Basics of Reciprocating Compressors (With PDF)

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Anup Kumar Dey November 18, 2019

In a reciprocating compressor, a volume of gas is drawn into a cylinder; it is trapped and

compressed by a crankshaft-driven piston and then the high-pressure gas is discharged
into the discharge line. It is a positive displacement machine. At any production facility,
reciprocating compressors are considered to be one of the most critical and expensive
equipment and hence, require special attention. They are widely used in various industrial
facilities to compress gases like:

Air in compressed tool and instrument air systems

Hydrocarbons in refinery, chemical and petrochemical plants
Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen etc. for chemical processing
Various other gases for storage or transmission

Reciprocating compressors are widely used for compressing dry gases requiring high
compression ratio (discharge pressure/suction pressure).

The gas to be compressed enters through the suction manifold and then it flows into the
compression cylinder. A piston compresses the gas using a reciprocating motion via a
crankshaft. Because of the reciprocating motion of the piston, such compressors are
known as reciprocating compressors. The cylinder valves of a reciprocating compressor
control the flow of gas through the cylinder; these valves act as check valves. Fig. 1
shows the classification of Compressors.

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 Fig. 1: Classification of Compressors

Types of Reciprocating Compressor

Depending on the discharge strokes per revolution of the crankshaft, there are two
types of reciprocating compressors.

Single – Acting compressor: It is a reciprocating compressor that has one

discharge per revolution of the crankshaft. Gas is compressed by only one end of
the piston. Contains only one spring-loaded inlet and outlet valve.
Double – Acting Compressor: It is a reciprocating compressor that completes two
discharge strokes per revolutions of the crankshaft. Gas is compressed by both the
ends of the piston. Contains inlet and outlet valves at both ends. Most heavy-duty
compressors are double-acting.

Fig. 2 Shows typical configuration of Single and double acting reciprocating compressor.

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 Fig.2: Single and Double acting Reciprocating Compressor

Depending on the drive mechanism of the reciprocating compressor, they are of two
types.

Separable Reciprocating Compressor, and

Integral Reciprocating Compressor

The following Table lists down major features of both the reciprocating compressor types.

Separable Compressor Integral Compressor

The compressor and the driver can be Integrally mounted power cylinders
separated as driven by separate drives like drive the compressor and hence
an electric motor or engine. can not be separated.

High-Speed Reciprocating Compressors. Low-Speed reciprocating

The typical Operating Speed is 900 -1800 compressors. The typical operating
rpm. Speed is 200-600 rpm.

They are normally skid-mounted and the Field Erected.

complete skid can be erected at shop and
transported.

Lower Foundation loads. Require heavy foundation.

Less vibration severity. High vibration Severity.

Lower initial Installation Cost. High Initial Installation cost.

High Maintenance Cost. Low Maintenance Cost.

Low Efficiency. High Efficiency.

Separable Compressor vs Integral Compressor

Depending on the number of compression stages before discharge, two types of

reciprocating compressors are found:

Single-Stage Reciprocating Compressor, and

Multi-Stage Reciprocating Compressor

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The main differences between single-stage and multi-stage reciprocating compressors
are listed below

Single-Stage Reciprocating Multi-Stage Reciprocating Compressor

Compressor

Contain Single Cylinder Contains multiple cylinders

Gas is compressed only once Gas is compressed multiple times before final
discharge

Lower Compression ratio Higher Compression ratio

Less Efficiency and Reliability Improved Efficiency and better reliability

Lower Cost Higher Cost

Intermittent Operation Continuous Operation

Single-Stage vs Multi-Stage Reciprocating Compressor

Depending on the speed, Reciprocating compressors are classified as either high speed
or slow speed. Typically, high-speed compressors run at a speed of 900 to 1200 rpm and
slow-speed units at speeds of 200 to 600 rpm.

Working of a Reciprocating Compressor

As the name signifies, a reciprocating compressor works by the to and fro motion of the
piston inside a cylinder.

When the piston moves downward, it creates a vacuum between the piston top and
cylinder head. This causes the inlet valve to open and low-pressure gas fills in. During
this time, inlet valves remain open and discharge valves remain closed.

Next, the piston moves upward forcing the inlet valve to close and the gas is trapped in
the cylinder. As the piston moves further the area between the piston head and cylinder
reduces which results in gas compression. When the gas pressure exceeds the discharge
valve spring resistance, it opens and the gas is transferred to the receiver. The same
process is repeated.

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 Fig. 3: Working Principle of Reciprocating Compressor

Advantages of a Reciprocating Compressor

The main advantages of a reciprocating compressor are:

Broadest pressure range in the compressor family (vacuum to 3000 bar).

Multiple Services on one compressor frame. On a multi-stage frame, each cylinder
can be used for separate gas services. For Example, One cylinder dedicated to
propane refrigeration with balance cylinders dedicated to product gas.
Lower capital cost.
Can handle wide variations in capacity with much more ease than any other type.
Complete skid-mounted units allow easy transportation and installation and
relocation.
In general, higher efficiencies compared to centrifugal type for the same operating
conditions.
Especially suited for low molecular weight applications.

Application limits of Reciprocating Compressors

Reciprocating compressors are limited by the following parameters in their applications:

Flow: they can handle very low flows without significant loss in efficiency.
Capacity: High capacity is limited by cylinder size, stroke length, and speed.
Pressure: Very high pressures up to 3000 bara are practically applied.

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 Discharge Temperature: Discharge temperature generally restricted to 135⁰C. For
hydrogen-rich services (molecular weight less than or equal to 12) and non-
lubricated cylinders, the discharge temperature shall not exceed 120⁰C.
Compressed air applications allow higher discharge temperatures
Compression ratio: Typical compression ratios for a single-stage reciprocating
compressor are 1.2 to 4.0. The Compression Ratio (Pd/ Ps) is limited by the
following;
Maximum Discharge Temperature
Allowable Rod Load
Cylinder Volumetric Efficiency
Horsepower: In gas processing applications power ratings of more than 7.5 MW
are rarely found. Special machines with power ratings as high as 30 MW are
available for other applications.
Rotating Speed: Low to moderate speeds typically at 300-700 rpm with motors.
Moderate to high speeds typically at 600-1800 rpm with motors or gas engines (field
gas compression, gas plant, pipeline). Low to moderate speeds in accordance with
API STD 618. Moderate to high speeds in accordance with ISO STD 13631.

Codes and Standards for Reciprocating Compressor

Various codes and standards govern the design and manufacture of reciprocating
compressors like:

API Standards: API-11P (Packaged Reciprocating Compressors) and API-618

(Reciprocating Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services)
ISO Standards: ISO-13707 and ISO-13631
Shell DEP: DEP 31.29.40.31
API RP 688 for Pulsation and Vibration Control.

Construction of Reciprocating Compressors

The construction of Reciprocating compressors can be divided into two main areas:

Gas end.
Power end.

Gas End Parts of a Reciprocating Compressor

The main gas end Parts of the reciprocating compressor (Fig. 4) are

Cylinder
Head
Piston & piston rod.
Suction valves.
Discharge valves.
Piston rod Packing
Suction and discharge gas jacket

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 Fig. 4: Parts of reciprocating compressor

Cylinder & Liner

The piston reciprocates inside a cylinder of the reciprocating compressor. To provide for
reduced reconditioning cost, the cylinder may be fitted with a liner or sleeve. A cylinder or
liner usually wears at the points where the piston rings rub against it. Because of the
weight of the piston, wear is usually greater at the bottom of a horizontal cylinder.

Head

The ends of the cylinder are equipped with removable heads, these heads may contain
water/liquid jacket for cooling. One end is called head-end head and other crank-end
head. The crank-end contains packing (a set of metallic packing rings) to prevent gas
leakage around the piston rod.

Piston

The piston moves forward and backward to suck and compress the gas. It pushes
the gas in the discharge pipe during the compression stroke.
For low-speed (up to 330 rpm) and medium speed reciprocating compressors (330-
600 rpm), pistons are usually made of cast iron.
Up to 7” diameter cast iron pistons are made of solid bars. Those of more than 7”
diameters are usually hollow (to reduce cost).
Carbon pistons are sometimes used for compressing oxygen and other gases that
must be kept free of lubricant.

Clearance in Piston and Cylinder

As the reciprocating compressor reaches operating temperature, the piston and rod
expand more than the liner/cylinder does. In order to prevent seizure adequate clearance
should be provided. Similarly, end clearance is also important.

A cold piston is usually installed with one-third of its end clearance on the crank end and
two-third of its end clearance on the head end.

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Piston Rings (Fig. 5)

Piston rings provide a seal that prevents or minimizes leakage through piston and
cylinder liner. Metal piston rings are made either in one piece, with a gap or in several
segments. Gaps in the rings allow them to move out or expand as the compressor
reaches operating temperature. Rings of the heavy piston are sometimes given bronze,
Babbitt or Teflon expanders or riders. Lubrication is a must for metallic rings. Teflon rings
with Teflon rider bands are sometimes used to support the piston when the gas does not
permit the use of a lubricant.

Fig. 5: Typical configuration of piston rings

Piston Rod and Piston (Fig. 6)

The piston rod is fastened to the piston by means of special nut that is prevented from
unscrewing. The surface of the rod has a suitable degree of finish designed to minimize
wear on the sealing areas as much as possible. The piston is provided with grooves for
piston rings and rider rings.

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 Fig. 6: Typical configuration of Piston Rod and Piston

Piston rod packing

Piston rod packing ensures the sealing of the compressed gas. The piston rod
packing consists of a series of cups each containing several seal rings side by
side. The rings are built of multiple sectors, held together by a spring installed in
the groove running around the outside of the ring.

The entire set of cups is held in place by stud bolts. Inside channels are there for cooling,
gas recovery and lubrication of the piston rod packing.

Oil Seal

An arrangement of scraper rings serves to keep the oil, entrained by piston rod, from
leaking out of the crankcase. The oil scraped is returned to the crankcase reservoir.

Valves

Valves (Suction and Discharge valves): allow gas to enter into the piston during suction
stroke and allow gas to go out into the discharge line during the compression stroke.

There are normally three types of valves, these are

Plate valve.
Channel valve.
Poppet valve.

Power End of a Reciprocating Compressor

Parts of reciprocating compressors that assist in transferring power and
converting rotary motion into reciprocating motion are grouped in this category.

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Crank Case

The crankcase (Fig. 7) supports the crankshaft. All bearing supports are bored
under setup conditions to ensure perfect alignment. The crankcase is provided
with easily removable covers on the top for inspection and maintenance. The
bottom of the crankcase serves as the oil reservoir. The main pump for lubrication
of the crank mechanism is placed on the shield mounted on the side opposite the
coupling and is driven by the reciprocating compressor.

Fig. 7: Typical configuration of Crank Case

Crankshaft

Crankshaft receives the power from Driver and transfers it to the piston. The crankshaft is
built in a single piece. On the inside of the shaft are holes for passage and distribution of
lube oil.

Main Bearings

The main bearings are built in two halves, made of steel, with an inner coating of
antifriction metal.

Connecting Rods

Connecting rod (Fig. 8) connect crank shaft with the piston rod.

The connecting rod has two bearings. The big end bearing is built in two halves. It is
made of metal with the inner coating of antifriction metal. The connecting rod small end
bearing is build of steel, with an inner coating of antifriction metal. A hole runs through the

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connecting rod for its entire length, to allow passage of oil from the big end to the small
end bush.

Fig. 8: Typical configuration of Connecting Rod

Crosshead

Crosshead fastens the piston rod to the connecting rod. The sliding surfaces of
crossheads are coated with antifriction metal like Babbit shoe. That permits it to slide
back and forth within the crosshead guides. The shoes have channels for the distribution
of lube oil. The lubrication is obtained under pressure; it comes out from the two guides of
the crosshead slide body.

The connection between connecting rod and crosshead is realized by means of a

gudgeon pin. The piston rod is connected to the crosshead by a nut.

Distance piece

The distance piece is used to separate the Gas end and Power End of
Reciprocating compressor.

API 618 defines 4 types of distance pieces for a reciprocating compressor which can be
used based on the criticality of service.

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 1. Type A – Short single compartment (Where oil carryover to piston packing is
acceptable)
2. Type B – Long Single Compartment (Where oil carryover to piston packing is not
acceptable)
3. Type C – Long-long two-compartment (For critical services like Oxygen and
Hydrogen)
4. Type D – Long-short two-compartment (For Process gas services)

The distance piece is provided with drain and vent arrangement and if required
continuously purge with buffer gas.

Pulsation Dampeners /Bottles for Reciprocating Compressors

Pulsation bottles provided at suction and discharge to the reciprocating

compressor, to keep the pulsation within the desired limit.

Pulsation study carried out to decide the minimum volume of pulsation bottles.

Lubrication of Reciprocating Compressors

Lubricants reduce friction and therefore wear between moving reciprocating compressor
parts. The lubricant also serves as a coolant. Fig. 9 shows a typical Lubrication System.

Fig. 9: Typical Lubrication System

Generally, two types of systems are used to lubricate the positive displacement
compressors.

SPLASH SYSTEM
FORCED FEED LUBRICATION

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Splash System
It is used in older machines. The level is maintained in the crankcase. Oil is splashed up
by the rotation of the crank and the counterweight into the collecting ring. Centrifugal
force throws the oil outward through an oil passage to the crank pin.

Forced FEED Lubrication

A pump is used to feed the oil. Oil is pumped under pressure to the required parts.
Following are the main parts of system

Reciprocating Compressor Capacity Control Method

By Recirculation
By VSD
By Valve Un-loader
By Volume clearance pocket

Reciprocating Compressor vs Rotary Compressor

The main differences between a reciprocating compressor and a rotary compressor are
tabulated below:

Reciprocating Compressor Rotary Compressor

Uses piston for reciprocating action Uses rollers

More Efficient Less efficient

Expensive and more maintenance Cheaper option with less

requirement maintenance

Complex design and construction Simple design

Less Life Span Longer Life Span

High Compression Ratio Low Compression ratio

Low Speed Compressor High Speed Compressor

Complicated Lubrication Simple Lubrication

Balancing is a major problem No balancing problem.

High vibration tendency Low Vibration tendency.

Reciprocating Compressor vs Rotary Compressor

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