x direction.
 y=f ( x )+ k is the image of y=f (x ) under a vertical translation of k units in the
positive y direction.
 Under the combined horizontal and vertical translations, y=f ( x−h ) + k .
 
Reflections in the coordinate axes
 
For any function:
 y=−f (x ) is the image of y=f (x ) under a reflection in the x−¿ axis
 y=f (−x ) is the image of y=f (x ) under a reflection in the y−¿axis
 

Combinations of transformations
 
The graph of y=af ( n ( x −h ) ) +k is the graph of y=f ( x ) under the following set of
transformations:
 a is the dilation factor from the x−¿ axis, parallel to the y−¿axis.
 If a< 0, there is a reflection in the x−¿ axis.
1
 n gives the dilation factor from the y−¿axis, parallel to the x−¿ axis.
|n|
 If n< 0, there is a reflection in the y−¿axis.
 h gives the horizontal translation parallel to the x−¿ axis.
 k gives the vertical translation parallel to the y−¿axis.
Example 22:
Describe the sequence of transformations of f ( x )=x 3 to obtain the following:

a. 3 f ( x +2 )−1

b. f ( x2 −1)

c. f ( 1−x ) +3

d. Sketch the graph from part c. below:

Example 23:
The diagram shows the graph of y=f ( x ) passing through the points (−2 , 0 ) ( 0 ,2 ) ( 3 , 1 )
 

 
Sketch the graph of y=f ( x +1) using the images of these points

 
 

Sketch the graph of y=f (−x ) using the images of these points on the same axes above.
 
 

Topic 6: Exponentials and Logarithms

11.2 Indices as Exponents
 
For any positive number n where n=a x, the statement n=a x is called an index or
exponential statement.
 
 The base is a where a ∈ R +¿¿1 }¿
 The exponent, or index, is x where x ∈ R
 The number n is positive, so a x ∈ R+¿¿
 
 
Review of Index Laws
 
Recall the basic index laws:
 
Fractional Indices
 
1
a n =√n a
 
OR:
 
m
a n =( √n a ) =√ a m
m n

 
 
 
 Example 1:
−2 4
a. Simplify ( 5 a−2 b 3 ) × 3 ( a b2 )

8 × 25 ×3 7
b. Evaluate
9 ×27 ×81
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Method of Equating Indices

To solve for the exponent x in the equations of the form a x =n

a. Express both sides as powers of the same base
b. Equate the indices and solve the equation
 
Note: The same process also applies for inequations.
 
Example 2:
a. Solve 2−3 n × 42 n−2=16
 
 
  
 
 
b. Solve 9 x −4 ×3 x + 3=0
 
 
 
 
 
 
Scientific Notation

To convert a number in scientific notation, a ×10 b back to a basic numberal:

 Move the decimal point b places to the right if b> 0
 Move the decimal point b places to the left if b< 0
 

The number of digits expressed in the number is called the number of significant figures.

Example 3:
a. Express 0.0094723 in scientific notation to 4 significant figures
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
b. Express 3.81 ×105 as a basic numeral
 
 
11.3 Indices as Logarithms
 
Index-Logarithm Forms

The statement n=a x can be written as:

 
x=log a (n)
 
 
Use of calculator
 
Base 10 logarithms are obtained from the LOG key. Base e logarithms are obtained from the
LN key.

Example 4:
a. Express 26=64 as a logarithm statement.
 
 
 

b. Solve the equation log 3 ( x )=4 for x

 
 
 

 
 
 Logarithm Laws
 
For any a , m , n>0, a ≠ 1 the laws are:

1. log a ( 1 )=0
2. log a ( a )=1
3. log a ( m ) +log a ( n ) =log a ( m× n )
4. log a ( m )−log a ( n )=log a ( )m
n
5. log a ( m ) =p × log a ( m )
p

6. log a m−n =−n × log a m

 
 
Example 5:
Simplify the following:
 
a. log 10 ( 25 ) +log 10 ( 4 )
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
b. log 4 32−log 9 27
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
Logarithms as Operators
 
Consider 2 x =5.Given that there is no common factors or square numbers with 2 and 5 we
need to use a different method for solving for x than previously used.
 
 
We can then say that if we take "log base 10" of both sides we can get the following:

log 10 ( 2 x ) =log 10 (5 )
 
Therefore it can be said that:

x log 10 ( 2 )=log 10 ( 5 )
 
 
And through further rearrangement we can get a solution for x
 
log 10 (5)
x=
log 10 (2)
 
This can now be solved using the calculator using the LOG button on the CAS Calculator.
 
Example 6:
Calculate the exact value and the value to 3 decimal places of the solution to the following
equation: 31− x =5x
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
Equations Containing Logarithms
 
Example 7:
 
Solve: log 4 (x +2)+ log 4 (x )=1 for x
11.4 Graphs of Exponential Functions
 
The graph of y=a x where a> 1
 
Key features of the graph of y=2x and any such function y=a x where a> 1:
 Horizontal asymptote with equation y=0
 y−¿intercept is (0,1)
 Shape is of 'exponential growth'
 Domain R
 Range R+
 One-to-one correspondence
 
 
 

The graph of y=a x where 0< a<1

 
Key features of the graph of y=2−x and any such function y=a x where 0< a<1:
 Horizontal asymptote with equation y=0
 y−¿intercept is (0,1)
 Shape is of 'exponential decay'
Domain R
 Range R+
 One-to-one correspondence
 Reflection of y=2x in the y−¿axis
 
 

As with other functions, the graph of y=−a x will be reflected in the x−¿ axis.
 
Example 8:
On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of y=3 x and y=3−x , stating their ranges.
 

 
Translations of Exponential Graphs
 
The general rule for a transformed exponential is: y=b ×a n(x−h) +k
 
 The graph of y=b ×a x has been dilated by a factor of b units from the x−¿ axis.
1
 The graph of y=anx has been dilated by a factor of units from the y−¿axis.
n
 The graph of y=a + k has been translated vertically by k units in the positive y−¿
x

direction.
 The graph of y=a x−h has been translated horizontally by h units in the positive x−¿
direction.
 
 
 
Dilations Translations
Example 9:
Sketch the following graph and state its range:
 
2x
y=3 × 2 + 1
 

 
 
 
11.5 Applications of Exponential Functions
 
Exponential Growth and Decay Models
 
The exponential function defined by
 
y=b ×a if a> 1
nt

 
then:
 
Exponential growth over time occurs for values of n where n> 0 and
 
Exponential decay occurs if n< 0.
 
 
 

In applications of exponentials you may find that b in the general formula is expressed as N 0
, this is used to represent the 'initial amount' in a situation.
 

Some examples of growth include growth of cells and/or bacteria, population growth or
continuously compounding interest. Decay would occur in examples involving radioactive
half-life or cooling of materials.
 
Example 10:
−kt
The decay of a radioactive substance is modelled by: Q ( t ) =Q 0 × 2
where Q kg is the amount of the substance present at time t years and Q0 and k are positive
constants.
a. Show that the constant Q0 represents the initial amount of the substance.
 
 
 
 
 
 b. After 1000 years, the sample of the radioactive substance has decayed to 64.7% of
its original mass.
i. Determine the value of k .
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ii. What is the half-life of the radioactive substance?
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Example 11:
There are approximately ten times as many red kangaroos as grey kangaroos in a certain
area. If the population of grey kangaroos increases as a rate of 11% per annum while that of
the red kangaroos decreases at a rate of 5%per annum, find how many years must elapse
before the proportions are reversed, assuming that the same rates continue to apply.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Example 12:
When a liquid is placed into a refrigerator, its temperature T ℃ at time t minutes is given
by the formula T =T 0 10−kt . The temperature is initially 100 ℃ and drops to 40 ℃ in 5
minutes. Find the temperature of the liquid after 15 minutes.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
Analysing Data
 
Sometimes it is not immediately obvious if a situation has an exponential relationship. One
method for detecting if data has an exponential relationship is to use logarithms.
 
If the data follows an exponential rule, a graph of log ⁡( y) against x should be linear.
This is called a "semi-log plot".
 
Example 13:
Rearrange y= A × 10kx to prove that log ⁡( y) is a linear relationship.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
If the data of a situation follows a power law, y=x p , then upon using logarithms as an
opperator
(as in Ex 11.3) we can achieve the equation log ( y )= p × log ⁡( x ).
 
It is evident, then, that the graph of log ⁡( y) against log ⁡(x) is linear and p is the gradient.
This is called a "log-log plot".
 

Example 14:
For a set of data, plotting log ⁡( y) against log ⁡(x) gave the following straight line.
 

 
Form the equation of the graph and hence determine the rule connecting y and x .
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
11.6 Inverses of Exponential Functions
 
The inverse of y=a x
 
Given an exponential equation: y=a x where a ∈ R +¿\{ 1}, ¿
the inverse equation is found by turning the exponential into a logarithm,
giving y=log a x
 
The fact that a logarithm can also be turned into an exponential means that the inverse of a
logarithm is an exponential equation.
 
 
The graph of y=log a ( x) for a > 1
 
There are many similarities between an exponential graph and a logarithmic graph as seen
below:
 
y=a
x
y=log a x
Horizontal asymptote at y=0 Vertical asymptote at x=0
y−¿intercept at (0,1) x−¿ intercept at (1,0)
The point (1 , a) lies on the graph The point (a , 1) lies on the graph
Range is R+¿ ¿ Domain is R+¿ ¿
Domain is R Range is R
One-to-one correspondence One-to-one correspondence
Growth is fast Growth is slow
 
 
Example 15:
Determine the equation of the inverse for the following:
i. f ( x )=10 2 x
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
ii. g ( x )=log 10 2 x
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The Inverse of Exponential Functions of the Form y=b ×a n(x−h) +k
 
 
For a transformed exponential in the form: y=b ×a n(x−h) +k
 
−1 1
The equation of the inverse is: f ( x )= log a
n ( ) x−k
b
+h

 
 
Example 16:
Consider the function f ( x )=5 × 2x +3, find the domain, range and equation of the inverse
function f −1 (x)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Relationships Between the Inverse Pairs
 
Due to the relationship between a logarithm and an exponential, i.e. being the inverse of
each other, they essentially cancel each other out when used as an operation. This is done
similar to how adding is cancelled out by subtracting.
 
This gives the following rules for simplifying and evaluating:
 
log a ( a ) =x
x

 
and
 
log (x)
a
a =x
 
 
Example 17:
x x
 Simplify log 2 (2 )+ log 3 (9 ) using the inverse relationship between exponentials and
logarithms.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Evaluate 10log (2)+log (3)
10 10

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Transformations of Logarithmic Graphs
 
For the function y= A × lo ga ( n ( x−h )) + k the transformations are described as:
 
 
 y= A log a (x) has been dilated by a factor of A from the x−¿ axis.
 
1
 y=log a (nx ) has been dilated by a factor of from the y−¿axis.
n
 
 y=−log a ( x ) has been reflected in the x−¿ axis.
 
 y=log a (−x ) has been reflected in the y−¿axis.
 
 
 
 
 y=log a ( x−h) has been translated by h units along the x−¿ axes.
 
 y=log a ( x ) + k has been translated by k units along the y−¿axes.
 

Example 18:
a. Sketch the graph of y=log 2 ( x−3 ) below and state the domain and range.
 
 
 
 b. Sketch the graph of f ( x )=log 2 ( bx ) . Find the value of b given that the graph passes
1
( )
through the point , 0
3

 
Topic 7: Differential Calculus
12.2 Rates of Change

Rates of change measure the change in one variable relative to another, generally the
change in y relative to a change in x .

Measuring a rate of change is determined using the gradient. For a linear scenario, the rate
of change is constant. For all other scenarios, the rate of change will vary throughout the
graph.

There are two main types of rates of change: Average and Instantaneous.

Average Rate of Change

The average rate of change is found by finding the gradient between two points using
y 2− y 1
m=
x 2−x 1
Example 1:
Find the average rate of change between the following points using the graph below:
i. Point A and point C
ii. Point Band point D

Instantaneous Rate of Change

Instantaneous rates of change express the rate of change occurring at one specific point
rather than over a time period.

Due to only having one point, using the gradient method above is not possible, and as such
we need another process. The most accurate process to find the instantaneous rate of
change is to using differentiation (to be learnt later).

Example 2:
For the graph below, determine if the instantaneous rate of change at the shown points is
increasing, decreasing or zero.
Approximating rates of change

We can approximate the instantaneous rate of change using two methods:

1. Finding the equation of the tangent at the point in question. This is done by drawing
the tangent onto the graph.
2. Using a second point VERY close to the point in question and use the average rate of
change process.

Example 3:
Using each method, calculate the instantaneous rate of change at the point P(6 , 9) on the
1
following graph, with the equation y= ( x +2 ) ( x−6 ) +9
2

Method 1: Draw the Tangent

Method 2: Approximating average rate of change

12.3 Gradients of Secants

In the previous section, we began to look at the ideas of approximating the gradient at
single point by using as second point close to the first. When a line is drawn through these
two points, it is called a secant line. We will be further investigating finding the gradient of a
secant in this section.

The process of estimating using a second point is called the near neighbour method or the
straightening the curve method. This is because if we zoom in very close, as in to decimals,
the graph appears to be straight.

For example the graph y=x 2 is shown below on two different window setting options:

Over the domain x ∈[−4 , 4 ] Over the domain x ∈ [ 0.9 ,1.1 ]

It is clear that in the above graphs at the point (1,1) the graph appears to have a very
different shape.

When we find the equation of a secant, we are trying to determine the gradient closest to
the gradient of the tangent to the curve.

To do this we use the equation of the graph and the variable h as follows:
 For a function f (x), then a point on the curve would be (a , f ( a )) .
 A second point on the curve could be (a+ h , f ( a+h )), where h ≠ 0.

 Then the gradient of the secant is found by:

f ( a+h )−f (a) f ( a+h )−f (a)

msecant = = where h ≠ 0
( a+h )−a h
Example 4:
For the equation, g ( x )=x 2−3 x, the points P and Q have x−¿ coordinates of x=1 and
x=1+h respectively.
Determine the gradient of the secant joining the points P and Q in terms of h .

From the gradient of the secant, we can approximate the gradient of the tangent, to some
degree of accuracy. This is done by decreasing the value of h so it is almost insignificant.

This is then written as follows:

mtangent =lim msecant

h→0

Example 5:
If g ( x )=3 x2 +2 x−1, and the points P(0 ,−1) and R(0+ h , 3 h2+ 2h−1) lie on the curve.
Approximate the gradient of the tangent using the above formula.
12.4 The Derivative Function

The derivative function was invented by both Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz. It is essentially a formalisation of finding the equation of the tangent to the curve at
a particular point using the gradient of a secant, i.e. limits.

We can use the knowledge of the gradient of the secant to find the derivative function as
follows:

Using the formula from the last section and then substituting h=0 into the equation, we can
find the limit of the secant gradient which is also the derivative function:

' f ( x +h )−f (x)

f ( x )=lim
h→ 0 h

From this derivative function, we can substitute any value of x into the equation to find the
instantaneous rate of change at that point on the original graph f ( x).

The process of finding the gradient or the derivative function is called differentiation.

The process using limit notation is called differentiation by first principles.

Example 6:
a. For the function f ( x )=x 2 +3 x−2, determine the derivative function f ' ( x).

b. Calculate f ' (2)

Example 7:
Given the derivative function f ' ( x )=3 x+ 1, determine the instantaneous rate of change at
the point with an x−¿ coordinate of 2.

There are alternative ways of writing the above limit notation for the derivative function.
These are:

' f ( x +∆ x )−f ( x )
f ( x )= lim
∆ x →0 ∆x

And

' f ( x+ δx )−f ( x )
f ( x )= lim
δx → 0 δx

The previous notation of the derivative function is Newton’s version of the derivative
function. Leibniz’s notation is also commonly used. It is:

dy δy δy change∈ y
= lim where =
dx δx → 0 δx δx change∈ x

Example 8:
Using Leibniz’s notation, determine the derivative function of y=x 3−2 and hence calculate
the instantaneous rate of change at the point x=2
12.5 Differentiation of Polynomials by rule

Polynomials are unique as we can find the derivative without using limit notation. This is
done by using the rule:

If f ( x )=x n then f ' ( x )=n × x n−1 for n ∈ N

If the x terms have a coefficient, a , where a ∈ R , then we simply multiply the coefficient a
with the n when we differentiate.

n ' n−1
f ( x )=a x then f ( x )=a × n × x

For f ( x )=c where c is a constant, then f ' ( x )=0

Example 9:
d. Find the derivative function for each of the given functions below
e. Calculate the rate of change at the stated point

a. f ( x )=3 x 2 +2 x −1 at the point (1 , 4)

b. y=−x3 +2 x 2−4 x +1 at the point (1 ,−2)

c. g ( t ) =4 t 2 +1 at the point (1 , 5)
Graphing the Derivative

The graph of the derivative function, where the function is a polynomial, will be a
polynomial of one degree less. This is summarised below:

Derivative
Original Function
Function

Quartic Cubic

Cubic Quadratic

Quadratic Linear

Constant line
Linear
(horizontal)

When we sketch the derivative function, we need to represent the original function as a sign
diagram, but rather than representing it using y−¿values, we will represent it using the
gradient throughout the graph. This can be seen below:

Note:
f. The sign diagram for the gradient becomes the sign diagram for the graph of the
derivative.
g. The “zero” gradient will occur at turning point/s and/or stationary points of
inflection of the function f ( x)
h. Any turning points of f (x) will become x−¿ intercepts on the graph of f ' (x)
Example 10:
Given g ( x )=x 2−2, complete the following:

i. Draw a sign diagram representing the gradient of g ( x )

j. Find the derivative function g ' ( x )

k. Sketch a graph of g ' ( x )

13.2 Limits, continuity and differentiability

A limit is concerned with the behaviour of a function as it approaches a particular point,

rather than the behaviour at the point.

This means that it doesn’t necessarily matter if the point f (a) exists in the function.

1
For example the graph of y=3− is shown below. We can see that as x → ∞ , y →3 even
x
though there is an asymptote at y=3 .

Written in limit notation this can be expressed by: lim 3−

x→ ∞
( 1x )=3

The limit of a function is determined by:

lim f ( x )= p
x→ a
This says that the limit of f (x), as x approaches a , is p.

It could also be said that ‘as x approaches a , f ( x) approaches p’

Example 11:

2
Find lim
x →2
3x

Example 12:
2 x2 −5 x +2
For f ( x )= , find lim f (x)
x−2 x →2

Using limits with multiple functions

Suppose there exists two functions f (x) and g(x ) and that a is a real number.
Assuming that both lim
x→ a
f (x ) and lim g (x) exist.
x→ a
Then the following holds true:

 lim ( f ( x ) + g( x ))=lim f ( x)+ lim g ( x)

x→ a x→a x →a

 lim kf (x )=k × lim f ( x), where k is a real number

x→ a x →a

 lim ( f ( x ) × g ( x ))=lim f ( x)×lim g ( x)

x→ a x→a x→ a
 lim f ( x )
f ( x ) x→ a
 lim = , provided that lim g ( x) ≠ 0
x→ a g ( x ) lim g ( x ) x→ a
x →a

Example 13:
Find:
2
x −x−2
a. lim
x →3 x−2

2
x + 2 x +1
b. lim ( x −5 ) + lim
x →6 x →−1 x +1

Left and Right Limits

There are some situations where a limit does not exist. Commonly, these would occur when
a graph contains breaks (hybrid), is discontinuous or has asymptotes.

The limit will not exist when the graph does not approach the same value from the left ¿ and
the right ¿.

In order to determine if the limit exists we find the value of the limit approaching from the
−¿ ¿ +¿¿
left L and approaching from the right L .

−¿= lim ¿¿ +¿= lim ¿¿

L
−¿
x→ a f( x)¿ and L +¿
x→a f ( x )¿

+ ¿¿

If L−¿=L ¿
then the limit of f (x) exists. If they do not equal then the limit does not exist.
Example 14:
1
For the graph g ( x )= +2
x

a. Determine the limit: lim

x →0
g ( x), if it exists.

b. Explain your answer to part (a).

Continuity

A function does not have to be continuous across the entire graph. When we consider
functions to be continuous we are looking at a specific point in the graph x=a and the
behaviour as it approaches that point.

A function f ( x ) is considered continuous at a point x=a , if:

 f (a) exists

 lim f ( x ) exists
x→ a

 lim f ( x )=f (a)

x→ a

If any of the above conditions don’t hold true then the function is considered discontinuous
at the point x=a .
Example 15:
For the function f ( x )= {−2x ,∧x ≥0
x ,∧x< 0

a. Calculate lim f ( x)
x →0

b. Determine whether the function is continuous at x=0

c. Sketch the graph of y=f ( x ) to illustrate your answer to (b)

Differentiability

While a graph may be continuous, it will not always be differentiable at the point being
investigated. Identifying points where differentiability is not possible is generally very clear
when provided a graph. Points where differentiation is not possible will occur when there is
a sharp point in the graph as seen on the graph below at the point x=a .

When differentiability is in question, and it isn’t immediately obvious on a graph, you must
consider the left and right derivatives in a similar way to considering left and right limits.

A function f ( x) is differentiable at x=a , if:

 f ( x) is continuous at x=a AND

'
 f ¿

Example 16:

{
2
Given the function h ( x )= x +1 ,∧x ≥0
−2 x +1 ,∧x <0

a. Show that the graph is continuous

b. Determine if h(x ) is differentiable at the point x=0

13.3 Derivatives of power functions

A power function is a function of the form y=x n where n is a rational number. The
1 1 1
hyperbola y= , square root function y=x 2 and the truncus y= 2 are examples of power
x x
functions we have already studied.

The derivative of y=x −n where n ∈ N

1
If f ( x )=x −n, then it can also be expressed as y=.
xn
Since this function contains asymptotes, there exists points where it cannot be
differentiated, namely when x=0 .

Therefore for values x ≠ 0 , where f ( x )=x −n

then the derivative can be found as
f ' ( x )=−n × x−n−1

Example 17:
2
Determine the derivative of the function g ( x )= 3
x

1
The derivative of y=x n where n ∈ N

Much the same to a power function with a negative power and a polynomial, differentiating
a power function with a fractional power is done as below:

1
If y=x n and n ∈ N ,

then the derivative

1
dy 1 −1
= ×xn
dx n
Example 18:
1
Determine the derivative of the function y=3 x 3

Finding the derivative of any power function

As we have seen, differentiating any power function or polynomial follows the rule that if
n ' n−1
f ( x )=x then the derivative is f ( x )=n × x

From this we can infer that the following applies also:

If y , f , g are functions and k is a constant then:

d ( ky ) dy
=k ×
dx dx

And

d ( f ± g ) df dg
= ±
dx dx dx

Example 19:
3 d ( f −g )
Given that f ( x )= 2
2 and g ( x ) =5 x , find
x dx
13.4 Coordinate Geometry Applications of Differentiation

Tangents

When we find the derivative we are essentially finding an equation which provides the
gradient of the tangent at any point x=a .

This mean we can use the derivative to find tangent lines, points of intersection and even
the equation of the normal.

Example 20:
Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve f ( x )=4 x 2−5 x at the point (2 , 6)

Coordinate Geometry

Since the tangent line is a straight line, all aspects of linear geometry can apply, including:
 The angle of inclination of the tangent to the horizontal: m=tan(θ)
 Parallel tangents: m1=m2
 Gradient of the perpendicular line to the tangent (also called the normal):
m1 × m2=−1
 Gradient of a horizontal tangent: m=0
 Gradient of a vertical tangent: m=undefined
 Points of intersection between multiple tangents can be found using simultaneous
equations
Example 21:
The curve with the equation y=a x2 +bx has a gradient of 3 at the point (2 ,−2)

a. Find the values of a and b

b. Find the equation of the normal to the curve at the point (2 ,−2)

c. Find the coordinates of the point where the gradient is zero

Example 22:
Find the coordinates of the points on the curve y=x 2−5 x +6 at which the tangent:

a. Makes an angle of 45 ° with the positive direction of the x−¿ axis

b. Is parallel to the line y=3 x +4

Increasing and Decreasing Functions

Many functions have varying gradient over their maximal domains. These can vary between
increasing, decreasing and zero. As the gradient of the tangent is the gradient at each
specific point on the function it can be deduced that:

 If f ' ( x)>0 then the function f ( x) is increasing as values of x increase

 If f ' ( x)<0 then the function f ( x) is decreasing as values of x increase
 If f ' ( x )=0 then the function f ( x ) is remaining constant as values of x increase,
generally this will only occur for a moment in the graph

Example 23:
Given the function g ( x )=x 3+3 x 2 +3 x+1 , determine the domain in which the graph is:

i. Increasing

ii. Decreasing

Example 24:
i. Form the equation of the tangent to the curve y=x 2 +ax +7
at the point x=2

ii. Hence, find the values of a for which the function y=x 2 +ax +7 is decreasing at
x=2
13.5 Curve Sketching

In previous topics, we have come across the idea of maximums, minimums, turning points
and points of inflection. When we sketched graphs that contained these elements we used
our calculators to find the points where they occurred, now we will use differentiation and
the knowledge of gradient to find these points.

Stationary points

There are three types of stationary points, local maximums, local minimum and stationary
points of inflection.

At a stationary point on a curve, the gradient at this point will be zero, i.e. f ' ( x )=0

Determining the nature of a stationary point

To find stationary points, and their nature, complete the following steps:
1. Find the derivative f ' (x)
2. Find the values of x where the derivative equals zero, f ' ( x )=0
3. Find the nature of the gradient, increasing or decreasing, on either side of the
point(s) where f ' ( x )=0
4. Draw a sign diagram for the derivative function f ' ( x )

The nature of any stationary point on the function f ( x) can be determined using the table:
Example 25:
Determine the stationary points of f ( x )=− ( x −2 )2 ( x−3) and state their nature.

Example 26:
The curve y=a x2 +bx−9 has a stationary point at the point (−1 ,−12). Find the values of a
and b and state the equation of the curve.

Local and Global Maxima and Minima

A local maxima or minima occurs at a stationary point.

A global maxima or minima which are determine by the end points to the range of a curve.

If the range is infinite, i.e. y ∈ R , there will not be any global maxima or minima.
Curve Sketching

Using everything we know about derivatives and stationary points, we can now sketch the
graphs of our functions in their entirety, labelling all significant points of interest.

Remember in order to graph a function in its entirety we need to know:

 Any axial intercepts, x and y
 Endpoints over any specified domains
 Location of stationary points and their nature
 And asymptotes, where appropriate

Example 27:
7
Sketch the graph of y=2 x 3−6 x 2 +8 over the domain −1 ≤ x ≤
2
13.6 Optimisation Problems

Optimisation problems involve determining the greatest, or least, possible value of some
quantity, subject to certain conditions. These are application style problems that involve the
use of differentiation to find maximums or minimums

To solve optimisation problems:

 Draw a diagram of the situation, where appropriate
 Define the variables
 Identify the variable to maximised or minimised
 Express the quantity to be optimised as a function of one variable
 Find the stationary points of the function and determine their nature
 Consider the domain of the function, as for applications there are likely to be domain
restrictions, and find end points if required
 The maximum or minimum value will occur at either an endpoint or a stationary
point

Example 28:
A length of string 200 cm long is to be formed into a rectangle. Determine the maximum
area of the rectangle using differentiation.

Example 29:
The volume of a cylinder is given by the formula V =π r 2 h. Find the maximum volume of the
cylinder if r +h=12
Example 30:
A piece of string 10 metres long is cut into two pieces to form two squares.

a. If one piece of string has a length x metres, show that the combined area of the two
1 2
squares is given by A= ( x −10 x +50)
8

dA
b. Find
dx

c. Find the value of x that makes A a minimum

d. What is the minimum total area of the two squares?

13.7 Rates of Change & Kinematics

Rates of Change
Many fields of interest in the biological, physical and social sciences involve the study of
rates of change. The derivative of a function measures the instantaneous rate of change.

To solve problems involving rates of change:

 Draw a diagram of the situation, where appropriate
 Identify the rate of change required and define the variables
 Express the quantity which is changing as a function with respect to one variable
 Calculate the derivative which measures the rate of change
 To find the rate at a given value or instant, substitute into the derivative
 A negative value means the change is decreasing while a positive means the change
is increasing

Example 31:
A container in the shape of an inverted right cone of radius 5 cm and depth 10 cm is being
filled with water. When the depth of water is h cm , the radius of the water level is r cm .
a. Use similar triangles to express r in terms of h

b. Express the volume of water as a function of h

c. At what rate, with respect to the depth of the water, is the volume of the water
changing when its depth is 3 cm?
Kinematics

In mathematical applications, many quantities change over time. Kinematics is the study of
motion over time. Analysing motion requires an understanding of position, displacement,
velocity and acceleration. In our course, we will only be considering motion in a straight line.

Position & Displacement

The position of an object moving in a straight line is determined by its distance from a fixed
point O on the line, called the origin, and whether is it is to the right or left of O . By
convention, the direction to the right is considered to be positive.

Displacement is defined as the change in position of an object.

Example 32:

An object starts at zero and moves in the positive direction 3 units and then 8 units in the
negative direction.
a. Draw the movement of the object on the number line below:

b. What is the final position of the object

c. What is the distance travelled by the object?

d. What is the displacement of the object?

Velocity

Velocity can be calculated two ways: average velocity and instantaneous velocity.

The average rate of change of position with respect to time is average velocity.
This is given by:
displacement x 2−x1
average velocity= =
change∈time t 2−t 1
where x 1 is the position at time t 1 and x 2 is the position at t 2

Instantaneous velocity is found using differentiation and is given by:

dx
velocity=
dt
where x is the position of the object at time t

From velocity, we can also determine the average speed of an object:

distance travelled
average speed =
time taken

Note: Speed is the magnitude of instantaneous velocity

Example 33:
A particle moves in a straight line so that its position, x cm, relative to O at time t seconds is
given by x=t 2−7 t+ 6 , t ≥ 0
a. Find its initial velocity

b. When does its velocity equal zero, and what is its position at this time?

c. What is the average velocity for the first 4 seconds?

d. Determine its average speed for the first 4 seconds.

Acceleration

Acceleration is the derivative of velocity. It is a measure of the change in velocity over time.

dv
a=
dt

Because of the relationship between velocity and displacement, you could also say that
acceleration is the second derivative of displacement:

2
dv d x
a= =
dt d t 2

To take the second derivative simply means to differentiate twice.

You can also find the average acceleration by finding the change in velocity over time:

change ∈v v 2−v 1
average acceleration= =
change∈t t 2−t 1

Example 34:
A particle moving in a straight line has position x cm relative to the point O at time t seconds
(t ≥ 0), where x=t 3−11 t 2 +24 t−3

a. Find its initial position and velocity

b. Find its velocity at any time t

c. At what times is the particle at rest (stationary)?

d. For how long is the particle’s velocity negative?

e. Find its acceleration at any time t

f. When is the particle’s acceleration zero? What is its velocity and its position at that
time?
Topic 8: Integration
14.2 Anti-Derivatives (Integrals)
 
Anti-differentiation is the reverse process to differentiation. When we differentiate,
constant values are removed. When we anti-differentiate (integrate), constant values
reappear. Unless we know a point on our function, we represent the constant value as some
arbitrary constant C .
 
 
Basic Rule for Anti-differentiation of Polynomials
 
dy n 1 (n+1)
If =x , n ∈ N then y= x +C , where C is an arbitrary constant
dx n+1
 
This is more commonly written as:
x n+1
∫ x n dx= n+1 + C , n ∈ R ¿ {−1¿}
Note: −1 is excluded so as to not make the denominator equal zero.
 
General notation:
 
 "The anti-derivative of :" is written as ∫ f ( x ) dx=F ( x ) +c ; w h ere F ( x )=f ( x)
'

 F (x) is an anti-derivative or primitive of  f (x).

 It can also be said that  F ( x) is the indefinite integral, or just integral, of  f ( x)
 The arbitrary constant C  is called the constant of integration .
 
 
Example 1:
Find the general anti-derivative of the following:
 
dy 5
a. =3 x
dx
 
 
 
 
 
 

  
b. 3 x 2+ 4 x 3 +3
 
 
 
 
 
 
dy
c. =x ( x−1 ) ( x+1 )
dx
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
3
d. ∫ 2 x3 dx
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
1 2
e. ∫ (x− ) dx
x
14.3: Anti-derivative functions and graphs
 
Determining the constant
 
It is possible to determine the constant of integration if a point on the curve f ( x) and the
function F ( x ) is known. To determine the constant, simply substitute the point into the anti-
derivative for x and y and then solve for C .
 
Example 2:
dy
Find the equation of the curve passing through (−2 , 3) given that =4 x −1
dx
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Example 3:
dy
The gradient of a curve is given by =a+3 x , where a is a constant. Given that the curve y
dx
has a stationary point at (2 , 5) , determine the equation of y
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Example 4:
' x2 −4 13
If f ( x )= 2 and
f ( 4 ) = , find f (1)
2x 2
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Sketching the anti-derivative graph
  
It is possible to sketch the graph of y=f ( x ) if you know the features of the graph of the
derivative f ' ( x):
 
 The x−¿ intercepts of f ' (x) determine the x−¿ values of the stationary points of f ( x )
 The nature of any stationary points of f (x) is determined by the sign diagram of about
the x−¿ intercepts of the graph f ' (x )
 If f ' (x ) is of polynomial degree n , then f ( x) will be a polynomial of degree n+1
 
Example 5:
dy 2 x
The gradient of a curve is given by: = −3. The curve passes through the point (5 , 0)
dx 5
a. Determine the equation of the curve
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
b. Find the x intercepts
 
Example 6:
Consider the graph of the quadratic shown below:

 
a. Describe the position and nature of any stationary point on the graph.
 
  
 
 
 
b. Obtain the rule for f (x)
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
c. Obtain the rule for the anti-derivative of f ( x)
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
d. Given f ( 0 )=−2, determine the rule for the anti-derivative and sketch the
corresponding graph
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14.4 Applications of Integrals
 
The anti-derivative in kinematics
 
Just like we can move displacement to velocity to acceleration using differentiation, we can
using integration to work backwards.
 

 
Example 7:
Starting from the origin, a particle moves in a straight line. Calculate its displacement at any
time t  if its velocity is given by v=2 t+5
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Example 8:
The velocity of a particle moving in a straight line is  v=2 ( t−3 )2 . Determine an expression
for:
a. its acceleration
 
 
 
 
 
 
b. its displacement, given the particle is at the origin after 3 seconds
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
Example 9:
The velocity,  v m/s, of a particle moving in a straight line at time t seconds is given by
2
v=8 t −20 t−12, for t ≥ 0. Initially the particle is 54 metres to the right of a fixed origin.
 
a. Obtain an expression for the particle’s displacement at time t seconds.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
b. How far from its initial position is the particle after the first second?
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
c. Determine the position of the particle when its velocity is zero.

14.5 The Definite Integral

 
Until now we have been finding an equation for the anti-derivative. When we have a
definite integral we are taking the process one step further and evaluating the integral
between a set of values.
 
These values are defined on the integral symbol as such:
 
b

∫ f ( x ) dx=F ( b )−F (a)

a
 
 
The values of "a " (lower terminal) and "b " (upper terminal) are called terminals and F (x) is
the antiderivative function.
 
 
Example 10:
 
2
 ∫ ( 20 x +15 ) dx
1
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
9
 ∫ ( √ x ) dx
0
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The definite integral is most commonly used to calculate the AREA underneath a curve.
 
 
Example 11:
Find the area under the curve over the given interval
 
 
Example 12:
 
The area bounded by the line y=0.75 x , the  x−¿ axis and  x=0 and x=4 is illustrated in the
diagram.
 

a. Calculate the area using the formula for the area of a triangle.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
b. Write down the definite integral which represents the measure of this area.
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
c. Hence, calculate the area using calculus.
 
Topic 9: Probability
8.2 Probability Review

Notation and fundamentals

Definitions:
 The sample space, denoted by Ω , ξ , U ∨S , is the set of all possible elements or objects
considered in a particular situation. Called the Universal Set.
 An outcome is a possible result of an experiment
 An event is a particular set of outcomes which is a subset of the sample space.
 The probability of an event is the long term proportion, relative frequency, of its
occurrence.

 Set Notation:
 n( A) is the number of elements in A
 Pr ⁡( A) is the probability of A
 A null or empty set is a set with no elements and it is symbolised by { } or ∅
 All elements that belong to both set A and set B make up the intersection: A ∩ B
 All the elements that belong to either set A or set B make up the union: A ∪ B

When we talk about probability we use a numerical value to represent levels of chance. This
value is either a decimal or fraction between 0 and 1 or a percentage ranging from 0 to
100%.
 

Calculating the probability of an event:

 
number of favourable outcomes
Pr ( event ) =
total number of outcomes
 
where for any event A , 0 ≤ Pr ⁡( A )≤ 1
Example 1:
A letter is chosen from the word PROBABILITY. Find the probability that the letter is:

a. an A
 
b. a B
 
b. a vowel 
 
d. not a vowel
 
Venn Diagrams and Probability Tables (Karnaugh Maps)

Summary of different Venn diagram displays:

Example 2:
A standard fair die is rolled. If A is the set of even numbers and B is the set of prime
numbers. Create a Venn diagram of this situation and shade A ∩ B' .
Example 3:
In a group of 30 students it is found that 10 play both cricket and soccer, 5 play only cricket
and 7 play only soccer. Construct a Karnaugh map representing this, where probabilities are
represented as percentages.

Using these diagrams we can find probabilities when there are two or more subsets. We can
use these visual displays of a sample space to draw out not only probabilities, but also to
determine if events are mutually exclusive.

Mutually Exclusive Events:

Pr ( A ∩ B )=0
and
Pr ( A ∪ B )=Pr ( A ) + Pr ⁡(B)

The Additional Rule:

If two events are not mutually exclusive we must use the addition rule to find the union of
the two events:

Pr ( A ∪ B )=Pr ( A ) + Pr ( B )−Pr ⁡( A ∩ B)
 
 
Example 4:
A card is randomly drawn from a standard deck of cards. Determine the probability of
selecting either a queen or a diamond.

Two step experiment tables (Lattice diagram)

When an experiment involves two selections, such as drawing 2 cards from a deck or
selecting 2 students in a class of 25. This is a multi-stage experiment which can involve both
replacement and no replacement.
 
If a selection is made with replacement, it means that the outcome selected can be
repeated.
If a selection is made without replacement, is means that the outcome cannot be selected
again.
 
This is shown in the two-way table below:
 

Example 5:
A bag contains beanbags labelled with the numbers{1,2,3,4 } . Jerimiah draws two beanbags
out and notes the number. He does not return it to the bag between selections.

Construct a two-step experiment table representing all possible outcomes. What is the
probability of Jerimiah selecting the beanbag numbered 2 first?
Tree Diagrams

Tree Diagrams are another way in which we can represent multi-step experiments. Each
level of branches in the tree can be considered one step in the experiment.
 
It can become quite confusing if we have a branch for every choice, so we condense the
branches and label them with the fraction representing the probability of selecting that
branch.
 
For example, suppose a bag contains two red apples and one banana. The tree diagram,
with all branches shown, would be the left one below. But we can condense the tree
diagram to get the right one.
 

 
We calculate the probability of the outcomes by MULTIPLYING along the branches.

If the circumstances CHANGE between each step in the experiment the probabilities on the
branches of your tree will CHANGE as you moved through.

This is when there is NO REPLACEMENT.

 
Example 6:
2
A biased coin is tossed three times. The probability of obtaining a head is .
5

a. Draw a Tree diagram to show all possible outcomes and probabilities.

b. What is the probability of getting at least 2 heads.

c. What is the probability of getting three of the same?

8.3 Conditional Probability

The conditional probability of an event A , given that B has already occurred, is given by:

Pr ⁡( A ∩ B)
Pr ( A|B )= if Pr ⁡( B)≠ 0
Pr ⁡(B)

We can rearrange this formula to obtain the multiplication rule of probability:

Pr ( A ∩ B )=Pr ( A|B ) × Pr ( B )

Example 7:
500 people were questioned and classified according to gender and whether or not they
regularly use social media. The results are shown in the table below:

Do you regularly use social media?

Men Women Total
Yes 200 150 350
No 40 110 150
Total 240 260 500

One person is randomly selected from the 500 people.

Given that the person is male, what is the probability that they use social media regularly?

What is the probability of selecting a person who is female, given that they do not use social
media regularly?
Tree diagrams and Conditional Probability

Tree diagrams without replacement are technically representations of situations where the
next step is dependent on the first step result. We can, therefore, label the branches as
such:

Example 8:
To get to work Alejandro catches a bus and then walks the rest of the distance. If the bus is
on time, Alejandro has a 90% chance of getting to work on time. However, if the bus is late,
he has a 45% chance of arriving on time. Generally, the bus is running on time 85% of the
time.

a. Draw a tree diagram showing all outcomes and probabilities.

b. Calculate the probability that Alejandro will arrive to work on time.

8.4 Independence

Two events are independent if the outcome of one event does NOT affect the probability of
the other event.
 

This means for independent events the following will be true:

Pr ( A|B )=Pr ⁡(A )

or
Pr ( B| A )=Pr ( B )
or

Pr ( A ∩ B )=Pr ⁡( A)× Pr ⁡( B)
 

For multi-stage experiments (trees, two-step experiments), successive events are

independent if the experiment is with replacement. 

Example 9:
An experiment consists of drawing a number at random from {1 , 2 ,3 , … , 12} .
Let A={1 , 2, 3 , 4 ,5 , 6 }, B={1, 3 , 5 ,7 ,9 , 11 } and C={4 , 6 , 8 , 9 }.

a. Show that A and B are independent.

b. Are A and C independent?

c. Show that B and C are not independent.

8.5 Counting Techniques
 
Arrangements and Permutations 

The arrangement AB is a different arrangement to BA .

 
Multiplication Principle 

We can use the multiplication principal to calculate the number of permutations.

For example, how many ways could we arrange 2 people out of a group of 4 people?
There are 4 ways to choose the first person and 3 ways of choosing the second person, i.e. 4
x 3 = 12 possible arrangements. This is written using a box table:
 
4 3
 
Addition Principle for Mutually Exclusive Events
 
If there are m ways of doing one procedure and n ways of doing another procedure,
there are m+n n ways of doing either procedure.
 
 
Example 1:
Consider the set of five digits { 2 , 6 ,7 ,8 , 9 } . 
Assume no repeated digits.
a. How many 3 digit numbers can be formed from this set?
 
 
 
b. How many numbers with at least four digits can be formed?
 
 
 
c. How many five digit odd numbers can be formed?
 
 
 
d. One of the five digit numbers is chosen at random. What is the probability it will be an
odd number?
 
 
 
 
 
Factorial Notation
 
The number of ways four people can be arranged in a row,
using the multiplication principle, is:
 
4 ×3 ×2 ×1=24
 
Using factorial notation, this is 4 !
 
In general, the number of ways of arranging n objects in a row is:
 
n !=n × ( n−1 ) × ( n−2 ) ×... ×2 ×1
 

Arrangements in a Circle
 
In a row arrangement, there is a first and a last position. In a circular arrangement, there is
no first or last position; order is either clockwise or anti-clockwise. This means that ABC and
BCA and CAB are all same circular arrangement (see below).

 
There are only 2 distinct circular arrangement of three letters: ABC or ACB as shown.
 

n ! is the number of ways of arranging n objects in a row.

 
(n−1) ! is the number of ways of arranging n objects in a circle.
 
Example 2:
 
A group of 7 students queue in a straight line at a canteen to buy a drink.
 
a) In how many ways can the queue be formed?
 
 
 
 
 
b) The groups carry their drinks to a circular table. In how many different seating
arrangements can the students sit around the table?
 
 
 
 
c) This group of students have been shortlisted for Mathematics, History and Art
prizes. What is the probability that one person in the group receives all 3 prizes?
 
 
 
 
 
Arrangements with objects grouped together
 
Where a group of objects are to be together, treat them as one unit in order to calculate the
number of arrangements. Then, allow for the number of internal arrangements and apply
the multiplication principal.
 
Example 3:
a. How many arrangements of the letters of the word LINES have the vowels grouped
together?

b. How many of the letters of the word LINES have the vowels separated?
 
 
 
 
 
 
Arrangements where some objects may be identical
 
The number of arrangements of n objects, p of which are of one type, q of which are of
another type, is:
 
n!
p! q!
 
 
Example 4:
a) How many arrangements of the letters of the word PARALLEL are possible?
 
 
 
 
b) What is the probability that in a randomly chosen arrangement of the word PARALLEL,
the letters A are together?
 
 
 
 
Formula for Permutations
 

The formula for the number of permutations or arrangements taken r at a time is:
 
n!
❑❑n Pr =
( n−r ) !

Combinations or Selections

The number of combinations of r objects from a total of n objects is:

 
n
❑❑ C r=
n!
()=
r ! ( n−r ) ! r
n

 
0 ≤ r ≤n where r and n are non-negative integers.
 
Example 5:
A committee of 5 students is to be chosen from 7 boys and 4 girls.
 
a. How many committees can be formed?
 
 
 
 
 
 
b. How many of the committees contain exactly 2 boys and 3 girls?
 
 
 
 
 
 
c. How many committees have at least 3 girls?
 
 
 
 
 
 
d. What is the probability of the oldest and youngest students both being on the
committee?