D.E.A.

NARCtlTICS
INUESTIGATIIN'S
MANUAL

PALADIN PRESS
B(lULDER, CtlLtlRADtl
 D.E.A
NARCOTICS
INVESTIGATOR'S
MANUAL

PALADIN PRESS
BOULDER, COLORADO
D.E.A. Narcotics Investigator's Manual

Copyright O 1988
rsBN 0-87364-480-8
Printed in the United States of America

Published by Paladin Press, a division of

Paladin Enterprises, Inc., P.O. Box 1307,
Boulder, Colorado 80306, USA.
(303) 443-72s0

Direct inquiries and/or orders to the above address.

PALADIN, PALADIN PRESS, and the "horse head" design

are trademarks belonging to Paladin Enterprises and
registered in United States Patent and Trademark Office.

All rightsreserved. Except for use in a review, no

portion of this book may be reproduced in any form
without the express written permission of the publisher.

Neither the author nor the publisher assumes

any responsibility for the use or misuse of
information contained in this book.
 IAsLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION.

P.r.RT ONE: GENER{1. IIfi"ESTIOATM PROCEDURXS

chaprer 1 cAss INITIATION.

Receipt and Veriflcation of Infornatlon 7
CasePlanning 8
Sources of Inforuation 9
Federal Asslstance 11
Chapter 2 IMERVIEWS AIID INTERROGATIONS. 13
Intervlewing Cltlzens and Wltnesses 13
Intervlewing Informants 16
IntervlewLng Suspects L7
Intelrogatlon Techniques 18
Adnleslons and Confessions 20
Chapter 3 REPORT IIRITING. 27

Chapter 4 HANDL1NG PI{YSICAI. EVIDENCE. 31.

Counting and Welghtng 32
Sealing and Labeling Evidence 34
Recelpt Forms 35
Transoittal to Laboratory 36
Destruction of Evidence 38
Chapter 5 CASE FREPAXATION.... .. . ;. 4L
The Prosecution ReporL 4L
Pre-Trlal Conference 43
Preparation of Witnesses 44
Self Preparation 45
Chapter 6 TESTIFTING IN COURT. tt7
PersonaL Appearance 47
Pre-Trial Acrivlties 47
Basic TrlaL Procedure 48
The InvescigaEorrs Testi.nony 49
Posr-Trlal 51
PART SPECIAL IITTTSTICATIVE PRCCEDUR.IIS

Chapter 7 INF0RTYA*\TS.
Inforoant Developmenc 56
Inform.:ct Tnrervi.e',rs 59
Informaac NegoLiarions 64
Inforoant Control e-nd Proteclioo 65
Legal Coosiderations 68
Chapter 6 SURVEILI"A}ICE OPEL\IIONS. . . 75
Preparatioo and Equipment. 76
Moving Surveillance on Foot 78
Moving Surveill-ance wlth Vehlele 81
Flxed SurveilLance 82
Electronic Surveillance 83

ChapEer 9 NARCOTICS INTELLIGENCE.. . . 87

The Intelllgence Proc;:ss 87 I

Ucilization of Pat.rol Officers 89

Duties of Intet ligence Analyst 89 I
Intelllgenie Ftles 93
PreparLng Intelligence RePorts 97

Chapter 1O I]NDERCOVER OPERATIONS 99

Buy 0perati.ons 99
Use of Flashrolls LO2
The Cover Story 104
Penecration Techniques 105
Support Surveillance L07
Post-Buy Problems L08
Entrapmeat L10
Chapter 11 SEARC8 OPERATIONS 115
Personal Search 115
Search of Ihreltlng or Bullding 117
Autoooblle Search I20
Searcb of Snall Craft L23
Alrcraft Searches L25
Chapter 12 MIDS. 1"27
Rald Purpose L27
Team Personnel 128
Gatherlng Infornatj-on 130
Pre-Rald Briefing L34
Rald Equipnent 136
Rald Execution 138
Chapter 13 SPECIAL CASS TYPES L45
Clandestine Laboratorles L45
Diversion Cases L52
Chapter 14 CONSPIRACY INVESTIGA?IONS. . L57
Elements of Conspiracy 158
Evidence of Conspiracy 159
Investigative Procedure L62
Witnesses 163
Prosecution 154
 PART TI{REE: DRUGS AND DRUG TYPES

Chapter 15 OPIUI'I AND OPItIil DERIVATIVES..... L69

Heroin L70
Ocher Opium Derlvallves Lls
ilethadone l-76
Opiun and Opi"um Derivative I'ield Test l.7l
Chapter 1-6 COCAINE. L79
Adniaistralion aod Use L79
Illiclt Cocaine 180
.Cocaine ChenicaL Tesrs 181

Chapter 17 DEPRESSAIITS. 1.83

Barbtturates 183
Tranqulllzers 184.
Non-Barbituric Acld Drugs 185
Identificatlon 185

Chapter 18 STIMI'LANTS. r89

Levels of Anphetaolne Use Lgz
Chaptet 19 HALLUCINOGENS. 193
Chapter 20 MARII{UANA 201
Identiflcation of the Marlhuana pl_ant ZO4
ChenlcaL Tests for Marihuana ZO7
The I'farlhuana Controversy ZO7

PAR? FO[R: ADMINISTMIION OF NARCOTIC ITNITS

Chept€r ?1 I,NIT ADUINISTRATION. 213

OrganLzatlon 2L3
Enforcement Po1icy 2L8
Recordg }tranagement 220
Fiscal Management 225

Chapter 22 PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION. 23L

Supervlslon 232
Work Assigarnent and .Case Manageoent 233
Rotatlon of PersonneL 235
Tralnlng 236

Chapter 23 UNIT STAFFING. 24L

i.lrltten Tests 24L
Past Perforlrance 242
Intervi.elr of the Candidate 243
Background Research 244
SpecLallzed PersonneL 245
ChapEer 24 I,NIT EQUIPMENT.. ...... 247
Equipnent Issued to Agents 247
Speclal Unit Equipnenr 249
Raid and Survelllance Equipnent 25O
Vehicles and Vehicle Equlpoent 25I
r

Chapter 25 EXTERNAL RELATIONSHIPS.

Coordluation wlch Other Agencles 253
Untt Publicity 253
Trainlng of Non-Narcotics OffLeers 254
Partlcipaclon in MAN Unlr,s 255
Drug Abuse Educaclon Progr:ams 260

Chapter 26 IINITEVALUATI0N. ........... 263

Statiiitlcs 263
Eval-uatlve Areas 264
Evaluative Reports 268
Indicators of Drug Trends ln rhe Comunlt.y 269
 LIST OF FIGURES

Form for Wrltten StaceEents 23

Evidence Form.. 37

Prosecutioa Report. 42

Coruaon Tactics of Defense Counsel. 50

Conduet of Confidential Informant 60

Suggested Senslti-vity and Report Evaluation Codes 96

Person List of Hiding Places. 118

Search Areas for Dselllogs... L2L

Auto Search Areas and Method of Concealment., L24

Search of Aircrafl..... 126

Areas for Informatlon GatherLng. L32

Assessment of Raid Targets. 133

Tools and Equlpoent for Ralds. r.39

Cheoical Precursors and Reagents.... 147

Cormoon Products of the Hemp Plant 203

Ilarihuana Plant- 205

Recomsn4.d OrganizatLonal Positloning

NDD Unit (Srnal1 Departmencs).... 2r4
Recormrended Organlzatlonal Posicioning
NDD Unit (Medluur-Slzed Departrneats). 2I5
Recomreoded 0rganizational Positioning
NDD Unit (Larger Departurents).... 2L6

Inforoatl.on/Inte[igence Report Foro. 222

Infornatlon Digseoinatlon Log. .. 224

Confideotlal Fund Expenditure- Ledger. 226

Buy Card,:..... 227

Officer's Ledger. 229

Inforo,antrs Ledger. :.. ., . 229

Unit Egulpsrent...,............ :... 248

 FOREWORD

The thene that runs throughout thls oanual is the need for speciallzation aod
cooperati.on lo.drug enforceoeni. IJhlle there are many similarlties betveeu o"t"oil""
and general lnvestlgation, certaia investlgative areas are unlque in narcotlcs work.'
Those areas are illscussed Ln depth in thig manual. Cooperarlon Ls perhaps a Eore inpor-
tant factor 1B Esrcotlcs iuvestigatlon thrn lt Ls in any other speclaLlzed area Of po-
lice.work. Cooperatloo 1a'stresied frou three perspectives Ln thls tranual--cooperatfon
wlthlu a tarcotlca uEl,t, lntradepartnental cooperatlon, and cooperatlon anong faw enl
forceoeqt agencLee a!,all.three. governmental level,s. . :'
^,
It ls hoped that thle resource nanual nftt Ue useful to the narcotics oftlcer-aua
the narcotlco unlt supenrlsor and adulnlstrator in carrying out ehe narcotles enforce-
nent functlon.
,l
 CIL\P'IER ONH

i
lr- CASE INITIATION*
I

The lnltlation of a narcocics case consists of several ptr.-,;e.;.,rhl.'h rrrcl-gcii: t-he

receipt and verification of information and the planning that j.s nect:ssary to propetly
develop the case. Many of the LnvestigaEi.ve techniques that are normally used in
case
lnitiatLon are covered ln other parts of this rnanuai. For exanple, srrbjLct areas which
are Part of case lnitlatLon, such as debriefing informants, surveil.lancl, intelligence
gathering, narcotlcs buys, undercover technlqu-s, and conspiracy investilations are
thoroughly covered eLsevhere. To a najor degree, this chapter i" .r, oveiview of nany
of the other inveetigative techniques that aie to follow. The reader should bear this.
in oiad when reading thls chapter.

RECEIPT AND VERIFICAT,ION OF INFORMATION

The flrst phase in inittating a case is the recelpc of information by narcotlqsi

unlt personnel. rt is at this point that they learn that a particul". r"ii"ri;;i-;;
lndlvlduals are involved ln l1lictt drug actLvity or thar a cercaln illrclt Jrrg-""tr"-
ity le occtrrring. This type of informatlon may te received frorc various
may,r for I'nstance' be recelved frorn dLfferent components in the unit.ts p.a"rra
"""t."3.--it'
such as an lnteLligence uoit., or from another law enforceoent agency. "g".,"y,
The lnformation tn,y al'so be received from cooperatlng individuals. These cooper-
atlng lndlviduals are the keystone to narcotics law enforlenent. Uncler tii" L.bul
lncludeil all those persons who contribute inforroation as a result or p"r"oill-;;;;";;" "r"
by the lnvestigator. It lncludes criml-aals who assist the i.nvestigator (crld";i;;:
operatlng LndivLduaLs). Ir Lncludes the 'good cirizen', who responJs nelpfJlt ;;
tionlng and the vlctinr of crime who provi,Jes investigative leads. rt includes fel-lo';;;."_
offlcers wlthin the departnent and offlcers froo orhir poll.ce agencies. IJi;;-r;-i;;i-
vldual wLth a crl-minal record Ls being lnvestlgared, ir i.s good practice foi ah; i;:-
vestlgator to check wlth a forrner acesting ofFicer who may be to pr""ia" iu"J"
concernLng ltkely places to search or other personal advice not"L1.includeO f" pofi".--
reports
While utlllzlng to the fullest any. inforroatlon provtded by cooperaEing individ,ualg
the lnvestigator should remain alert to the motivation which prompts the assistance.
In most cases the non-criminal cooperating indlviduaL merely wanti to be helpful", The
investlgator' however, should remain sensitive to areas where error exagg"r"iror, ,"---
places fact, or where an eye\tltness reporc slips into embelllshrnent and fpeculacion.
fn other wotds, the information received oust be evaluated relative to Lts source and
the circumstances of its receipE. (see chapter 7--"rnformants")
*Material in thls chapter Ls based on: Drug Enforcement. Adrninlstratlon, Ca.se
Inlt-lat&lr-gnd pevelopnent-:rnstrucror Manuscripl. Dil, w."hi";;;;;-;:;:;-""d rnrei-
natlonal Association of Chlefs of Pollce, Training Keys llo. 57 and No. g4, Invesrlga-
tive Resources ana roltow-up rnvesiigatrou, rACp, Galihersburg, lld.
 After the tnitial receipt of infornation and a tenE.etive evaluation is made of Che
infornation and iLs sor-,.rce, the narc<rti.cs ittvcslig3Eor iiust lrake an effort, independent
of the intLial source, to verify or corroborate the inrorrnation- He does this through
one or a conbinatlca of three prinary methods, The'i-rd first nethod is s'-rr','ei11-aoce. By
c1ose1.y rnonitorinq ttre actirritir:s of ihe sr,!.:p4.rted i
"'j.Cuel
, f hc of f iccrs aEi-ei,;?t to
verif*r:the iofor,r;tion. The second is lhe development oi an informant who vri11 be able
to corroboraEe the infornat.i.on on the suspected activity. The thlrd rnethod is t-he use
of a number of sources of information within and outside the investigatorrs.rgency. .r\
List and descrlption of these sources are provi-ded aE the end of this chapter' Once
the initlal informatlon is verified, the investigators must plan how they wiJ-l pursue
thelr lnvestlgations.

CASE PLANNINC

Narcoglcs cases must be planned thoroughly. The investigator should keep in mind
that narcotj.cs investigati.ons ln the United States have been sufficiently conplex to
have encouraged both a tradition of separation from other types of crimlnal investi8a-
tl,ons and the {evelopment of entire organizations to specialize in pro'riiling inforna-
tLon about narcotics and narcotics violations. Thls ls certainly no area for trial ancl
error tactlcs. The success or fail.ure of a narcotics lnvest,lgation ofren hinges upon
smal1 procedural details that should be considered during the inltial plannlng of che
case.

The targeC of the lnvestlgarlon w111 determlne the approprlate level of investLga-
ti.re respffi- For lnstance, the gragnlrude of narcotics vlolations being connnltted by
the susplct under Lnvestigation is an important planning element. Is the individual an
addlct? Is he a street, dealer? Is he a dlsEribulor? Can he be used to reach others
ln an organLzatLon? The type of lnvestlgatLon and buy thaE will be utillzed agalnst
the suspect lrtlL ln large part be deternined by the answers to the preceding. questions.
Arreet will sirnllarly be affected by the status of the target of the I'nvesti-
ttre aifference between an imrediate t'buy/busttt and a deferred arrest, for ln-
gatlon. "tr"tegy
it"r,.", nay depend efltirely on the reLative value of the suspect as a Potential infor:
mant.r As a further exanple, the investlgator:s may use an officer buy, an informant
buy, or possesslon .g"insE the (see Chapter l-0--"Undercover Operations").
"."" ",r"pi"t
Or- itrey nay decide to develop a conspiracy ease, which will result in a much dlfEerent
investlgaEive strategy (see Chapter 14--"Consplracy InvesEigations").
Departoental,resources are unavoidable factors in the planning of a narcotics
case.@ichtoo1sthatareavai1ab1eorwhichcanbeacqu1redfor
this purpose. Among the critlcal factors to be evaluated are the follcwing:
a) Available manpower. The type and duration of any surveillance'
type of t'buy" undertaken, and other critical decisions caonot igr:::.
a realistlc appralsal of rnanpower needs.
b) Money. Since the most cotl[tron form of narcocics arrests involve either
purchasing narcotics or uslng a ttflashrolltt to encourage dealers, a
realistic appraisal" of available frrnds musi be part of ttre planning
process.

c) Timn. Strategies uill vary in response to the learned lntentlons of

the suspecE and time coosiderations as they relare co the agency.
For lnstance, 1n certaln sltuatlons it may be advisable to postpone
a.pLanned action rather than rlsk failure because cf new or unexpecEed
deielopnents. At other times, t,he conse'quences of inactlon may outweigh
', other uncertalnties. Obvlously the rnobility of the suspect is a
crltlcal factor affecttng the anounL of ti.mc thac can lre trsed for an
lnvesttgaclon.
he d) Equipment' Parricularly with reference to.aoy pranned
Fr the invesclgaior uusE know rhe type of .q,ripr"nt thac issurveillance
avair"abr-e
b ';ithln rhe departnent and how much of iE he can reasonably expect to
trtilize' Equi-pnenL for this purpose would include ltens
bi'noctrl'rr:'c' ci:neras, bocry L:.nsn'iLer,s, nighL scopes, such as
D and special
vearlona. Field ri.j:;L c:,.iuipnent Lh.rt is srriLabr-e ro, it," ,rp""i
le ii"-
E
drugs expecLed to be found also must be inventoried.
l
can be a valuable parc of Lhe narcotlcs investigation.
.t-..,,Legal:rss*stange
the conplexl'ty of narcoEics law and-the numerous Because
poi.ra" where a teJhnicalicy nay
nr:J'1i'fy weeks of careful work, lt is advisable
legal counsel when it is avaiiable. Rapport with for tire investigator to avail hlurself of
dispensabre here' Ltren ln'restigacive guldelines the offlce of the prosecutor is ln-
oifice, they should be stu':i-ed carefuLiy. rf there are available from the prosecutorrs
i.n"'estigator about the legality of a partlcul-ar t" a.ry questio' in the r:rinc of the
shor'r1d consult the prosecuf,orts office and
tactlc that is belng constcie.red, he
obtaln 1egal advice before proceedlng.

SOURCES OF TNFORMATION

An examlnacion of departmental records and reports

effort. rt often occurs thaE, withln rhe pori". ls basrc to any investigatlve
ous investigative reads rnay be found. a.i;icrentrs orrn record sygteo, nuler-
Ih; torrorr"g-records and reports should be rou-
tinely checked during rhe progress of the i""""tit;ii"".
c of{ensg reporrs--Filed in general records, this is the initial
report
fl1:d by a responding officer; conratns reporrs of ninor ir"il";;;-i;
addltlon to actual offenses.
c fo[o _Conrainsall infornacion recorded
*1-v.,gsrigatiye=
ourlng any torrow-up J-nvestlgaEion based on offense or incr.dena ,"poat.
May contaln a case suftrnary lf the investlgatton
case
ae.,,refoped inEo a court
,
o Arrest r.ecords--courpleted at time of arrest, these may contain
concernlng residence, empl0yorent, or some other matter than detal.ls
an investigatlon, can assr.st

o {igld inlerroFaElon-repgrts--These relatively informar records

Lnformation about rni'noior rncidental activiiy of patrol contaln
otti".."l--i;n*
taLns name of person stopped and time and place of^conversation.
o Modys operlndi fi.1,es-{ontains detailed description of characteristic
patterns of criminar activity associated wlth lndividuals
r r9enti{ic-ation ph.ojographs--Provides details of personal appearance
of photograptric record; variation frorn preslnt. May be flled with at
:1m:
linited cri-minal hlstory and details of past residence or emproyment.
e lar,,CLlp_{_1$_l:1e_g.--Provides flnal ldentlf icarion check.
Reigor4 may lnclude
crirninal history and personal details.
warte-dgulletils-{ontains details of personal appearance, type of k"nown
crininal acEivity, personal hablcs.
sc!-re-c!sl-ra.gon--re-co4s--Dependi.ng on Ehe sr.ze of the departurenE, this
may or may noc be nalnt.alned under L0ca1 police control.
of registered or,ner, residence, type of pernit. contains name
 Warrani f:le--Narnes of persons for whom warrants have been lssued, date,
6Tt" ens", ?quen t :icl ton,
-t.bs
Juvenile records--*talntalned sepnrate frorn general alresE, records; ltsts
tnEI6nT!*Gi6Ftng Ju.renlle ofiencler; faoll-y lnformatLon, personal detalls.
Tia:J:'... r,:cords--Si-:oilrrl.y rralnialned separaEe frorn general records; 1n-
ll[e cited, nane of lndLvidual, tiue and place of
"r.,,iEl "f "loLation
viclatioar'rehicLe involved.
Trafflc accldent reports--This report contains any lnfornatLon reported
@afficaccidencsorrecordedduringany1nvesti-
gatlon of a traffic accident; includes names of wltnesses, site investi-
gatlon and reports of intervlews.
D:!:gateherrs records--Since this record is availabld chronologically, it
can be he.Lpful ln establishing a comprehensive vLew of police reaction
to a parrtcuLar incldent; lncludes respondlng officers and peripheral
ac tivity.
In addition to records malntained withln hls own departuent, the investlgator
should examlne records and docunents uaintained by other agencles ln his area. As ln
many other aspects of an investlgatlon, the nature of the offense and the character-
istlcs of the suspect who is the target of the l-nvestl.gation wlll determlne the.extent
of any outsiCe docunent se:rch, The amount of tine and effort expendecl wl1l be roughly
proporElonal to the iEportance of the expected outcome
An investigator who has occaslon to use the resources of another agency shouLd es-
tabllsh frlendly working relationshtps wLth lndlvlduals at that agency. Conslderable
tine can be saved when, for example, a known contact provldes information over the teLe
phone lnstead of requlrlng a personal vlsit. State statufes specify what lnforruatlon
cdnnot. be glven out, and lt ls up to the investigaEor to flnd out trhat he can legally
obrain. Non-police agencies vhich mainta{n records Ehat are helpfuL to the lnvestlga-
tor incLude the follolrlng.
o SEate motor vehicle adolnlsEratlon--Infornatlon about operatorts
llcenses, cerclflcaEes of t1tle, notor or serial numbers, llcense plates.
o Court records--Crlnlnal, juvenlle, clvll and probate proceedlngs.
o Probation and paroLe offlcers--Parole status of indlvldual, record of
s of parole officer. Access to parole
officer's records is regulated by 1oca1 ordlnances which shoul-d be checked
by inva;tigaLor.
o Publ-ic tri:1fare and soc1a1 selylg igggg&:r-Details concernlng eurploy-
nnent, ;;sidenceGi"t@ss to reports varlei. investi-
gaEors shor.rl-d check 1oca1 regulations.
o Coronerrs office--l.el-atives of the deceased, next of kin, witnesses vho
festified ;lt coronerts inquest,
o Licensinq bureaus--Names and dates of applicants for licenses, disposition
of request, refelences cited by applicanc.
o Bureau of vltal statistics--Birth records, marriages, deaEhs recordcd.
o Board of education--Personnel records, student records.

t0
 o Board of ele<".tions--LisEs of registered voterg, resLdence duration.
o A-Ltorney general's office--Confllcr with any investigation in progress,
outcome of s'Lmj.1ar i.nvest ig:rtions, legal assistance.

i{uch useiul .inforrnati.on catr ;:,.lso i-,e r-.btai.ned f rom pr:lvate o,.:gil,rizaticns and busi-
nesses' I{hen obtalning infornration from lhese sources, the manoer in which an offlcer
req'-tests assisLance is very lmportant. Cooper,:tion on the part cf the private organiza-
tion is entirely voluntary, but most organizations are wi1-ling to assist poLice oitf-
cers when they are approached tactfully. The investigacor rnust carefully explain ex-
actLy what he le saeking and why he rreedg that informalion. He must provi{e assurance
that his source of information will remaln confidential. If rha information i"s needed
later for a court case, 1t can be obtained by a subpoena whlch directs the company to
brlng speclfic records to co'rrt but which permits a representatlve of the firro to cesti-
fy onLy as custodlan of the records without conunenting on content
The following organizations and buslnesses may provide useful infonnation durlng
the progress of an invesLigatlon.
Telephone companl.es Telegraph conpanies
Utllities Insurance companies
Credit agencies Banks
ty
Labor unions Professlonal associations
i

i- Transpor Eation conpanies Laundrles

F Churches Prlvate investlgatlve agenct-es

The List of potentlal sources of inforrnatlon, of course, can be extended as far as the
inrrestigetorrs inaglnacLon and cormron sense permlt.

FEDEML ASSISTAIiCE

Not to be Lgnored during the planclng of any narcotics lnvestigatlon le the t.ype
of, asslstanee that can be obtalned from various federaL agencles. i., oany tit.
assistance avallabLe i,s rnerely a fragrnent of lnformatlon, and it should also"as"",
be recog-
nized Lhat certain.non-enforcenent. agencles are restrleted by law as to the type of ln-
format1on they can reLease. Nonetheless, the various federal agencles do possess con-
sj-ci.erable resources--most noEably in terms of expert personnel, specialLzeil equlprnent
aod a wealth of daia--thaE can provide lnvaLuabl"e asslstance to the narcotlcs investl-
8ator. A lirnlted descriptlon of activitles perforrned by varlous federal agencies fol-
1ows.

, !fr,g E"forceF."t Ad -The most direct

source of assistance for narcotLcs investlgations; matntalns records of
narcotlcs law vlolat.ors and other investigative f1les; maLntalns the
IPIC/NADDIS computerlzed lntelllgence systens; performs laboratory
anal-ysls of drugs; provides legaL asslstance and expert testlmony.
o - -ComPrehenslve
idenriflcation files; crirne laboratory analyses; expert testLmony; ln-
vestlgative files; NCIC; training programs; lnvestigative advice and
guidance
 J-@ io. lgl1.ige r-D.-"i"r Eurent of Justici--Records of
;ii"" r'"glrcraifon,lnunfgtation, n:rlura1-ization; llsLs; passengers and
crew members of forelgn vessels.
A1-coho1, Tobacgo, and Flrearurs bivision, Departgrgnt of-!reas1,:-11--Infor-
i"-lion g"n Eates and amnunition sa1es; distillers, breurers and flrns
engaged""in handling and sale of alcoholic baverages listed

r Compliance and Investigations Branch- qefg:lrngg! of Agriculture--Results

of fn^spections made under Pure Food and Drug AcEs; pernits and appllcations
for pernits from neat paikers, food canners, and other food handlers-
rBureauofCusto@_-Informatlonconcern1ngirnporters
istrY and licensS-ng of vessels;
lnfor,n:Llon related to srnuggling.
r Vlsa Division. Departpe+t of State--Responsible for allen visa control;
ionciot-s imr-gratlon quotas and departure of aLiens fron the U.S.
i.
Passport Division. Departrnent of State--Determines -eltgibiltty of {"
,*";
;nFftcantff; passporfs;'determlnes ellgibllity of persons registered #,
ln Americaa consuLates as citlzens of the U'S.
U.S. Bostal Service*-Can provide names of persons recelving nrall at an
iaEeis; some-inforrnation concernlng postal money orders, forwarding
addresses, mail traces; mail covers. tr
InterstaEe Corunerce Corrnisslon--Maint.ains route and rate data percaining l#i*
mmon carrlera engaged 1-r-r conmerclal trans- ,*'
port. $'
:\
U,5. Coast Guard, Department of Tgansportaglgn--Records pertaining to i
.:
lll .

novenents of ships ln U.S. hraters; background material on all U.S. llerchant .t.
Seamen; perforrns coastal patrol.

U.S. l{aritiue Corroission--Lists crew merubers of all U.S. vessels; l"ists

comron carrlerS by water engaged in fotelgn conmerce, and persons engaged
in freight forwardlng, docking, warehouse facillEies and oEher freighr
terminal facil1t1es. tl
l

Soeial Security Admlnistration--I.Ihile many are considered confidential

in nature, identiflcatlon numbers can be traced to Place of issuance.

I2
 cH,,,1,1'TER 'fh'C

INTERVIEI,/S AND IN?ERROCAT-TO}iS'T

Dur:-ing the progress of an investigation, investigator will- conduct nunerous

j.nterv-tews. He utLl prnbably aLso conduct oneLire
or-nore inferrogations. The disCinctlon
between interview and interrogation is often blrrrrecl, but it can be expressed here in
terns of the purpose of the contact. An intervierv is a relativeiy fornal conversation
con'lucted for the purpose of obtainlng information. Notes are taken. l"Iaj.or points are
reviei;ed' The intervlew, however, nay involve virtually anyone: wit.nesses, informantg
cooperating cltizens, and the suspect himself. An interrogation, on the other hand, is
a systemaric quescionlng of an lndividual. It is usually conducted for the purpose of
deterroining that personrs or sone other personts exEent of involvement ln a crime. Le-
gal guideli.nes affecting trhe tvo activities differ, becoming rnore restrictLve as prob-
:tbiliry increases thaE the individual being questioned nay incriurinate hiurseLf.

IiTERVIEWING C ITIZENS AND WITNESSES

Cooperatl'ng citlzens and wltnesses are often lntervLewed at locations outolde the
pol"ice department- More ofren than not, the investigaror will ha.re a nore fruitful
interview when it is conducted at a l-ocarion where the citizen feels psychologically
comfortable, such as in his ovn home or place of business.
'the investigator should take tiure to prepare himself for the interview.
OccasLon-
all'y, this preparation tnust be done quickly and may constst of no.more than a urental
i-tvj'en of certain details of the investigation. In all cases, however, some klnd of
prepar:atlon should precede actual contact with the person w.ho.is to be intervieved.
I'i-ltenaver possible, fhe investigaLor should f amillarize himself uith a.railable lnforma-
iicn about the person to be intervie',,red, When no personal infornation is availabl-e,
thrs l<ind of infor:rcation should be soughL e;rrly i.n the inLerview because it, nay sdggesc
coaversaiional- approaches or lines of questioning.
Most citizens find the police lnterview to be a strained situatlon. Uncertainty
aborrt the exPectations of the investigator and the novelty of the situation rnay tend
to nake a person apprehenslve and guarded. A degree of fear may develop, which rnay
ca-use the Person co withhold information. The resourcefulness and personality of lhe
officer wi1l" be severely tesced drrring che preLiminary phase of the interview. He must
prrt ttle sub.ject ar- ease and try to establish rapport, vhile simultaneously seeking to
utlcover any rcasolrs for an intervieweers possible reluctance ro cooperate in certain
:i:eas. The investigator must aLso quickly con.rince a witness that there is a real need
foi- his tesEimolty.
*l'laEerial in this chapter ls based on: Drug Enforcement Adncinistration, Drug Law
Enforcemenc Officerrs Manual, DEA, Washington, D.C.; and International Assoclatlon of
Cirie€s of Police, Training Keys No. 51, Inierviewing Techniques; No. 64, Democratic
1,tf:t_.1ines Lnteifggation; No. 77 , The Uiranda Decision; No. 237, Victims and Wit-
"f Gaithersburg,
IACP, Md.
-r€ss9s1

13
 Initial Contact. The sLlccess of an interliew may be largely deterni.ned by attl-
':u,tes--i6,.:naT-durlnj-;tre inicial Lorrtact betveen investigator and inEerviewee. A
strained or awkward inicial encounter may undernlne confidence Eo the Point that eo-
operation is withhald. The:i.nterviewee may sense that the inl,'esti€9alor does not like
i:.)n'.et,hin-'.::'Lr',:rt hi,l, par:tlcrrlar:iy if the oific,:r's rerrarks ar:e sarcastic. or r-uJe. i-le
rnayr.{jacri- tlefensively 1i he senses an a.ntagonistic atLitude on the pi.rri of tire officer'
'Ihe investigator rnusE make every effort to be friendly in order to elicit a free ex-
change of j-nrorriraEion.

An lmportant first impression is created by the way in which the officer greets
the person to be lnterviewed. The investigator should identify hinself at the outset
of the conversation. Whether or not he displays credentlals at this tirne depends on
the circumsEances. The investigator may choose to begin the conversation with sone
iopic that is not, directly related to the main purpose of ',he l-nterview. These casual
introduciory i-elrarks provide time for ttre intervi-ewee to relax in the presence of the
inveisllgating of f lcer.
Lis.tening. Once the investigator has the subject ln a couuruoicative mood, the of-
flcer should rurn his attention to the lnformation he is seeking and steer the lnter-
view to the desired topic. He should allow the subject to gi-ve a comPlete account of
lrhatever information is belng sought wlth min{roum interruptions. Meanwhile, the offl-
cer should be alere for lnconsistencies and omissions. At times he may have to ask'
questions sirnply to keep the subJect talking or to stay. on the Coplc.
While lnduclng the subject to freely relaEe informatlon he may possess, the ln-
vestigator should be evaluating the person and the conversatlon. An lnterviewer w111
ofterr find that on many occaslons le is not what a petson says that ls irnportanE, bu!
the manner in whlch he says it, or what he does not say that ls-truLy lmportant. The
investigator must recognLze and lnterpret sylnptoms lndlcatlng sensitivity to informa-
tion.
Sllence. Sudden silence on the part of the subject may indicate dellberation as
ro whEE[6i-h-e should share informatLqn with the intervLewer. UncerEalnty or sudden
confuslon nay lndlcate that a sensitive area has been reached. Should a conversation
reach this stage, it is advlsable for the officer to review the sequence of toplcs Pre-
cedlng thls apparenE. loss of memory. An attenp! to withhold infornatlon because of
guilt feellngs nay also be found ln sudden emotional outbursts of indignatlon or anger.
A witness may unexpectedly shift fton the topic of conversation to a totally unrelated
subject area. This usuaLly indicates information is belng withheld. Probing that is
conducted i.n a tacE.ful, understandi.ng and sincere manner wil-1 usually reveal the reason
that a riitness vrants to evade a particular topic.
The sllence which occurs when a conversatlon lags can be used to keep a subject
talking or it nay lead an unskilled lntervielrer to lose control- of the situation if he
becomes unnerved and puts wo.rds ia the suspectts mouth. The offlcerts impatience may
make him l-ose his temper or dominate the conversation. Long periods of silence may
even be embarrassing because the officer may feel that lt ls his responslbLlity to keep
the conversation going and that he musE do sonething, Consequently, when a pause oc-
curs, the officer irmediately tries to fiLl the gap. Some subjects are quick to recog-
nize that, by remalnlng quiet, the offlcer wil-1 do more and more of the talking. These
long pauses are just as embarrassing to the subject. If the officer is patient, the
subject will resuoe talking and will frequenEly volunteer additional lnforrnati"on just
'ro break the silence.

Questlons. UnskLlled use of questions can lnterrupt the conversatlon aod have the
undesirable effect of liniting the scope of the interview, The offlcer should reaLize
that. by asklng a series of direct questions in the early stages of an inEervl.ew, the
officer may condition the witness to believe that he will be asked a question if iafor.
matlon Ls wanted, end if he is not asked, no infomation is expected. Asking

I4
t-
reiatively fev questions l-eading into a conversation will give the subjeci
ihac d-t:rytiriag he re1ls has significance. His story is Ehen perrniLted to the feeling
ireellr. cosre out
qe,

b
rgr. l'losi <.rri,';,;tirns (:annot be an.;wercC, wi.i:h e simple )..es or no. i-ixplanaricns are nec_
ess'rry f o L:a;n 'ril i.tre f;r:Es. 'fire ,vr:s-no questi.cJn nay -ceip ,;itness sioce
it cetcrnines vhat lre wjrl enJ wilt not answer ana lir.rits him.,tor,-,i.uttar,c
the yes-no response.
Houevar, sotrle Persons llave a tcndency to agree vith the quescloner
or because they nay not understand tire qrr.ition or they are afrald Just to be agreeable
nent does not mean Ehe subject is relling Ehe truth. to disagree. Agree-

The leadiag' or suggestive question has the sarce effect as the yes-no quesiion
ceuse it may rnake the cubjecc say something tl'rat he real-ly does not be-
l1 lnean. no..*rrpi.,
the q'.i:'rtlon.;, r'',;hat did he do then? Put the narcotics l-n his pocket?,,
I
may result in
i. aa afiirnati've answer because the interviewee does nor wish r.;p;;;;
observant' The question should have been an open-ended roigerrur or un-
pact do with the narcoiics?" The bubjecc nighi have one, such as ,,what did the sus-
rt- it,".-t. ;;;-";;-";;; ;;
thereby avoided givl1g the investigator false inforrnation."rr"ru..dother exampLes' of
ended questions are "Whae happened then?" or, trTell roe what he vr open-
vFs'r
I did.rr
i-
The use ot- rapid-fire questions should be avoided. some investlgators
this techolque yiercis results. ro realrty, r.t only serves feel that
to confuse rhe;d;;;.-;;;
create emotional tension. Asking a question before the precediag one can be answered
ma-v also allow a reluctant subject to avold giving
infornation by
-/ not allowing hi;-;;
-:vr e*a!
finish his statement.
The non-directive approach i-s a good cechnique use<l by rnany interviewihg
rn this technlque, the subjectts stntements are turned lnto quesclons officers.
which call for
nore information by sirnply repeating the subjectrs last phrase. For instance,
interviewee says, "Then we left the apartmeni.rr The officer repeats, ,,you the
apartment?t' rn using this technique, the officer must not register surpriser left the
but nere-
1y repeals the statement. The ef fect is that of drawing out furthe. intorratf;;;;;:
i
out giving direction.
t-
I of course, direct questions do have a place in the Lntervlew. Ideally, they
shotrld not be asked until *-he subject has flnLshed his narration. The LnvesElgator
then use direct questions to clarify or exarnine some of the earlie. can
---
I
I
"a.t.i.";;:----
I

tr Notee' Once the interviewee has begun to talk freely, the investigator should
avoid interruptions. An attenpt to take conplete and precise notes while a citizen
narracing his story will invariably interrupt the flow of informarion. is
becone distracted and may forgeL inportanL details. FurEhetmore, some people
Th; ;i;;;;; ;y
cornforcable irr the pl-esence of someone who is obviously recording
are un-
say' Naturally, che lnterviewing offlcer must take sone notes, but"lr.tyihir,g that they
he must do so in-
ccnspicuously and selectively during the initial narration. He can d,rwn n"r""l--.a-
dresses, certain phrases that wllL serve to outline the narrative for3ot review. Most of
n11, however' he should listen carefully. when the person being intervieweJ'n"r-ii"--
i';he:'l his narrative, the investigator should revierv what has been said sith
the citi-
2eI1' rn a step-by-step nanner he can then proceed to ask direct questions ,"J-a"t"-
caref'ri notes.
The ideal inEerview process, therefore, begins with a favorable inpression
the irrvestigator. A free flowing narration from the citizen or wiEness nade by
is pronpted by
a mininup number of questions.from the interviewer. Questions, when asked, are care-
fully non-directive. The statement is then reviewed carefully by the interviewer, at
which time specific quesrions are asked and detaiLed notes are produced.

I'io lnterview should be abruptly ended with a curt dismissal such as: t,Okay. you
leave"' As the intentlew enrJs, the conversation should be closed in a courteous

15
ancl frienclly malner. A surmary of what has been covered'known fot instance, can be given.
thanking hirn for his
lir".".it"io'r oi what thr3 srrbject h'es clon-: should be made and byaffer the interviel^t cre-
tine :.rr,l coilperation. Such expresslons of courresy during
ar--c zl fa.rorable inpression and encotrrage further coOperation'

with in-
Certain special consiclerations.govern -irrlerview procedures when dealing
citizens aod rtit-
foamants. The interviewer, as he does when dealing with cooperating
a way as to re-
nesses, nust control Che siCuation and conduct the interview in suchinterviewing con-
ceive rnaximum useful infornation. The general rules for successful
an infornant
1inue to apply. In addition, however, ih. ito."tigator who interviews
must also be gui,led by rules to proEect his own safety and to
protect information which
the i.r-rvestigaior iloes rtot want to reveal to tlre informant'
are
The placeof the lnt.ervlew should be selected by the lnvestigator' Meetlngs or
usually arranged away from the police clepartrnent but not ln the informantrs home
place of buslness. Instead, a neutral site such as a motel room is selected' After an
inform'ation from hlur duri'ng
informanE becomes actlve, the Lnvestigator may receive
conduct a formal
brief encounrers or over tire telephone. It is advisable, however, tosuch. as photo-
intervlelr with any new lnforrnant. Cer[ain admiaistrative activj'tles
graphing, flngerprint.lng, and filling out required fornrs must be accomplished at this
t ine. *
lnclude
Factors deterrnining the neecing plaee used for lnterviewing an lnformant
that lhe inter-
the fo1low1ng: 1) safety of the investigating officer; 2) privacy' so
the interview to be conducted without
vi:r,rr calilot be obser.rea ty others; 3) tinre foi activi-
inCerruptions; ;rnd 4) space to take notes and conduct required administrative
L it's .

The gener;rI progress of Lhe lnterview should foli-ow the model already
discussed'
narraEive, then re'riews details' asks in-'
The investigator stliulates a free-flowing
crea;ingly speclfic questions, and takes iotes. Addltional factors to consider whi1e
interviewing an infornant lnclude the foll-owing iteros'
he rnay
r synparhize rvith the informant about any personal difficulEies as
be experieocing' partlcularly if Ehey affect his performance an
informant '.

I Encourage whatever motlves that nay be causing the inforrnant to provide

informatioo.
o Ask for infornation that is already known by the investigator in order
to check the inforrnant's reliability'
o Do not reveal- that information received ls known to be worthless or
conrradicts certain kno,m facts. It is very irirportant that the in-
v|?st'igatorprotecthisown'secretsduringtheinterview,keepingin
mindthepossibilitythattheinformantmayacEuallyheatteoptingto
obtain iniorrnation about police knowledge of certain activities'
Inadditi'on,.,lhenquestioninginfonnants,theinvestigatormugtbecarefulnottoan
re,real his o,,.rn knowledge through ihe phrasing of his _questions. ror instancerthaL
inquiry about a specific inCividual oi u p.tilcular distribuEion site reveals

*procedures for dealing wlth informants are discussed in decail in Chapter 7'

16
Ls
police already kncw abouE thaL indivlcual- ancl site. The investigator musc develop an
ability to move from general, purposely vague quesEions to the pirticular infornration
fe- Ehat has value' He may react wit.h lnteres! to o1d infor:nation, if he can thereby gulde
the co:rversation into areas where useful uew information rnight be obtained. sl.milirly,
he raay renain passive before irnportant disclosures in order to protect knowledge about
the exte:rt of inf orn.cion already knc,,r' to investlgat.ors.
The end of an interview with an informant should contain expressions
tioa for his asslstance. The investlgator should make clear tn"l hu valuesof the
apprecia-
help
that has been provided. While recognlzing that the informant may be primarily rnotl-
vated by revenge or jealousy or the need for Eloney, the investig.tor aiso recog-
I'
:
nize that the leifornant is not immune to the effect of common courtesy.
"ho,r1d
Fb
I

IIiTERVIEI"JING SUSPECTS
I

I
Durlng any crininal investi-gation lE j.s normal- for lnformation to be obtained
i
through the rneans of dlrect interview with a suspect. rt is not ar .rnu"iri;-;".
rn instance' that an individual who has been inEerviewed as a source of"rf rnformaai"i
the progress of an investigatLon becomes a primary suspect at a later date. Inforna- i"rr"g
El-on obtained durlng the pielirninary inte.rri.r ..r, p.op"rly be used by
if and when a case develops against the suspect. rn oraer to maintain a the investlgator
dlstinctlon
bet'"een an Lntervles and an lnterrogatlon, lt is assumed that the interview takes place
elcher before the investlgatlon has focused on a parti-cuJ.ar lnclivldual or in a place
where the suspecc can clearly terminate the lntervielr at any tiole,

Preparation for an Lnterview with a suspect should lnclude a review of

important details of a case. The basic questions of who, what, when, where,all the
how and
why should be nentally reviewed by the i.nterviewer. Any inforrnation that i"
about the person to be interviewed should be studied carefully. """ri"if.
It is not necessary Ehat a formal Mtranda warning be ready by the lnvestigator
before conducting an lnterview with. potenEll-t The u.s. suprerne couit tras
"n"p"it.
recently'underseored the importance of polLce ttcustodyt'when ruling o., tt" need for
formal Miranda warnings
The Courr held in Beckwith v. uLl!gg_-q!g!es,44u.s.L.w. 44gg (u.s. April 21,
L976), that even though-TF a$nts ttaa-Toi,,sEa-Trreir investigarlon on Beclcrlth when
they interviewed him ar hls home, they dld not need to give ilim any Mi-randa warnlngs
because he was not in I'cuscody." Thelr simple advice to Beckwith that he didnrt
have
to ansL'er any questions, and that his answers mtght be used against him, was sufflcLent
to indicate to a reasonable person that this was noE ttcustodlilt' interrogatlon.
The decislon is significant to law enforcement offlcers since i-E further defines
when officels must give warnlngs to individuals whom they have not
formally plaeed un-
der arrest. The Court pointed out that warnings need be given, according to lfiranda,
only when the defendant is elcher in physical custody, or-he has been ttdfprlved of hls
freedon in any slgnlflcant way.r' The Court stressed thaL it was the custodlal nature
of police interrogation which triggered the necessity for the Mirilnda warnlngs.
The mere fact that an investlgatj.on has t'focusedtt a defendant is not sufflcienE
to require a Miranda varning before officers may talk toonhin. specifically
defined 'focu{T-E6f its puiposes, as 'quu"ti.o.ri.,g-i;iii".ud by"xi:ange
raw enforcement offi-
cers ?ftg{ a person has been taken into custody oi otherwise deprived of his action in
any significant vay.r (384 U.S., at 444). (Emphasis supplied.i" Thus,
vestigating a narcotics vlolation, for exanple, who have ieen advised by offlcers
an i"i"t
in-
that a cerEain indivldual comnitted the crirne, may go to that indlvldualts home or "a

T7
 to h1n about the crlme wlthout Miranda varnings, so long as they tel1
offlce and
they wt11 l-t-'ave whenever he so
ltr: d.r,.:s
1r.i;,r h;rv1l t.o altsl{i}t i.!reir qtrest ions IrF-Jilt
rcquesls.
clearly not in Police
revJr-'r"'. An in"'ervlew conduc.Led with a suspect whtrn he is requirc
1[o
qsg!o.4y a:rcj j:; f ree Eo end the c.onversation at any t-ime not a fOrmal
'l<';'es
ltiranda .,rarring. The susPect shouldbead.risedrho".'t'"rrthathedoesnothaveto
ffi-q.r"sticlns and that-his answers night be used agalnst hlm'

INTERROGAT I ON TEgi{N IQUES

Historlcally, forroal interrogatlons have not been used as extensively in narcotlcs

invesiigations as they have ln other poliee assl-gnrnents' This is prinarlly because of
tl-re nore prominent use of underco.rer offi"u." .t,,d l"fot*anrs
in the narcotlcs fieLd'
Once an undercover "buy" has been completed an<l substantiated by surveilling officerst
by drug evldence, or by marked Doney, there ls little leason to further substanElate
the case with a eonfession. On the other hand' the narcotlcs case does noL
"rr"p..its of a singLe vlolator. There is a need for the
necessarlly end wlth the apprehension
obtalned his contraband'
lnvestigator to determine iio. ther" or from thot " susPectwith police ln a case dl-
It ruay aLso be po="iii" to persuade a susPect Eo cooPerate
rected agalnsE persons oPeratlng aE a higier leve1 ol narcotics
tfade' The fornat ln-
can a very important tool ln a nar-
terrogation of a suspect, in such cases, become
coEics investigation.
An interrogatlon ls a systematic questioning of ln individual warning should be
to determine the
extent of hls involvemenE ln crfunlnai activity' The ful1 p?Ep'arafron by-the lnvesclgo-
Miranda
read to rhe suspeci ul tn" outser of the lnreirogatlon.
tor lncludes al-l sEeps taken precedlng lnterviews-w1"th witnesses and lnforrnants' In
what infornation would
addltion, the investlgator should glvf so*e thought to Precisely of key questlons and refer to
be moeE benefielal for hls case. He may draw up a serles
them unobcrusively durlng the course of the interrogatton'
, InE,errogatlons should be held in a room that ls idea11y deslgnated for
LnterroBa'
the bustling actlvlty
from
rlon purposes only. The room shouLd be physlcally lsolatedthe loom shoutd be sound-
that often characterizes the police aeparcroent. itdeally,
proofed. while 1r should be well lii,'the room should not have glaring llghts' The
and equlpped with some means of
room should be secure, protected agalnst lnterruptlons, lntercom' FurnlshLngs
cormuntreation to outslde areas such as a buzzer systern or office
a desk' and containing
should be min1rna1, consisting of chairs' Preferably wlttrout
pencil and paper, buc devoid of dlstracting decorations'
The inrerrogatLon is normally undertaken by two offl-cers. The second
officer'
serves as a witness to staEements made by the
while assisting in the interrogation, to establish thelr
suspect. The two officers should consult before the lnterrogation
,,rotes', during the questioning. It is often useful fot one officer to Pur-
respective a contrasting style'
sue one type of approach to the suspec! ittif. the other develops
The reaction of the suspect may then suggest an emphasis on one
type of approach over
the other. The selection of an lnitial lpproach depends largely on the circumstances
investigatorrs impression of a suspectfs personafiry. A variety of
of a case ancl the
interrogation sEyles and iechnlgues are described brlefly below'

1) Logical. In a narcotics ,,buy'' case where the evidence against a suspect 1s

overwhelming, or where the suspect "pp."a" to be.uneurotional abou! his predicament' the
logical reasonLng' The
investi-gator may choose to apPeal fo'ltt.-"""pectrs respect for why the suspect should
purpose of thls approach is to present enttrely logtcai reasons
Eo the susPecErg
provlde additlonai information Eo the investigator' An appeal is made with the police is
self interesr while the lnvestLgaL.or demorr"tr.t"" that cooperation should use a
the only Loglcal aLternative left for the susPect. The ir'rvestigator

l8
L businessLike tone .f voice, and he shorrld carry
io hioself in a manner chat suggests crtsp
and confi"rleot effir:iency. 'Tlr3 su3pect'r' pr"""r-,t-""..Jlaro"
Li.na1 manner' and f'ture de'relopnencs are.presented ls d.escribed jn an qnemo-
ties Lhat follov inevitably trom'whatever as automatic, lmpersonal certain-
lce prornises Lrf -leriency..can be rnade by decistons are made by the suspect. No
tlre investi;;;;.;-nor can lre suggest irr any
tl-ti: susp.r'l v1"1'r l;tr "beEter off".i.i he co.peratos. way that
thaL cooperation on the part of ttre suspect 1ir io*o,oer, the in1/sst.l.i4acor can state
brought to the attentlon of the prosecutlng any continuing lnr,,estigaLion."ii11 be.
attorney at the tirne of hls tr1al.

.,. -sjrmpalhecic'- rf the lnvestlgator determlnes Ehac the suspect wilt be affected
^-tlemotional
by an appeal, he may choose to-pursue a synpathecic approach.
i
tion is conducted in low tones and includls The Ln.erroga-
Es for the pllght of the suspect. rn additi.on,u*p..""ions.of syrngair,y orra understandlng
F virt'-r*l1v any subject thai,rnlght appeal to ih"fir"-in.restigator expresses s],npathy on
enotions of the s'speet: hls wlfe, h1s
I perenrs' hls children, reJ-lgion, buslness, health,;;;.--when
t ttre investigator may s1t ctJse io talking to the suspect,
friendly manner' The, investlgator hlrn and rnay
attenpts to"".i"i""ally
touch the suspect ln a
generate-fee1-ings of guil.t and self pity
in the suspecL, and the typlcarly.""poiJ"-iy
".r"pult r""ct1on !r,"orr.";;;;i" ut.*rog his problems on others.
The lnvestigatorrs synpatheir"
feelings of gulrt by aislsting the lnvestlgation. suspect to
ouEvEsL further rerleve his
Lo rurEnel

3) Agg{esslvg' The aggresslve approach 1s baslcally

veying the lurpresston that ihe lnvestigating orrrcei a threatening manner, con-
struggling to restrain hlmseLf frorn physl".iry is hosrlle ao tt"-3,r"pect and is
'the old "thlrd degree'r .,r""ttge of
t'ttt".rog.iior, "tt."ting tlr" suspect. ini"
ing a vlolatlon of the euspectTs civll "tyt. rs dlfflculr to portray today wlthout risk-
used' the technlque must b; llmtted to cornrnunlcating
"rgnt" ""4-i",-trrerefore, not reconmended. rf
dlslike on the part of one of the lnterrogatlng offlcers, a certaln anount of disgust snd
dLsagreeable and inrpatlent faciaL expresslons shich Ls usually exhibtted by
and tones of voice rather than actual
threats' rhe aggresslve approach raay.be u".a ."-p.i-i-.r-;
ln whlch contrastl'ng styles are exhitited by tro ii.r""irgators. ;;;;i iiillioi".ro' srraresy,
sive lnterlogatorr
-r-n
thls case, may encourage a more cooperatlver"", oi-tire aggres-
attltude toward the
syrnpathetlc, frlendly rnember of the interroglti;"
;;;r:
4) rndlfferen!' A oodlflcaEion of the
f.'ndanenriJ-Tn=d-G6ence on.h;-;;;; of the aggresslve posture is one that euphaelzes
gested thaE the investl-gator does not really1";;;.;;;;;r. rn rhls rnsrance, lt ls sug_
desire the
but he must go through the urotions of making thrs opfoit,rnity to cooperate further,
suspect
rt is suggested that the lnvestlgator would preter io see the available to ttre suspect.
for his crlme rather than receivE any posslble conside..i1gl suspect severely treated
for help he mlght provlde
to the invesligation. Llke the aggrlsslve technique, indifference
binaLion with a concresclng style ;hat ls exhiuit"a is best used, in con_
by . interrogating offlcer.
"..orrd
5) race savi+4'. rn this approach, the-interrogator attempts
pect toith-E$ffi6l6gica1 "way o,rti-tit.t will to provide the sus-
justity rrts
rt is imPlied, but never stated' that a thoroulh unalrstanaing parci.ciparlon in Ehe crlme.
rion nay affect his.degree of responsibillty tJr rrr*-"iimlnal of the suspectrs motlva-
i:tical1-y rationallzing the acrivity. By systen-
".r"p."its actlvlties
sclil:ing them as natural .on""irr"rr"es up to the polnE of the violation, de-
of some other difflculty or prob1.en, the lnvesti-
gator attenpts to get the suspect tal-king about hi.s
""itorr". The lnvestlgator
interJects cos'nents occasionaily thar il;.-;;;-.il;";";;;irt"i"iri*"li!'iroor.ance
of
the suspectts own criminaL invoivenent.

6) Egotisticgl' .The investigaEor in this lnstance plays on the suspectrs

and. senseof accomplishment. ue tltts about the intelligence required to work pride
plex narcotlcs operatlons. He pretends to be irp.e""eJ out com-
tlon or the amount of financlal gain generated uy it. He by the efflciency of an opera-
for anyone who couLd work out feigns a degree of respect
",rih " eomglicated or daring plan. The egotistical
 his actlvities and Eo provide addltional
approach encourages the susPect Eo brag about
aeia.ls i,r crder. to furLlrer impress the l-nvestigator.

7)ExaggeraLion.InorderLoobtaininfonnationfromanotherwiseuncooperative
to eKaggerate the charges Ehac can pos-
s,rsir.ct, the i'.r-resfQarlng officer nay elect' -rh" i"t'""tigator nay suggesc that
sibly ir:: i-rrr:r.:3,:i ;l:ia.insi the suspect.' for exanple, than is actually the case' It is
he bellcves the suspect to be a nruch Ui-lger deaier ir, order to Protect hirnself'
hoped that he will then adrnit to his t"ii.f violations

Thesearesoneofthemorecoonlyusedlnterrogatlontechniquesusedbynar-
and some of those mentioned are also
co.ics lnvestigaLors. Other t."t.rfqrr""'exlst,to Ue tept in mind by the interrogaEor is
known by other faUets. The essene1ui-poi"t
can be utiLized' The selection
that numerous possible approaches to .., lrra"t.ogation
be on the basls of r'rhat ls nost
of one interrogalion sEyle over another should noU rnade
be tailored to best respond to
cor:foi::abie for rlie lnvesrlgaror. r;;;";, it
"ho,rld
persondllty of the suspect'
rhe circumstances of a parricular case and the
Aspecialskillthatmuscbecultivatedbyagoodinterrogatoristheabllityto
or when he is likely to respond
recognize when a suspect is reaching-.i "*otfonal leakonly frorn experience ln the in-
to a part.lcular rype of approach, Thts abll"ity coloes
terrogatlonroom.Wecanr-howeverrstatesonebasicguidelineshere'
by the investlgating
Bodily responses of the susPect should be watched carefully
-Embarrassment'
officer.Theincidenceofnervous.laughter,fingertapping,handwringing,arrdother anger or fear can
gest.ures rnay lndliate rlslng tenslon oi appi.teoilo,t'Faclal expressions can be lnvolun-
stimulate blushing or othef changes rn st'in color' The invesilgafor must learn to read
tary signafs of tf;e suspect'*.titfon.l condition''
theseslgnalsaccuratelyandtorespoadEothenapproprlately.
when the suspect has reached the deglred peak,
the iovestigator oust draw upon hls
interrogation to its clioax' This nay
experience to sef'ect the right tool io brlng ti're of the investigator' rt rnay be the
take the form of lncreased intensity lrr-lt""p.ttbeen told by the suspect durlng the lnter-
rime to enumer&te che varlous l-ies ittii tt."- to the suspect' to enter the area de-
rogatrion. It nay be ttre moment t" ;;;; close par-
"personaL zone.'t I'lhatever the the
scribed by some psychologLscs as ttt"-iiai"ia,,art" utilize some technlque at
ticular rechnlque, it ls lnportang;ha; the lnvestiSator reactlon from the suspect'
opportune dollent io extract the greatest posslble
At the conclusion of a successful interrogation' the investigator must take care
used during the progress of the inter-
to rnaintain the characterlstic attii,rat tt'tt inhEany thai he has been acting other
rogation. He cerraioly should not indicate that-theway susPect woutd cooPerate' Whatever
than sincerely, or that he "knetr "fi "fongtt of questtonlng must be naintained untll
d.:meanor has been utilized durlng tn" prolr"ss
ttre meeting t s end ,

.^}I"IISSIONS A]TD CONFESSIONS

has at times perplexed the
The differentiatlon beteteen admissions and confesslonsstatement by the suspect that
pollce officer. An adrnlssioo is a sel'f-incrirninatory
it-"t''acknowledgment of a fact or cir-
fatls shorr of an acknowledgment or giir;:--i; In pre-Mlranda times' the prosecutlon
cumstance from whlch his guilt nay te l-nferred'
as evfiffiETlthout first showing
in a case was permiEted t.o introduce an admlss1on the however' ad-
thar ir r,ras made freeLy and voLunt.rfiy. Under $;9n4e ryide1i1:s,
,il"i.", scatements arl treated Just l-ika confessibns'
"na--u"""ip.tory
by-a suspect of hls
A confession, on the other hand, is the direcr acknowledgrnent
being an essential part of the act'
guilt in com:nlttl.ng a particul"t crioli.r"l act or ofGivJ'og a suspect his rlghts under
A confession must be voluntaty to bu alrnisstble'

20
Fa1 Ii!tg-lg"- is a necessirry, but not sufficlent, condition for
woitiiiness of a r:onfession. For exarnple, there are three the voluotariness and t!ust.-
I

ii''vLor whjcir i;orr.l-cl::<lve"rsely::ffect the admissibillcy types of improper police be-

lve
of a co.rfession. These arel
o Coercj-on--Etr*- use or threat of trse of illegal .physical meLhods
I
It in<1;_rcn ;i s'':ii..rrct lo r.:ral.:e .arr adi:ir,;s{o,, o, to
aJa,t""sioa,
i
I I Duress--the i-inpositioit of restrictions on physicar behavior
prolonged interrogation, deprivation of food-or sleep, such as
i

i physicai discomfort or excessive

i

13
i 'r Physical- constraint--lhe restraining of free will by threats or other
rnethods of instilling fear, such as indirectl-y suggesrlng
P
p8t of harn to the suspect, his relatives, or his property the prospect
I
I
I The p|osecution ilay not u'se staterDencs stemmlng from
suspect unless it can be denonstrated.that the inveJtigator custodial interrogation of a
b to secure the suspecr's privilege against used proceduraL safeguards
-irr!-i""""il.gator
ld be.ble to prove through hls owi teitinony self-incrloriatron. urust
and that of witnesses, for example, that he
info;'ured the accused of hLs rights under Miranda. Moreover,
the investigator should be
able to make an affllma-tive showing to th;-;T?;;r rttut-. confession
i. given. He may do this by shor^,ing ihat: was ioluntarlLy
I
r
I
o The srate:nent grasa spontaneous or self-induced utEeraace of the
lan :rccused and was not obtained by urging or by request,
F
itd o The statement was obrained without coercion and not durLng an
inves t lgat I on ,
official
i

lls
t
o The stacement was obtained during an offlclal investlgation wlthout
Fv coercion, after the accused had been informed of the.rat,r." of the
offense, trls rlghrs under Mira*da, and he had waived hrs rrghls.
f-
i

i
I
There are a number of sLeps that an investlgato! can take
I

hood to minimize the likeli*

of'belng accused of placing undue duress on the suspect. For
i
raagenents are oade for approprlate intervals of rest, the instance, if ar- ..

r investlgator
the suspect over a reasonable period of tfine dependeni on the amount nay'question
I
being soughE' several days or even seeks rnight be required. of infonration
I
I
terrogations the accused should be informed of hts rigtrts During such lengthy in-
I
iine. ' under Miranda fron tlne to
i
i
ts rn regard to psychological constrainLs, the following statemenEs have
sc:'le been held by
courts to coilstitute a threat: "rt would be better ior yo,, to confessr,,
t or.r,you'
had better telt the truEh." Howe're!, it is pernissible
I
to tel1 the suspect that the
police vil-1 discover-the truth anyway,- to dlsplay lmpatience
with the suspectrs story,
or to give the underl'ying inpression that the investigator considers
Ehe suspect to be
liuilty
The inrrestigator tnusE refrain frorn_using
c*jc'lirgs io obtain a waiver of rights_ frorn lhedeception, promises, threats, tricks, or
suspecc. rn facr, the safest poricy is
tc rvoid ail deception and prorni.ses, thereby ninirnlzing misundersiandings
lrr€itations ctraL may later render a confession or adml.sJton inadnissiblel and mislnter-
For example,
Lflr follouing types of promises can render a confessl-on or admission inadmissible:
Release froro eusEody

Cessation of prosecutlon
Pardon
 o l.i3,ht.er sentence
t G'.tiiL i;i iiornunlty or remlssion of selrtence
o ?rosecution for only one of several crlmes
ta'riil.::,r St3teme.',t,s. OrCinarily, i-rrterr:rigirtionS rvi11 rlevelop much more iuformatiOn
tt. wrltten slater.ent' Therefore'ln the lnvestl-
.n,," ffi;;;;#ffi-in.otp"-"a'."'in i-nel-uile the state-
gator w111 irave to lrake a -iudgment on the informatlon he shculd
should substantiate the elements of the charge or
nent, A statenenE froo a susPect the etateDent
contain any informaElon pertinent t.o the issues of the case' Moreovert
offered by the
should include any details of extenualing circumstani?: ot explanations investigatlon'
suspect and inforrnaiio" ttr"t can form the basls of addttlonal
'llhe nlttrodsthat an investigafor u''ies in taklng a written statemeot vi1]-steno- depend on
the anounE and nature of rhe lnfornatlon to be tecorded, the availabllity-of
Since a susPect
graphic services, and the intelllgence and temPerament of the Suspect' but not be ready
rnay be wtlling r-o speak of his involverneot i.r. particular crime, may
officer shouLd not
to have it taken aoi,rr as part of a statement, the lnterrogatlng Instead' after the ln-
inEerrupt the verbal starlrnent to ask fot a signea stalement'
vesltigator ls finished soliciting the ou."""n.y inforuurtion from the suspect' he should
ask the suspect if he ls willing to sign (or wrtte) a statement thaE baslcally covera
just discussed. the susplct should.be assured thal onLy infotmatlon he
those polnts and that he will have
has given to the lnvesCigators w111 be included in the statement
the statement if lt ls not accurale' Once the suspect
ti:e prerogative of not signing one of the following tech-
agrees to sign a \f,ritten statemenc, the lnvesElgator may use
nlques:
oThesusPectrneyrespondorallytotheinvestlgatororastenographer
ln r;-lspons; l;'q;;;ii"""; these responses are then written verbatlm'

. The suspect may give a statement orally without guldance to the

invesllgaEor or to a stenographer'
' n The suspect may write hls own st.ateoenL without the guldance of the
lnvestigator, This method ls the most desirable 1f the resultlng
stetemeut is comprehenslve and clear'
cTheinvestlgatorDlayglvethesusPecEaltstofthelnportant.PolnE's
thatshouldbecovereclinthewrlttenstatementandsuggestthathehe may
inr:lude these points and wbatever other pertinent informatlon
wish.
o The ir|vestigaEor nay wrlte the statement according to the information
given t,y trr!.rr=p""t in his oral stateoent. If he uses this technique'
che investigator should attemPt Eo use the same phrases that
were used
b7the".,"p""r'Thepreparedstatementshouldbereviewedbytilesus-
Irercu, who wlll make apProPriate correct,ions and
sign it'

The investigaLor should not permit a number of crines to be included

in the con-
flssl.on. Ordlnarily, in a trial iot orr" crime j.t is not permlssible to introduce evl-
coffinltted another crime' An exception to this is
delce whic| shows that Che defendant defendant' or the
-,;here rhe additional criroes t.end to establlsh intenEr ldentity of rhe
belng trlerl, or when the additional- crine is
scherne used in tire coinoission of the crime
pa-rt of tlte same transaction. In sum, it is recormended that a wrltten confesslon be
obtained for each offense.
The forrnat used for writcen staEemeots wiLl vary among 1aw enforcement igencles.
This f;rct nollrithsCanding, the following features of a staternent w111 be found comnon
co many of the formats

22
 Figrrre L: FORIi FOR WRITTBN STATEITENTS

STATBIENT OF SUSPECT

I,oca t.ioo
Date
Time

, you are norr in L arn

(name of suspect) (location such as room ouober)
of the and this Ls
(rank and name of offlcer) (organization)
of the lJe would Like
(ran:< & raoes of others present) (organization)
you to tell us vhat you know about
(state nrture of crime beiag icvesEigated, includlng
. and to answer questions lre want to ask you about it. You have an
aateail pCcet
absolute rlght to rema{n silent. You do not have to tell us auythLng, gr answer any
questl"ons that ere ask you.. If you do not rlant to say anything, we vill respect your
right not to talk wich us. If you FaDt to make a statement and ausser our guestLons,
anythicg you do say can be used agains! you io a court of lan. You also have the right
to be al-oue rlth a larryer and to talk to hlm and to be advised by hi-n. After talldng
to a Lartyer, you can also have hLn present during any tlme you rraDt to give us a state-
ment aud shl,le rre are questioning you. If you are not able to afford a Lawyer, but you

rrant one before speaking to us, a lavyer rrtll be appolnted for you. If you declde to
talk to us rrlthout a la'ryer present, but during our questionlng you lraot to stop and get
a l.awyer, you have the right to do so and to say notshing rnore. You are not being
prcmised anythiDg co nike a statement or to ansrJer questions and no threats are nor', or

rri11 be, made against you to have you te1l us anythlng.

a. Do yotr untlersEand lrhat I have Just told you?

A.

a. Are you willing to make a Voluntary statement after beiog advised of your.
rights?
A,

a, Do you underetaad thaE by oakiug this vol,untary statenent you are lralvlog your
right not to talk to us and to have a lawyer preseot?
A.
(). Iil'iaL is yout ful1 nane and address?

a. What is your age and date of bitth?

a, uhiri is the highest grade you conpleted in school and what school did you
a t iend?
A.

a. Can you read and !,rrite?

A.

a. l:Ie ]ou Presenl't-Y under {rrfluence of alcohol or narcotic drugs?

a. Do you know what day of the week this is?

A.

a. Do you know where You are now?

A.

a. Have you been advised of your rlghts?

A.

a. will you telI us in your own lrords exactly what you know about
(nature of

crine, including date and Place

BODY OT STATEMENT
(Let the suspect rnake the statement ln hts own words,
without lnterruPtion. After he flnishes, then he can
' be asked speclfic questions. If, for any reason' a
break is taken I'o the statef,renE, it should be notecl')

a. Has anyone beaten, threatened, or intinldated you in any manner in order to

obCaln Ehis statement?
A.

a. Has anyooe made you any promises, offers of reward, or lnmunity, in order to
obtain Ehis statement?

a. Then, has thj.s statement been given voluntarily and of your o1t,'n free wil-1 aod
accord ?
A.

(Read this statemenE f,o susPect an<1 1et susPect read it')
a. Has this statement been read to You?
.\

a. Have you read this statement?

A

a. Having read it (or havlng had it read to you), do yotj Ltant to make any changes
or corrections in it?
A.

24
q. Is Ehis statement the truth as you have told lt?

a. ili.l1 you sign your name to it?

A.

Statenent terninated at
(time and dare)

This stateoent, conststlng

of()pages,whlchlhave
initialed, ls the truth as
I h:rve told it and I slgn oy
name Eo 1t.

S lgned:

WITNESSED:

(of ficef)

(officer)

25
 1'l-.e fi,:iL p3rsqrrph of th|r statement should contaJn the date' Place' ldentlfica-
perscn vhom the stJatement is nade' ackno\tledgEent
lion.r! tt: naker, tile nar:le OI Ci-le Eo
v'aived by the subject' and
ttr,"rl the lii:gnc" warnlngs have been given, understood and
acin.r:r1.:d.gn6i?-That the sLateinenL 1s given voluntarily'
,i]r.: t,l.ri]./ oI tire StaLerileltt can be g!.ven ii e.*^ptrsitory or narrative form. Iu is
and Che facts
iqrportant tfrilt the sfatepent l,r.orporaie al-l the elemencs of the crime or a stenographer
lnvesLigalor
that .,rssoci.rLe the srrL;ir:c! to these sitatcmcr-rts.. I t the and slgn eacb pgge,
-"rrites the etatr:nenc, the suspecE should be asked to read at tlte -
he should be asked to
borton. As an indlcatcr that the "r.r"p""t iras read the statement' gorrection-s in ink' If
correct any typographicat errors in reatling and to initial Ehe
the errors, they should be pointed out to him' Each
the subject fails to recognize of
p:rge of the staEement shotrld be nuurbered at the lower right corner: "Page
rr
Pagi.(j ' -
The concitrding paragraph should state that the subject has read The subject
rhe sLatenent con-
sisting of so many pages and thaL, t.he scatement is true ancl correct'
slgnature of the sus-
should then sign thl ltaternent 1n the space provided.,-BeLovr the be the interviewing or
pect there should be spaces for two tlt.r""""", who will norrnally
rnay connote to the court that
interrogating officers. To have nore than two witnesses a large number of officers
the witness or suspect was intimldated by the Presence of
during the tjme Ehat the st.ltement was written and signed'
offi'cers may
T:rpe Recorded Staternents. There nay be occasions sthen lnterrogatlng or when his
rvish to record a statement, such as when the suSpeCt cannot read Or write'
shorrld bear in mind
kno',rledge of the English language is deficient. The investigator interrogation first'
that, when h.- recoris a str.rtiment, he must srilJ. con<lucg the ncrmal
In tape recorrling the scatement, the officer uses his notes fron the first interroga-
the recording is made, the suspect wlll
tiorr to develop the taped stalemenE. After it is a true representa-
have to listen to the whole recordlng to verify the fact that
prolonged session may rnake lt
tlol of what he said during the tu"oidi.,g uu""ion. The
queslloning sesslon
appear that Ehe suspect rnighC have been under duress' as the whole
rnight Lake several irours. Consequentl-y, durlng the taPe recordingto drink' or if he of Ehe statement'
if.rl J,r.p."t shoul<! be asked if he wants a cigaretge or something
wants to go Eo the bathroom-
At the beginning of the recording, Ehe lnvesEigator should ldentify hirnself' the
and badge nurnbers'
suspect, and all other officers in th! roon, including their ranks
date shorrld be stated'
The name of the agency, site of the inferrofatlon. the tinre and
of his rights undar lliran+a, and.he.should verbally ae-
The suspect shouii be advised i'n'vestigator should
krowle,lge Lfta1 1e un<lerstands and is wi-Iting to waFeT[6tn' The
particular statement 13
stare, and the subject shouLd acknowLedg., ih" teason vhy this
being recorded.
After the iaportant a.spects of the case are coveredtAftervarrls the'investi-gator should ask
the officer should
tl-Ic suspecc if he has anyrhing io add lo the statenent ' ' can lisLen to'
t.1]en sEace thaE he ls going to shut off the recorder so that the subiecC
--Once
tle subject has listened to the recording' the Eape re-
aitcl verify, th,e contenls.
co.4,:r should tre turned on and he should verbally ac'knot;l'edge that the contents 'tccu-
I:ately reprerlent h.is statement. He should also statc that the recorder iras not been
stopped other than during the tinie when he was allorl'ecl to review
the tape' The in-
tire session' Before he shuls off Che
ve:ltigator siroul<1 Chen siate ttlat this concludes in the room and the time
recorder, ho'ever, he should again gi,r" tt'r. names of persons ident:"fy any persons vho enter
a.nd daEe. ou,:i.,i'tte recorcinf the"investigator should exit
that h; give che time of entry or ' Whether
or leave the room. It is preferable his
or not Ehe tape is going Eo be transcribed, theThe invesEigator shouLd write own
taPe should be errtered into evidence
synopsis of tha stalenenr ln his "o"" t"po.E '
ancl processed aPProPriaEely.

26
 CHAPTER THREE

RiPCRT tr{RlTING*

The in,restigator rrust produce an investtgative

tacts of each case in vhich he becomes t:eport which contails pertinent
invol'red. The investigatj.ve reportthe
a *arrative of those incidents Lllat occurred, is prim.arily
tor a.d learnecl by the investigator, those things-wltnessed ty ttre investiga-
Lnvestigative report of the .,alcotics which culmtnatec in the
".r."a-of'.
investigatoi i., o.ry respects suspect. The
same as a follow-up lnvestigation
report produced by is essentiar'y the
specialty. vJ vrrrucru
offitu." ir,
rn some ocr polLce
"or.-oii",
The narcotics investigaEorts report
ports in that the narcotlcJ i-nvestigator differs fron other types of investigative re-
reports related to the same case. 6ccasion"rry is normally also atu-.uito..i'.rr prelininary
ih"'.rircotics
from reports initially flled by pattoL officer, buf-chis is investigator will work
the exception rather than
the rule in narcollcs work' r,,ttnltore,
" because of the nature of narcotrcs investiga-
ive trork' it ts at all unco,,trnon that the ,r.r"oti."" investigatlve
'ot arrest
'1un ttntil after the of che suspect. The investigator may also wriEe report is not be-
gence sheets" besetl on matertal" ,,lntelli-
ln his
to opcratlve central incelligence unirs ro" invesEigatirr"-iif" and contrlbute this materlal
".rli.ritioi-"rra anarysts.
rn all of tlrese cases' but
report' the lnvesllgator must bemost importantly wlth reference to the investigatlve
abLe to communlcate clearly and accuraa"ry
Ttre investigative rePort ult'imately i., writlng.
builds his case against thu."";;;1. becomes tr,. rorrna"lio' upor, whlch the prosecutor
facts' rt musL contaln or.lesciibe allThe report r.r.!-irrfor* hirn of all rhe pertinenr
a trial' of ti,...r.ir"bie evidence that can be used at
rt nust include the names of all potentiai riarr"""." (excluding lnformants
a code name or nurnber), and be rendering
:::r:1":lt"::r:::'" "n 'ccur.r* or a pasr
rn addition to its use by a prosecutor, the investigative
oi olirer functions' rt infor*s fetlow officers report serves a number
Pernj'ts superiors co m:r\e intelligent declsions about r,rork that has been performed. rt
of invesLigacive officers. rt h.ip" to-pr:event concerni.ng coordination and direcLion
aretr'q relationships with other unlts or duplication ofbeeffort, an6 suggests
port' ""here
unavoidabty' also becomes an insErument "g".r"i""1ight sttengthened. The re-
1arly in targe <ieparEments where personal contact for evaluating the investigaEor, particu-
rinir'raL ' u1tinate1y., thg invest rgail,r* u.lreen adrnlnlstrators and agents is
."port
the potlce departrnenE ' rt should be retained for _becomes part of the of f icl.rl rnemory of
been t'closed'rt future use even after the case
occasionally a
pect' or che same individual t.yhigher court may direct a new trial for a convr.ctedhassus-
b.cot" the obiect of another investigation at 6one.
case ti,u i.,rorrarion coniained in the origlnar
;:i:;;r:t:l;rll"Xlllh i"p.rc may provide
'lMaterial in thls chapter is based on: rnternationaL Association of chiefs
"i:;:';"T:i:::ff,::t;o:o'tt, of
Report writins'-;;;-i;:-;i, rh. r,,.,qsrigator,s Reports,

27
 l"faterla'l- that 1s reiained in an lnvesr,iBative file (compi.Led drrr:lng Lhe prollress
oi;.n investi5.:i-.ic.n Lhal ius not- yeE produc.rd an arresL) becomes a criti.cally itrporcant
"progress report' for a fellow officer in the event that the original investigator ig
re-assigned, iniured, or for any ocher reason is unable to compleLe tire in'restigatlon.
.iiii produci:ioo of go,)d reporcs reqr-rires thaf an investLgaior f;i-1os ccrtaln i/asic
gui-deli.nes for report writing. Report writing should aspire to the well- kno',n "ABCtst'
cf Accurar:y, Br*vityl and Conpleteness. These are the goa1s. The means to acconplish
these goals are provtded by the varlous exerclses of research, organlzation, attentlon
to detail, siaplification, and checking and rechecking to be sure that everything is
correct.
The first phase o€ report urlting is, of course, the gathering together of aL1
Fart l''I.]:11 f .rcts rel:rted f o rl.:d case. To r large e:<tent, theref ore, the qruliLy o f an
j-irvescigalive reporE Iiray rclow dlreclly from the quantity and quality of notes caken
durlng the progress of an lnvestigation. This uLtinrate use of notes should be kept ln
urirrd by the lnvestlgator. He should keep investigatLve notes as organized and concise,
yet co{nplete, as possible in order to make the eventual report wrlting an easler and
more orderly undertaking. Moreover, the possibtllty always exlsts that the lnvestiga-
tor may have to.turn his notes over to defense counsel under a successfuL motion of
discovery,
Organlzation of the report.ls extremeLy lruportant. A poorly organized report nay
contain accurate facEs, but lf they are entangled wlth trlvia or buried within para-
graphs deallng with unreLated subjects, they may be overlooked or thelr inportance Bis-
understood. Chronological organlzatlon l-s probably the most coomonly usecl st/le of re-
port organization. The investj.gator, however, strould not feeL bound to a rigid chrono-
loglcal rendering if another form seems more appropriate. The essential point is that
the lnformatlon contained ln the leport must be organized ln such a way that the facts
follos uPon one anoEher in loglcal seguence, and the materlal related to a particular
aspect of the investlgatlon can be easlly located and understood,

. In writing hts report, the lnvestigator should assume that the reader knows abso-
lutrlly nothlng about the case other than lrhat he will read in thls report. Partiall-y
stated facE,s that assuoe a certaln degree of farnillaricy on the part of the reader are
vulnerabLe to misinterprelacions. They can also be a source of ernbarrassment, partic-
ularly lrhen there is a need to recalL supporting details months after an incldent has
occurred. In addition to ltstlng aLl investigative Leads that were productive, the 1o-
vestlgaEor should make note of undeveloped leads and sources that were checked but
which produced no results. Such completeness can prevent considerable time spenE du-
pltcating efforts by another investlgator.
Obvlously, there are instances when j.t w111 be impracti-cal to verify every state-
rnent. Ehata vi.Eness or suspect may make. In these situations, the informallon cirn be
qualifled as hearsay by using phrases such as I'alleged to be,tt "believeil Eo ber" and
"deiscribed asr'r rather than to make a posi.tive statement of fact. lt would be better,
howevet, for the \i'riter to say, Itthe i-nformant sald," or t'the witness stated."
Ambiguous words or phrases may force the reader of the report to reJ-y on hLs j.rdg-
ment to lnterpret the report, thus presenting the potential for inaccuracy. For ex-
ample, descriptions such ag t'medium heightr" "large amounEs of drugsrt'"early norningrtt
or rtlate hourt' are reLatLve terms forcJ-ng the reader to guess vhat the rrrlter is trying
to say. The use of simple, dlrect language wLll eohance the accuracy and clarity of
the report.
The principle of brevity is also very lmportant. The reLevant and essential facts
should be reported in a style chac makes the report easy to read. Elinrlnat.ing the
repetition of informatlon is an example of thts. Another is saving the reader time and

28
 rlnrecessary work by elialnacing superfluous
The folLowing words and phrases that make a report
are.ot".o*on yet unnecdssary phrases thar, wordy.
be shortened.
""r,
on Ehe occasion of
. when
in '"'iew cf the fact that
. becar-rse
make inquiry regarding ...
-. inquire
with reference to
. about
give consideration to
consider
make a note of
. note.
pursuant to our agreement
..... as we agreed
hold tn abeyance
,... PostPone
the subJect automoblle
.... the automobile
The report wrlter should avold uslng the word 'subject,'when referring
ln the report' Although he can;;;r. to someone
oe8g'r'r or tlcornplainantl" it would ba freclse uy such words as rsuspect,r,ff'rig-
""rrg
rot" accurate and ress confusing if the rast narne
of the indivldual ls used 1n the t"pora. rn cases where several indivlduals have the
same last nand' full nanes ehould
be. used. where a person or persons are
should be descrlbed physicarry.ia-ine name unknown, they
"J;il Jo!-#r,,, or 'John Doe /12r, should be
glven to each' These nanes can be subsequentitt-"""i-ai-,roughout
the real narue of an unknown lndivlduaL..becones'tnown, the report. whenever
report that, for eraupLe, "John Doe /t1" has;e""-'ii"iahfedrt sf,o,rra u.1"tii-in a follow-up
as
Pollce offlcers frequently make^errors in repoltlng
the -_.thac an ini1dent or
event occurred, such as srrstaklng g:00 p.o.
eliminates thls potential source-of. error for
g:00-;.r. Thetlnoe
use of nrlitary t'ne

Nangs' addresses, and' telephone numbers account

The most practlcal.way for avorarni-these klnds of for frequent reportlng inacuracies
spelllng or nurncrlcal sequence befire w.rlting. nrr f.oir.rs is to double check the
i"rr""tigator
of sperllng and punctuatioo srnc.-" spelllng'etto. or a shoul"d also be careful
change the roeanlng urisplaced
urrDpraqe(l conma or pericid ean
contna ot
of a sentence.
one very basr'c, yet very importanc, princlple
tlon of the report is to understand to keep in mlnd during the prepara_
in order to produce a ne11-wr1at"r,, tr,.i o"ry prou.uiy--the wrlter will hive !o rewrlte
deed who can organize and write , i.ir.tt
"orprehensive
."port. rt is the unusuar writer in-
re in the
llore frequently, rnatertal wll1 have to-be rearranged. best possible way at the flrst try.
ferenrly' soure will be exPanded oi ieleted. Assiure that Soue things will be phrased dif-
sary' This w111 peroit the thoughts to flon more freely a second draft will be neces-
duce a nore complete and- accuratf i"p"ra-itt" the flrst tine -il1 p.o-
used' the LnvestLgalor should ascert;in where a second"iadraft is
".ii"i'.ii;. attorneyrs office
from the
should be kept ir, "t"a.i" whether or
?::":n:.:ifi:r:tuft """" a motlon for dlscov"'y ru i.J.-uy the de-

29
 CILLDTEP. TOLT].

IIANDLING PEYSICAL EVIDBNCE

T:r achie're the rnaxiratra benefit frorn physical evidence, the investigator must not
rxrl,-v be skllled in lts collectlon, he must properly handle the evidenee and care for it
beEween the ti.rne oE lts collectibn and the tlne that ic i.s presented in court.rt
The admissibiUty of a p{.ece of lntroduced evidence will partlally depend upoa the
lEuuret ia whlch Lt rras collected and the safeguards that were foll.owed to ensure Lts
integrLty. Where possLbLe, one investl.gator should functlon as an evldence tollector.
iae desl.goation of a collector ensurea that all evldeoce gets recorded and proeesaed at
the seene in a uniform aad correct manner. It also eDsurea that a piece of evldence
s!.11 aot be reooved uatil the coLlector decideg that lt can be uoved and collected. Io
court' the collector and the investlgator llho Lnltl.al1y discovered the evldeoce are the
ones who Day have to testify regardlng the evidence. The greatest beneflt of uslng
such a specialist ls that, a unlforr procedure of evidence collection is applied aqd
other officers are freed from having to take tlme to process the evidence back in the
office. AfEer the evldenee is brought back to the offlce, the collector can weigh and
iavent.ory the evi-dence, seal lt in approprLate containers, and make out the necesaary
erLdeuce sheets and laboratory analysl.s reports.
Tle questlon Luvariably arLses as to whether an object ls or Ls not evLdence. The
l-nvestigator resoLves thls gueatloo by evaluating the object, the clrcuostances and
condltions at the sceae, supportlng hls declsio[ rritb good judgnent, comoo sense, and
Past exPerleaces. If a doubt exists, then the object l-s secured and processeil as evi-
dence. Subsequent re-evaluatioo rill deEerrulne the real eorth of such evLdence to the
iavestl-gator. The Eestircny that. accoupani.es the evideuce rnust shos that the evldence
in issue sas found at the Sceoe of the crLme, Lo the possession or io the control of
the accused, or is tn some rgnner related to the crime. ltroreover, the offi.cer erst
desoastrate to the courtrs satisfactioa that the evidence rras not altered, aDd tbat l-t
c-a be positlvely identi,fled from aL1 other items that rDay have srmil3r appearance.
The totaL accountlng for evi-dence is nhat is knom as the',cha'. of possesslonr'
or the "chain of custody." This chaia is rnaite up of aLl those iudividuals rrho have had
custorl:/ of the evidence since its acquLsitioa by the police agency. Eacb individual in
the r:haln of custody is respousible for a parti.cular pi.eee of evideqce to include lts
care, safekeepi.ng, aod preservatLon vhile lt is under his control. The chain of pos-
scs-si.on Ls estabLlshed by adheriag to the follov-tng guidellnes:

o The number of persons handllng the evidence froro the tine it is found
uotil it is safely scored should be lln{ted-

*Procedures for evldeoce collection at the scene of an arest or soarch are

outlioed tn Chapter Eleven, ItSearch Operatlons-r

31
 o If the evidence leaves the possesslon of ao officer, he should record
in hj.s i'io'jds Lo whom the evidence aas given, and the date and time,
and re;rson il. was turned over.
e T,',1;-.;':,ii,,.:,1.s ,riro har;ill-e the e.riCence shculd af.fix their nanes, badge
nur;i; -r's ;,:r,i a..,.,.igrrrraut to ihe pac|..age containirrg evidence.
a A si.gned receipt shouLd be obtained fron the person acceptiag the evi-
dence. in turn, a receipt or 1og should be signed by the investlgator
when the item i.s returned to hin.

r h'hen t pi""" of evidenee Ls turned Ln, the lnvestigator should check

his i.dentification mark on lt to ensure that it is the saoe i.tem.
e The irrves::1gaEor, after an item has been ret.urned to him, should de-
ternrine if the item is in the same condiEion as rrhen it was dis-
covered. Any change in the physical appearance of the evi.dence
should be ca1led to the attention of the court.
A11 evidence shoutd be properly narked for identifieation as soon as it is col-
lected, or as soon as possibLe thereafter. Solld objects which have a volume of ap-
proximately one cubic lnch or greater shouL<l be narked for identlficatl.on with tbe
initials of ehe lnvestigator. The identLfying nark shouLd be placed on the contalner
or viaPper eontainicg the evi.dence raEher than on Ehe drugs therqselves. Objects vhLch
are snal"ler thao ooe cubic inch in volune should be placed ln a safe container, such
as a glass bottle, LLquids, if posslble, should be retained ln thelr orlginal con-
tuiners, sea1.ed securely, and rnarked for identlflcatlon.

-so*uNTiNq ANp wErcHrNc

Perhaps the most positive nethod for providing a l-ater means of deterninlng the
currenr status (arnount or quantlty) of evldentiary accumuLations is requirlng all evL-
d.ence,to be weighed soon after lt is seized. Certain types of evidence (capsules,
pills) should also be counted. Counting should be perfonned in addition q,o, riot in
lleu of, weighing. The loss of snall amounls of, an encapsuled powdery substance roay
escape detection if only the capsuJ.es are counted; however, good scales can detect, a
ireight loss iomediately.
The seizing offlcer should express the weight of the evidence in gross propor-
tions. The gross weight includes the contaLner or other packaging rnaterLal used to
encl-ose or hold the evidence, i.e., box, balloon, boctle, or similar iten. The itesrs
t'ieighed and their gross lreights should be noted on the inventory and chaln.of cusEody
forms ot evidence vouchers. If the evidence ls of a quantlty or configuraFion which
prevents r+eighing it as an entlty, then lt must be broken out and veighed by lots.
PrompE destruction of evidence and the tnstituEion of additional safeguards as-
sune even greater iaportance when large amounts of evidence (several kilograns of
hr:roin, for example) having a high street value are concerned, Placed on the scales,
t'expensivert evidence,
if broken up for purposes of weighing, must be subjected to pre-
cise readings no nitter how nany weighings of the subdivided evj.dence are required. A
loss of three or four graus frorn an overalL total- of two kilograms of heroin assu&es
fai: greater significance than the loss of a pound or two from a ton of marihuana. A1-
together, a check of the evidencers weight at varlous points along the processing se-
queace Provides the best indLcatLon of the effectiveness of evldenti.al securLty
tneasures.

Conslderable thought shoul-d be given to the seLection and procurement of the type
of scales to be used in the vei.ghing of evidence, Slnce so roany factors ln the

32
 -tr:oc.:sslng sequence are affecEeC by a varlat{on ln the weight of the evidence, highly
:rcu:iate' dependabl-e scal-es should be employed for deterrninlng this evidentlal char-
::t:r-isEie. Besides scaLes vhlch can meilsrrre fractioos of a gran, unies vill also
:1e:d. or have access to, sc;-lles which can be used to weigh kiiograms. Instrilctlons
"': r:elht:d cf r:rp3;411ng l:re note sersitirre scaLes to be used for evidence velghing on
-''"ruLrl- i,-: ;i:v:n '-'r ai.l pa-i sonc.el vzl'lo i:ny become i;r."'u1;ecl in this operation. The pan-
i'-r in which evicience is !o be plaeed on the sca.Les :iad the nrethod of reading the
scales should be among the topics covered d,.rring a dj.scussion of the scalers character-
istj-cs. Calib;ating the scales (and. certifying to their
accuracy) should be nacle the
:esoonsibiliry of che chief laboratory technlcian. Frequent tests and i.nspections
:1:: scalesr operation should be perforrned.. At times there nay be a varlance in the of
;:ight measurenents of the sane iten by two different types of scales. Therefore, the
:ype of scale used in t'reighing evldence should be nentioned in the case reporc. This
'l1l enable the chemist to go into detail if he Ls quesLioned on the wj"tness stand re-
3:rdirig any cti.lfer-ence (rlue to the types of scales used) in the weight of Ehe evidence
as reported by the offj.cer and the laboratory chemist.
rn cornputing the net weight of a large number of containers containing pgwder-
-'IB-vidence, the entire exhibic Ls weighed to obtain the gross weighg. At leasc
Ehree enpty containers similar to Lhe ones which are used in the exhibit should
be
weighed and the average weight of a container deternined, This weight should
then be
Itrultiplled by the numl:er of contai.ners in the exhibit. This total shoul.d be eubtracted
frorn the total gross weight of the exhibit and the result is the net weight,.
rn deterrnining the total nunber of tablets, the actual count should be given
the number is 100 or less. when the nrlnbE?JFtableEs is largg, l-00 tablets mry b€when
';eighed and that weight can then be dtvided into the total net welght. The resultiog
nunbet ls then multiPlled by one hundred and this result is the approxirnate nuuber of
tablets. Both the weight and quaati.ty of the tablets should ue reiorted as belng ep-
proximate.

In eases where the unic has illlcit drugs in powder form whlch is contained ln
sePsgleg' the amounE should be reported by gross weight and number. In cases which
involve'drugs of legltfunate pharmaceutlcal origin, the anount. shouLd be reporEed by.
tot3l number only.
Liquid volume should be estlmated in meLric units. Lf the contalner in which it
was found has no stopPer or rnethod of sealing itself, the llquld should be traasferred
to a clean' glass-stoppered bottle and sealed with adhesive tape.
Marihuana, in brick form, should be reporled i.n the gross weight of the entire ex-
hibit. Ilarihuana in bulk forn should be given in gross weight and. in melric units.
''fhen plants which are few 1n nuiober are found growing,
they should be counted. If they
are numerous aad in a large area, they should be photographed. The area should be
neasured, in approxirnate figures if need be, and the plants pulled or burned. If no
crininal violation is involved, the plaots should be reported on an lnvestigatlve or
evidence rePort and either destroyed or submitted to a lab for destruction.

Extrernely large quantiEies (a ton of marihuana, for example) nay be weighed on

',rar:house scales, not necessarily to gain an accuraEe weight, but more to obtain an
id*a o€ the amount Lnvolved. A pound or two variance i.n a ton of narihuana urakes lit-
tle difference to a court insofar as criminal charges and senEencing are concerned,
but any variance is a ilatter of concern when theft or pilferage of evidence nay be in-
zclved. It is for thls reason, that additional securi.ty measures must be Lnstituted
',rhen substantlal narcotics and dangerous drugs seizures are affected. It 1s aLso for
thj-s reason that extra efforc should be directed toward obtaining judicial sanction to
present photographs of evldence ln lieu of physical evldence during court proceedings.

33
,:!4!99__{S_l.AEElLNG E\r rpENcE

Orrce the narcotics eviiience has been counted and weighed, it must be properly pre-
sr?r'r'ed, sealed, and labeled. A11 exhibits should be packed in such a way as to miai-
n.;* 5t cakaqe r'trr.d loss in Lransit. Labgrator-i.r:s .lr:gqr.r?rtt1.y reiclive trroken tabl_eis arrd
(:::!r.j;',r :-s that have been shipped J.ocrseiy. This nai]l',es reco-\'ery for an;r.Lysis difiiculr.
Ttrerefore, cottcrn or some oiher soft, non-contaminating r:raterial shouLil be placed in
ri1 containers to imnobllize tablets and capslrl-l:i. l,loreover, tablets, capsul.es, or
oiher sma11 itens should never be put in contact vrith pressure-sensitj.ve tape. In the
case of tablets, the surface in contact with the tape is destroyed for forensic pur-
pcs:s. Also, an interaction n:ry occur between the samples and the solvents and plas-
Licizers in the pressure-sensitlve coating on the tape.
Powder, p111s, and capsules shouLd not be pleced vlthi.n an ovidcrnc'.e c-ontainer guch
as en e'nvelope unless they have first been pilvirlcd with some form of iuunediate prln'ary
protection, knorm as an "int.erior" contai.ner. This wouLd be, for example, a polyester
bag, bottle, or pl-1l box. Plastlc vlals, used as containers for sma11 items, must also
be protecced agalnst damage. They are bri.ttle and are frequently broken wir.h attendant
damage to the evidence. Caps of all containers should be secured so that they do not
r';ork l"oose io traosit. The fit and sultability of the closure should also be con-
sidered.
When deallng with liquids, consideration should be given to whether or not t.here
will be any danger of interaction between the llquid and the container and/or the type
of closure. Stlcky naterials (opiuro, hashlsh, etc.) shoul"d not be put in contact with
naterials sueh as ungl-azed paper. Contamlnatlon of the sampl-e can occur and the entire
sanple is seldoro recovered. Also, lret material such as plant material should be drled
before packaging. If shlpped before dryi.ng, such naterlal wtll often decompose before
it can be examlned. This destroys the microscopic features which are necessary for
identiflcatlon. Also the decomposlti.on and rno1.d growth produce volatile amines and
oLher substances rhlch can give urisleading analytlcal resuLts.
The proper seallng of evidence is important to preserve the integrlty of the evi-
denge. It en$ures the court and the unlt that the evidence container has not been
opened and the evldence tampered wlth. Such sealing can be done by using such things
as heat sealed envelopes or an evidence seal tape. Each type of evi.dence should be
placed Ln a separaEe contalner. The lnvestigator should seal pill boxes, envelopes,
test tubes, Jars, bottles, and cartons contalnlng evldence i.n such a manner that t.hey
cannot be opened without breaking the seaL. If an officer breaks the seal affixed to
the cootainer, he should write his narne or number across the sealed fJ-ap of the evl-
decce envelope.

After the physical evidence is marked, counted, welghed, and placed securely wlch-
j-rr a sealed container, a label is affixed whlch contains
identifylng information, The
t-o11owing detaLls shouLd be Listed on the labe1:

o Case number

o Exhibi.t number (when a number of items are seized)

o DaEe and tinre the evldence was found
o Narne and description cf the articles
r Location at tine of discovery
. Slgnature or initials of investLgator who made the discovery
r Narnes or initials of wltnesses to the discovery

34
 c orher types of inforrnation may be carled for, depend.ing on <iepart-
nentar procedure. As a practical consicreration, vhen ihe exhtnit
is a small iten, space may onry arlow for the case number, exhibir
nrrrn'ee;-' <iate and L i-me, and the tnitials of the poLice of
f lcer, rf
neerled, all orher inforn,ati.on vilr be on Ehe evidence report.
Every effcrt should be nnde to obtrin good qualiEy color photographs of nsrcotics
::''! dangeroris 3rugs eviclenc.e. such photogriptls are especially-rurpoitant in cases in-
vcrving extrernely large seizures slnce these bulk seizures are not taken into the
scurtroom and they may, in fact, be destroyed before the trial.
ihat the evj-denee existed, the photographs can show the jury whatBesides offering proof
thai particular narcotic look llke. rf posslble, photographs of the large quantities of
evidence
s'rda at the tine of seizure. once the evidence l-s in custody, a photograph should be
tents wll] a1so aid in strengtirening tire chaln of custody of its con-
p.o*riae f giapntc sub-
stsirEi{rciori to w::itten reporis. Evidence photog!aphs shoulc ".ri
icens i.n a partlcular caclte as well as present an overaLl vlewsingle of
oui iucivirjual_
fornration perLainlng to the seizure of the evidence should be lneludedentire lot. Io-
ttre
graph' This includes ttre date, tirne, and place of seizure, in the photo-
anc Ehe arrest or coraplaint
nunber' Tbls information can be prioted on labels or cards and placed beside
evidence when Photographed. The ev1.lence can also be linked to the or.on.the
having tris name on the label_ or card, seizing officer by

PJCEIPT FOR}{S

Most 1aw enforcement agencles have existlng policies forms for the receipt,
storage' and handlLng of evldence. rt rnay be assumed that and
low these procedures. However, there are some considerations narcotlc unit will fo1-
the
wherein the unit, be- li
cause of the sensi-tivity and Potentlal embarrassnent caused by the I
Eype of evidence Lt
trandles, must exceed the bound of the normaL evidence handling pro""iur"u. s
I
The loss of
a regular piece of evldence of the department, such as a bicycle or a televislon
,{

set,,
is probably noc considerecl as serious as mlsplacing and losing even a srnall quantity H
I

heroin. of t,

iltt department or unLt,, therefore, should utlLize an evidence recel.pt forn. This
-
form should have at-least three copies. The orlglnal and first
the evldence custodlan, the second copy is given to the officer carboo presented
"i. the propertyto
from vhom
was originally recelved, and the third copy is placed in the report fiJ.e.
The foru
should have the following infornation on it
1) Cornplalnt or case number
2) Person r,rho seized or otherwise obtained the evidence
3) ,\ame and address of the person frorn whon the property vas obtained,
if applicable
4) Locatio. of the property at the tlne it vas found. rf evr.dence was
seized from an individual, it should note exactl-y where on his per-
son the evidence was found, e.g., right coat poclet of suspect #1,
Jones,

5) Purpcse for whlch the evidence lras obtainec. Normally an item is

obtained for evaluation as evidence of a sale or possessi.on charge
against a suspect.
6) rtem nurnbers should be assigned. Each iten of evj.dence should be
llsted in numerical sequence, depending on where they are found,.

35
 for examplc, if a number,of items are found together, t.hey can
br ta;;lqpC a€; ,'1i1, tt ',J.b r * "l.c , t' etc. If itens are found separateJ"y,
they can be listed as ttl , t, tr2 rr, tt3 r il etc.
7) Qrraei r-r'ycf each sipeclflc item of evidence acq:iir,.,d (e.g., ltem rl).,
7i2 hii.rr, he:roirr)
8) Descriirtion of the articles should be detailed, accurate, and based
upon whaE i.s actually observed about the obJect at t.he tine is is
acqulred. The physical characterlstlcs and condition of the item,
especially lf the Lten 1s valuable, should be described although the
value of the iten, estlm2ted or otherwise, should not be listed.
To maj.tltain the proPer chain of custody, the names of persons relinquishing and
re-ceiving tii{r itens and the purpose for the custoily change shouLd be written on the
evidence forrn. See Figure 1 for an example of an evldence form.

TRANSITITTAL TQ LAI0RATORY

Most 1aw enforcemeot agencies at the state, county, and local levels do not have
crime laboratories f,hat are part of that agency. Moreover, where a laboratory exlsts
within the organizatlon, the fieLd lnvestigator nay be removed geographleally fron the
1a'b' Therefore, transmittal ray become a probleo.. Evldence may be shipped to a labor-
etory for analysls by a varlety of dLfferent means includlng aii express, personal
courier, express delivery cornpany, and U.S. nail.
The rnethod of transmlttal, obviously, i.s dependent on the type of evidence to be
transnitted, the dlstance fron the laboratory, and the urgency in receiving the resuJ,ts
of the laboratory anaLysis. The ideal night ie for the investigator who is requesting
the laboratory e:<amLnation to personally iurn over the evldence to the laboratoryr Ex-
press companies should be used Lf reglstered mail is not possibJ.e due to sLze or
weight. If express companles are used, shipping records and receipts shouLd be rnain-
tatned ln the case fiLe. rf evldence is mailed to the laboratory ior analysls, it
should go by reglstered nal,L wlth return receipE requested, and the original register
recelpt should be Lncluded in rhe case flle or affixed to the original copy of the
rePort. If the evldence ls hand-canied to an evidence technici.an, the tiansferrlng
officer should get a receipt whlch includes the follosing data:
A. Descrlption of the evldence
B. Case number

C. Defendantts name

D. Date and tine the evi.dence was submltted for analysis

E. Signature of the person receiving the evidence
A11 evidence sent to a Drug Enforcement AdninisEratlon laboratory must be ac-
conpanied by a letter of transnittal which incr.udes the following:

A. Case number

B. I;efendantrs nane

C. Defendantrs booking or identiflcation number

D. Date, time and place of selzure

36
 Figure 1 I EVIDENCE FORY

Report No.
RECORDS AMD IDEI{TIFICATION PROPER1IY CONTROL

Check One: / 7i'ound Evidence properry :i:::

fisarekeeping flFound
liare of Owner Res. Address Res. Phone
Bus. Address Bus - Phone
lTane of VlcEia Res. Address Res. Phone
Bus. Address Bus. Phone
liame of Finder Res. Address Res. Phone
Bus. Address Bus. Phone
Nane of Arrestee Booking No. Charge
liane of Arrestee Booking No. Charge
SAFEKEEPING ONLY: When to be Released To Whom

Date and Tine property Obtained Location of Occurrence

Property Received and Repor! Wrltten By Enp. No.
Received by (prop. Officer) Date

Itenize, UescriUffi
of Each Listlng. Only One Article on a
Line. Space Between Articl_es.

EVIDENCE CONTROL
Received By Reason Date and Time
Reccived By Reason Date and Tiree
P.cceived tsy. Reason Date and Time
Received By_ Reason Date and Tiroe
Received By- Reason Date and Tlme
Recelved By Reason Date and Tine

PROPERIY ENVELOPE

37
 E. Date and letter of traosmittal
b'. ilrief sunmation of facts
(;. rnsrrtrctions regarcling what i.s to be done with t.hc evidence
H. Ri:sulis of field tests or any other information regarding the
identifichtion of the substance
I. Na:neof the laboratory chenist who my have done an analysis on
prevl0us purchases or seizures from the same defendanc as part
of this same investigation. The purpose of thl.s is to reduce
the number of chenists appeariug in court.
J. liame.;:nd address of the requesring polige department
K. Nane of the person to shom the leport should be ruade
L. Name of the investigator wrlting the lecter of transoittal

DESTRUCTION OF EVIDENCE

In general, respoasibiLity for the deslructlon of narcoties and dangerous druge

evidence rests initially r.r-ith either the courc iu whlch the attendant case was tried
or with the 1as enforceoent agency which seized or formd and preserved the evidence.
In soue jurisdiccions' once the narcotics and dangerous drrrgs evidence l"s introduced
into the legal- proceedings aad accepted. as evidence in the case under consideration,
the court retains the evLdence and preserves lt untll destruction. rn this iostao.ce,
the evldence is not returned to the Law enforcement ageocy which fornerly rnaLntalned
cusiody of the Lcern. llovever' narcotlcs and daagero,t! da.rg" iceos not ."""pt.d by
court as evldence are returned to the agency whose meober physi.cally transported thethe
iteus to the court-Edr the purpose of iitroiucing theo as evidence.

, rn other Jurisdictlons, all narcotics and dangerous items, vhether or not

they are accepted as evidence by the court, are returned drugs
to the agency nhlch brougbt
the items to court to be introduced as evj-dence. In these jurisdictions, then, once
the law enforceoent ageucy seizes and preserves narcotics and dangerous drugs evidence,
ir receives coneoaitatrtly the full burdeo for the eventual and proper destruction
other disposltion of that evideoce-oftea with little gui.dance or assistance from or the
court coocerned. As a coasequcncer uarcotics and dangerous drugs evidence accuuulages
in the evideoce rooa because no one authority will responsibility for ordering
th' destruction of the erridence iu questloa. Tno disadvaatages
""Ior" accrui-ag to the police
agency are imediately apparent-

e First, the property roo' rapidly becomes cluttered sith old and
legally vorthless evidence vhiih becoues increasingry expensive
to u,ainLaitr in terns of nrn-16rrrs and space requirenents.
e Second, the greater :uDount of narcotlcs r.d drngerous drugs evi-
dence ea hrnd, the greater is the possibility that i.t uay be 1ost,
stolen, or disposed of in otber illegal fasbions.
Actual destruction of the evidence is nornally accompllshed by iacineratioa.
fe'*er thrn trio rritnesses should observe and certl,fy to the destruction of narcoticsNo
and
dnngerorrs drugs evideoce. In soue jurisdictions, seized narcotics and
dangerous drugs
evidence hawiag nedical usefulness is di.sposed oi ty transferring it to
cility for such use as -ay be prescribed by a ptrysilir,r. Extreme care a medicnl fa-
should be exer_
ci'sed by the lar enforce*nt ageocy concer.aed 1f the latter method of uarcotics
and

3B
 c'engerous drrrgs evidence disposal is enployed. The ioiEiatr,ve to obtain judiclaL ap-
proval for the disposa'l of narcotics dicgerous d.rgs evidence by transferring l-t
a nedical facility shoultl be generated 1nf
by a nedical a,-rttorrty. The lar, enforcement to
3gency involved should act only upon proper
docunentation and should not be required to
vouch for: the q.:r*Eiti!ti-ve ot.i,r.niit"tive characterisLics
:nly ttrac the items being tt"n*f..."d reprerienr the cvidence of the evi.dence in quest.ion-
!-3-rrt docueen!. referre<l to in the rele-

A 'rcertlficate of destructioa" should be made out when

stroyed by the unit. This certificate should lnclude the evidence is to be de_
the follo..ring data:
o Unit case number

o Court docket number

o Name of defendant
r Case disposltion
Judge or magistrate authorizing the tlestruction
Type of narcoElc or drug

Auouot destroyed
o Tlme, date, and loeation of destruction
The certificate should then be signed by the Lndividual
and the witnessing.officer. A copy of the certificate who destroyed the evldence
the origlnar tept i.. the case file that pertains should be given to the court and
procedure that elttler the unlt comnder or to that case. rt should be standard
one of the supervisors be present. lrhen the
evideoce is destroyed' it should be rnandatory that a random sampre of the
-Furthermore,
evidence be analyzed pri'or to destruction, to verify itr. t".t that the evideuce
been aftered or substituted. has not

_EMIocRAPrrY

Drug Bnforcement Adni-nistration aod rnteraational

Association of chiefs of police,
Sl,rS.ffijp*;;ffiq;;;;.G;..' ,-
*or"1 R. Garza,
O.a. egT6), LEM, Hashiugtoo,

Tnternational Associati_on of Chiefs of poliee, Traiuing Keys:

:,lvi.dence; No- 70, Guide No. 55, Rules of
crf sciencific Lo Eiridence Collection; No. 101, Legal and practtcalEEdlE
lvidffi ud.

39
 CIL\PTER FTVII

CASS PREPNRATION}K

I,Jiri.le c.rse preparation in its broadest

:ciient that an r:fficer iiriti;ites a ca!.irj, theinterpr:eiatJ-on can be said to begin the
terril i: here used to descr:lbe oniy those
actions talcen by t'he officer after making an arrest
Before a courr appearance rrre .fficer pr;p;;.;-;r;;-i;; and completing the investlgatioa.
rhe prosecutor and rhe wit_
nesses for rhe presenracion of the case in courr. preiaring';;;;;;;;.;''1"s.
generally consi'qts of documenting everything of significance fo, co,rrt
investigation J'eading to.n arrest. Fron alL the iase file that takes place durlng an
the officer prepares a condensed prosecutLon report. rnaterials ani fleld notes,
:

THE PROSECUTION REPORT

The prosecution report provid.es a. forrnal procedure

'is case for prosecution. rt provides assistance to thefor the officer to organize
prosecutor by outllning the
ase' listing witnesses, and describing evidence. The prosecution
how ghg incldent was brought to [he investigatorts report should show
ve':tigaEi're acElvity undertaken and its resul-ts, and attentlon, Ehe more important in-
Sttch a sunmary is imporLant si.nce lt is noL
the clrcunstances of the arregt,
uncommon for a trial to be held several
nonchs or a year after an arresE. Because of thls factor,
prosecution report, whiJ-e organizing material it 1s lmportant that the
briefly
h'rnstve hs possibLe in reference co percinenr r"to..|io"and succln"try, r.i"rn as compre-
.;;-;;;;"iii".l'-
The accompanylng reproduet,ion is a prosecutlon report
tional Association of chiefs of Police. Regar<lless of developed by che InE.erna-
whether thi.s report or some
other forn is used, the report shou.rd incluJe the same basic informarion.
tant to note that an important element in the reporL ls a descriptlon of rt is iopor-
gatorts probable cause to cooduct. any search that the lnvestl-
was important to the case. This ln-
foi-rnation should be recorded in section 15 of the sample prosecution
illustrated below. report as

Additional instructions for use of the sarnple prosecution

lowinq notes. paragraph numbers correspond to section nunbers report include the fo1-
port. on the prosecutl.on re-

l-) Defe'dant t's naine should be r.rriEten last name f irst, then f irst.
name,
then niddle initial. This siroplifies filing and hanciring. rf co-
defendants are named, they should be similaily 1lsted in section
rf nore space is needed, additional co-defendants can be listec in13.
sectlon 15.

*ltaterlal in this chapter is based on: Internatlooal

Assoclatlon of Ctriefs of
PoLice, Tr:aining Keys No. 225, Case Preparation; and lic. 84,
.ACP, Caithersburg, Md.
Follow-up Invest,igatlon,

4T
 Figure 1: PROSECUTION REPORT

ii
F___
cOOE: C -.__-_._i
cdu,L.,tu: a' F P^REilr/6u.idr^r V vrcrrM rF orFFEe€Ft ttor cos.

o
:
::
2
o

42
 3) The poLice departmenc central. complaint nunber
places o* Ehis forrn. rnclude hcre and at ro-lrerisrigirt
written in two
hand edge in
section 19. Assists filing.
4) rf rnore than one cirarge is placed agains,i- a defendanE, the most
sericus char'-re is cusLomarily J-i-sted i.n.section 4 end'any rerated
charges or other ch.rrlles are listeci within secf.ion 15,
5) check appropriate box Eo indicate jurisdlcElon where charge ls
fiLed.
7) Show date that offense occurred. Not arrest date.
B) Check boxes to indicate docunents and reports provlCed
pro.'j(i,.:irticn rL:port. Ar.companying Coc,,iments shouid lrith thls baslc
be srrbmitLed at the
same time and preferably atlached to or packargecl with
report. the prosecution

10) Locacton of arrest should be descrj.bed in detair: intersectlon,

ad.dress, name of establ_ishment, etc. Not nerely name house
of city.
11) original charge at time of arrest may have been changed by
trial. If so, list original charge here, a-- -J tiroe of

12) Provlde name of officer or offir:ers who can provide the best
concenri.ng details of invesLigation o, ...."t testlnony

L4) Llst nanes and ad<lresses of complainant, parents, victim, and

using the ldentifylng code retters provided. rf additio.r"r witnesses,
needed, include names ln section 15. "p"lu i"
15) rn addition to listlng itens omitEed from prevlous sectlong, the
officer should use this section to write a brief, welr-organLzei
narrative of the case. use items referred to in instructions as
' a checklist to assure that all important itens have been inc1uded...
Ifnile the formal prosecution report ls completed for the purpose of
ilro:;ecuLor, it is obvlous that the process also provtdes the rnvesttgeting
assi-sting the
an opportunlty to refresh his oun memory and get his offlcer with
p33rance in court' The case file should be reviewed notes organized before an ap-
by a supervisor at this time and
::i'y cluestionabte or unclear material shoul_d be discussed.

PiLE-lliiI-{L CONFERUME

Thorough case preparation requires

ani the prosecuting atcorney. rt rnakes close coope:ation beEveen the police officer
llttle sense for a police officer to conduct a
Itr.gLiry and complicated investigation 1f the attorney
case' By working together' the prosecutor and does not intend, to prosecute the
the police avoitl lrasting.time on cases
irirere charges arre dropped due to insufficient evideace
or other legal weaknesses.
A pre-tri.ll conference between che investigator and the prosecutor
for a thorough case preParation. Technically, rh. prosecutor is essentlal
should
trial, conference, but 1t is veLl to keep in nind. the fact rhaE prosecutorsinitlate this pre-
very busy, and it is all too easy to neglect this aspect are often
of case preparation until the
13st rinute' rt is good proce.Iure for ihe lnvestigator to'routinely
of the prosecutor several weeks beiore a case i.s sche,lule,:i'for t.riai contacc the offfce
preferred tigre and place for che pre-tria1 coaference to inquire about

43
 At ttre pre-trial conference, the officer can discuss Ehe case j-n a less forrnal the
nanner thal ..uas possible in th-: br:ilrf pi:osec1,tion rePort. He nay be able Lo assist
proseclitor in a number of v,rays to nake the ease stronger. Through convetsation at this
conierenr:e, the prosegutor becomes J,I,t3re of exactly what testimony can be provided by
c:lr be
the officer. Secondly, any obs..:ure or unclesr aspect€ of the pr:osecutioo reportpersons
d;,i,:r;sed;:n,1 claritied. -\iace the i-nvestig:r:lng oificar is nore ianiliar witir
involv;.:<1 in t-he case. he c:rn usually provlde helpful lnformation about the personal:
ifles of defendaats or uitnesses. In srrmr.rary, the pre-trial confereocc leaves the
pic:.;ecutor in a stronger positlon to.effecElvely prosecute the case when it comes to
trial -

IRIPARATTON OF WITNES
'[ire prn;:ecui;or nay us,: ttre occasion of the pre-'trial confetence to also inEerview
key witnesses r,rho !ril-l- testlfy during the trial. Alternatively, he may leave the task
of $ritness preparaLElon to the investigatlng officer. When the larter is the case, the
officer must be careful Eo adequately prepare the witness for his courtroom experience
wiChout doing anythtng that night possibl-y embarrass the prosecutor at the time of the
tria'l -

For instance, witnesses should be made aware of the fact that they are not legally
obligated to discuss the case with a defendant or the defendant's attorney before the
trial, The officer should not tell- the witness to avoid talking about the case with
the rlefense. Instead, the witness should merely be informed of those things that he ls
requir:ed to do and those things that he is not required to do- Whether or not he then
ctrooses to discuss the case wlth the defense is his own decislon.

Since most ctvlllan witnesses do not have previous courtroom experiencer it fal1s
t() tire i.nvestigatlng officer to PrePare these persons for their day in coutt' Wi:-
nesses nlay be aretl, natrous about the si.tuation, parEly because they do not know Lthat to
expect. The officer should take tine to explain basic courtroom procedures to the r^Iit-
,-r"ir. A brief explanatlon of the respective roles of rhe prosecutor' the defense at-
torney,, judge and jury may be hel-pful. A brief explanation of nornal trial Progresslon
(opening scatements, in;roducglon of evidence, calling of witnesses, closing statemenEs,
erc.) rniy also be helpful. Preparation of this sort can relieve considerable anxiety
on the part of the wiEness. In court, his more relaxed manner may result ln better
testimony and a more favorable impression on the jury.
Witnesses must expect to be cross-exaoined by the defense attorney. Witnesses
should be warned. abouL certain courtroom tactics often used to discredit testinony.
Speciftcally, they should be pr:epared for the possibllity that the defense attorney may
attempt to e[rbarrass, arrger oi conf,rse the witness. By extracting an emotional. ouL-
burst or making the vitness appear confused about certain details, the defense hopes to
iinply that other testirnony from the same witness is similarly rnarred by emotion or con-
fusion,
It often happens that key witnesses ln cases involving narcotics violations are
f.eilors police officers. Such witnesses might include undercover officersr surveil-l-ance
ofi-icers, or ofticers who pariicipated in a rai.d or discovered conlraband during aprior
search operation. The primary investigating officer must contacE these officers
to the date of trial to be sure that tley aie also prePared. A11 officers who are to
testify in court should review the case fi1e, in parLicular those teports wrilten by
thenselves, prelininary to a court appearance.

44
5i:il-l PRE?ARATION

The lnvesLigatorts final pre-tria1 task ls to prepare hirnsel.f for che courtro,rift.
In general, the police officer shoul"d check all pet.sonal noEes and police reports per*
tajl.ins l:o tho case al, h;lnC. The officer should be ct:::tai.n tir:rt he has at his fi.nger*
lips lhe .1i'ls'^ters to ali of the 'rwho, wha,t,. when, where, why, aild trowt' qr.l.:stioi-l$ [;ra[
may be asked.

If the officer has made rhorough ooEes, Ehe lapse of time between the conpletign
of trls investigation and hls appeerance in court will not detract from his tesiiorony.
IIosE Petsons cannot recall facts such as daLes, times, weather conditicns, distances,
anC measureoents uithout referring to notes. The court recognizes this and perroits l

officers to use their orLginaL noees to refresh their recol.lect.ions vhile ue.srifying.
The notes should be on loose-leaf paper contained in a bj.nder. Only tho:se notes
to be used ln the trial should be brought to court, since the defense actorney has the
right to iosPece the offLcerrs notes if he is uslng them to test,ify. There lri',ve l:een
instaoces where the defense attorney has found other iteros in oificurrs norebook
"tr
that served to confuse the case and inpeach the officerts testinony.
Prelimi'nary to his apPearance in court, the investigatlng officer shotrl.d take tirue
to thoroughly revlew the following aspects of the case.
r Elements and detaLls of the offense
r Probable cause for arrest and search
I Defendantra story
o Coafesslon of suspect
o PrLor statemeots and testlnony of witneases
r tellablllty and credibil.ity of informants
o Warrants and affldavits
r Physical evld.ence

r Exhlbits, sketches, di.agraos

The investlgator should review and practice his presentation of all. physical evi-
dence. The verdict of the jury often hinges on the quallty and quantiry of physical
evldence. Officers must be able to recall all the cj"rcumstances regarding the eoll-ec-
tion and preservatlon of evidence.
hten an investigator Ls responsible for preparing photographs, they shou16 be
mounted and labeled approprlately. Crirne scene sketches should be neat, dra-^rn to s(:ale,,
and large enough to be seen by all the jurors. Any equipment to be usecl during the
inwesLigatorts PresenEation should be checked to ensure that it is in good rorki.,g
order.
Fi.nally' the police officerrs rnental preparation for testifying ln court is no
less luportant than his knowledge of the case. The prospeet of speaking ln front of a
judger jury, lar4yers, and fellow officers may produce feelings of anxiety, nervousness,
and tenslon. These are normaL emotlons that can be controlled and to some extent pre-
vented. If the Lnvestigator has nade a t.horough investigati.on, has the facts uell ar-
ranged, and has taken all the other steps needed for proper case preparation, his de-
meanor ulLl. ahnost certainLy comnunl.caEe a fundamenEal self-coofidence in hls comnand

45
of that material. Arroed by a thorough, professional job of case preparaclon, the in-
vestigator need have no anxiety aborrt his perforoance in court.

46
 CRAPTER SII(

TESTIITIIIG IN COURT*

Effectlve courtroom prLnarily a ,'atter of confidence, The confi-

dent offi-cer-the officerPresentatioo-is
sh. i"-."rpr*t.i.y f"riii"; iiat
as ge.eral courtroou Proeedure-flnds- c."tityrig-a"-u" arr. facrs of hls case as well
leaves the court kaoni-ng ttr"c tte-Jii r,rs:oi'teir.- a posltive experlence, Ee
trialr the off'cer is not plagued Jtr, Jrii."";;-;"";;dilg".aless of rhe outcone of rhe
the proceedi.ugs. thoughts concerning his role in

?ER,SONAL APPEARANCg

lt is, co@o' knorrledge

rated to his character and indeed ia1that
- ,Although
ue
a persoof s appearance l.s not necessargy re-
nanipulated to rrpress fal.sely, there Ls no
doubt that rhe personar appearance-oe
-rto""r;-;;;ir;;ces
testir.ony' The i'rnport'nce of courtrooo appeirrance a juryrs opinioa of therr
dress of rcst defendants. Th.-;;;;;se-counser is perbaps-test iliusirated by the
usually lnstiucts .r,"
a.a o".tiy dress-ed ar-pr;il.a a elean-c't a.r."aaat
pear i'n court well-groo'ted to ap-
themseLves are prof-ssloally
c""..i.a with gainiig'ii. ruage. Attoraeye
Judge' Attorhevs tvpieally;t;-;;ii-groo,ned ""..prarce of the Jury and the
aoo seir sryltsh il;; u"* tasre.
Thd offlcerts appearrnce should sinflarly be non-offensive. "i
wearing clvr.lian drese rather tha;; when the offLcer
y$""1 ; "i";, ielr.-pressed busiaess sult, a Ls
plalo tLe' aad a coaservatl've shlrt rrl1l
col0r-coordina::ed socks shouLd nake tt" u"rt-rr,pressLoD.
u" ro*. poctets-should not be shl.oed
papers, cl,garerres, or other obJects.
shoes rnd
l0aded dorro ytth
"i.o weajoos-;;ii iot ue carried, poeeible.
$Ihen it 1s necessary to-calry
a weapo!, Lt should be rora so that it tsif not
The offLcer should-be clean trt"n.o,-tts
halr.r""iry-tir-.d, and hi";;J; aad vlslblc.
aails coupletely cLean. flnger-

PRts-TRIAL ACTIVITIES

The case officer should

details prlor to trial- uponarrive at the assigned court earry to attend to renaioiag
arrivai, he shoull r""" rrith ttre prosecutor
whether aoy last mlnute points ;;;;"
dlscussed. the offlce. to deterDlae
and introduce each witness greet,
dress' and phone n'mber-of ""a .trcirr to so "toorJ-io...",
the prosecutor. Ee should
tirat he r"y
have the naoe, ad-
"".tyGiiess ""t*.pt ro contact any wbo are
l3'03'iiil: :l';::::; rh"$:ienlll:.'ll:::"S: JIrili"o.. ,ho'"
"pp""i"o." is nkery

*xaterial in thls chapter is based

Police' Training Keys-tlo. ,az, crtrntiat on: rnteraattoaal Associatiou of chlefg of
CourE, IACp, Gaithersburg, Ud. :: coujt; uo.-i4g, Ttre police officer irr
""a

47
 Theoffi.cer must be careful of the i.npresslon he makes before court convenes' A
i l1.1lrt r:.rnnr)1t. :iuch as, "I hrrpe Lhe corrrt ir:cides quickly so 1 can geE out Of herett may
i,.zrti .)i..hJij-; !,r believe thilE [he office.r does noi r:onsider Che courE hearing very lopor-
.cant. l,/hile in cour!, ofl-icers should avoid sociallzing with one another prior to the
trieI.

i i\:i 1.C TRL{L PROCEDURE

right to a speedy, public; and inpartial trial by jury is guaranteed every

The
,:'itizen Uy iire United States Constitution as well as state constitutions. In most
sLates, a crimina1 defendant 1s entitled to a jury trial in all cases except those for
petiy offenses, tie oay choose, however, to \.taive his right to a jury trial with the
apirroval of the courE.
r.r'hen;r case is tried withrrut a jury, ttre judge perforns the juryrs fuoction of
rveti;h.in6 the evidence, dete'rmining the credlbillty of witnesses, finding the facts, and
ultimately -Lssrring a verdlct.. In a Jury trlal, the selection of the Jurors (called the
voir dire exarnination) ls governed by detailed rules designed to Protect both the state
iti?-tt'te-a'efendanE from perions who may be prejudlced against either sLde'
Trlels begitr with the opening statement of the prosecuting aEtorney who outlines
inten.js to prove Uy lhe u*rid.n"" to be suboitted. Following thisr the defense
r.rhat he
coupsei may lrrrnediaiely sur,rnarize his view of the case or wait until the prosecutor has
presented ti,.e sgage's evidence before giving his opening statenent and reveallng his
deiense strategy.
Follc':ring the opening statements, Ehe prosecutor begins to lntroduce-the statets
cai:e. The stele presenEs its evidence flrst because it must prove the defendant.re
guilr 6eyord a reasonable doubt. This is rhe so-cal1ed standard of proof l-n crLninal
c:rlies. probabillty of gutlt is not sufficlent, nor is the defense required to Prove
irlnLrccnCe.

Presentation of evldence begins with the direct examination of the prosecutLoots

rvitrlesses. The purpose of this examinatlon j.s to produce evidence that proves the
statets case against the ilefendant, Lav enforcemenL officers are usually involved as
',./itnesses f or the prosecution.

Tire 6efense counsel has a rlghE to cross-examlne witnesses for the prosecution.
Tire prrr-posp of cross-examination is usually to discredit the testlmony of the witnesg
o: to inpeacl.. his credibility. In some sEates, however, the defense attorney is not
liniced in his questioning to issues raised by the prosecutor and he nay cross-exaultre
Lire vj.tness concerning any matter which is relevant to the case.

The prosecutor may then vish to conducL. a redlrect examination Eo clarify evidence
ti.-1L may tr.rve become distorced during cross-examination. Unlike cross-examl'natioor the
:;cop:: of ::edirect examination is linited to matters brought out in the prevlous exastn-
etiori by Lli: deir:ase. The same j-s true if the defense counsel wishes to conduct a
f tlri Foss-€Xam{ nat.ion.
also call r.ritnesses for direct examinacion. The prosecu-
'l-he defense counsei- nay
t:i6n can cross-exa6ine each of the defense wi,tnesses, just as the defense attorney
cross-ex;trnines the staters witnesses. The defendant may choose Eo tesEify; however, he
l':as d constitrrtional right, protecting his froru self-lncriminaEion' to not testlfy. If
t-ir.: defendanL testifies, he is treated rnuch like any other witness.

After th.:,lefeinse has presented its case, the prosecution may subnit rebuttal
pioof to contradict the evidence presented by the defense. Rebuttal Proof is linited
tc neL' matters brought out during the defense counselrs presentation of evidence. fhe

48
 police officer rnay be recalled as a wj.Lness at this stage of the prosecution to correct
any errors or misleading impressions resulting fron the defense counselts presentatlon.

Afcer al1 the evidence has been brought forth, both the prosecuEor and the defense
atrorney are given an opportunity to present final argunents to convince the court of
the valiciiry of rheir positions. Tha prcsecutlng arEo:'ney presents his argument first,
followed by the defense counsel. After the defense argumenE, the prosecutor Ls allowed
Lo present a short, closing rebuttal.

The attorneys for both sides typical"ly use thelr wit and irnagination ln an attempt
the jury of their respective positions. However, their arguments must be
Eo e.onvince
relaced to the evidence presented aud reasonable inferences to be derived frorq that
evidence.

THE TIWESTIGATOR'S TESTIMOI{!

When the o;-ficer is called to testify, he should approach the wltness stand in a
businessLike fashlon. He should take the oath in an attentive and sl"ncere manner even
.atl""gl-l! may be adrnini.stered in a routine, hurried way. The officer shouLd positlon
hj'rnself in the vitness chalr so that he has a ful1 viere of the Jury and Ehe aEtorneys.
He should sit erect etlth both feet on the floor and his hands on tire chair arms or Ln
his lap,
Another importanE factor in effective presentation of testlnony is oral delivery.
Most testimony is given verbally, and the officerts voice and style of speeeh nust cln-
vey Lhe same image that his dress and demeanor express. The officer should speak in a
motlerale tone tiut loud enough so that all- of the jurors can hear hin. He should speak
to both the aE.torneys and the jury and ruaintain eye contact wlth al-l partl.es when ap-
propriaE,e,

The officer should always be corrrteous in addresslng the judge or attorneys. The
use of "your llonor" when responding to the Judge and "sii" whei aisrering the
is appr'opriate and desirable. The offic.r sttorrta always testify factually and"ttorrrey"
dlrectly
r'rith no trace of prejudice against the defendant or anlmosity tlward the iefense coun-
sel. The defense atcorney may try to balt the officer into naking sarcastlc or deroga-
tory renarks. I,Ihen this kind of Eactic is eurployed, Ehe offi-cer musr exercl-se verbal
control by remaining caln and replying 1n a straightiorward manner. See the following
chart, which lists conrmon defense tactics and the appropriate response by the narcotics
inves tiga ior,

The officerrs testimony should always be in reference to E.he faets of the case
r"r-t'-th whj.ch he is involved. lflren questions that call for replies qualified by "in my
oi;inion" or I'T
rhink" are directed ro the officer, lie should wait for the prosecutor
tc object. If tite prosecuror does not object, the officer may request a conference
r;ith the prosecutor, explaining hls concern that the question wi.1i require hirn to draw
I colclusion or render an opinion that only a person qual-ified by the court as an ex-
Dert witness shor-tld answer. The officer who guesses in court not only offers valueLess
ini:orrnation; he also demonstrates a lack of concern for his duty as a r,ritness and rnay
iiradvertently provide gror.rnds for a mistrial or reversal by an appellate court.
A good prosecutor enters the courtroom wlth a strategy as Eo how t.o nost ef-
fectlveLy present the case against the defendant. Hor,rever, the prosecutorts speciflc
strategy may not be known to the police officer, and he must al1ow the prosecutor to
guide hin through presentatlon of Ehe testimony. The prosecutor develols the officerrs
testinony to favorably influence the court and to avoi.d weakness that the defense coun-
se1 rrray use to advantage. As a result, the prosecutor may choose to avold certain
points during cross-examLnalion because he is saving the testimony for rebuttaL at a
later tine or he wlshcs the defense to address the issue first during cross-examlnatiorl

49

-, :., +.:".+r::,li+;i',frii4ii.,tFr.-----
 ;
lr
ot!
I trg
! o.d
c
o
,f;
u ,;
u tr s"fi
Or{Utr
H E g u d$I
OToCEF{cJ
r|.u o {.} o c, _tnl tr ilJ Ft .
'or. C6 E o;;.i;
qi0,, f"_ -;
eA li35 ip
b; Eqt"ii5-
60#
c
{ r u
.lo
d!
l- ?q=:
F4q o< ;Et
p*r,o -.E=EEeE gt.E
*'tl
J:9
.€ ! !
PU:' ili
OO.
aeq
d e3fi E :";; s;; lrl:
il 6EE;ti i ttq<l 3'dE
o!
(! d Ed
oo
>r
FleO
CJi
frBl sF f;!1: err 1g p.";g13 e
ie;3 ;iF
.Ao
oo
9L
(rs!
*
cr q
Eoo
'rr}{!
i0!OU0
r: o4
o ./{ c,, o
;i#
*1"n5
;i 3i*;
31
'iio Hi3
4H l*i!:g H
v
x-lEX -3'-- -3; il".S-Eg
Hl :! J.,E rf.t
gl o.l o il qcJ o €! qs
t.a
:Jl
li
!jl;
al
tsii
C
(d
cJ 5
>f:a
.d
lOla>udlu
O (o
uIr
c,
O !
6 o,H
O60,
.o tr
..\t-o.JJ:
Joo
cd!!
O AG'
c', r{
'r il;.
q q op

u+oE
g;liiiiH
!;, 9:..Ia
ilf o'ijx
ua
i;8e;slF-u
EHc t.E_ d*EgBEg
9al,!oo
i.c'-;€ Ecor
- A6 , = Fy@e a

g
p

-.d
E>rrOo" 'rc3 s i
uopu6 5 eitt
@l * u,{ ki aJ4!o FTL i. = F{6 ruooJo p
:-l oo! cJ dd dEU
Lba C6'- 6*. qrO>rSirrd
t<l 0 (U 0 dq -c o .i da oik pcu _p-f-;-.oJ!
qia.: U: cq oldotr
-. ,r
'6 , c" cr c rr oij qltrDolr{
t'll
vi
!'l
Fl
ql
E
trCJA
do
! xo.;
doE
!o.;
c
o6
>'J C'
CJIJ
i$# Hs; *rgii gEi g$! !*s;,:r; , o

Ui .B
"{,.cEu,1 g) A'd eo!!
(/)>E :F |:q
qo o'l'c
d'U! r,iic!; Xq{
Ji.; j;39"3b9,t93
.c c 'f do
*
;
g,
o ooo r.o c € jI
.3 -coo
trr{ oj o!il"i
o 19: .cq
;;OrJ I dt
UO
cvt
o o 6 o
J: '!1 0 Ft ..i "g
!ai;j q!*t
q dd
(4.{ O ,.c 6.{
rl Orl
UE.d
F;-E;
o ..rrr ouu
u-c:
u< o
u f)
!o
i$
i Ei E! i
r# I
",
E" i
n

-6
t

9r
5C:
.
o
E
!
t ool{
do
Oy{q
tsk
rHJW;O'
u trFt o=
E nc 3,cLr o(d
EE r{o .o6A 6;
;--ol b ok
C; cJ E
koJ'(t
CJ lllt'

uu.C d! o! na i,l c$ ..S{ ,11

60} sO -
X riOrJ .ilb
, 6oe d-_op .OJ ' Oi Ft
EO od 3 -c o .. EE l. -trO E d >\OF{
=lqroq
;: bd p c, cr truok
c6il.d o.
looo
utroo.c o
oo +JE 60
*,6 6.
., cri !d
(0rq qttr
O o
d
Cr.o
oud c !
*o! 6 cop a qTlq! ua 6;
iroJ oi i.,{! ,E ou
xX= d Gti doo(n '-{>,o -6 e in Ad.j
!o
'c= io !c,otrd
oF{F{ o -C } t
O
6 d0](tr.t
3st ocl.€-{
.a{.oqo
!c
po n,
lE
dH
;6 6u
iq o*o - q)o*F Or{ O
ooglii o,s -1lrYs?! !o L.6 56 at Eeu olJluo!
o A6E

iiisF!i
; 9.:r,qxH q.) d ca .
;; il
gr.r. tvtCoo qrc,

r* r;E
-c ;- ; !6tu
*i' aa(' !,t c PC Or{ru
+{
r!,
a.E C F I fr
E
i{do O trt { o o.c! d! ct *
i1 Hio }. o io 3 E !!i ! dFr o cu
X
._
X
cl
&ttu
eT{ O p
OCJir oclotl (t
,Eut!) .i
eA } !oh€
-o HiiEH:Fs IIr :!
fiiE:$.!p
*s ;i.i .E,y
g;
U
c,r 5;E
q* r
EEg
0OOCr.l
trF{!
oo
F{Ocr'ou
q,rHto!c'
} O
.c
s
'fir

6ii t ,4i
tr dF.t J
:'l Al 9Ex3o$ x
lU -C F{ ?.1 oo k oodij
= Ak r. o d d
> opq iE-o
ibor. BOC hEi .d

E
ii El S3g,1 3,
5i
HI ofiu
FBO
o6.3
FOOO
6o)kc
a oc
ooolu
drJ
cJ od

FFl(),l'
f:ififr1!; igi s;!
<.5-EEtSSf 8$5
3ig €g te;
,eE Ff,g
!r Eo6 o,t o OF{
>Fl OOJ !
l!(BCo
,c Er{ > o
tr X6
oOitko(,!
0l-C

r.
ffi'.-

F{ 6 A6 rl*.
t:
aJF{N
AE q,^tra, rU rur l:

la
P io .) oo
rd
l.o
,{ tr€
6J
(0
d ..:
!
I od
ill o
'.{
4
1
34fl
qo ! 5
u 3
i li
;c, 9.3 3X
do
.E .ci.. : 11 orc
:
i^
o e
-O
.c!
*!J
o o
3a
di{
ra
u
E
u6'oH

q,
i
4 E
Q
H:t gf; :
odu: i u
d
6rt
lr
o5b)
-Yoct
.".JOo
.d .ec
!
q
!!
r.
o E
.u
td5;
o ot jo
g
u
BO
Q& ;.
O C
!. O qr-C oo rt
r.a i
u o H o 6i .o E!
6{, '
ao
'..5
di
o.!
G O
u
d o F j s 'S "fl8t
sodo -g
o .
o6
o(do t
F1 ! 5c ip i ct dU
tI F!-p
o oo n
o
.JEd, d,
oc
art x o Ig q.
o
=5-:5.E ,.d:
iiE
..C o
o!!
q'o
E a -?t 0! r{
Sl ' !u tr;ooo
oq t)6'. r or!
uf e*;-E
co ota J !
6r{rJ .g
,.{ 5 C,
otr r.l !
trd H ! fr
H 3 oo dJA.
o!qJ
c orr
!o
t

"d PE,f ag j-. ".9

oo)
Or{ O u
!rt
tru
l. !a{
F!
c0 ,4
!!i
o:
;
u
?
;i. Y{PE
3o
J0)
i

nl
o oq
d.c O
a
o o :-r. y zA "f,f e ox HE onl.
ig t Y,f g.= o$ EO
c,tu 'HI Ft
irl Ou u -g CJ6 !d I
tl >(!u i! a^D o
4t O qc >s 'oo o ql - -si'C !oc,
cF'A Eio- u !!
:#
.*:i l]
6il 3eR EB CJN
o,4
:Fq
''{>
(0
d
EE
.
:-; #iiiifi 3r
i-i..j Fu :a3n
crtrt
s 5q)
q o-c
<o!

6
P=o
ctr O .d

oiu
I llo
3r :c ir
t
e
-6 '. iotr
e.15 g
Fclf ooc a 6
sl *u;9
5i srn;j =rr.1 q5o
:1
t? oEo
o opl-,
1l c o
:
oou
q,
ui
h3o ccJ
-o
v,
ar
;j_j
u
o
o
kU
t
6
i.tE'5;e r.J' j'aG o' c
Fl dco s'o(!od
c^ H .i
6r!A
E ;
.^l!u"
:!
:tl qrUI.9
-l 0 r{
P
{
i
.
pc,
?d 6ld o ooo X
I"it 5"*
bj
!'
bo
:ok
6
a
A
If,e
E
E
Ji
;
Yll .cl c iu Iqr 4r lltc €t.d ; 00
a
r{ 3d c cr.{
gI
<lToooij
5 T E E
0p .{ctE t!
oc.o o
_? oF{
oucio X EqtO
}€
au 6 o
A.06
o
t
E
e
a
a
A
A
c
c
(:6
l.qt
!
6

50
The ofilcer should therefore never volunteer infornratlon or assume that the prosecutor
has overlooked slgnlficant facts.
Crlt.ical- ro ani' testimony is the unCerstaoding that the witness rnay be asked a ques-
r:jon io rrli:,clL irc doe:: noL kn,ei.r Lhe ansr.rer. A witness sttoutd never hesitaEe to aclni.t that
he do':.s Tlol' know tt:e anslver to a particu.lar quesL.ion if that is the case. To atLenpt to
anslter a question under such condi"tions wil-L inevitably lead Lo disastrous consequences.
r\s any other r.'itness, the police officer may err during his testiurony. A naEural
re:rction of rnany \./itnesses who make mistakes on the stand is to overlook the error.
Police officers, however, cannot lgnore their mistakes in hope that they go undetected
since such occurrences rnay be daraaging to the prosecution. As soon as tre realizes that
a itistake tras beeu nade, the police officer should inform the judge that he would like
to correct an error made in his prior tesEimony. If the officer is already off the
rvitness stand, he strould notify the prosecutor irnm.ediately, In al,l- likelihood the
pt-osecutor will recall the officer as a wit.ness to correct the erroneous testimony"

POST-TRTAL

Testifying in court is a ski11 that has to be learned, practiced, and continually

improved on. After each court appearance, the officer should evaluate his performance.
He should reca1l weaknesses and learn ho$r to overcome them. If possible, the officer
should seek the :rdvice of the prosecutor. Because of their knowledge and experience in
the courtroom, prosecutors are often able to pinpoint deflciencies in the t.estiuony of
witnesses and nake construcEive suggestions. Through these post-trial evaluations, the
Pclice offj-cer witl gai.n the confi-dence and knowJ-edge he.needs to improve his court
alpearances.
Irrhen the defense beLieues that the state's evidence was insufficient or the indict-
nerl! did not sLate a criminal offense under the law, the defense may make a motion for
"ju<lgrrent not withstanding the verdlct" or judgment of acquittal.
Tire'defendanr may also rnotlon for a nen trial. The most cotlmon basis for grant,ing
a nee, trlal is insufficiency of evldence to supporE. the verdict. Also, some courts
have considered errors of law and improper conduct of trial particlpants durlng the
trial under this motion. A thtrd notion for retrlaL can be rnade on the clalm that ner;
evidence which affecEs the verdlct has been discovered, In order to justify a new
trial, j-t must be shown that:
o The new evidence r,ri11 probably change the result of the trial.
The evidcnc: could not have been discovered before the trial_ by the
e;:ercise oi due diligence.
Th: eviCence ls material to the issue.
o Tire evirternce is not merely cumulative or of an i.mpeaching nature.

\ rl:fen<letut also has the right to appeal when he has been convicted of a'crirne and
aL1 of his posL-Erial motions have been denied by the trial- judge. The appeaL proce-
Cu:t: is not a retrial process, nor is it ordinarily a re-examination of factual issues.
The basic function of the appelLale court in an appeal is to revlerr the legal- issues of
tbe case.
Because of the possibility of a successful appeal or a successful motion for a new
trial, the investi.garing officer nust carefully preserve all notes, reports and other
:nat.erj-ais rel.ated to the case so they rvill be available lf needed a second time,

51
52
53
54

""t
 CHAPTER SEVEN

INFOfuYANTS*

The ccrm "informantrtls wldeLy mlsused throughout the lalr enforcemenr- connrunlty.
As used by vari.ous agencies, the word may refer to any nuuber of information sources
ranging all the way from a skilled speclal employee, who can be dlrected to penetrate a
criminal organization, down to a repuEable citizen who passes on inforuratlon to a
friendly officer. Some agencies even refer to fellow pollce officers as infonnants
when tlrey provlde lnformation related to an investigation ln progress. Fot the Purpose
of thls chapEer, the term ttioformanttt ls not used to descrlbe routine sourcea of lnfor-
mation or persons who are contacted and lnterviewed as potentlal wltnesses durlng the
course of an lnvestigation. Procedures for contacting and extractlng informatlon from
these sources have already been coverecl ln Chaptgrs 1 and 2. Here we are concerned
with informants to the excent thaE they require special attention in additLon to the
conEact and lnEerviewing skll-ls described earlier.
Even working wlthln these restrictive limltationa, an attempt to cover all posslble
varieties of tnvestigator/infornant relatlonshlps is lmpossible. We can oirly establish
appropriaEe guidelines for deallng wlth certain types of lnformaots or sltuations in-
volving informants, and t.he invesElgator must adapt these grridellnes to hl.s or.m parti.cu-
lar circumsEances. For instance, a vorking definitlon of an l-nformant, in lts Purest
sense , rnighc be:
,
any non-law enforcement person who, by reason of h1s
famlLtarlty or close associatlon with crloioalsr suP-
plies regular or constant infornation about crlmlnal
actlvilles to a pollce offlcer.
Olrviously, certain iaforrnant types are not included in the above definition, and addi-
tional consideration must be made to include persons who obtaln lnforrnation from other
sources or who act frorn different motivatlons. Nonetheless, the primary lnfornant, who
provides the narcotLcs lnvestLgator with lnvaluable assisEance when he is properly
handled, and for whom special procedures have been developed, does ususally fit the
airove deiinltion

To avoid further confusion it may be helpful to descrlbe informaat types in terros

of escalating degree of lnvolvernent in an invesrigation, For exanple, safe Pr6cedures
for ccrrE.acring and intervlewlng an lnformant. who is recelvl-ng regular paynent6 from

*llaterlal in this chapter is based on:

Qrug Eoforcenent Administratton, , DEA,
Washiogton, D.C.
llanuel R. Carza, Ugfti ngency ll"r"otic lta , LEM, Washlngton, D.C.
Internat,ionaL Assoclation of Chiefs of Police, Training Key No. 135, Informants,
TtCP , Gatthersburg, tfd.
John B. ltct aufhltn, The Drug. Investigarort-s Manual (Lg74), L.E; Publiehers,
Chicago

55
police in return for lnslde informaEion about a narcotlcs disrrlbution system uri1l dif-
fe:: co;"l.siderabil,y from procedures for obtaLnilrg ir-rcldental personal lnforrnation abouc an
ilrdlvigual from a proslitute lrho is known to associate vith him. Both persons are in-
formanrs, bur the situatlon obviously demands different requisites. In order to further
speei-a1ize our worklng vocabulary, the fol-lowing terminology has been developed to refer
to infJrnai!!: type,J
1) The Occasional- Infornrant--sometimes provides invesEigatlve Leads when contacted,
but r.rill not parElclpate in any regular pattern of reporting inforrnation. The occa-
sional inforeant will not provide swbrn testimony or appear in court as a witness. Thts
category includes known or past crini.nals, associates of crioinals, prostitutes, ad-
dicts, and may also describe anonymous callers. Re1labillty of infornaEion is alvays
quesLionable and nust be verl,flad fron another source if needed as evldenee.

:l) Arrested Infornants--provirJe infornation about crirninal associaces in order to

escaPe prosecutlon or reduce charges agalnst themselves. Informatlon obtalned is the
result of negotlatl.on, and is usually avallable as a "one-timelr opportunity. An ar-
rested lnfo:emant nay agree to irovide testl^mony against a more ioportant narcotlcs
figure or he may agree to become a regular lnformant upon release. Convlcted prisoners
are also .incl-uded tn this type of inforrnant,
3) . ReguLar or Constant Informant--ls usually a member of a crimlnal group or e
close associate of crintnals. He is by far the most valuable type of lnforoant for the
narcotics Lnve$tigator. The regul.ar informant may have several moeives for supplying
infornation, but he often accepts pay'nent.
4) Special Informant--goes beyond merely providing informatlon. Thls type of ln-
formant will actlvely aeslst an undercover ag'ent fo penetrate an organization. He can
be used to set up "buysrrt and he w111 appear ln court as a wltness if needed. The
speclal informanr will require poLice procecflon, and he may require relocatlon assis-
tance.

INI'O4I''ANT DEVELOPMENT

The narcotics offlcer who deals successfully wlth lnforrnancs must be versetil-e,
discreet, tactful, and capable of ellclting the trusE of others. He gtusE also be fatr
and be prepared lo live up to any promises he makes. Most lnvestigators who think back
to those iadtvlduals who were very successful j-n developing informants will agree that
rhese individuals possessed the following attributes:

o EstabLishnent of a good reputation for ethlcal conduct in developi.ng

successful cases
r Skll1 in interviewing
r Keen lnsight Lntci humarr nature and motivation
c Famlllarity with areas of actlvity in which they thernselves were
involved
o Farniliarity with the identity and behavior of people living and
worklng l-n those areas of hls responsibility
o Knowledge of applicable laws in various enforcemenE situations
o An appreciation of the true value of information received

56
These qualities irelp create an atnosphere 1n wtrich potential sources of inforuration can
o'"/ercodletheir rratural inirlbltlons against informing. The r.rost compelllng deterrants
alr'rinsr a person becoming an lnforraant are: hate fiorn associates, loss oi pride, dis-
officierls, fear of reraliation, rcpeared courr appearances, and b";;ri";;;ig^
:::::.,:t
During tiie selection process, consideration should be given to the, j-nforurantts
healtir, age, education, personaLicy traits, enployment an,l ilnances, and hls notives.
l'ailure to consider the whole person can resul-t in wasted expendltures of ooney and
ticie. Nev information froo an informant shouLd be verified through other re1iable
fo:nants, or in a controlLed situation where the lnfonnation i.s aiready knorm to thein-
ini'estigaEor' A11 in all, these techniques will a1low the narcotics unlg Eo assess-Lhe
informantrs reliabllity and to assign a tentative classiflcatlon or grade rt..ii"uri--
itv,
'the investigator has the responsibility to evaluate che infornoant and
tion in order to arrive at the truth. Hence, informant motlve ls tnporcant,hlsand inforna-
an
attempt to determine thaL moElve should be uade. The following are !"i"-u.,li"-tajrru"
behind an lnformantts behavior.
Financial Gairr. A very large nurober of informants prevtde Lheir lnfor.nation in
ruc.,r., T6i-]ffiE of noney. wiir" lt is true that the desire for money rnay be mixed
with deeper underll:ing motivee, the deslre for dLrect financlal gain ts unaeniaUly
j-lrportant. Many lnvestigators feeL that the lnfornant who supplies informatnon
financial gain can usually be counted as a rellable source of- infornatlon, siacgfor
quality of his -Lnf,ornat,ion ls his "prorJuct" and he wants to stay tn bustness. ?hethe
lnvestigator, however, should renain alert to the possibrltty oi recelving poo"
natlon frorn thls type of informant, particularly when lnfornation is scarle and irrfu"-
the in-
fornr:tnErs deslre to Elalntaln this source of lncome uray lead hln.to be excesslvely
ative. similarly, rhe lnvestlgator must evaluaBe the real capablltty of u p"teiir"i-cre-
intormant vho promlses to dellver lnforuat.ion after he ls gtven erploysreni.' A;-;ii-
tines the lnvestlgator should be cautious about what he sals ln the presenc" ;f ;;;
Lnfornsant' recognizlng that the lnfonrant rdho sells lnformatlon to one slde uay aleo
sell it to the other.

- Fgar.
that
Since self-preservat.ion is the flrst law of nature, it nlght be expected
the prospective informant $ril1 be more cooperative when he is afiaia ot-"il.ttri"g.
Tltis could be a fear of the la.nr or its enforcers. It Ls one of the practlcal facts of
1aw enforcehent that under such eondltlons the accused oay furntstr tire Lnvestlgator .

'.,ritlt direct evidence again$t other crioinals or show how euch evidence night bi ob*
tained. I{here such disclosures lnvolve hlgher-ups or implicate others, tiris sort of
development is very much to the advanEage of law enforcement personnel.

The fear motive is not necessarily restrlcted ro a fear of the law or itg conse-
quences. It happens on occaston that ao iniorroant ls a crininal ln fear of his asgo-.
ciates. If ioformation is to be obtained under these circuurstances, the informant must
be asr;ured that the lnvestigator v111 do everything possible to proiect h1n fron pos-
siblc retaliatlon from crlminal as.sociates.

. Revenge-
against
An infornant rnay be motivated by an all-consuning deslre for retaliation
an assoclate who has harmed him in sorne nay. Retaliation can take the i;;-;;-
disclosure of information to law enforcement authorLties. Sometlmes the desire for
revenge may come only frorn a feeling by'a member of a group that he ls belng dlecrim-
inated against or is not given preferential treatment or oiport,rnicy to wtri.ctr he thlnks
hi.s talents entitl-e hLrn. A desire for revenge sometines arlses froo factors Lndepen-
dent of crirninal acttvLties. JeaLousies and quarrels over lromen can cause the closest
of friends to become bitter enemies. In deallng with an informant wlth this type of
motive, a1l possible infornatlon should be obtained during the firsc contact. .Such an

57
informant may agaln becone frlendly wlth the violator and refuse to glve addltional
intcrnd^,t1on.

Self Imoorcancg. A common characterlstlc of the hunan being is the self-aggran-

dizenent and pieasure obfained frou spreadlng neus.to an lnterested ll,stener. The petty
offs-,:ier vho can enlist the'-rnd1,,'iJed interest cf arr investlgator vlth a itmeaLyr'sLory,:
gtri:, a r,.:nl egc boost out of the operation. His ego ts particuLarly eniranced lf he can
magnify his own Lmportance by gtvlng blts of informaBlon on the crimLnaL activlties of
Lnore notorious offenders. . Because the lnformant lrho ls egotlstlcalJ.y notl.vated oft,en
ha1 a tendency to Prattle, the lnvestigator must be wlJ.ltng to llsten to everythlng the
inforuranL has to say, or the lnvestigator runs the rlsk of l-gnoring whac night prove to
be very valuable lnforoation. Sorne Lnformants develop a t'detective complexn which also
serves as an ego-bullder.

- -9:e!-l!:*q9.. The-lnforrnant me-y be wllling to cooperate as an expressl-on of apprecl-

at:ion for sn officerrs interest. t'lany vaLuable infornants have been tlevel-oped by-an
oificer showlng interest, arrd perhaps care for the crinlnal and hls family whl1e he 1e
in custody or by hl-s asslstance in other lrays, such as helping hlru find euployroent upon
his release. ThLs not only establishes gooh iapport, but ilso oft"r, helps'l-rrhls rel
habilitation, uhich 1s the rnaJor reward. There are many lnformants who are assistlng
the police as an expressLon of gratitqde for previous conglderation and concern on the
part of the offlcer.
Refgl.m. Occaeionally, a wrongdoer will come forward because he ls repentant and
deeidG-li-liake restltutlon or lntends to rnake a flnal break vlth crirninal assocrateg.
This type of lnforurant 1s encountered infrequently, but when he ls, the offlcer should
be vety suspiclous and should thoroughly debrlef the repeoter. Lf such an lnforrnant ls
truthful, however, he can provide valuable lnforrnatlon and, when properly uanaged, he
can become an excellent contlnuing source of poLlce infornat{.on.

Informants as such are not enployees of the pollce agency, buE the reLationshlp
of an lnforurant to the agency lnrpos:s a speclal responsiblllty upon the poll.ce when
rhe lnformant ls engaged 1n aetivlty where he has received, or reasonably thtnks he has
received' encouragement or dLrectlon for that actlvlty frorn the polLce. For these rea-
sons" I't is lnnportant to formulate the linitatlons on the activities of informants and
the duties of the police wLth respect to tnformants, even though many of these lftnlta-
tions and responslbtlltles are set forth ln lndividual lnstructioos or recognized in
existing practlce.
In consid.erLng the use of lnformants ln an authorized l-nvestigatlon, the police
shorrld weigh the following factors:
c The risk that the use of an infornan! in a partlcuLar investigation
nay result in actions contrary co l-nstructions: the informant nrighc
vlolate individual rights, lntrude upon prlvlleged comurunlcatl-ons,
or conpromise the investigatlon and/or subsequent prosecutlon.
r The nature and seriousness of the operation under investlgation and
the likelihood that the informatlon whlch an lnforsrant can provide
Ls noc readily avallab1e through other sources or by more dlrect
means.

e The character and motivation of the lnformant hlmself, that is,

his past or potential lnvolvement in the matter under lnvestlgatlon
or 1n any other criminal actlvity, his proven rellability, or Ehe
avallability of the neans to verlfy lnforrnatlon which he provides.

5B
 r The measure of the abtlity of the pollce to control the inforroantrs
actlvl-ties when he is acting on behalf of the pollce, and to ensure
that his conduct w111 be conslstent wLth his lnstructions and the Law.
o Lhe pcientia1 value of the lnf,rrmarion he rnaT be able to furnish in
comparison to the conslderatlon he may be seeking from the pollce for
hls cocperation.
The pollce should inslruct ali lnformants Lt uses thac in carr:ylng ouE t,heir ttas-
signments" they sball not:
r Participate j.n acts of viol_ence
o use qnlawful technlques, such a6 breaking and enrerlng, electronlc
surveillance, and openlng or or.herwlse timpering wlth the ur.ail to
obtain information for the poLice
. Initiate a plan to connit criminal acts
r Partlcipate in crlminaL actlvities of persons under Lnvestlgatlon,
except lnsofar as rhe police det.ermlne that such participatlon is-
necessary to obtaln informatlon that is needed for prosec,rt1on of
the case

I}:FOfuYANT INTERVIEWS

Because of the varLety and courplexity of motivations that may

cision of an lnfornant to cooperate wlch a narcotlcs lnvestlgator, underlle
excruru
the de-
i,r"t u.
exercised during ilrtervierts wtth the inforrnant. The lnvestlgator tnust ""i. sensl-tlve
renaln
to the reasons why the lnformant is cooperatlng, and he must do nothing to ir,rpede the
fLow of lnformation.
An 'extensive inrtlal intervlew ls lmportant when developing
informanc. This incerview should be herd ln a motel room or orhera regular or congtant
r""ii";;i;'
awai' from both the pollce station and the lnfornantrs normal residence ""i.
business. The location should be such that necessary admlnl"it"ai;;;o.t or place of,
be corn-
Plered in additlon to encouraging a relaxed, lnfornai conversation. Durlng ".nthe inter-
Yi:"' the lnvestigator should attempt to l-earn as much about the informant as possible.
rhis includes details about the i.nforrnantrs background, hls occupatron, associates,ln-
conPe, previous arrest record, and aliases used. The Lnvestigaroi shouid
also record
any personal idiosyncrasies of the infonnant, his general atiitude toward assl-stlng
police, and preferred time and pl-ace for future the
"oit."t".
Appropriate forms nust be completed at thls time. These forms will be filed ln
thc ttnj'Lts informanc file. The lnvestlgator should take time to
th:rc iris identity v111 be carefully conceal-ed. The need for rhe;;i;i;;."rlve the infornant
reassure
should be expl-ained" They musE be cornpleted Jn order to obtain funds or forns
penses related to obtaintng lnformatlon. The record is also Justify ex-
formailtts own protection ln the event of future arrests during a ral-d orfoiother the in-
conpl-eted
ac t ion
pollce

rhe lnformant shoul-d be fingerprinted and photographed ar this inlcial intervlew

session, Most agencies do not requlre the standard three sets of fingerprints comnonly
taken of arresr-ees. Some units requlre only thunb prlnte, since the
'ntireLy for personal ldentificaLlon. The photograph should be a sinplef.,rpo". here ls
head aad
iroulders shot with che inforrnant looking directiy into the camera. Agatn, the purpose
is entirely for personal identlficatlon. A Polarold rype photo is u"ufrty';;q;;;:--;

59
 F163ure 1: COI{DUCT OF COMIDENTIAL I}TFORVNNI

I, the undersignsd undetstand that while I ao

cooperati-n,r wiih and assiriting the ,Iam
i-.,i1-{:.';.l1 ;r,, do crny of t1'.: fcr.j lr:';rlr;rl:
A. Sell or deliver any conLrolled substance, dangerous drug,
marljuana, 6r any substance purported to be sarue, to anyooe.
B. Never selI or deli'rer or cause to be sold or delivered any
controlled substance, dangerous drug, mariJuana, or any
substance purported to be same, to any person who would then
in turn sell or deLlver sald controlled substance, dangerous
drug, urarlJuana, or any substance puilported to be sane, to any
member of the unit or any other person.

c. Never use my sex, sexual"ity, or sexual activLty to lnduce or

persuade any indivldual to sell or del-lver a controlled sub-
stance, dangerous drug, mariJuana, or any oEher substance pur-
ported to be same to any oember of the unit.
D. I further understand that I may never search any suspecB, person'
house, papers, or personal effects.
E. I nay never become l-nvolved ln any actLvitles that would
constltute entrap,ioent.

F, I further understand that I ur,ay nqt engage in any illegal

or lnproper conduct so long as I an lrorklng wLth the
unit.
G. Further, I understand that any violatlons arlsing frorn ny
actions ln vl.olation of Ehe above clrcunstance w111 result
in an lnwestlgatlon of matters and lf the charges are sub-
stantlated, appropriate action (tncluding the possiblllty of
criminal prosecutlon) w111 be taken.
H. L am agreelng to cooperate rrlth the
unit of my orrn free w111 and accord, and not as a result of
any intimidation or threats.
In agreeing to work with the unit, I
understaad that no unit agent may oake any expllclt or iurpliclt prouises or
predictions regardlng the likely dispositlon of any crLroinal proceedlngs that
are pending againsr me, but that unit agents will rnake thelr best efforts to
arr.lnge a meetlng wlEh prosecutoriPl authorities at which time such oatters
can be discussed.
SIGNED:

}JITIIESSES:
TII'TE:
DATE:
PI,ACE:

60
 sar::plr. ()f the lnformantrs sign.,rture must aLso be obtaLned. The sl.gnature
must be on
flle in order to prove thrE lnoney plld for inforruation was actually recei.red by the
i n fornant

Fr:cn the begirrning, the investigaior and the informanl should, have a clear under-
'stan<ling of the basic rules, regulations and procedures that will be folloved during
the course of their relationship, Such icens include preferrerl manner of contact an4
meeting, the rnethod of reinbursement and amounts that will- be paid, and proced,ures that
vill be followed if an informant is arrested durlng a narcotics operation. He should.
also be briefed about. what he can and cannot do to assist the invlsti.gatlon. Ihe last
j.ten refers to types of searches that nay 1egal-1y jeopardize
p:rr:icipation of the informant in planning activit,ies rhat hethe
ryill""""1
or the d.egree of-
laier reveal ;;
i;r io rmon t ""
Adniniscrative details aside, the purpose of the initial lnrerview:rnd
quent inlerviews is to obtain the maximum annount of useful infornatlon from all subse-
the Lnfor-
For thls PurP.l{je' the lnvestlgator must adopt a synpathetic atrltude to"niJ-ti"
lalE'
irrformant and support him shenever pJsslble. The iollorrtng guidellrr." ror-ii;;;;";"-,
Lntervlevs are recoru[ended,
o syapathlze with the inforurant on aoy dlfflcultles he may be havlng
and show appreciatlon for inforoation.
o Do not belittle worthless lnformaEion or show the lnformant hoht
his infornation differs from other infonnation.
r Ask for information that is already knorn in order to check infor-
mant Is reLiabiLity.

a constantly pLay up the moElvas that are causing the info::mant to

' assist the lnvestigator.
r Avoid questlons that unnecessarily erabarrass the lnfornant or.that
'offend the informantts sense of decency.
r Always rnaintain control of the intervtew. Avgid arguoents.
r Do not ask guestLons chat can be answered simply wlth a yes or no.
Make the informant eLaborate on the answer.

o Upon terminatlon of the intervi.ew, obtain the address and teLephone

number of the informant and make arrangements for later contacls.
ConTmon sense and prudence must be used by the lnvestlgators in deternining
those
occasions in which tlrey wilL take written statements from the infornaots. one gul4e-
Liile however, is that the investlgators will obtain wrltten statements after all infor-
nant buys and all meetings between informants and the suspect that are of coosequence
to the case.
r\ certain amount oi businesslike note t4king is unavoidable at an initlal inter-
vj.ewwith a regular lnformant. However, at subsequeot meetings it nay be better'to
avoid noce takirrg untll the conversatlon has ended. Immediately aftei the neetLng has
ended' the investigator should prepare a memorandum settlng forth the infornacion
furnished, from vhom lt vras obtalned, when, wherts, and other d.etails. Note taking
during the intervien may have the effect of lnhtbtting the fLow of infornatlorr, orti.l.
at the same tiure Lndicating to the inforrnant what lnforoatlon the investigator con-
siders j"nportant

61
 i.Ihen intervi.ewing anC seekLng the cooperation of an artested person, the offlcer
sh.ruld precede tlre intl.:;r.rw by reading the interviewed his rights under Miranda- The
reason ls that there wt}l be dlscussion with the arrest.ee of hls charges, the evidence
againsE hin, and the like. This rnay lead to incriminating statements by the arrestee
rvhicir could laLer be usi,il. againet hitl.
In all hi..; relations virh an i.nformant, the investiga,tor muat avoid the use of any
ttsquealer" or
derogatory terms or words.that might offenil the informant. Terms such as
"dorrblecrosser" have no pLace in the relatlonshlp. The 1abe1 of "informant" Ltself.may
ttsourcert
conjute up derogatory connoEatlons. The investlgator shouLd use terns such as
or ttspecial empLoyeett ln the presence of the lnforoant.

The invesEigator should express appreciation for the infonrantfs cooPeration at the
e:rd of the ii:telview, bur r;hile the interview is in progress he should remain neilcom-
mittal- aboub the 'ralue of spectfic items mentl"oned by the lnformant. thls is necessary
t'doubl-e agent.rt
because of the possibility tt.t the investlgator rnay be dealing wlth a
Sone persons who offer lnfornatlon to narcotics invesElgaEors are, in fact, seekLng
informatlon abor.rt the extent of police knowledge in a parlicular area. The type of re-
sponse eliclted by speclfLc items can reveal a great deal to the informant about pollce
knowledge. Just as the lnvestlgator may occasionally ask the informant for informatlon
that Ls already known in order to test the inforoantrs credibility, so may this Cype of
false informanU occaslonally test the investigator with lnaccuracies. If the investi-
gator responds wlth inpatie:rce or anger, he has in effect toLd the informant that the
police have already learned that much fron scime other informant.
Any pronises made by the investigator must be carried out faithfully if he is to
maintain the confldence of his inforurant. He should be careful, therefore' never to
promise anythlng that he cannot dellver. The investigator, for instance' cannot Prom-
ise rhe lnformant that he wlll not go on trial for certaln crines. He can, hovever,
make good hls promise that the prosecuting attoroey w111 be notified of his cooperatlon
in aiding tire investigator.
Other guides in deallng sith an lnfornant lnelude: keeping appolntments on time
even'though the infonoant may not appear, belng patient with hirn, and investigating all
1eads. The fact that a previous tip was of no value should not be cause to automat-
ica1ly dismiss otlrer tips. A11 infornation fron informants should be considered valid
until proven to be otherwise.
An exception to rnany of the normal rules for lnterviewlng lnformants is presented
by the anonydous inforrnant. The anonymous informant may be of great help, even if he
is never seen. lle may be the anonymous telephone ea11er or the anonymous letter writer.
l{hen an anonymous telephone call appears to have some slgnificance, the investiga-
tor should be sure to get all the infornatlon at the tirne of the ca1l. It rnay be the
only chance to talk wlth that person. People who would not oidinarily think of com-
rrunicating in this fashlon r.ri11 celephone under emotiorial stress. Sometimes these
ca1ls are fron mentaLly unstable individuals. They can usually be elirninated as such
after the conversation has pr:ogressed a short time. The investigator should avoid the
tendency to become discouraged wlth these anonymous ca1-1s-
In numerous instances, anon)i-mous letters have given the police the first inkLing
of a violation of laws previously unkno'm to the agency. Such letters h.sve nafied asso-
(:iaLes, connections, and other elemeots of inportance in conspiracies or other viola-
tions. If the investigator insists thaC anonynous letters are worthless, he may dis-
cover to his disoay that an excellent clue has been overlooked.
If an anonymous informant seems to have real inforrnation, the investigator shquld
get al.l the facts possible, but he should not reveal any infonnation Ehat he may have
by stating that he already knows lrhat is being told, The lnvestLgator should keep ln

62
 that this may ha hls only chance at thl"s source of lnforsntlon. He should ask
'.iiilt'l
si:r reliirb[e questlons qui.ckly, deftly, and coolly: who? lrtrat? When? Where? ttow?
i:lrr.t';-r
and -r^lhy? He should remain casual, avoiding any indicarion of undue inte.u., o" u".i;;:
nei1l. reg*.rdl_ess of how lurportant the message may be.

Special colsi<leration is also required when interviewing fcnale informanis. The

-
fenrrl-e informant nay be a reputable e{tlzen or she may be a frostiEute, rn
it:Ls incumbea! upon tire in'restigar.or to restrict the relationship "a"",
".,y tntor-
to gatherin!
naiion aad to avoid any false clalms of misconduct. By treating prostitutes with the
sarne sorL of decency and consideration extended to any woman, the narcotlcs invesEiga-
tor aay be abLe to get lnforrnation that he could not get otherwise. The prostltute ls
an important. source of lnfornatlon about crlntnaLs beeause men may talk rather freely in
her oresence about whaL they have done or what they intena t. a".'
There shouLd be no meetings between agents and fernale informants unless Lhey are
of'flcial and only after a supervisor has been notlfied. At every neeting with a female
informant" there ideally should be Lwo lnvestlgatore. whenever
iossrblel th;;"-*;;;i;;*
shorrld be heLd i.n publlc places. While nale lnformante try to befriend Ehe polLce of-
ficet, fenale informants try Eo develop friendshlps by uelng eex. ttr" ,rirt conoander
should have'strlct gutdelines prohlbl,tlng close relatlonstrtfs or soclalLzLng between
agenEs and female informants. Developn"ttt of voluntary informants nec.sslllt;;-;-;;.-
tain anount of personal contact, conversatlon, flattery, and the ]-Lke, but th{s necee-
sary fraterntzation between lnvestlgators and fenaLe infonoants shouli u"
controlled ".t"ioiiy--
Addlcte and parolees should also be Eentioned withln this context of specla.l h.n-i
tltng. Perhaps no Lnformatlon source exlste whlch is porentlally rnore
"rr."ti".-ttii
the addlct infornant. He can obtain flrsthand lnformatlon on drug trafflckLng tn-an--
aree. He knows how, when, and where the actlon is. Beceuse he tf knoun and aecepted,
he can also lntroduce others to the drug ecene wlthout uniluly arouslng the susplcloas
of abusers and thelr suppLlers. Therefore, the investilator stroJta nake a strong
-drugto
effort recruit and screen potential addlct lnformante. In thls recrultlng pro*.""] .

clre-officer's judgnent as to the Lnfonaantts credl.blllty and reltabiltey ts tasea par-

tia11y bn prlor knowl.edge, feedback fron the lnforuant, and the offl.ceris fntrrftfon.
Unfortunately, the iaatct informant also poses a very serl-ous threat to an in-
vesLigatorts personal safety. Addicts have been known to sec up pollee offi".i*-o.
psrricipate in attemPts to frane then. They have also supplied erroneous Lnforlratlon
for the del'iberate PurPose of using the police as an lnstrument for persooaL revenge
upon others, or so that they can Learn the identity of an undercover'offtcei i"a-"i-
ploit thls inforoallon to further their orm ends. The iqvestigator should remeuber that
if an addlct vill se1l his wife or daughtet to satisfy his habit, he would not hesitate
to sell a police offlcer.
The use of paroled infonnants should be avolded as much as posslble, parolees are
rrsually not al1owed to assoclate lrith other ex-convicts or to becone involved wlth any-
one asEociated rvith iLliclt actlvity. T.n addttion, rhey are usuall_y restrlcted by eur-
fcivs. Cooperaticn vith a narcotics unlt, even wLth the consent of parole offlcersr pr€-
sentsgravecontradictionstotheintentoftheparoleProcess.
Exceptions may occur in the case of a parolee vho has already become involved in
-i]1ega1 activitles, and therefore, may be subject to havlng his parole revokdd. In this
i-nstance, howevet, the parolee is probably beEter descrlbed as an arrested lnforr:rant.
Instead of prorriding a constant source of lnforoation about ongoing crlminal activity'
iike the regular infornanc, hls information will nearly alvays be supplled as the re-
srrlt of some kind of negoElation.
The use of juveniles by narcotics lnvestlgators as inforrants piesentB the poten-
tial for Srave probLens.' In urany states, follow-up lnvestigatLon bf juven:lle cases and

63
t!'Ie intervtewlng of j'rveniles 1s restricled to speclallyprohiblt' trained juvenlle offlcers'
lloreover, gerre{ r1 aa<l juverntlt' courts f rown on, ttot an inltial or addi=
_i,f even for Ehe purpose-of a
ai.i"r-;"oir*,rr* of a Juventle t-o crtmtnal activlry, l4rresttgators should
.essistlng
refrain fron
l;rw enforc"*urrt ug..,"|. Consequentfy,'""t"otics 1n anliclpati'on of a
u:ii.ng -irrveni.Le lrrfornants ln rnakln.g u"yt o. uraklng incroductionschey nay have on illtctt
brry. This, of co,*rric, d,res rroa pro.i,rite eftcftfr.! lnfott"tion
narcorics acrivity, alEhough ".,"f, foiJt"f"ti"g "ftlulil be done by a J.uvenile
officer lf
it is so required bY sEatu.ce
theY' should obtal! Perrnlsston
If a juveniLe is used by narcotlcs investlgatorstand,
rro, ii.l;;.;.;;'t;; t;;;"iie officers in the caee, if applicable, anv Juvenile
probation offlcers invilved. Againrl.*at.t" caution-ousE te used as the officers face
grave consequences should inJury occur to the Juvenlle'

llFoRirANT NEGOTIATIONS

Thenarcotics investigator must be prepared to negotlate wlth erimlnals in order

ro obrain neede<t iJ;;;i;;.--mi" ;;;! li enfoicemenr is not well understood bv
9t
but ft-renafns an importaot neapon l'n the
rhe general public and l.t ls often.irit.r".a, vlolatlons'
law enforc.*"na *i"Iilfr-p"iti"rriarfy with reference to narcotics

Whlle federal enforeement agencies Eay restrlct tlheir actlvities

to cases lnvolvlng
only maJor narcotics ttafficker", t""i"rpai pohce do.not l""t :!il-:n:1"1.:*,Y:"*::::-
;;ii":-:;;p;;";;;-;';";;-;;i.tivelv
PUlrg€ erslyrt ti'" :P"'i::1: 1".1":l?:::.::-t:o:::.':":l::"'
"'"ir'ralght
ih" fa.t that greater long range beneflts be achlt
#,il; ;ili.";il;;iegitiuate
;-;:";.iir""l--"-io," i,po,rant flgur: i" :iTll ":: 1^:",1:::*
- -!--r-- --* ^ €^-a{lr1a

;;;;;;;;;";;; complalnts of cltlzens who, for example, do not want

rletr chlldren corruptla ty a dealer op.ratiog al 1forloc-a1
thie
high school: lll-li:t}.^
-
;ii.""il;i"irr.l"iirl"i-r"ir"".--m"y-i""i .*i""a ry'ry::_: T:::::..":,.:;,:"-
;:il:""JT:'ri;l;";^iil;;;;;;. ;;;;";;.",-"i"tt'"T .' n::^?l-;::::i^::"':g:-"1-:nt"
i";"il; Itl'il""."n;;;i;1;";;pi"""tt to a comrunitvrs oarcotlcs Problen'' when law police
abldiag cltlzens
-i;;;; observe and- eornplain about vlolatlons of the law, they expect
;;;i;;: acrion Ls nor forchconing, poltce rapidr.y to"".:t.t"]"
:"nno..-
The narcotl-cs lnvestlgator should regard arrests-uliade at thls relatlvelY
low 1evel
of narcollcs actLvlty ." .i opportqnl'Ey to develop lnfornants' An arrested street
tlealer can possibly be persuaded to an lnvestigation dlrected at hlgher level
-
operators. such lnformante are developed
"""{"t through a procees of negoEiation'

In somenarcotlcs units, the defense attorney and Prosecuting attorney parllcipate

in neetings to negotLate charges against an informant vho trishee to cooperate' the
poLicy generalLy foll-owed is ihat the lnfornantts cooperation wil-1 be mentioned to the
court if he pleads gulJ.ty to the orlginal or reduced charges, and if he,assLsts the
rrnit in naking . *.I. against either his "source't of drugs or a blgger dealer' In
r:lany eases, informants cannot make a case against their olrn sources because knowledge
of their arrest iS wldespread. In these initances, the lnforurant may be abLe to asslst
i-n making a case agalnst another Pusher, one-who is a blgger dealer than the informanE'
Units must be careful Ln such cases because lnfornants oiien ttysupplies' to make a case against
even one of the pushers that the infornant
"--"i"fi"i-a".f.i-"r
thlnk through the consequences of negotiatlons,with an ar-
The invesrigator should followlng
rested violator bJ;;.';;;ir,g-."tfo.,. fl" exarrple, he should consider the
questlons i

o Has the lnformant been charged with a crime?

c Does he expect the charges to be Lessened or dlsmlssed or trls. sentence
to be reduced?

64
 o Does the infotmant expect to be pald for his information?
c Does he expect to commir cri.mes wlrh inrnunicy from arrest?
o Is the infornant ts informatlon reliable?
o Can it be independently verifted?
r Can a deal be made erhically and legally?
I What does the prosecutlng att.orney say?

r Must the idenilfy of the inforrnant be rerreaLed to prosecute the case?

If so:
- Is lt worth Ehe loss of a valuable infornant?
Can the lnformantts safety be guaranteed until after the trlal?
- will it be necessary to finance the l-nfornantrs disappearance?
The investigator should be carefuL to avoid anything that night be construed
pr'rrnise for sonething the offlcer ls unable to suppry. rn additlon, as a
strlct
imperative. Whenever indications are made by the otir..t that he will recourmendhonesty is
duction of bond, lenlency by the courts, etc,, every precaution should be taken tore-nake
sure tl1e informant reilliz€s that such recommendatlons- may or oay not be follor.red by th;
courts. The ultlnate responslblllty of any plea bargainLng lies wlth the prosecuting
attorney.
when negotLetions with a poEenEial inforrnant end in agreement to make
cash pay-
rnenLs in exchange for perloclic reports, a strict poliey rcgardlng the amount
of layoent
to informants should be establtshed. one rnajor guldellne,-of course, is to nlnlmize
the amount of money paid for informatlott or rf a unlt comnander makeg a
"oopuration,
large payrnent to ;rn infornanr in{tially, lt w111 be extrenely difflcult for hin to de-
crcase payments at a l.ater tlrne. Ic is also inadvlsable to make a paynent to an infor-
rt;rnt tn'full. Giving hirn half of ir at one time, and the rernainder at a later dat.e,
rnay be a betEer neEhod. Payments to an lnformant should not be made unt{l
after he
done his work or hl's infornation has been checked out. If the Lnformant Ls going has
needed in court' paynent or ParE of the payment should be wlthheld until t" i."tifi"".-
to be
hrlren infornant PaFnents are made, signed and wltnessed receipEs should be obtalned
compliance with guldelines for confldentlaL expenditures. The arnount to be paid de-
in
pends on varlous factors. Consideratlon should be given to the value
giv':n, the potenEial risk to the infornant, the prLoriEy given to the of inforrnatlon
tar6eted suspect,
tlte ner:<ls of the informant and his potential vaLue to the narcotics unic i.rer an ex-
i:ended rinre perlod. Sonre units may have set percencages to be pai6. In one muLtl
elgency narcoEics unit for exanple, infornants were paid up to ten percent
cotics purchased, depending on the quality of the case. of the nar-

T.NFOR}AIiT CONTROL AND PROTECTION

Policies on who will be the controLling agent over j.niormants differ among depart-
ments' As a matter of policy, a coumander may decide that an informant t,b"lon!"t, -

either to the unit or to a Particular agent. When an informant belongs to the upit,
;rn}rone deslgnated by the conunander or supervisor may work with or conirol
Tire,latter method, in urany cases, should be glven considarat.lon because thethe informant.
conmander
aod/or supervlsors rnay be in a better posltion to evaluate the usefulness of the infor-
mant. rf, for iastancer'they judge that an agent is not getElng adequate cooperation
from an inforrnant, they rnight want to assign another agent who is rnore effective in
"rorking with hlrn. If the commander vants to dlstrlbute the caseload. equally among the
agents, he rnay asslgn any egent to $ork r,,ich the inforrrant. This tn"y rL"o be hellful
when an agent is beconrlng coo friendly vlth an informant.

65
 In sgme smn1l unlts where al-L inforurante are conErolled by the comnander and hLs
squtd superviso,:s, a1-1 corrtact with an inforrlant and all payrnents of noney to him are
o*ao by th. .o**"oder or his assistants. By utl1lzlng thls procedure' scrlc! control'
of all inlormants is naintalned. Although there ls some merit Eo this system' there
are also sone disadvanLages. The roain dlsadvantage is that the agents may feel that
tlrey are ;tof. truste,l fo control the informanc that they theuseLves dev,:lopctl- In ad-
dition, thls procedure c;rn increase che workload for the comoander and unit suPervisors,
depending on cire number of inforrnants. Other units have policies where the supervisor
aEtencls all debriefings of l.nformanEs. Thls is eound proeedure as l-f gives the super-
vlsor an opportuolty to ask hard questloas which the agent-, in_tris enthusiasm to geE
the infornant to cooperate, nay perhaps be reluctant to ask. The supervisor is able to
probe into areas that the agent overlooks, such as general erime actlvlty' After sueh
i aubrt.etng, the supervisoi 1s ln a better posltion to deEernlne the rellabillty of
the informant, hls future potential, and the Value of cases he can make.
In cases where an lnformant ls controlled by lndivlilual offlcers r an indlvldual
member of the departnent an{ one aLternate should be aselgned to each lnforrnant.
Idea11y, the offlcer who flr6t devel-oped the infotnant should be asslgned to hlnr and
subsequent congacts wlth the lnformant should be nade by the asslgned officer. An al-
ternate qfflcer can beeome aequainted wlth the infomant by accompanylng the assigned
ort1-cer ro occaaLonal neetlngS. Thls,utillzation of an alternate offlcer w111 facllt-
tate the neceseary contacts at some future tlme should the assigned offlcer not be
avalLabl"e.

of having one lnvestigator ea1l upon the infornant is to avoid repetl'-

The value
tive demands on the tnformanLte tfue and to circum'.rent personality confllcts' One 1n-
vest1gatornak1nga].1ofthecontacts,being.fu11ya!'areofthepitfa11shemay
countlr, wl11 expedltiously and economtcally keep reLatlons on an even kee1, and wl1l
actgalLy attaln mlch nore cooperatlon than couLd otherltlse be gained. Frlendshlp and
rnuEual trust beneen the lnformant and the offlcer tend to develop naturallyr but lther
no control ls,exercised, relatlone wlll grow thin each tlne ao lovestlgatlon is belng
conducted,

One of the prl.r.clpal responsibilltles of a control offLcer is to evaluate the

informant and estioate his reltablllty. Again, the lnfornatlon recelved shouLd be
tested for conslstency by checking agalnst the lnfornetlon obcalned froro other sources.
The notives ancl lnterLeti of the informant should always be consldered ln the evelua-
tion.
When arrested by a patrol offlcer on some unrelated charge, an lnforurant nay clalm
that he ls on asslgnment for the harcotics squad, or he nay mencion his relationshiP
with the narcotlcs-unlt to avoid being charged. There should be a pollcy established
whereby all persons claiming to be worklng for the unit as confldential -ioformants
should be processed like all other suspects. The narcotlcs unlt comrander or his su-
pervisors, not an offlcer who rnay be mentloned by the inforuant, should be contacted
j.r:nnediately when an informant ls arresEed. These situatlons are sore points wich pa-
trol offlcers who nray feel that informants are glven too much conslderaEion. By dts-
crrssing thls policy wich other clepartr[ent commanders, the unit cosrsrander avolds con-
flict between inillvldual patroL officers and his lnvestlgators.
Allegations of unethical irnmoral, and possible 111ega1- arrarlSements_between po-
lice and.lnformants underlLne the need for effective poliee nanagenent of the infor-
mant. For a narcoties rmit to functlon effectively, the identity of the informant must
be kept confidentlal by maintaining it tn one central f1Le that has conpLete aecurity.
Ihe number of peopl.e havlng access to thls central file should be as smaLl as posslblet
on a need-to-know basis. :

66
 The lnfornant file should contain all of the infom.ation knosrn about the {nfonrant.
It should concaln the results of an inquiry in regard to the infor.rnantts background,
inciurilng hl-s oceupatlon, associates, lncomes, and th'e like. It should also Inclrrde
h:is:rrresc record, fingerprfirt card, pictures, and copies of his real and alias elgna-
tures. Pertioent background data, general attitude tbward assisEing the police, kiown
perso:ra1 idiosyncrasies, and sugg,ested tine.and place of conEacts should be incLu,led.

A record of all money transactlons with the lnfornant should be malnt.ained in the
fi1e, includiog a resume of cases worked, thetr dlsposition, r,he nethod of paynent (if
any), and a general uP-to-date evaluatlon of the infonnantfs rellablllty. A consEant
effort must be trade to keep the file current to lnsure that a valuab].e inforner le not
losc to the departnent.
The lnforurantts nane should never appear outside of the master informant file, He
should be asslgned a code name or number, and thts should appear in alL reporis ln
which reference to hiur ls rnade, A cross-reference fIle ls useful, but lt fiust be rnain-
tained rrith the same degree of securlty as the master f119.
An I'informant locater" flle can be rnaintained apart from the oaster file and
housed where aecese 1s avatLable to all officers needing the Lnfornation, Thtg file
should be cross-lrrdexed by ,rllfferent classlfications, such as assoclaau",
type of operatlonsr or geographlc areas. Thus, through the use of this iocater
"oir,""rion",
iLLe,
lf the lnvesclgator neede an lnforroant and knows one or arore of the irrdex classifl.ca-
tlons, he may search the ftle and deteralne lf an informant ls worktng in the offlcerls
field of lngulry' If the offlcer ls able to locate an lnformanr in the locarer flle
where he is llsted only by code name or number, then the Lnvesll.gator can submlt a re-
quesl for contactlng arrangenents. Thus, greater use ls nade of the Lnforrnantti know-
ledge without comprornising identtty.
A cormander can vary the procedure for eecurity nalntenance and the nuuber of peo-
p1e with fl1e access on a trlal basis. If the systern of al1owlng all unlt oemberg ac-
cess ro the flles worlis well, the cor"'ander tnay lrant to keep that procedure, If ssne
inforrnant cards or pictures are lost, he uay etill allor.r th; egent; tnto the fffee, iut
only af,ter they have notlfled their superrrisors. Non-unlt lndivlduals should not have
access to the lnformant fil-e. Expert handling and Judgnent is needed to preberve the
integrlcy of the narcotics unit. If an lnvestlgator dlscovere that a p.r"on is ln-
forrning for another officer, i.t ls unwlse to urentlon that fact to the inforuant, even
in a casual encouncer. Securlty ls the paranount considerat.lon ln the contlnued use of
a person who is furnishing lnformation. Mlsrnanagement in connectLon wlth the informant
m3v' nean his death.

One of the most imPortant responslbillties of an officer lrho deals with lnformants
is to provide complete protection and security at aL1 tines, both in and out of court.
Ihe officer Tnust Ptotect the identlty of his lnforrnant as a matter of ethLcal practice
and because of the danger of underoi.nlng the confidence of his sources of lnformation,
If the inforner should be at the scene of a crime during its coruolssion, he wouLC
becorne a participant in the crfine under the prenise of res gestae, and any wl-tness who
corrlcl idenrify him would be required to do so. consequE-ttlllilry efforl should. be
marie to lceiep lnforuranEs a'vi/ay from the scene of narcot{cs buye, arrests, or other ac-
tivltles involv.ing those witnesses who know the lnformantrs true ldentity and can later
be fo:ced to testify
Infornants who are discovered by crininals ln.a unlttg Jurisdictlon and have lost
their utility may sorneElnes be relocated to another region for thelr own safety. The
amQunE of effort anC expenditures that a unlt is wllling to supply ln relocatlng Ln-
forsrants should be made clear to chen when they lnlttally begin to work sitb the unic
or when a partlcular' case ls lnltLated. If all the unlc can provi.de is a one-vay bus
Licket elsewhere, the lnformant ehould be aware of thls so there 1s no misunderetandlng
at a later tLme.

67
 If an infornant who is to be relocated is sti1L wt1ling to cQoPeraEet othe! munl-
cooPerat'lve in the
;. or federal narcotics agencies vhich have been
"ip.flii""
p:,isr should be";;a.
notit,.i.!d of his av,rilabt1.1ti. If one of theee-agenci'es is willlng to
vrork '"rlth hirn, they may be able Lo asslst tith .*p"ns:s or. help the inlor-nant eo obtain
a job. If such transfers are made, lt is inportant that-lh:.i:: agency receive com-
plete trirckground information on the tnfornant end hls rel.iability'

LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS* **
An informantts informatlon is hearsay. Hearsay ls a]-ways adoissible to Prove
probable cause, but lt will not supporE a conclusion that probabS-e cause exists unlets
there is a reasoc for beltevlng the lnformation is rellable. Reliability rnay be shown
by indicating that.the inforoanE has Prevlously glven police infornation that has
prooed to. be rel1ab1e. This rrsually takes the forn of a listlng of past instances
rrhere lnforiuation warr given, ttre type of infgrmation illsclosed, and how it was proved
to be rellable.
Confidential lnformatton received fron a,critrfoal infornant is deeoed reliable
when either:
1) An atrest and convlctlon results; or
2) A single arrest ls nade and evldence of the offense ls found (the
flndlng of evidence supports the lnfgrnation Ieceived, and a .con-
vlctlon ls not necessary); or
3) Several instances of gLving information each tesuLt in a., or
".rusc;l
4) SurveiLlances confirm the information recelved;2 or
5) Another lnformant, whose reliabillty ls untested, verifies the
informatlon by a staEeDent containing flrsthand and lndependent
knowledge of che matEer.s
'Confldential lnformatlon fron a police officer-lnformant is rellable per se, and
1r ig unneces""ry io show a PasE hl6tory of rellabll1ty as an lnforsrant' Thts is due
to several reasons:
1) The facts known to one officer are deened to be the facts knoltn Lo
all other officers with trthoo he is working;4
2) Under the "conduit theoryrrt information transmitted between officers
through officlal sources retains its tull- reliability;5
3) Po1lce officers, unlike criminal informanEs and first-time citizen
informants are presuued to be truLhful as a matter of Law;
4) Police officers have a duty to exchange useful- information, whereas
private Persons do not; and
5) A collective pool of knowledge among police officers differs sr.rb-
sEantially from other forsrs of hearsay'

*Footnotes follow this sectlon.

**The xnaterial in this sectioo ls based on: International Association of Chiefs
of Police, Legal Points No. 27, Warrant Requlreoents I--Use of Informants;'and No' 28'
l.tur:.rrrt Requiren"nts ll--Inforoanl Co '

5B
 l{owever' it is incr'rmbent on the prosecutlon to show the basis for anocher
carrs irrfornatlon -lf he is noL.r witness,6 Ttre underc;"";;"ii;"1iii"""'-rnfotmanr offl-
nol'$tish to ctrtlceal his idenclty to prerrent r:eprLsaLs--but rather to continue,,rorklngdoes
iln undercorrcr cai:;tcitg anJ a'.roj.d detectjon. This is a legitirnate obJective arrd ln
tr:r:i.ed by tire r:ourts. / ls pro-

Cott[idenLial information froro a "g,-rod citizenrr is usual-ly reliable, and. it is

Seneral-ly unoecessary to show a past history of reliabil-ity as an infornenr. Victi.as
of and witnesses to a crime have always been presurned reliable when they are not kept
confidential and are available to testify- The problem arlses vhen (1) the identlty of
a "good citizen" is not disclosed, ana (1) he has not freviou"ry
to the police. The 1971 case of united states v. Roosevelt ltudsoni".ii"trJJ
llarrls
tntorratron
involved an
unidentified infor:mant who :3
1) Had no proven reliabiLlty as an informer;
2) Had no previous experlence as an lnformerl
3) Feared for his lLfe should his nane be revealed;
4) Was described as a ,rprudent,, person;
5) }lltnessed the offense (bootLegging) wlthtn the past two weeks;
5) Stated he had purchased liquor from the suspect
The^U. S. Supreme Court, Ln revlewing the case, sald, '?eople do not 1lghtly
a-crime (buying moonshlne) and place critical evidence in the adolt
hands of the police in
the forn of their ovn admlssions. Adnlsslons of crLoe. . carry tt"rr-onrr'i"ai"r"'"f
credibillty--srrffLcient aE least to support a flndlng of ,probabll a.-"."i"i]'-
rt shouLd be reme;nhered that an adoission agaLnst lnlerest w1,11 render
"",r""hearsay adnls-
slble in trtals' too' thus further descrlbing the lega1 theory whlch places ,o 1nu"rr-
veight on these declaratlons.
wtrat lf the 'igood cltizen" merely relates firsthand, lnforoation but dlit
ticipate ln any illtclt activity? Factors whlch would glve ngt pat-
welghr to the t"ri"irirly
of the inforrnation recelved lnclude:
1) The clrcumstances surrounding how the inforarant Learned his infor-
nation;
2) The "apparent'r creclibiltty of the inforuant in terms of usual con-
rnuoity standards, such as:
(a) age;
(b) marital and dependent status;
(c) occupation and employnent history;
(d) permanence of residency:
(e) credit and other teferences;
(f) lack of even a mlnot criminaL record;
(g) motivaeions in inforrning pollce i
(h) motlvat{ons in desiring anonynlty.
A vlctln of a crlne (or a witness to a crime) may reoain anon)mous, and as a con-
fLderrtial infornnant, does not need to be producea rf itre subsequeni seaich t""".i":*r-
cence of other crlmes for vhtch the searchee Ls later prosecuted. Moreover, no past
reliablllty need be establlshed once it is shoqrn that lhe inforuant uas a rri.tf".g--S*-
amplee of offenaes where thie nlght occur are extortion schemes, or the fo.o..ii p.r"-'-
chase of one of several stolen items.

69
 Notwithstanding the actual reliability of an informant, a courE .w111 not accep! an
officerrs conclusion that a certain confidenttal lnforrnant ls reliable; the underlylng
cir'.:r'.insLailc;:s,.rir1.r':ir wg\ui..,:l le:,.d a rnagistrate to independently conclude Ehat the informant
1s reliabie mrrst be stated under oath.l0 Once the hearsay inforoation ls independently
denort,qErated.;rs woi:thy of belief, an officer oay srrear out a rrarrant properly based on
infornaiion and bel-ief .
Occasionally an informantrs identity will not be knorrn to the police, such as a
code narne signed on letteris or given on. the tel-ephone. Nevertheless, past reliabllity
can be established, For example, if an offl.cer recognizes a vbice over the phone as
the same person who pteviously gave verified lnforrnat.ion, lt is deemed reliable.ll
Ftrr obta{ning search warrancs, it is additionally necessary for the warrant affi-
davit or oath to:
1) Contailr a .statenent lndlcating how the lnfornant learned his lnforura-
tion, I 2 or
2) The inforr.aEion must be corroborated by a surveill"ance or other ap-
propriate r.a.ts.l3 Let us take an example.
C.I. (conftdential. inforrnant) #301 stated Joe Jones operates a vire-roorn at 215
N. llain St., Apt. 5, from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. daiLy when the tracks are open, C.I. #301
has proven reliabLllty but we dontt know how he knew about Jonest wire-room; he could
have been there or naybe Just plckecl up a good. rumor

There are at leagt.seven nays to obcaln the additional information needed:

L) Deterrnine lf C.I. /1301 qras at the apartment and saw bets belng taken;
or
2) .Deteroine lf C.I. #30L called a telephone nunber subscrlbed to by t.he
apartment occupant (Jones or anyone else) and pLaced a bet there; or
3) Place a bet to.that telephone number (lf this can be done without
alertlng the occupant) shortly before gettlng the search warrant and
executing the raid; or
4) Observe, ti posslble, Joe Jones going in at 9 a.n., leaving aE 3 p.n.;
and carrylng incrlninating implements, €.g., a daily raclng form, ad-
ding machine or ledger, and establish that Jones actually lives else-
vhere and has a ganbling record; or
5) Determ{ne lf an indivldual fitting Jonesr descrlption renced the
apartment under an assumed name; or
6) Determine lf C.I. ii301 heard Joe Jones admit to operating a wire-room
at the n:rrned Location or during the specified hoursr14 o.
7) Obtain corroborative personal infornation from another informant.
The now famous 1971 Spir.rellt case requiresthat the informant disclose hov he
knows firsthand of the existence of the activity or the informant must be corroborated
by an incrluinating surveillance.l5 The surveillance and the information can both be
insufflcient in themselves to warranE a reasonably cautious man to conclude that crin-
1nal conduct exists--buc if taken together Ehey warrant that concluslon, then probable
ca"se exists. l5

7A
 '\ third possibl-e contingency affects ttre .Spinelli ruLe, and that is when the lnfor-
n'rtio'l 1s so specific Ehat personal knowlecge 6t-iId-rrrfor","rrt can be p."",ri.a-r;.;-;;;
lnfornatlon obtained' For exanple: The ini'orcrant in each of the folror.rlng i"r."-Jri"-
::"1 rli:;close hor,r he linew (or lf he dld, the officers 6id not include
io i);:0tect h[s .lrl.:ntlty) , brtt-: it frr-tf.,"-.ifiJlria
1) The infornatLon was detailed conc.erning the suspect, his apartment.
location of narcotics, the $uspectfs weapon and his ,ulo;lz
the
2) The affidavit said the infornant spoke fron personal inforruation and
slated a narcotic was at a certain place, was kept in barloons of
$25 qrrantity' and vas ln the possession of trre suspect;iB------ --

3) The lnforraant sufficiently described the premises and his augornobile;r9 i

4) The lnform:r:,:il:_"arcorics buys on dates and at l_ocarions supervised
by a pollce offlcer.20
Police officers should rely on the speclflcity exception wlth extreme reLuctance,
vhen for security reasons they omit the circunstanles as to hor"r the informant knows the
allegations to be !rue' Off,tcers should always afflrnatlvely
inforoant persooally knows his alLegatlons to be ar,r".- ' 1f true,
al-lege, -- s that the
Passage of Liue since either (1) the infornant learned of the
. police facts disclosed,
(2) acted on the lnformatl.on received is or no irport.rr"" when establishlng or
probable cause to obta{n an arrest warrant. ALL that ls required
is a showLng that:
1) There is probable cause t.o belleve an offense occurred; and
2) There 1s probable cause to belleve 'rxrt corruitted the alleged cr1ainal
act.
Probable cause vl1l still be present weeks, months, or even years later (within the
starute,of llnitations) .

This is not f,rue r"rhen establlshlng probable cause to obra{.n a search warrant.
This requires a shoning that:
1) There is probable cause to believe an offense occurredl
2) There is pi:obable cause to believe that evidence of the offense
exists;
3) There ls probable cause to believe the evidence vi1l be found by a
court-author j.zed sear:ch ; and
4) There is probable cause to believe such eviclence is presentry (or
vill be) at a parricularLy described p1ace.
Passage of time will not affect ltems one and two but will affect
threc and four. This is because, as tr.ne passes, it is above,
po"*ibt. tr,ot,
--- items

1) The evidence will be destroyed (iten 3); or

2> The evidence wil1 be removed (item 4)
Thus, Itthe cases are unanimous in their requlrement that an affidavit in support
of a search warrant must contain a statement as to the time vhen the facts relied on
occurred'"21 This statement need not be speciflc, but must be deflnite, such as

7T
r,rithln or duiing a named period.22 Both California and llLlnoLs have heid twenty <iays
3s not unr:easonable, but^Michigan has held four and six days too long for offenses not
showe to ire t:oqtinuitg-'3 Ttre tireory for such a rdstrictive vi.ew is thal the law wij.l
nc't pre;lume that an offense is continuing. Thls view ought not to be taken when offi-
cers seek to search f,or ltens of mere evidentLary varue such as:
1) Tr:eads o:') an automobile tire;
2) Features on tools, €.8., crowbar, Jlrnnle, or screwdrtver;
3) Ballistics characteristlcs of a lreapon;
irnd the tlne is not otherwlse unreasonable.

l'/hen a ste':lrch warrant ls oLbai.nerl for any of the follo:.rlrrg offenses--garnbling,

booLlegged liquor, narcotlcs or pornography--the officers applying for the search war-
ranc shouLd a11ege the offense. is a continulng one, and deuronscraie this by showlng:
1) Two or more sales of the ltern (or bets placed) over a perlod of at
leasc a rreek; or
2) A' statement fromthe inforrnant that he personally knows the offense
to be reoccurrlng for a period of weeks or months; or
3) veriflcaLLon of the probability of the continuing nalure of the
offense through supporting surveillances.
The more extensive the operatlon or the longer the schene tras been continuously
transacced, the greaqer the probabillty lt utl]- continue and will continue for a longer
Elrne. In one case both of these things were shorn'r.. ln the affidavit, and the court
found a lapse of 49 days not uareasonable.2a

Cglfidentia,lity !:l protected, As has been stated, the anonymity of inforrnants is

generally protected by the courts in the following areas.
For probab!.e cause--The U. S. Supreme Court st.lted in the 1967 case of Mcgray v.
TLlinois that the idenciry of a confidential informant who establishes probableE.se
siGiTi_ior be dlsctosed.25 An accused has no ri-ght, under the Sixth AnendrlenE, to con-
front an lnformant who nerely is used to establ-ish cause for an arrest or search war-
r:rnt.26 Slnce McCr:ay numerorts courts have protected informants under thls reasoni:rrg.2T
Iiosevert under.some of the following situations, anonymity is not. protected:
1) Disclosure is relevant and essentlal to a fair deterrnination of the
crse;28 or
2) The inforrnant $/as an rreyewitnesstt to the actual charge prosecuted
(such as an arrest warrant for a particular buy) i29 o,

3) Ttre informant was a participant to the offense charged;30 or

4) The informant could give relevant testimony material to the iss'e
of guilt or lnnocen".;3l or
5) The accused demonstrates an alibi at the time vrhen the informant
incriminated hirn.32

72
Io each of these cases, the defendant has the affirnative duty of showing thac there ls
a rtr.rsonl5l.e possibilitv that the lnforrlant could give testioony on the Issue of
g'uilc.'J The.elleged nacerlaliry of Ehe informaotrs testLmony nust be established
the fotm of a motion, enC if ttre aceused fails to show such materiality, th;-;;;;;"-'- in
niu:jt he denied-34 The defendanE does not have Lo show che testtmony woul-d be favorable"
hi.,1.riivrrr, to be ent if leC !o dl:;clos.rre. 35

Use of false nane--Jurisdictions are spllt on whether an lnformant nay sign an

afficlavit under irn assumec rralne. The idea 1s chat ii the inforrnant personally-appears
beEore, and is examined by the issuing maglstrate, no prLor reliability needs to be
shohrl. This is of enormous value when deallng wirh the first-tlrre inflrnanc. To pro-
tect his identlty, a false name is used-
Boih the fourth and seventh clrcuits of the U. S. Court of Appeals and Kenrucky
hilvec1r;ri.gcttltJ.zedita''fa1gesr,;eat1ng,'andhavehe].<Itlratth;:FoLtthAmendment'."'".
quiternent of an oath or afflrmation precludes the use of a false name.36 -ii-r"-"aiii
en open questlon as to vhether an lnformant could (1) orally state h1s true name (off
thr: record) to the me.gtrstrate, (2) state a false name in chl written affrdavii,-(ij-..,,".
thaE the urltten nane was f;rl-se to protect hls ldentity for fear of bodi.ly ,haro, -and
(4) svear that hLs true nane and identlty lrere rnade fuily known to the l";"i";;;i;-
trate. Ill-lnois has long held a false name 1awfu1 and has refused to hold the seventh
circuit case retroactlve--reafflrrnlng lts belief in the lawfuluess of the pio"ua"r".i7

FOOTIiOJES

lunited StaLes v. Shlpstead, 433 F.2d 368 (9rir clr., 1970).

'3Sgglg. v.
qarysg!, L56 c.A.2d 803, 806 (App., Cal., 1958)
3rt_must be independent ro be corroborative, people
v. FeLn, 4g4 p.2d 5g3 (cal.,
1971) .

ugEt"i=S!?.fS.g. v. tlurphy, 369 U,S . 4O2 (Lg62);

Unired Sra-Ees v. Rooero, Z4g F.Zd
3_7L (2d gll.);-st?!g v._w.alts, 178 N.1{.2d zzq,-,:a'ffr;E;Tezol;@. v. unlred
States, 416 F.2d 1044 (5rh Clr., 1969).
sl""pf.. v. Hogglr 71 C.2d 888 (CaL., t-969).
o*=ugot:-y.
.5i+g., ?. c.A.3d 419, 425 (App., Cal., 1970); peoptg v. Lara, 67 c. 2d,
355 , 374 (Cal. , 1969) .

TLlnited States v.
r*Dl=;;-arso -ag]_tl.nffL_gt 3L, No. 69-Cr-180, Tr.p.7993 (N.D. r11., Nov, 25,
yg:.p,!g. v. United Srares, 402 F.zd 450 (7rh Cir., 1968).
EunLt"d states v.
!lg:.lu, 403 u.s. 573 (1971).
9united states v. l"tahler 442 f .2d, Ll72 (9th cir.,
, 1971); nore that when the clti-
zen-i-nformant is available to testify at the trlal, or when his nane appears ln
the affldavit for tbe varrant, no past reliability ls ever needed, puopie t.
qfa"!glgl., 485 P.2d 7LL,7L7 (Colo., 1971) and numerous cases cited fhEEIn; when
the cltizen-informaat is a vlctlm or witness, the same rrrle applies, gtate v.
Skinner, 483 P.2d 87, 89 (Ore., 1971)

''_Aggil.r v. Texas, 378 U.S. 108 (1964).

llPeople v. Catn,15 C.A.3d 687 (App., Cal., l97t)
r2splne1l.l v. gnited Stares, 393 U.S. 41.0 (19b9).

73
 {i

l3f.ogjg v. Smolucha, 259 N.E.2d 3L9 (App., I11.' L970). fii

14un:-ted States v. Hagllg, 403 u. s. 57:r (1971) .

t t!1rp_5..., .r, 1.

'c!:!,& v. !'io,:i-ca, 166 N.E,2d 606 (111., 1960); .Pe,ople v. !Sg, 208 N.E,2d 644
(App. , I11. , 1955) .
Itrgopfg v. PrewitS, ,Z,,2d 330 (cal., 1959)i People v. Aguirre" 10 c.A.3d 884
(App., Cal., 1970)
lsluopl.. v- 5 C.A.2d 553 (App., Cal ., 1970).
-B:1grtr
lgiuo.p!. v. ta:$, 261 c.il.zd 383 (App., Cal., 1968).
20Peop1e v. Hernandez, 255 C.A.zd 478 (App., Ca1-., 1967).
2lAnnot., 100 A.L.R.2d 525, 527 (L965), emphasls supplled.
z?td,. ar 531-33.
23l-"op.lg v. Nelson, 171 c.A.2d 356, 359 (ca1., 1959); People v. Montgoragry, 189
N.E.2d 327, 328 (r11., 1963); PeopLe v. Siemleniec (IlLega1 sale of llquor),
118 li.W.zd 430 (M1ch . , L962) ; P.ffi v. GIEtrFGtnUltns), 116 N.w.2d 786 (Mlch.,
L962).
2\P.op&. v. Do.!glg, 114 N.E.2d 389 (il_1., 1963).
2s3go u.s. 3oo.

260ooper v. Callfornla, 385 U.S. , 62 n.2 (1967).

58

27See Nedrud. The Crl-rcinal taw, A 4.5 (1958 post).

28stat. v. Castlq, 475 P.2d 725,726 (App., Ariz., 1970).
29Mirche11 v. sup'r cr., 50 c,2d 827 (ca1., 1958).
30!!t!Le. v. Crqqoqryglgh, L0 CrL 2016 (App., KI., 1971); srate v. 3hlLlips, 272
N.E. 2d 3z*7-(ohio,-Tffi) .
3lPeople v. Garcia, 67 C.?d 830 (Ca1. , Lg67).
328ogore v. Suprr CL. ,70 C.zd, L62 (Cal., 1959).

3 3lgrplg v. Hr:nt , 4 C.3d 231 (Cal. , l-971) .

3qPeople r.
9.rg4, 3 C.A.3d 1035 (App., Ca1 ., 1970): State v. Edw_ards, 6 Wn. App.
109 (.{pp. , llash. , 1971) .
"ryf". v. Suptr Ct., I C.3d 835 (Cal ., 1970).
36King v. United states,282 F.2d 398 (4th Clr., 1960); United States eT.re-1 Puqh
v. PaE,e, I'iarden, 4OZ E.2d 61 7-8 (7th Cir., 19o8); Hay v. to*tot u"th, 432
s.w.2d 641, 643 (Ky., 1968).
37Peop1e v. orKlersey, 263 N.E.zd 488,489 (I11., L970); People v. Stansbury, 258
N.E.2d 431, 433 (r11., t97L).

74
 CHAPTDR EICHT

SURVE ILLA}ICE OPERAT IO}IS

Survei.llanr:rr can be defined as fhe SecreLive, conlinrrous, and soneti.mes periodie

of persons, vehicLes, and places or objects;o obtain iirforination concerni.ng
r"'atcir.i-ng
the activities and ldentlties of individuaLs. oftentimes, surveillance is the only
investlgative technique avall.able to ldenc,ify the sources, courlers and recipients of
u:lrcoElcsr narcoEj"c st.ashes, and the co-defendanls and co-conspirators ln an operatlon.
surveiLlances, which can be contlnuous or intermlttent, are of three main types: the
nroving €urvell1ance where the investigator follows the subject on foot or in a vehLclei
staEionary survelllanee where the continuous watching of a pLace, objecE, or peraon
occurs from a fixed polnt, and electronlc survelllance where electro;lcr-nechintcal, or
orher devLces are used to Lntercept the contents of any wLre or oral cormunication.
The follonlng are some of the obJectives of a surveill-ance:

. To protect undercover offLcers or to corroborate their testLmony

Io obtatn evl.dence of a crlme
. To locace persons by watching therr haunts and associates
. check on the reliabl.lity of lnfornants
,ro
o To Locate hidden property or contraband
r to obtain probab}e cause for obtainl.ng search warrants
o To prevenc the comllssion of an act or to apprehend a subJect tn
the congnission of an act
o To obtain lrrformation for laEer usr: ln interrogat{on
a To develop leads and irrformatioo receLved from other sources
o To know at aLl times the whereabouts of an indivldual
o To obtaln admissible legal eviclence for use in court
Surveillances can aLso be categorized accordlng to function. There is, for ex-
:,:nllu,-&.luffie"nce.-segki velliance where the investlgator attempts to learn every-
[email protected]
of the suspect, who the courlers are, and who the co-eonspirators nay be.

4*p:S-pgrcttase fur""iff". is utllized to gather tactlcal inrelllgence thar will

assist the undercover offl.cer who w111 attempt to nrake a buy on a suspecL. The

75
investl.gator seeks to ldent,ify the assoclates of the suspect and Ehelr relaLionship,
or association with the suspecE. He also seeks to identify the sources of supply and
court ers.

A cover s'.rrvelllance is used prirnarlly for the protection of the undercover offl-
c.,.. -il-l?Ti--;;.:ct t.r eorrobrrrrLe the ur-.dercover agentrs testinorry. This ls <!.one not
orr..!.y t-fi131tgh lesiinloily rhaE arr llndercover oificer !,/iir; seen enterinl;:r locale with rnoncy
i,nci leaving with narcotics, but it may al-so be possi.bl-e that the survelllance officer
observed che physical transaction itself. A cover surveill-ance, of course, also enconr-
p3sses the identi-fication of approaches to the irmrediate buy area 1n case the uader-
cover officer should find hinself in trouble, the anounL of force that might have to be
used to assist the undercover officer, and the manpover and equipinent needed to assisl
hin.
A posr-prrrchage survelllance nlght be conducted for the followlng reasons:
t To deterur:tne where the money goes after the sal_e

r To identify other customers of the seLler

o To keep the seller under observalion in case the undercover offi(:er
bought trturkeyrt'that is, bought a substance that lras not whac j-t
was purporced to be

TTEPARATION ANp EOUIPT,IENI

Although most conpetent lnvestigators are capable of conducting a good survell-

1ance, there are certaln qualities which would be particularly desirable of the sur-
veiJ.lance offl-cer. The natcotics corroander should take care to assign sultable person-
nel.
The survel-llanceofficer should have an ordinary appearance. Any ouE-
standing physical characterisLics, such as being exceptionally tall,
short, or obese, nay attract the suspectrs aEtention. He rnust have
the abiLity to act naturaL under aLl- circumstances, as if he belongs ac
that scene-

. He musr display a high degree of aLertness and resourcefulness, s!.nce

no matter how much plannlng goes into conducLing a surveillance, there
are m.1ny unanticipated occurrences. He must har;e good powers of
observatlon and menory, as he is ofEen unable to wrj.te or jot dor,rn all
events, deseriptions of contacts, or times as they occur..
o Finally, the investigator must be patient and possess endurance.
Investigators who have conducted surveillances can attest to the
p€rseverance needed while waicing for a suspect co appear or to
doggedly foll-ow the same suspecL through the same routine day aft.er
dav.

Before initiailon of a surveillartce, all investigators parEicipating in the opera-

ii.oi: shc)uld undertake the following activities. A study should be macie of all files re-
l:ting to the suspects, their activities and crimes, their working and neighborhood en-
rzironment, and the vehicles l-nvolved in Ehe case. In studying i-nfornation relating to
t.he suspectsr the lnvestigators should focus on names and aliases used by the suspects,
dctailed physical descripticns, including photos if they are available, aad any identi-
fying characteristics and mannerisms. The habits and ncrmal routineS of the suspects
should also be examined as velL as their probable susplcion of, and ability to eluder.

76
surveillance. Finally, the ldentities and descriptions of kno..*rn c)r suspectcd contacts
or associarcs shotrld be kno:,rn.

. Th: investigators
llrri''jtii.ee
shoull be knowledgeable about €he scope aud exEent of crines and.
i.n whicl'r the suspeets arc inrrolved. For example, a narcotjcs dealer rnay a1so
b* in''"'lve.l iil I f uncing oi)cr.,ri.i()rr; he m;ry he tr.,(iirrlr cun,e in excr,ange f ,,r. nar,:oti.s;
or he rray be srruggling alLens as well as narcoclcs lnlo rhris counEry. Kugwledge of aLl
these acLivitles wj.il prepare the lnvestlgator for a surqeillance.
Investigators nust also fanil larLze themselves with the type of neighborhood in
vhich the operation will take place, concentrating on such aspects as the types of in-
habi.tants, their dress, and their use of language. This inforsption will
officersandthe{rveh1c1estob1end1nwlththJne1ghborhood. """i"t et.
The Eypes of equip;aenE employed by surveillance officers is crnly lirnited by
lrnprovisationsl abillt.y of the officers themselves. For example, on a short termthesur-
veillance of a buildLng, the survelLlance officers nray use utility belts $rlth tools-and
har:d hats to adopt tlre aPPearance of publtc uEility enployees, or utilize some other
iype of t'cover" equipment. Cameras, binoculars, tetescopes, and recordi-ng equipnent
rnust be lncluded in preparations where applicable..

obviously, vehicles used in a survelllance should not be consplcuous. A sur-

veillaace vehiele should fit the setting in which it w111 be used and be free of any
;ea1'-rr'33 which will- readily distinguish iL. Bright .o1o." or l.oud u*tr.,.r"i systens call
atcenELon to the vehicl-e. Surveillance cars shouLd have tw'o-way rad,ios to enable con-
nunicaEions to be malntained wich ocher unlts and headquarters. The officers should
c.rTry binoculars ln lhe vehicle to obtain lnformation vhile malntaining dlstance from
lhe suspect or area under surveillance,

. l'lhenever possible' the survelllance car should be occupied by tr.ro offlcers--one

rlriver and one observer to take notes. The second offlcer can also lake over surveLl-
lance on foot tf necessary. {icating arrangements of these t,!ro offlcers should be
changed perlodically to avold recognitlon by suspects, The offlcers should prepare for
trmergencies by carrying food, raincoats, tire chains, and any other itens appropriate
for Et'.e circumstances of the surveil.lance. Lt is sometines beneficial to cairy'dif-
ferent sets of l-lcense plates thaE can be changed periodlcally. Haoy agencles have Ln-
stalled switches on surveillance cars to enable the officers ro darken iallllghts or
shut off runntng lights. In drlving survelllance vehicles, the officers should drive
and park normally and avold drivlng technlques that lncrease the risk of car accldents
or rnake the car conspi.euous.
Far,riliarizatlon wlch the vehicles used by suspects in a case is another irnportant
it$Pect of surveillance preparation. This encornpasses the descriptlons and license nuq.
be;s of vehicles, lhe suspectts drivlng habits, streets and routes frequented, anit the
garage and repair facilities used by the suspects.

A reconnalssance should be used to supplement file inforra2tion. The suspects

should be pointed out to the survelLlance offlcers by someone who i-s fasrlliar with the
suspects- A physlcaL reconnalssance should be rnade to study the areas where the sur-
veillanee will take pl-ace and to ldenrify vantage points r.hich are suLtable for the
officer:s. Sfinilarly, traffic conditions can be observed and the officers can becooe
faniliar with the names and locatlons of streets in the area, l-ncludlng locaEtons of
dead-erd sereets that nay be used by the suspect to spot surveillance officers. The
rccortnaissance wj,11 also yleld infornation on the neighborhood and its inhabltants that
',;oul<i not be in the police files.

As part of the survel-Llance preparation, the officers nust consider thelr appear-
lnce. They must dress aod adopt the deoeanor of local inhabitants {n order to blend
into the secEing. The t,ype of cLothing to be worn w:ill determine lf concealment of

77
,.,'c.lp.nswill be a problern. The officers should also carry such items as caps, jackets,
rnd;lirsses to u.ffecc qui.ck changes ln appearance. They should carry sufflcient noney
co ll,:/ i'cii: 1t,,.:.11.6, LransFort-rtion, or other expenses inctrrred in thr: surveillgnce. A
resi,;ve fund for use in emergencies should also be provided
;lna l i' ri:r: l.n i.tilr.l. l.-:i:;i-;; lit plart.i.ng anC crrnduiting :t surveillanc!" is rhe- designa-
ri.r;, uf:rn "ofiicer-in-char5e." Wiren.r number of officers are involved, a taefical"
plan for all eventuslities, outllning the duties of each officer must be prepared. If
a surveil.laiice i.';like1y to be lengrhy, arrangenents strould be urade for suitable re-
liefs. A prearranged, secure systeo of communicating with headquarters or superiors
a.nil a central coordination must be establlshed. Suitabl-e signals for coomunicating in-
fornation between survellLance officers should be developecl and thoroughLy understood
by all ParriciPants. The type of information that rnight be communicated through such
signlls erorrld lnclude: tttake the polntrrt t'the suspect has stoppedrttt'the suspeet has
rnade :r c{'rrt i}cl of tl dtoprtt ttEhere i.s a counter-srrrvei.llancert' irnd t'the :;uspect has
spr-rii:erd th,''- surveillance.t' ExpJ.anatlons for being al a parEicular place at a particu-
1a:: cime sirould also be dlscussed in the eventuality that an officer is approached by
the subject and accused of followlng hin.

i\I0V_ING SURVEILUNCE ON FOOT

t"{oving survelllances may be conducted on foot or ln vehicl-es. Generally, the foot

surveiLlance today is used gnly over relatlvely shorc dlstances or to maintain contact
with a suspect after he has left a vehicle. However, the investigator must be prepared
to rnaintaln a more lengthy foot surveillance when necessary. Theie are four principal
methoCs for conducting a movlng survelllance on foot. These are the one-man surveil-
lrtnce, the tryo-man survelLlance, the AIC method, and the progressive or ttleap frogtt
mcfhod.

Thc one-m;rn sqrveillance, where a si.ngle officer atEempts to follow the suspect,
L,t c,*trenlTfTfit1c*tt to-co"auct because ih. musr Le kept in view ar a1l
tlnes and close contacr is requlred to enable "u"pect
the officer to imrnediately obsetve the
sttspect if he enters a bulLding, turns a corner, or makes other sudden.moves. The
cfl:tlc/tiveness of onc-man surveillance is somewhat dependent on pedestrian trafflc and
rtre physical chrract.erlstics of Lhe area. It should be avoided if possible.
The tr.ro-man surveillance affords greater security againsc detection and redr,rces
[email protected]'dedr.littrpedestrianorve-
hicular traffic, bnth survelllancs should normally remain on the same side of the
street as the stlspect. The first officer trails the suspecC fairly closely. The
s:econd officer remalns some dl.stance behind the first. On a less crowded street, one
ofiicer should waLk on the opposite side of the street nearly abreai;t of che suspect.
In order to avoid deteccion, the two offl"cers should, rnake periodic changes in their
positions relative to the suspect.
The ABC rnetho{' utilizing a three-man surveillance tean, furrher reduces the risk
oi iosingJhe s"sfrect, and, under'nost conditions, affords greatet: security against
deteclion. This method also permits a greater variation ln the position of the offi.-
cers ancl also allows an offtcer who suspects he has been spotted by the suspect to drop
(iur. Under normal traffic conditions, offlcer ttAt'keeps a reasonable distance behind
the susPect, while officer "B".follows "At'an{ conceotrates on keeping "A" in view.
I{e also checks that a confederate of the.suspect j.s not being used t.o detect a surveil-
1.rnce. 0fficer "C" walks on the opposite si.de of the street slightly betrind the sus-
pect. On streets with litt1e or no traffie, two officers may be on the opposite side
of the street or one officer may be in front of the suspecE. On crowcled streets, hor,r-
ever, alL three officers should generalJ.y be on the s.ame side of the street. The
leading otficer should fo1low closely to observe the suspect at intersections or if he

78
*ni:er:r a builtilng.. A:i in the tur);man method, the trailing offtcers should freqr.rently
eii.rr ii:e'i.r positicns rrrllrrlr;e ro Lhe suspeci.
l-tlrl,:r rtnr:ri..r.l tr:irfif ic. rru:..<lii,icins, vhnn the suspecf approar:hes sa .intersecri()n and
rli,.r.,' i.: ! i):.r.r.:lli I i.i,r' Llr rt lr,t :rri',lrt (rlrrl , nl'f ict'r 'r(j'r ..!!'fo!:s ELe ilr rr:ct shorrld reagh
i.."r:: riiirlf -i::Ut.ioil. f ;l::-ii-, li7 piiU$itrg at r-li ] Cr)fnef , Of f iCer "C" carr wAlCll tire {iirspeCt
lirtl : j gaal h.i.s acL i()ns to of f .i.cers "At' .llld t'8". If "C" signals th:rt ttre slrspec:t has
t-tt;,ier-l Lh.-'corn'.:r airJ scapped, both "At'afld ttBtrnay ha',re to cross bhe ]-.rtersect:lon and
pror-cei to a loiaL out of his vlew and rely on ttC" to signal them when the sr.rspect con-
c,inues on l'ris way. Whether che suspect stops or not, his turning a corner provides an
r.ooorrunity co rotate Lhe positions of che officers.
I.n the prgjirg€:s-lve.r-*r "ieep rro.{" ret , the suspect is observed
ittl:cr:iicterlily a..i he pr:ogresses along a certain habitual ror.rte. The srirvei.llance offt-
cef sl,rcir-lits hinsreLl aL a r=ixed point urriil. the suspect dis.rppears from.riew. If thc
sltspect tollovs ,:he- sane rouEe each day, his destinatlon nay be determined without
cD;rslailt surve.t!L'.oce. The officer should statl-on hicrself each day where che suspect
dls:lppeared from view the previous day, or more than one officer cao be used to extend
tire poriod of observaEion. This method rnay be of value ln locating hideouts or meetlng
p1r''-':s wlren Ehe risk of traillng a suspect, is too greaE; Use of this method is not
coinrno;r' because of the time lnvolved and the probabiLiEy of obtalning poor results.
There is no assurance Lhat che suspect will either go to the same deicination or take
cile s3lxe route ea.ch day, However, a modified version may be useful vhen a suspectrs
rotrnds are rotrtinized, his contacts are known, but his source or base of operaiign {s
unknown. The suspec! can be followed until the risk of detection is too greqt. The
survel.llance can then be cancelled for that day, aod re-insLituted the next day aL the
locati,rn that the previous dayrs survei,llance was called off.
Pr:oblems ttrat may be encountered in conducting a foot surveillan/ie are inftnite,
lrrri it i s rrsef ul to discrrss some common di.f f lcultles.
I{hen a suspecE enters a building, for example, at least one officer shoul-d follow
ttrr suspect inside, unLess the building ls a prlvate home or small shop, or if entry
\iir'.:1,.1 e:tpose the oFficer. In the case of large public buildings with rnany exiE.s, all
oiiicl'rs s;lrould follow the suspect into the bullding. IE is prudent for one officer
tc remaln in the lobby or at a door to spot. the suspect if he leaves Lhe buildi.ng.
Situ:lt..ions vhere a suspect enters an elevator also present unique problerns. If a
:iull)ect is tl:e -lone passenger and has reason to suspect surveillance, it tEay oot be
.r,lviilble Lo accompany tri-rn into the elevator. The surveillance officer should watch
rl".: irr'-1 !c:rl-or for the f loor- siop, and then proceed to that. level to pi.ck u;r the sus-
,).-,:Lrs i:()Lric, If the of ficer chooses to get on the elevator wlth the suspect, he
:;:ror.il,i r"'a.i-L u;rtil Lhe suspect departs, then go to tha next higher fLoor before l-eaving
lir,.'.'ti:vator. trlhen two officers accompany the suspect into an elevator, they should
i"'ait ic;i: hirn to choose his floor, and then pick the nexc higher and lo..yer floors for
Itr:rir c'um cxit. l.lharever rneihod of surveil1ance ls selecled inside the builCing, one
off irei: sirould r:emaln in the lobby since the suspect ftay be using the elevirtor raereJ.y
l,r e-l-'r.ie the sur:vei1.L;tnce.
I tr itrlrt:.rilr'.ls $lhcrd a suspect enters a restauran!, at least one of iicer slrouicl
iriiLt.rr lrl:h.ind tirc suspect ;rnd be alert to not.e any conEacts made i.rrs:[dc,. rl' possi..ble,
cltt,, 'rff.i"ccr should pay his check before the suspect so that he can be prepared to leave
erj.rir h'ixc, I-n sorne cases, 1t ls desirable for the officer to leave shorcly before the
sir,;pect and wa it for h{m outside.

Tn situetions where a suspecf hires a Eaxi, the officer shouLd make a note of the
'lrne, che place, rhe name of rhe cab company, and the llcense or cab number. The
c,rbrs destlnelir>n can be obtained from Ehe driver through the cornpanT office by qsing
tht: r,lhrs rerdio, When a suspect purchases a tlcket on a train, boat, plane or

79
long-distanse bus, the decislon to foll_ow the pect depends on rhg lepgtlr of, the trlp,
tire cii:cumiit.:u'!i:c:s regafding the surveillance the officer's i.oebruetioni. frou his
superior. The suspectrs desf.ination can be d rmined by guesElonlng the ticket agen!.
Exanination of che excerLor of the suspectrs e should noE ,be overl.ooked for in-
diu::tLioi':-'r cf r:h-! Sgspect rs desti*agion.

Suspects !r-l-to enter a theater, racetrackr a&usement park, should be followed by

all officers on Lhe surveillance tead. The r br admissLon charge should be patd. It
is inportant that cloqe survelllance be maint ln a crowd. In darkened theaters,
the suspect must be clo+ely watched. If poss , ooe agent shouldsit directly be-
hind the suspect to obselve if concact is nad Eh another person. Exits must be
cqvered to prevent the suspec!.from leaving u ected.
Should the suspect, register'in a hoteL, 'rooo namber and length of anElcipaled
strry may be obtained from the manager. or desk erk. Hgwever, these eaployees or beL1-
boys should not be asked for inforroation unttr t is Cetermined thot they can be
trusted. If the hoEel rnanagement ls cooperat , it nay be possible to obtain a roon
near the suspect, which can be used as a surve Lanee base. A11 outgoing telephone
caLls placed by the suspect are normalLy reco by the hotel- swltchboard operator.
These records should be exani.ned for leads. sh fron the suspectrs room should not
be overLooked, although trespasslng to retr thls or any other possi.ble evldence
vithout a proper search trarrant is not peruritt&.
A cLe'.'er suspect, dlscoverlng that he is. r surveillance, may not reveal thls
knowledge, but nay atrempt to Lose hls fo11 by rneans of false contacts or decoys.
For example, he may leave a package ful_l of less papers or materiaLs wlth a con-
tacc, thereby causing ururary offlcers to redl t or discontinue their surveillance,
leaving hiur free to make his real contacts rved. SiniJ.arly, the suspect may at-
tcmpt to lure ;rn offlcer i.nto a trap. A tho knowledge of the locality, tenpered
vlth good Judgurent and alerlness to reallze tralling too easy, ls a good
becorues .

defense against.such traps. If a suspect reso 6 to trickery, i"t ls good policy to

change surveillance officers. Some conunon met thac a suspect rnay use to det,ecE a
foot surveill-ance are:
o Stoppi.ng to tie a shoestrj.ng, meanwh looking for followers
Stopping abrupcly and looking at peopl-gto ttre rear, or reversing
course and ret.racing his steps Bl
Stopping abruptly after turnrrr,
slow!-y and rapidly " "or$, or alternarely walking
S
Arranglng with a friend ln a shop o, of". place to warch for
surveillants behlnd him
t
Ridi'g shorr distances on buses and taS", or circling the block

;:r:';t- building and leavin* ,,',*.ortely via .,,o*,". .*it

rn ho[e1 lobbies and restaurants, rot^3rg in warl nirrors to see
who is coming and golng
?
starting to leave a place quickly, th#sudclenly turning around to
see if anyone also suddenly rises
,4
opening and closing his hotel door ao f,ur""ae that he has left his
room, and then saiting inside his rooq,;|.rith the door slighrly aJar to '
;ii
see Lf anyone leaves an adJacent roomS ir/ij

80
 ruygq_$&qEli,LANCE wr rii yjilir0r,E
As is the case with foot survelllances, there are four types of vehicular
iances: Ehe one' luo, and three-car surveill-ances, and the rlap rrog *;;;;:^
surveil-
uu!vs^r-

Ii o.t].y ollr.. c.rr is irvaj.lable f irr survej-l1"rrrce, its position

sur:pectrs car, the distance.rarylng,.ri.th the amount of traffic in should Ue beh{nd. the
the area. i"
iraffic, noL r:rore than two vehicles should be perroiEt,ec between-ln" "iay-
the surveillance vehlcle- rn rural areas, 1t is a,lvlsable to glve the car an4
"""i-"t!s
!"-p.ia-l-g".i
lead' rf intersections and roacl forlcs are far betveen, the leid can be extended
poinE where the suspectrs car nay even_be temporarily lost to *a
around curves. L-hen possible, there shoulc bi anothlr car between
froo viev."".-'ili;;-oi-
vehicle and ttr': srrsPectt6 car. At night, the surveillantts the surv"riiu"""
irt:adllghts on high beam *nless abso:Lulely necessa.v ro car should nor bave Lte
".ro.;;;;;;;;;.1--siiii"iii,
otherunnecessaryltghtsonttlec;lrs}rouidbeextj.nguiSh;J:___- "1
when condr'rcti-ng a tvto-car surveillance in city areas
during daylight hours, both
cai:s should be behind the suspeccrs car. occasionally, one car nay
par;rllel route' tirning itself to arrive at lnrersections operate on a knoun-
or-der to observe his route at the inrersecrion. This netLod Just before the susp;"; il-.
.se at nlght in suhurban areas. is also highit-;;iiaiie
-" ------.- ro.' '-'
rn a three-t:ar surveillance, parallel routes can be nore readily uEilized,
positions of the cars can be changed frequentLy and the
velllance' one car rnay be used t.o tead Che r.r"p""t ihit"to prevent
enough dtscovef
"i'at"'r"r]
ihe suspectrs'vehLcle
r'-v+E le
rP
observed through the rear-vielr rnLrror

The leap frog survei'llance wlth cars is very slnilar to a leap frog
-
foot' surveilLance on
rn this type of survelllance, for example, the suspecrts vehlcle ;;t;;:;;;*i-i"il'
intermittentl-v as it proceeds along its suspectul rout". 'rio.-a-ir-;i-p"rit-ar,"-Ji:'--
ficers watch the suspectrs vehicle dlsappear from view. After a nuober
,veil1ances, the suspect'.s final desrinarion Ls finalry aeierrni""a.-Jii"-;"il;"il;
"it;;il=";;:
approach of the J-eap frog surveillance ls ofren irapra'ittcal due
ir.ir"-g.l";-;;;;;;.."
tha! ca{ be covered by car. For this reason, it wour"d be oore uenericriif; ;il;;:"
veillance officers foLlo'or the suspecrrs car until the risk of detectioo i=-ioi";r;,
wherettpon the surveillance is called off for thac day. The
makes his scheduled trLp, the offlcers can inlriate rheir
next rine ttre-s,];;.:;---'
ical point the prevlous survelllance was ended. surveillance .t ;h;';;;graph-
:

As in the case of foot survei.llance, a suspect who believeb

resort to varioos technlques to detect a surveillance he nay be followed can
-="
dutoroobire. s;:;;;i;-;;;
conrlDn techniques are; r .._

r Alternating fast iind slow drlving or frequent parking

o stopptng suddenl.y around curves or corners or speeding up a hi11,
then coasting slowly domhtll .

c Driving into dead-end streets or pulling into driveways

:
, clnce a suspect has confirned his suspicion, he can use a variety of technlqueglto
e1udeautomobl.1esurve111ance.SomeexanpI.esare:
--
o co&nltting fJ.agrant traffic violations, such as maklng u-turns,
driving afi.tnst traffic on one-lray screets and runniof, tnrougtr'
red lights
e Using'double entrances to drlveways--in one entrance and oug the ottrer

81
 Cutring through parking J.ots

Dri.:.i,rg through ccngested areas

Deserting the vehicle beyond a blind curve.or corner

rIXED SURVETLIANCp,

When a fixed surveillance ls ucil{zed, officers watch froq a etationary vantage

polnt such as a roon, house, or camouflaged outdoor fixture located near.the prenlses
being observed. Typically, a fixed surveillance wiLl be conducted for one of the fol-
lowing reasons:
o To deEect llllclt narcotlcs accivltles ln the targeted. area
r To ldentify persons who frequent the dwelllng or establlshnent and
to deternine their roles 1n the lllictt activlty
o To prr:vide the probable cause.for a search warrant of the target area
r To deterrnine the habits of the persons who frequent the locale under
observat io

Before the fLxed survelLlaace is lnltlated, a careful study of the surroundlng

area shouLd be made. The investlgators ehould note the resldents and transLente aid
the general character of the neighborhood. Only after such a survey ls cond,ucted should
the observatlon potnt be seLected. This observatLon polnt should afford maxinum obser-
vation of all entrances and exlts to the Location under observation, and should have an
exit to perult officers to enter and leave without belng observed frorn the suspectrs
premlses. However, the Locatlon should be establishiA tn such a nay that other occu-
Pants of the sarne buLldLng are not anare of how the locatlon is belng used. If a ftxed
location cannot be set upr a camoufJ.aged outdoor fixture, such as a vendorrs stand,
can be util-lzed or undercover officers with an appropriate cover nay be sent into the
3x€3r A vehicle, such as a van or truck nay also be used.
Obvlously, a certain degree of actLvity Ls necessary to set up an observatton post,
move in equipment, relieve survelllance officers and terrninate the eurvelllance. These
things shouLd be done as unobtrusively as possible. For exampl.e, surveilLance offlcers
should enter and Leave the area separatel-y. If lt is necessary to take sorne of the
residents into che confidence of the police, the number sliould be held to a mlnlmum and
the purpose should not be revealed.
A chronological. 1og of the activlt.les taking pLace ln the area under survelllance
ls the best method for recording pertinent inforrnation and is the basis for the sur-
veillance officerts report. In this 1og he should note the tisle of arrlval and de-
parture of susPects. Desctlptive notes of the suspects should be nade and, whenever
possible, a photographtc record of the vlsitors should be maintained. This nil1 enable
the surveillance officers to identify persons frequenting the target area and docunent
their lnvolvement with the primary suspect or suspects. Durlng the survell.lance, one
officer should constantly observe the target l"ocaEion while the other officer takes
meticulous noces of all observations.
Binoculars are essential equlpment ln the operatlon, as they factlitate posLtive
identificatlon of Persons entering or leaving a location under observation. Sioilarly, -
a stIl1 or motloq pict.ure carnera with a telephoto lens can also be used effectively. -
For stLll pi-ctures a 35ran camera with a telephoto lens should be adequate. It would be
preferable, hovrever, that the camera have a motor-driven advance to facllitat.e rapid
shooting' and a "data back'r feature to allow the investlgator to mark the frane wtth

82
hls lnitlal, the El'me, and the date. Thls laet feature 1s deslrable because photo-
grapirs or motion plcture footage should be numbered with reference to tloe.

-IlE!:ioJi_q.*slgvEllr.!!qs*
iire tlniied stattrs supreme cor-rrt developed its preeent inlerpr€Eat{orrs of the Con-
sti!ution de.rltng wirh clectronic strtvejll-ance on11r after, dlscardlng sorne early decl-
s_it-r,ts. one early declslon was oLmstead v. Unl-ted Slaces (192S), a
q'hich the courc approved the lnIT6IGITbn oFiiiEllf-ffiaence irohlbirron'"o"" fn
outatned in
srate law. In this case the court held that a "seizure'r of worde waa oot violariona
of
seizure as
defined by the Fourth Amendment, and thaE there was no constitutlonal vrofatron-i"""i""a
in a warrantless wtretap Ln which the officers $ade no physlcal
rationale that sei.zures of words alone vere not consritutionally treopass. The Ad;;;;;-
proiected ;; ffi
o'''erEheyears,.endwasf1na11yoverru1edin1967
In that year, three cases latd the foundatlons for the present federaL statute eon-
trolling wl'reEapping, Title rrr of the Uniforn Crine control aod Safe Streets Act of.
1958' .l'IaIden,,v.-Havden ftna,1ly disapproved the oI"slSCg rule entlrely and nade search
warrants for "relevane \tords'r posslble. Berger t
statute unconstltutlonal prirnarlly because the statute lg!_-f".k found a NLw york $lretap
parlicular descriptlon of what ltas to be selzed pursuant dit not rqqutre a sufficiently
v' !'ni!C9--E!g!S-:. brought electronic surveillance wl"thin rheto the wiretap order. Iktz
prorecrioni of the r6liEtr
Arnerrdment. It exprtrssly overruled Olrnstead by caL11ng wlretape r.searebesr,t.whether
no! Lhe off.Lcers or the eleclronic Fevfce ftself intr;de on the subJecttr'ptop"Jty.or-
There are a few exceptlons to Tltle IIIts broad prohibltion of non*conseneual,
:lectroaic surveillance. The most inportant is law .nforcement surveill.ance pursuant
co a val-id court order. Title III provldes that federal prosecqtors (wit.h the approval
of the U.S. Attorney General or a speclaLly designated A,ssistant, Attor.r"y General) aay
apply for a court order authorizlng electronic survetLlance by rrhetever i".rr", .-"
b.'' tapping a phone or telegraph wlre or by pJ-acing a transrnttiei tn a posltlon to """f,
plck
up crnversatlons. Each state aultlorlzatlon atatute sets ouc whlch atate authoritils
r:ay apply for state court orders. Care must be taken to ensure,!ha! state and urunlci-
pa1 officers only fo11ow up leads, conduct surveillance, and provlde supportlng infor-
:nation on a federal case wiretap. Results from a state tap can be used-in a flderal
case, so long as federal requirements are met.
flach order authorizing any electronlc surveillance must speclfy:
r The identity of the person, if known, whose coroounlcations are Eo
be inEercepted
c ?he nature and location of the corurunicatlons facilities 4s to whlch,
or the place where, authorlty to lntercept is granted
o A particuLar description of the type of corununicat.lons sought to be
lntercepted aail a statement of the partleular offense to which ir
rclates
o The identity of the agency authorized to intercept the coomunlcatlols,
and of the person authorizlng the appJ-ication

'rl'faterial in this section is based on: Internatlonal Assoclatlon of Chlefs of,

'olice, Legal Points 55 & 56, Electronic Su_rvei11+nce--parts L & II (1975), TACP,
Gaithersburg, l{d.

83
 c The period of tirne during which interception is authorlzed, lncluding
e stal.?i:t!.nt .tri lo whether or uot tl't.l incercepnton sh311 auEomatically
cerninace vhen the describe<l conn".unicatiorr has ueen first obrained
TSese speci-iicationli must be based on full a-nd c'-rnl'1ete wri'eEen staiements of fact
in t-r,r .-:'r,:-i j.,:;-citn;; a,:iir ,1 .:'/ 1,,: l--v or:a1 te!ir.j"ili'jny' In :r:'!<litiorl' no order
":.!i.,t'icile1.1l"iC
n:y authorj-ze the electronic lntercepEion for a period longer t.han necessary.to achleve
the objectives of the authorizalion, or in any evenL longer than thir:ty days. Exten-
sions of an order may be granted, but only upon appli.catton for an extenalon oade in
accordance with al-l the above requirements. The period of extensl-on shal1 be no longet
than the authorizing judge deems necessary to achieve the purpose for whieh it was
granted and in no event longer than thirty days. Every order and exEenaion must con-
tain a provision that the authorization to lntercept shall be executed as soon as
pract.icable, shall be conducted ln such a way as to nlninlze the lntercePtion of con-
nrun-i.c,;llicn.i noc otherwi.se subject to interception, and must termlnate uPon attainment
of the authorized objectlve, or in any event in thirty days.
Tirle 1II, in forbiddlng the unauttrorized interceptlon or divulgence of ofal or
vire coinmunications by the use of eLectronlc or mechanical devices, provldes stiff
civil and crlininal penalties for vloLatlons ($10,000 flne or flve years i.n prlson or
both). Ic also arrthorizes a civll sult for daraages by anyone rlrooged by. tlLegal
electronlc surveiS.lance. It sets damages at actual darnages or not less lhan $100 a
day for each day of vlolation or $1,000 whichever ls hlgher, and aLso allows recovery
of r,:asonable aEtorneyts fees and punitive daxnages.
TitLe III also covers consensual eavesdropping, t,hat is, where one of the Parties
ia a conversaticn records the conversatlon or granis permlssloa for a law eoforceaent
agency to record the conversation. A unlt, for example, nqy place a body nicrophone
and transnltter on an undercover offlcer or an informant when a buy ls being nada or
llegotiated, They may recotd conversatioos over an t'undefcovert' telephone, or lntercePt
an inforrantts Eelephone, with his pernlssl-on, in order to gather informatlon or evl-
dence on a suspecL,

, The United StaEes Supreme Court has consistently excepted voluntary disclosure
from sarrant requirements. Uncoerced consent searches are lnherenlly reasonable. Thls
principle has been held to inelude situatlons ln whlch.rrtA" (suspect) voluntarily spe-eke
to "Bt' (informant or undercover offi.cer) but does not kqow that "Bt' has consented to
allo.^r "C" (officers) to record ttAtst'words or transmit-thern to ttC.tt
ttA" i8 said to take
the risk that the people to nhou t'A" speaks wil-l record.or transdlt I'Arsil wordg just as
"A" takes Lhe risk that they are police officers or inforroanes or nay later testlfy
about "Ars" words in court. This view was affirned by the Supreme Court in United
.S-taces v. Whlte (1971), and rvas written into Ticle IlI .

Units should check with thelr own prosecuting attorneys or the state attorney
generalts office as to the legality or llnitations on eonseasual- wiretaPping ln thelr
o\rn states. StaEe rules differ. For exarnple, lhe Michigan Supreme Court' in a 1975
decision, placed additional restrictions on consensual searches when it decided that
such searches could be used ln court onl-y if a conversation was recorded, and not sirnply
irhen witnessed by a third party who moniEored the conversation (People v. Beavers, 227
N.W. 2d. 511 fMich 75]). A New Jersy statute provides that Law enforcenent agencies
need to obtain permission from the couniy prosecutor or the state attorney general or
his designee ro perform a consensual search. As a further example, Pennsylvanl"a has
conplet.ely prohibited consensual searches.
, In states wiEhout such lirnitations, consensual eavesclropping has been highly bene-
ficiaL to larr enforcenent. Pol1ce have found recording and/or transmitting devLces
useful in one-party consent situations for gathering adroissible evidence, verifying an
i.nformancrs credibility, proE,ecting undercover offi.cers', intelligence Purposes' and f,or

84
i

Praccical purposes such as ti-nirrg an arrest to coincide !/ith an exchange of

io: e.orey. contraband

The courts have ruled Ehat irr concucting eiect:onic eaves<iropping,

::rr'r:rl do everything reasouabl;' pcss-i-ble unler t.he circuhsfances the offlcers
orj';-r::"'cr:''i tr-) i)l'r!':'ili: iir;: i:itt::c:oPci:>n c-f n..:nperl.inenc to respect the right of
I corrl,-:;,.1cl.tion.r3. Thls process
:i 'li:r- i"tr':j n:in-imi:l:.ic j.'ri: ' lrl::rL i:; i'easolable irnd.er i:hr circums:arrc.=j
nay be
by lire sc:]pfr oi Eltc cri-rnin;rl entcrprise, the locaEiorr and ope:ation of the dete;mined 6ugging or
l:tlpi1.g, thc;;-'r'':'.;f .;t urrr-nv,:l','e,l p,rrscrr.rs to the Luggrrtl preni.$cs
arrtici"pated content ot tlre cc,rirnunications to be intlrcepted.. or tappcd J.1Lre, the
supervision crf tlte strrve.i.llanc€.rrrd special factors such :he degree of judicial
nanes or coded -lnforma'ion in r"nnocent-sounding as rhe subjectrs use of code
conversations"
wiren defirring r'rini"mizacion' the courts nean
en interrupc1on of the recording pro*
cass lt,reLf, nof jLrsr raking rire earplroles off, ig,ro.ing-"il;--;;
gl'rcring to 1og or sum&;rr.izr: the ini-or:uraLion, -Moieover, i.i;S"""ra,-;;-;":--
tape everyching, then go bacit and lisren to lt several a monitorlng offlcer: cannot
cul orrt' whlle minimization may sound like an times oefore J""iairri'"il;:;
imposslble
mouitoring the conversatlon has to know ttre back-ground of task, ir is not. The officer
knor" the names and nicknanes of all suspects and posslble che case l-n cetail. He must
maE'icn' He can then be able ro place corraenEs withiu the sources of relevant infor-
alraost instantaneo*s fashlon. concext of the case
-*-- ** in an
i'^
Normally, before a unlt even seeks a wiretap, it nust e-anauac
investi.gati're avenue sirort of electronic surveillance,, every concelvable
continuotrs surveJ'llairce for a signi-fi.cant perlod of For exanple, there should be a
timer.. perhaps several weeks, on.the
-.-
suspecls' rnvestig'ators flnd out what a suspect does, where ire goes,rn,to*
vhere ire lives, how he travels, and with whom. "y 6vue, wr(vr t"--"i";;

The investieatgrg need a backgrounci- of teJ-ephone rolLs, which

numbers called :rnd bil1ed to a given number, on Lach phone for whlch list long distance .

seek a tap and on the phones of other possible subjecis r.fio they are golng to
rnay b. r,ni".r, couriers,
bagman, and the like. These tolls should be securld on a weekly basls.and shoul-d be
analyzed to determine patterns, procedures, and methods of operatlon.
noted that a "peo register" rutricir records the phone It should be
is not an eavesdropping ttdevice" under Title rrr. However,
""ru]r""5i;;;; .'*t".i"0i."!,
vhile a
"9: !" necessary for a pen regiscer, it is """r"h rrafrant may
recorarnended tbaE invesrigators
affidavit to obtain a court ordet. The eotrt order ryill esrabllsh prouauLlsubmi.t an
inslitute the pen regist.er, ir will give Lhe officer,,-the necessary I;;;.;"
will direct the ielephone conpany to cooperate. authorlty, and it
A' esertv^

rnvesLlgators nust show chat they have attempted to inflltrate

ti-cr:iar illieit operation through traditioaal neans, such and break a par-
l';rve bee'-n unsuccessful- rt 1s incumbeat upon the officers as the use of inforrnants, and
whl' they failed, and why infonrants cannot be utLlized. Ec specify what they did,
use of a conventiona-l search warrant, Ehen a title III
rf a case can be broken by the
cannot be obtained. Therefore
Ehe oificers nust strow that it is, o. irnpossible to execute search warrants in thi
"o", buy has treen
cas€-:' officers must show that a control1ed tried unsuccessfully or that,
:t "rourci be lrnpossible to use thar n:rthod. They nusl sholr cnat they cannot acqulre the
inior:n:rtion needed to rlevelop the case chrough ih.'u"" of gr:nts
a'ljtle rrr is very difficult to obtai.n. rt was intended ic be that of innunity. rn short,
fedr:ral and sLare attorney general offices rr"lr. uu"n-gor.rg va-rr, and the
vith tiac intent.
":.o,rg
Before the court order is requested, the narcotics unr-c conmander
rneellltg' of all pertinent staff to decitle where and how should have a
the tap will be set
will noni'tor' Along with the monitors, the unit must have a surveillance up and who
qear the locatlon to handle any necessary team at or
surveillance
:he suspectts location. case investigaEors shoulcl takeofphoccssuspec!s enEerlng or leavlng
of all suspects iavolved

85
 so thev can be shosn to other unit lnvestigators. This is necessary because, typieally,
th!)ri investtgatlrrs who .1re 'nost famlliar vich the case w111. be busy monltorlng- lhi
t 3p€S.

. Drrrrllg the Progress of a surveillance, reguldr br:eflng sesslons should be held so

th}t ca:,c pcl-:joanel- aitr kep: up to date on i.:nporEant.:,:.:ivities. This is especialJ.y
true for the moaj-toring officers. As each nontcor goes on duty, he should be briefld
on what occurred during the previous shift.

In considering a location for monitoring a Lap, unLt personnel should select

locatlon that wlLl arouse the least amount of curiosltv preferably, the site willa
also serve as 3n observatlon post from which those persons monltorlng the tap can see
ltho enters and leaves the location being tapped. rire
-\rcaclon for nonltorlng should be
large enottgh to house the necessary equtpmeni and materlals. If posetbLe, the uroni.tor-
ing facllity shr:ru.!-d have tr-'o roons, one for lLscening and one for resting or sleepLng.
rire faci.lity silould have a washroom with toilet faciii;res, and some attention should
be paid to problems such as food supply for monltors.

A decision w{lL have to be made whether to transc:ibe the tapes at the monitoring
locatlon or at the unit office. Regardless of where l: ls done, a second tape slould
be copied from the naster tape, to be used as a working copy. The master t,ape should
never be used for transcribing because it may be danagec or erased. Insread, the master
should be flled as evLdence and the copy used f.rr transcribing.
The naster fape recorder should never be sEopped. Inseead, the rninkrlzer
button
shorrld be rrsed to exclude all privileged conver".iiotr" and non-narcotics case related
phone calls. This; vi1l, assist ln assuring the cour! tnat there has been no cutting
or
spfi-clng of the masrer tape, and that nothing uas deleced other than through rninimiza-
tion' Tape reels should be changed at regular intervars such as the end oi the shift,
or daily aE a certaln tirne, to establish iafe and prac:lcal nethods for handling.
Conplete ancl accurate logs of all moniEored conversations must be rnaintained.
They should indicate, in summary form, what was said, ac what tlme, and by whom. The
logs, will be the basis for progress reports tha: must ce prepared and filed with
colrrt every fi've days. At the sane tlme, these logs.,r:.11 indicate what follow-up the
action was necessary to confirm or corroborate whai was said. Thus, while agents are
monitorj-ng the wiretap, others are coordlnating unlt efforcs in the fie1d. In order to
eftectively utilize the wiretap inforrnation and coorcinate lt with invest.igators j.n che
field, the unit will also need officers doing "reg work,'on the street.
Every taPe' every 1og, every scrap oE evidence musc be authentlcated. It must be
identified' initialed, and dated. Every phone tol1, voucher, receipt, cancel-1ed
:l|"k., money,ortler, aod the li.ke, must be secured, autnenticated and catalogued away.
All phone tolls must be secured as soon as possible, and phone conpanies must be ad-
vised noE to destroy originals, slnce ttrey witl desiror the originil records within six
inonths if not told otherwise.

As can be seen, a Title IIL electronic survei-llance can be time consumLng and
expensive. A wiretap denands that the investigative agency be prepared to de;ote large
amounts of tirne, personnel, equipment and noney lo c.r*oi.ce the task. Depending on
the
irrformatioir required' an extended wiretap can be cost1,v, even ii the cost of ,,"J""".iy.
equipnent is exc.t.uCed. As an example, the averag..o". of an intercept by scate
agenci.es in 1974 was 98,084

86
 CILq,PTER IIINE

NARCOTICS INTELLIGENCE*

THE INTELLIGENCE PROCESS

A11 pollce departments, regardless of size, are involved in

some aspecr of. crisr-
inal intelligence. whether or not a department has a fornaL intelligence sect.lon, its
narcotics unlr' must undertake narcotics incelLigence actLvity. NarcJtics inteLligence,
like general crirninal tnte11lgence, lncorporate! a process whlch consLsts of five
interrelated steps. These are informatron
sls, and dieseminatlon. rt ls through thiscollectton, evaluatlon, cottatrJir-J"}r-
process it"t i"r-i;i;;;;;;ls refined ln-
to usable intelligenee for the unlt
rnformatio! cg-l9g!&n ls the iniElal step. rr refers to rhe gathering
inforiElli-ii-TEildlvltles of those persons suspecred of being involveil lnofnar- raw.
cotics activlty' rnforrnatlon is ordinarily collecied in two ways--overtly and
1-y' Most information is gathered overtly. An covert-
example of this-is ti.-p.tl"r offlcer
who assists a narcotlcs unlt through observatlon of susplclous
actlvities. Thi;-i;;".-
mation ruight include data on observed acrlvlries of kno*n purtt"i"-"";-;ili".;;-ln"ir"^
associates, lndi'vicuals wlth whoar they have been seen, places they
rr.". r.eq"ini.i,-""a
the license numbers and manufacturers of vehicLes thei use. overt narcotics
gence gathering also lncludes obtatnlng i.nformatlon fiorn intetli-
the
fice, newspapers and magazines, public records and docurnents, disr;1;;-;;;;*.yi" or-
arri oth6r pollce agencles.
{srrLe' r'LsrtDE .ppiil.it.Jl
1icen"" 6PPr

- rf overtly produced lnformatlon indicates that narcotlcs activity exlsts, covert

nlethods can be used to produce more detailed Lnformation
activlties and the identity of the indlviduaLs invoLved.about the nature of these
coverr r";;iii;";".-r"'""r-
lecte<I through the use of physical surveillance, electronLc -i;;o;;;;,
surveiLlan".,
and undercover agents' The unic shoul.d use physlcal survetllauce
to keei track of the
novenents and activltLes of targeted suspects. since physical surve1ff"n."-.ion;-";;:
not provide the unit Lrith the pl-ans and motives of the suspects, the unit -1,""iJ-""i-
trlennent its information wlth other covert means. By using wiretaps,
and olher electronLc devices ln accordance with tegal and locaL polleytape recorders,
the in'restlgator ls able to learn what ls said during a conversation betweenrequirements,
lilectronic surveillance can provide the narcotlcs otFtcei suspects.
srrspecL directly t.o a crisre. "iair-."1J"""i-ii.t will tie a

*l'[aterial . in this chapter is based on:

llanuel R. Carza, Multi-Agengy-I,larcottc unlt llanual (Lg76), LEM, washlngron,
[email protected],Criminal D,c.
Intelllgence, Caithersburg, LId.
International Association of Chiefs of- PoJ.lce, The pglice Executivete Organi?ed
Crime Enforcement Handbook (1975), Gaithersburg, Md.-_ -------:-

87
 EvaluaEion of information mainly consists of deterurining whether or rrgt a piece of
informacion is acqurate, and it is prtncipally done by rhose offlcers who have definite
knc,'"r].edge of che cont,enL of the inforniation and the source. Hence, the officer pro-
viding the information should report on the reliability of the source and the credl-
bility of ebe information before information is passed along to be colLated aod ana-
1;.:-:d. ,r'l t-ii..rl: tlrc 1rrr1 r,,'ich.ral.s crrnceraeC rrii:h Lhese latter sLePs can maktt accLlrate
judgnents, The informacion shorild be given a grade or code which iodicates iEs value.
Thus, a letter, nurnber, or color code should be given to indicate the validity of in-
formacion anrl the rellabiliLy of rhe source. !'or instance, a number code of tt1 ,t"t2r"
and. "3t' can be used to designate irhether a piece of lnfornation is respectively fac-
Eua1, rumor, or unknovn, A letter code can be used in che same manner to categorize
the source of the informatlon as to rellability, 1.e., highly reliable, usuaily re-
liable, seLdom rellable, and reliability unknown, Hence, the users of the i"nfornation
are provlded with an inrnedlate and accurate assessnent of the value of the infornatlon.
Collacion ls the tirircl step i-n the lnLelllgenee process and it conslsts of orga-
nizin!-i-nF-oGLlon or ras daca into some loglcai sequence or pattern by whlch a Par-
ticular operati.on or on-going.activity can be understood. InformatLon, as it ls ob-
taiued, flor,rs tn bits and pieces from dlfferent sources in non-chronologlcal sequence.
Hence, lt nust be arranged Ln such a way that relationships are discerntble. This, in
turn, w1.11 facl-l-itate the flling, cross filing, and retrieval of the various pieces of
inforoation. CoLlatlon aLso facilllares tire analysis of lnformation.
galas1g, the fourch sEep ln the process, is baslcally the separation of poten-
tially vaLuable lnformatLon from worthless or lnaccurate data, and che conveision of
the informatlon l"nto fihished intelllgence. In a large narcoE,ica unit, one or more
officers may be assigned the role of intelllgence analysis. On the other hand' the
entire intelligence function in a smal1 unit may be the responsibility of only one ln-
dlvidual, P.egardless of the unit size, the prlrnary contrlbrrtion of the analysc is hls
or her abllity to piece toget.her the bits of inforrnarion to forn a working hypotheeis.
Disseminatj.on is the final step l-n the lntelligence function. The first four
steps result j-n an inteLligence report. This repor! is sublritced to the department
head io assist trim in uraking decisions. The report must be objective, and must clearl-y
<listinguish between facts and assumptioas. In addition !o a summary of the infornatlon
considered to have value, the report should contain concluslons based on that informa-
llon. The intelligence reports should be routed directly to the unit. comrnander fron
the analyst. D.Lsseminat,ion to oEher units should be at the discretion of the unit com-
nunder, and should be done based on the purpose and content of the report, the need to
know, the conficleotiality of the informant or source, and the progress of rhe on-golng
information.
The cypeg of lntelligence that 1aw enforcement agencies work wi.th are tactical and
strategic. Tactical intelligence is that information regarding a particular event that
can be of inurediate use to a unit. For exanple, iuformaEion regardlng the types of ve-
hicles a deal-er uses vould be tactical tntelligence since it is of direct value in the
setting up of a surveillance. Tactical incelligence may lead directly to an arrest or
to recognition that more information is needed, Strategic Lntelligence, on the other
hand, ls information about patterns of existing crinri.nal activity or trends which are
(lirveLoping. It is usually developed from infornation which is collected over a period
of rirne. hhen sufficient daLa is avcilabLe, the intelligence analyst identifies and
rcports paLterns of criminal acCivity to the uniE comrnander.

B8
_qrll4ugI OF PA.IROL OFFICERS

)iarcolics trnits usual1-y cannot devote Long periods of time ro lntelligence-gaEher-

iug. It is to their advantsge, therefore, to encourage patrol oi-fieers to report lrhat
thc','see and hear. The patro1 officer, on a datly baSis, hears about crl.minal- matters
i'r!...)rr ;il ir:':ortr.tl. convers.tlj..rn; wlLr. peop.i.e on hls beat, These people, wt.:o nlghc in-
citrrie storekecpe:rs, itt:r,'sl)oys, ar.rt.oin,:t 11".r"r CrtaLers, barbers, and other reputable citt-
i;el'.i, 33:l <-rf ten be valr:able rrourc€s o.i infor:mation. They are usually law-abiding ciEl-
::,.r-:s rrho have wide (jonLacE wlth otirerr ri jritieis of C,ire public.

flvery palrcl officer can contrj.bute to narcotics intelligence by observing and re-
liorting incidenlis and siluations he sees dal1y that. might inclieate narcctics act.ivity.
Unioriunate.Ly, rnany officers Eend to thLnk Etrat tbe intelligence rnlssion is a speciai-
ized function, and thereby rrnCerestimate is irnportance. They often think that nar-
cotir'sr tntelli gdnce g.trheri.ng :;irou1,l br rlone by narcoi:ic" ,lnirr".r'ror or surveil-lance
te.lm.i. Moreovirr' some Patrol officers j,ntent.ionally withhold Lnforrnati-on because they
per-ccive the intelligence process as a one-way street. That is, they contlnuaLly re-
porr inforr,ration but seldon, if ever, recelve feedback fron the unit,s to which they
co:rtribute inforrnation' Unit personnel nnust lnforo patrol offi"cers (through roll-call
training Programs' lnformal contacts, or training bulletins) that rescrlctlons placed
on the dlstribution of l-ntelligence are necessary. A11 police offlcers should i.cog-
nize that they work Ltithin a total system qrhere the need to knou dictares who will ie-
ceive intelligence reportg
Often, paLrol officers are uncertaln about the type of lnfornatlon wbich would be
of value to the narcotj.cs uuit. Without cornprontslng the security of on-golng cases,
narcotics unlt merobers can often specify that informition.on certain knoryn pushers or
addicts would be valuable to the unlt., Addltionally, the unit can educate patrol of-
ficers as Eo tlrose actions, events, and paraphernalia lhat are i-nCicaEive of narcoticg
activity. In short, a good pollcy ls to have patrol officers reporr alL infornation
thau mlght posslbly he.l.p the narcotics unit carry out ite mlssion. The nareoEics unLt
can ttren evaluate the information. Unlt personnel shouLd also explain to the reporting
officer the method for maklng a judgnent of the rellability of those who suppliea th" -
information, because he is in a better posLtl.oo to evalrrate the reliabili.ty of tris
source than the intelligence analyst.

DUTIES OF THE INTEI,LICTNCE ANALYST*

Ic be remembered that the nature of the dutles of the analyst w111 vary
shor.rld
il;'rrn unif to unic. In sma1l units, Lhe commander or the supervisor may perform lntel-
li6ei'.ce analysis. In some unlts, ttre person responsible for che files uriy also do
:rnaiysis, while in .Larger units one or more persons may perform analysi.s on a ful1 time
basis. -{naly:ic activities incLude!
o Reading anql indexing i.ncoming reports
o DeveJ-oplng and rnalntainlng, as personal tooLs, files and sources
of informat.ion that relate to the analystfs particular responsibilities.
o Idencifying information requirements
o Per:forming research and anal.ysis as required
o Preparing lutelligence reports

*l'faterial in this section ie based on: Don R. Harrls, Basic Elenents of lotelLl-
gence (1975)r LEAAT Washlngton, D.C.

B9
 Reading;-r;r'l Indetlng. It ls the analystts responsibtllty to revlew all reports
ttr'-'lotlter routel materlal;. The analyst must concenErate on how the rnaterial contri-
br-i;:trs to his area oE responsiblLlty rather than simpLy reading the naterlal for generaL
airareness. In this sense, the lnformatlon requirements of the anaLyst dlffer frocl
l" tse of the lnvestigator. The analyst should coritinually refer to a list of informa-
' 'lt .:).1 ii.::l'i:lri:t,:; nni"l ttriiiative hypothe,,;es aboul ilarcotj.cs activlty in the area. In
ttris \rry, p;:r'viously iJentiiied gaps can be f ilied.
A ccr:ii'llary to this ;tctivify ls a systenatlc revi.ew of dal1y nerrspapers and olher
I'eriodicals t,) discover leads to potentlal areas of narcotLcs vlolat1ons. The analysls
sirould make note of narcotics actLvities ln other jurisdl.ctlons that nay occur in the
fuLure io his jurlsdictloo, and nen approaches being used ln other Jurlsdlctlons to
fighc'forms of narcotlcs activity. The analyst should consult others before dLscarding
a potentially useful ltern or burdening the filing sysEem wlth ugeless lnforrnatlon.
Wh11e reading reports, the analyst lndlcates hon a report is to be indexed by un-
dc:rlinlng approprlate. items, such as nanes, addresses, llcense numbers, and dates.
Lengthy reports should be abstracted, and the ft11ng category tn whlch the abstract
is to be placed should be noted. The abstract infonns tht user of the contents of a
repor! or arcLcle. It funcEions as a tabLe of contents and hence should.be a conclge
st-atemeni of the cont,ents of that particuLar flle. A llst of headlngs under whlch the
icen is indexed should also be included on the abstract forn.
The fl1es of a unlt are among the anal.ystrs oost useful too19. As such, a con-
tinuous flow of lnputs to the unlt'a centrbl'files Ls crl.tical. The quality of the
fll-e contenls and the utlllty of the ftllng systens as a wtrole depend on tha care wlth
which readlng and lndexing actlvlties are undertaken. These dutles shouLd be perforoed
systematicalLy to lnsure that all reLevant and practical sources of inforaatlon are re-
vlewed and properly integrated into the fillng syst,em.

. Each analyat should develop and nai.ntaln

pe'lsonal research tools. These ilaluaE Usts of nanes, aources of Lnforuratlon, asso-
ciation charts, and operatlng assunpt{ons that help htm keep up-to-date on trends and
new developmenEs. Such personal tool-s eoncaln unverified inforsratlon and tentative
hypotheses that the analyst has fornulated about najor narcotlcs actlvity. These are
readlly available to revlew whlLe readlng lncorning reports. It should be noted that
use of Ehe word "personal" is not meant to lndlcate that the analyst can conslder work
files as personal ProperEy and take them along when changlng aseignnrents. The word is
used merely to differencl.ate these lnformal and unverlfLed materl;ls fron the unltre
no;e formal lntelllgence files
The types of lnfornatlon utllized ln malntalnlng persooal research tools wtl1 vary
among anal-yscs, but sone generallzations nay be nade. For exanple, an anal.yst rnlght
record the follo',ring:
I Natnes of crinlnals known or believed to be operatlng ln the analystrs
geographlc or func!lonal area
e LisEs of personal sourceg of lnformation
c Narnes' locations, and overt and suspected covert actlvlties of
buslness establishments
r Up-to-date link diagrans of assoclatlons, both verLfled and hy-
potheslzed, among crlrnlnals
. uncested or partialLy tested hypotheses and supportlve or con-
fllcttng evidence that nay be brought to bear and further evaluated
againsL new lnfornatlon

90
 'in Documentatlon of current projeet actlvities lncludlng successes,
failures, uncertalntied, and planned future lnqulry
r Day-to-day tabulations of data being collected
I'ir,-, r::rnncn cl/arscter:ll:tir: of thc ajrr,ve tools is chat tirey provide Che analysl ,*iih
a:l or<it:r1-i -rLrti,-:i'ure Ior h,i-s irrvestigations. By imposjng logical scructure an<i sy;;ten-
aric order on a diverse collection of raw data and seemingly unrelaLecl facts, s,.rci.sr-
f'.iL.rnirl;''si-s c;i'l be r-rnder"l:a,ken. The anal-yst us;es per:ona1 files to impose orCar cn Cire
unveri.iled informaLion and nnssive array of data received. The organization of infor-
tnaiion irr this manner should not lnterfere with the nornal flow of inforroation Lnto the
central fiLes. These are not substitute fl1-es, but rat.trer reposltorles of suppLemeatal
j-nformation vhich v111 help the analyst to understand his naterial. personal files
should not be so large that the analyst spends much tinre perforroing the duties of a
file cl*rk. t'ina1ly, the anal-yst mu;L be careful to avoid bre:aches of securicy, in-
cluding data from sensitive reports in his own material,
ICenlif)'1g8,. In.fornatign Reguirgments. The analyst is responsible for uralntaining,
on a continuous basis, a list of inforrnation requireneats or questlons which, if
answered, vould add to an understanding of developments in his area of criminal ac-
tivlty. The nature of stated infornation requirements nay vary, but they should be as
speclfic as possible and Justifiable. The anal"yst has a speclal responslbility to
recommend prLorLtl.es among l"nforrnatlon requiremenLs. In a current maJor case, any in-
forr:nti-oo that would contrlbute to a successful enforcernent action would almost auto-
natically be consldered lmportant. Inforrnatlon requirements also grow out of an
an:rlystts hypothesis. the analyst must prove a need for information of chis second
type. As a practj-eal matter, requlrements posed by current cases tend to be given
higtr prioricy, while the analyst and the unlt commander nust also provide act,ention Eo
r.ol)-cttrrent anrl slrateglc requi.rements. In a sense, the identifl.cation of infornation
requirements is anoag the most inrporr,ant functiqns perforr,red by the lntelLlgence unit,
Asking speclftc questions provides dlreetion and focus for Lnvestlgators and other
field personnel, thereby effectivel-y utll"izlng search resources.
Research and 4!gl5ls. Research is slmply defined as an in-depth investlgatlon of
[email protected]"cts.It1s'perhaps,roisieaaing
to equate research and aaalysis, but they are treated together to enphasize the sinl-
lsrlEies betl"Ieen them. Both ;rre based upon the thorough examinatton of a speetflc
ptoblem. In most cases, research will be undertaken to provi.de information on a sub-
ject wlth which the analyst 1s somewhat unfarntLlar, In this respect, research dlffers
fronr analysis; research is more concerned wl.th basic inforuration gathering and orga-
nlzing, whlle analysls assumes that thls actlvlty has been largely conpleted. The
analyst underrakes analysls to learn of a new area of narcotlcs actLvity or suspected
activitles of criminals previously lnactive Ln the analystts area.
In carrylng out the general functions of analysis in the inte].J-igence process dis-
cussed above, the analyst can expect to be cal-led upon to bring sone speciallzed tech-
niques to bear on the problens ln his area of responsibility. Such technLques are not
unique to Lnte1l_igence analysls; thelr are utilized to some degree by virtually all law
enforcenrent personnel. What nakes t.hem so lmportant in ineelligence is their system-
atic appl-ication and developroent. The analysis itself is deflned in terrns of a funda-
rnent.al procedure which consists of three basic steps:

o Suinmarl-zlng t,he relevant informatlon

r comparlng the aumnary with expectations derLved from an inltial
hypo thesis
c Expla{nlng the results of this comparlson

91
 f
:
t
In surnmarizing intelligence information the analyst is reducing both the nunber of $

j.rrJlviduul p.irr{.:eq of information avaj-lable and the contedt of each, Facts and specuLa- l[

tiols frorl;i1-[ sou:ces are recluced [o those re<1u-ired, ?hi-s activlcy is essencial to t
pieveni the airalyst fron being sr.raarped by data that are only narginal-ly reLevant to a
ParlLcular assignuent. Surnmarization differs fronr collation in that the former is $
spr-rc;.iiq anil io:u:;e. on a speelf ic reqLiTelr;li. When summ.arizing relevarrl inforrnaElon
!i:e:inal-vst sI.r.rul.ci highlight the iurportant facts and exclude or mlnin.ize those that are
.less importanl- ot reliable. The expertise of other analysts and fleld investigators
shor.rl.d be sougirt in evaluatin.g and sunnnarlzing intelligence reporta. Although a
g:'eaL deal of tedious effort i-s required ln this sEep, the process of sunmarization is
mcst characteristical-ly a preparatory funcrion by which data are reduced to a forn that
Iends itself to systenatic e:<amination and comparison of inforrnatlon.
The conparison of d.ata is the critical step in analysls. The data the analyst
has organized and srrnnnarized are conpared to a set of expectations derived fron an
initial hypothesis. In addition to irnposing a general structure on the analysis, the
hypothesis is the crlreria that deEermines the significance of observed <lata. In other
words, the analyst, by referrlng to a hypothesis, formulates a set of expectations
atld compares actual observations wlth those expectations. Siurilarities or regularitles
in the gecgraphical distrlbution of narcotics activit.ies or in the actlvLties of a par-
ticular suspeci: will be noticed by a systeeatic comparl.son of arrest records and fteld
observation reports
In the conparison sLep the analyst asks what is significant'. the guestion 'rWhat
tloes this indicate?" is addressed in the final step of analysLs, the explanatlon. In
actual prac.tice, the analyst wtl1 have some tentatlve explanatlon Ln srlnd whlle ac-
tually conparing the dala, but explanation is actuall.y the final step before produci.ng
intelligence reports. The analyst rnay flnd that, he ls unable to explain the resuLts of
the analysis, ln vhich case more j.nforrnation is sought, or exlstlng data is subjected
to a more thorough exanlnatLon, In any event, the anal-yst ghould deterrnLne:
c Whether the data exhibits signiflcant reLationshlps
. o The meaning of the reLationships or l"ack of thern in terms of
' the purpose of the analysis
o The larger meaning of these findlngs in terms of the intel-Ligence
unitts overall knowledge of a patticular organlzed crif,e activj.ty
r Requirements for additionaL information and/or further analysis
As eurplol-ecl in scientlflc research, an hypothesis nay be defined as a conjectural
statement about tlle reLationships that exj.sc. among trro or more variables. The manner
j-n which hypotheses are used in pclice inteLligence is consisEent with this definition,
but lt rny also be stated that hypotheses are workLng assumptions that are tentatively
accepted as tr:ue and util..ized to foctts furttrer investigation and analytic efforts. The
prii;rary purPose of ttre hypothesis as used in intelligence arialysis ls to strucEure the
aoalyst's inquiry by expl-icitly statin6; the problem under investigation and by lftnltlng
the possible solutions to those that are nost p.lausible.
The hypothesis rnay be a formal vritten staLenent that includes a1.1 availabLe sup-
p,)j:tive and disconfirrning evidence, or an informal and unstructured idea that occurs
to the analyst as he is evaluating some new pi.ece of lnforrnation. In actual practice,
oPerating hypotheses will fa1l somewhere between these two extrenes. The analyst may
find it useful to fornulate alternative hypotheses where there is li.nited informatlon
available. This approach, often used in the early stages of determining the rneaning
of a new collection of inforrnation, keeps the analyst from focusing too soon on a sin-
gle hypothesis, which roay be wrong. As new tnforrnation ls gained, it can be tested
agalnst several hypotheses. ltorrnally, in tine, a perceived pattern in the informalion

92
uill b" recogniz.d. It mr.rst be renembere.J thac the business of intelligence ls to
p:.-l:e allc3:rLit:n:;;rttC:rrri;.qasLions of crininal activity rather than to buil"<t an evL-
r-lt:r'ii::l ca$e.. -[f the intelligenee analystrs hypothesis ls accepted, it beeomes the
star:cing poin*. for case building.

, i'l.iru tiEilci._i_lr ::.:

intelligence -iilt:s are tlle aa:r1yst'$ most importanl single lesource. It is
tirrorr3h the systenatic co11ati.;n iiird comparison of rair data that finished intel1-lgence
is produced. In fact, t'j-nrel-J.igence" r:ften refers more to the ways in,uhich inforrna-
tion is organi-zed and useql tlran to the content of that info::raatlon. For these reasons,
p:-o;)clr ust: of rhe files by analysts a-ssrlmes particular importance.

' i.rhe:i beg"i-nn,ing 1ne'./ projer'-t or viren respoading to t:equesEs for: a specific assess*
rne.rt' tile an3lyst should examine the files for infornation on the subject before col-
lceting lter"/ datil , .{:;earclr throtrgtr the respective indexes ancl data files nay provlde
enou.qtr inform.rtion on a suspect person or on a particular illiclt operation to ful-
fj.!-l a tactical requirement. At a minimum, a thorough examination of data currently
on l.and vi1-l- help Cireet further collectlon efforts.
Another importaat '-rse of the central intelligence flles is ln following up new
inio-rmaLion pr:esenied in fiel-d reports or derf.ved froro other sources; Upon receipt of
new information, tlie;u:rlyst will oftea consu'lt the files to he1-p place ihe o.w infor-
naticrn in conter<t- Through such follow-up activlties the analyst may recognize pat-
i-erns oI activity for a particular suspect or connect a previously unfanlliar crinlna].
r:r racket with knor,rn activities documented in the files,
lltreh of intelligence analTsis is concerned with establishing the relationships
aiiiong seerningly diver:;e pir:ces
of informaEion in general, and among seerningly diverse
indi.viCuals and actj.vities in parti.cular. Efficient intelligen"* iiler are structured,
not only to sccortrnodat.e such relationships, but also to simulate them by cross-
referencing people, places, and actions.
1'h!re are several approaches to orgaulzing the lntelllgence flling system. Se-
lecting the best one depends on t.he needs of the unLt. In some very snall un{ts, the
file system consisis soLe1y of jacker- flles, in qrhlch alL reports on a speelfle lndl-
vi<iual are flled lrr that indivtdualrs personal foLder. Thls tradltLonal approach poses
savere liroltations to rapid retrleval of information since specific raw data are not
indexed and retrieval musE rely heavily on the nemory of file rooo personneL. It does
noi pro'ride a ltay to determine quickly the extent of infornatl,on that may be.accutuu-
kiiug oit cr:irninal activity by geographic area or at a specifie location, or by cate-
:'!)i-]'or sut,catellor,q. Thus, iL cannot provide the analyst rrith classes of Lnfornatlon
l):rccassdrt to estab-lish.tinks or to assess pattens or trends in crLminat activlty.

This nelhod c:rn be improved by estabJ-ishing a master nane file in which all re-
'porls pert:rinlng to an indtvidual are indexed onto a file eard that contains the per-
s')nrs nanie, the report number, clate, and the type of activity. The report itself can
Lhen be filea:rcc.rrding to the file system--l.n the indivldual's jacket f1le, an lnteL-
I'ia;*ilce case file, or serially by report aumber. The name-Lndex card a11ows rapid re-
rrieval of a s;oecific report vherever it is filed by querying the master nane fLle and
id:ratifying the reporL by number or nane. The card also provides a qulck suarniary of
thr: crlininal activity related to the individual

-t"!Sxr$.. The flle ntust provide multiple paths for querying the srored infoma-
tio;r. This can be <1one by indexing all itbns of relevant information Lo. the subJect
or funcLionaL category. Normally, this is accomplished by using index cards on which
the desired amount of lnformatLon is recorded concisely, with reference made to the
basic Cocument. tfnile indexing in this rnanner takes Eore clerieal time, the cost.is

93
nore fh:rn offset by an i-r.rprovement in analyst. efficiency. A normal set of card indicee
r.,rou1d irrc j 'irle: Nane, I'iiase:;, Addrcss, TeLephr-r;re numbers, Aulo 1lcenses. Suggestlons
as to infor:lr.ation to be included on each type of index card fo.!low:
i) li.,::r.. IrrJer:<. 1'his ;;horrlC lirr.:lu6s, in::clclil|on to the i.ndivi,lual ts nane, the
al-iar;es use.i,,rnd Lhe ht-rthdaie. Tiie jntelligeuce reporE is then indexed onto the name
,-rsrd l>y recorCing the dare, report, number, and the criminal activlty or the code for
the crlminal activlty. A new card can be made out each tlme a report is received, or
successlve reports on the same indtvldual can be recorded on the card. The accumula-
tlon of reports on an lndlvldual nray lndicate that an important llelrl crininal figure i.s
energing.
2) Alias Index. This card should relate aLiases and nicknames to names of known
crinlnals who :rre calleC by strch nicknames and aliases. Often an lnformer knows an
individual only by a nickname. Indexlng in this uurnner nay lnitlalLy help to identify
a known crimlnal in a new area. Alias cards can also be f1led alphabetlcally ln the
Narne Index, ellmlnating the need to check more than one flle.

3) Address Index. This should, at a mLnimum, lnclu<le address, precinct (or area
of jurisdiccion), and.type of premise (residence, bar, restaurant, pool hal.L). Each
report ls indexed on the. address card as lt is on the naoe card 60 that reports of
activity at a speciflc address ean be quickly retrieved. The accumulation of entrles
on a specific address lnay indicate a new focus for crimlnal meetlngs that denands fur-
ther investigaclon.
4) Telephone Number Index. The telephone index flle shouLd be restrlcted to
those nunbers having useful infornatton. For example, reports of who uses a Particul.ar
phone, and wheiher it is a home, bar, or publlc phoire can be helpful. They suggest
relationships as to whaE type of activlty Ls going on otr being planned. Other than
this type of naterial, tnformatlon on telephone nunbers ls readlly available frorn the
telephone company.
5) Arrto License Index. Thls is required where eLther the sEate has not compuEer-
izecl its license records or a narcotlcs entlly is otherwise unable to query a state-
computerl.zed systenr direcEly through its own console. Even with a computerized systea,
an index system may be'useful to keep track of persons other than the registered owner
who use a car. A card index Ls also lmportant where out-of-state cars becone lnvoLved
in criurinal activlty in the jurisdlctlon.
Two other trseful indices are a biographic form and a l"oca-tion index. A biographlc
forn is base'J on the belief that lt 16 necessary to gather alf informatton possible in
one place concernlng rnaJor known or a1,1eged criminals ln the jurisdicEion. This is of
g,reat assi!Lance to the analyst in responding to reguests for information on such per-
sons. The usefulness of the approach ls greatly enhanced lf qhe form ls kept up-to-
date aod has an index attacheC to ir, recordlng the base documents from which the bio-
graohic data are derived.
'.i'he lccation inJ.:x offers a place to abstract a brief note concerning all rePorted
crines (or aE least those categories of criminal activities of interedt co the intel-
ligence analyst) occutring either at a specific location or {n a eeLected geographic
area. This lndex can be useful in discovering associaLions anong criminals vho engage
in d.ifferenE types of crimes, for example narcoti.cs and fencing, or fraud and shy-
locking. It j.s the 1av enforcenent agency that categorizes crine and observes juris-
dlctlcnal boundarl,es, not the cr1mlna1.
ln these major indices--biography and location--each report should contain a brief
points. If done correctly, the need f,or retrieving the basj.c re-
,,-r5stract o.f impor:tant
porl vould be reduced or eliminated. The abstract should lnclude names of known or
alleged crirninals, rogether wit.h a conclse statement of their reported activltles, and

94
 rv'l]*"'c aird when they occurred. often.this J,s enough fcr Lhe analysc Eo
loc'rt'ione' or crlninal acttvities and persons. si photo"opying link pdrsons and
naiion is ail'Jecl , the;rnalyst carl have updaterl inforuration on the fcrms as new lnfor-
:r.1 1 ::-i:res' This ,lata can be referred,to
assigned areas of crj.me at
ar'," .."i:r.a reviews Ehe daily flow of new
in|ornation.Hence,mucltc1erica1andreadirgtir:le"n,.l"saved,.
""
ii'"'ic ii'';r3rr F.!;1.rg. .\ir in:porLant decision wi.iir respect to the
filiug
ltow arcllGilT;-i_il,: Gsic ..poi'a". ot'r:en the basi: report, onc,3 indexecr, systeil is
is flled in
a 3ackeL file of the rrosL iilp(ri:tant pcrijr)r! l1rentign.).1 or irr a crlmjnaL
r:hicil is centr:e'l to tl"Ie report. sornl agencies have a system activity lile
n.nbers are 11iven to cercain n:;.rjor crtmfnals, ayp"r in which intetrigence case
the basic docunents are ftled ai.cordingly .ri*.-i*l.t-lna.xoo, "t-triminal activity and areas, aad
in either of rhese
cases' if the report refers to more than one person Jr type
recorded on its oru"n i:rdex ctrrd and cross-referenced rt .ri*r."i activity, each
io the jacket whete it is
?:i:r:t
The recomnended approach is to file all reports
Analy'sts and clerks can rely on crcss index files in series once they are indexed.
and abstracts for *".."il"|.-r's€AEs'

. The need to mark inforrration to i.ndlcate

itss;ensiEivit-r1ookedil;;t;1ii';;;;.ffi;Inationhan-
l1lng' The seusitivlty of information reLates both to its source ano its*fJ.i""aT"-r.,
exanple' lnfornation that could only have cone fronr a source close to the inner clrcle
of a crirnlnat group vrorrld be sensi.tive because, should-;;;-;r;;;;"ii.i"i."rn
the pcltce had thls lnformation, the inforrnant rhar
fornation concerni.ng expected crLrnlnal activlty could ue toentttiea. sfun1Lar1y, tf ln-
r"iu ii""overed, it cou1d ,blow,, the
eventual enforcernenE action against this group of crlmlnals.
br: ssncigive in terms of Thus, a single t-- report
:brv4! \e!r
c&n
and substance.
"orrr"a
rn order to pr:otect sensLtj-ve Lnformation, the int.ellrgence analyst
neans for indlcating the degree of sensitlvlty of the slust have a
narked with a nutnerical or letter code thar cin be
infornation. The naterlaL can be
vhole or parts thereof. Determining sensitivity is .""o"iiiJ-;;; .;;-rllo..
usually the responslbtlity ""of " the
Pei:son Pr. agency forwarding - the informatl-on to the unit. ilor".r.r, ir, ."rt"ip clrcuro-'
stances the unit cLasslfies i.nformatlon because of its awareness
of other;;";;;;;.
- Defining clegrees-of sensitivity is sometimes difflcult because all infornatlon
Lhelc enters the intelligence systexn is considered
infornation in the intelligence system is classlfied confldentLal. Thus, ordinarily,
":rc;i';itive," ne;tning it rnust be conrrolJ,ed by the urritelther as "confidential'r or as
cor,unander ancl not clrculated
t lr:')rrEll normal channels- This conf idrrnti.rl
classif icaLion is necessa:-y to protect the
itiLesr'ity orl tlre'iivsLem as well as the privacy
i':l'r[e)s' ]lence, irrfornrat:ion in the rntltttgenceof system
the persons co rihon the information
rnust be clrctilated onJ.y to
Liro^';: rsith a right to such naterial (for exlmpl., ; i;;
t<.r know (worklng on a case r+here the data are
enforcemant.officer) antl a need
reievanL). To classify information above
co:rfidential--that is, sensitlve--should mean that the originator
lhe information strotrld be restricte,:l. Thus, beri-eves aceess ro
rer a:id entered inco the general intelligence i.tfilecannot be proeessed in the normar man-
buc must be kept initially
ctrre fiJ'e to vhich access is limited to ihose receiving in a se-
express permission by the r-.rnlt
CO,;::,ai'ldef .

Iicrlial;iltry of infornacion poses a similar prbblen. The bulk of material the in-
t"*ri-iigence un:-t rerceives consists of allegations, most of which
may at least initial.ly
b: u.verified. There rnay be doubt about ihe accuracy of the source, or ir,iorur";i;;-;i-
rort''iy in the iites; rnay cllspute the ner"'infornation. The subject
(uitlrer a P{-'rson or activtty) nay be new, and furEher investigation of tfre inforrnation
may be required.
fhi:rellore' lt i:: imperative rh:rL the origlnating source lndicace the reliability
of the

9s
:Ln€ornratLon on the report'. In some cases, the ana!.yst uray give the information a sec-
ond class;!.f ir:..1t:ion as to its re1i.abil1t). that is based on knowledge of other relaterl
material in Lhe files.
An unC.erstan<iing of the reliabiliuy cf infc:nation is als,r essi.nri.al to protect
thr: pr.irr:r:i'of indi-v-idua1s. The"incell-ip;enc: urlit must be vary cf circulating i-nfor-
;aticn, the 'ralj.dity of which is in doubr. But ii" the materiaL must be circulaced, the
intelligence unit must state its reservations cleariy on the report.. An example of the
ileed for care J-n ha'rctling such materlal is an aLlegation received abouE crLminal acts
r'rf polltlcians or civil servants. Such reports rnuit be treated with special care be-
cause such ;rllegations may have been made for political reasons,
Figure 1 presents an approach to codlng uraterial for its sensitLvlty and rel"ia-
bllity. For the reasons cited above, two classiflcatlons are deemed necessary for
sensilivlty. The materia'l ls elther beli.eved ro be sensitive and treated aecorcllngly,
cr it is sirnplv treated as confidential. The reLiabiLlty codlng 1s based on the
belief that two factors should altrays be taken lnto account ln deterolnlng the relia-
b11ity oi the materl-al, namel-y, the source and rhe substance of the repo.i. Rubber
stamPs can be. made so that materlal can be mrked ttSensitivet' or t'Confi.dentlaL.,t The
codes for sensitlvLty ("sst' or ttsctt) are for ease in rnarking lndex cards. llighLy sen-
sitive naterial should be stored ln a safe wi-th access limited to the unlt courander
or other deslgrrated persons.

F lgure SUGGESTED SENSITIVITY AND REPORT EVALUATION CODES

Sensitlvicv Codin&

Sensit.ive (SS) Must be closely held to Material so staoped nust

avold jeopardlzing the be srored io a locked
source or the initlation fil,e under dlrect con-
of an lmportant investi- trol of the unit com-
gatLon rnander or his designee
Confldential (SC) May be circulated i.n and Standard operating pro-
outside department to law cedure for handling to
eoforcement officers with be establ-ished by unit.
need to know corrnandlng officer and
approved.by chief of
department
.
Reliabillty Coding Source

f\ Law enforcenent offi0er

B Source known and relLable in past
c Source knowr but not always reliable
D Reliability of source unknor,m
Report- content Coding

1 !'actual
2 Probably true
3 Factuality unknown

96
ruu

il
II
Brivaey-q9"s-f&3!-ro:g' The file systen musc take lnro accounr the problens
ra:ised by slatutes dlrected toward protecLl-ng personal privacy. It 1s no longer pos-
sible to enter a1l inforneLLon on individuals lnto lntelllgence fl-les astoruatie"fiy-""
it j.s t::cej-ved. Each lten must be subjected to the test oi relevancy,and -
gality undcr appiopriate siare and nallorrirl l-aw.:. There is litcle probJ.entoduring it; il-
;tcf,iv! c;.** in whlch sqarcires have been carried out iri.Ltr rrarrants. I,llrat is toucf,yanis
thq decision on all.egltlorrs vrherE: tlre source is noL knolrn or has not been totally.
ilcctlrarir irr tl're pascr or vltere chere is; rro crirnlnei recor{ grn tire sub_ie<:t
One approach that reay help reso!./e or at leasE minLrnize thls proilem,
of a telnPorary f1le. The operation of tire temporary file would be based o"lstn"the use
foi--
lowing ideas:
r The f-lle is pr:irnari.ly for reports on individrrals rather than on ac-
tivities.
c The anaLyst (or whoever has the responsibillty for decldlng on na-
terial to be put in the flles) shouLd put reports into the temporary
file if the main file has no other inforrnation on the principai
ject in the report and lf the investigator has lndicated r.sl.rra-sub-
tlons'about the accuracy of the source on thls partlcular subject.
o rf the report has references to several suspecta, onry one of shom
ilrs the above defi.nitlon, all suspects should be indexed into rhe
nain file e:ccept the nane in doubt. That name should be noted in
the temporary fl1e untiL lts final disposLtLon is deternined. rf
the doubt ls removed, then the nene vill be l-ndexed into the rnain
file.
. rt ls essentLal that infornation ln the tenporary file not be dl.s-
seminated outslde the intelligence unlt, except to other elements
of the same departrnent with the express approval of the unit com-
nander and the understandlng thae it Ls not to be used in any man-
' ner which might cause it to be cl_rculated.
A reasonable time Llruit must be placed on how long ur,aterial can reunln l.n thls
f1le whiLe its validity is being checked. A reasonable tLrne would seen to be slx
months. If no accepLabl-e supporting information ls recelved in the stlpulated time,
ttre inFormatloo must be removeC froro the flle and destroyed. In this r"on.r, the p;1-
vacy of Persons agatnst whom alJ-egations cannot be supported can be protected. Where
the infornation is corrobora.led, lt should be indexed-and entered trrio the rnain file.
temPorary file may sirnply be one in which baslc reports are f11ed chronoLog-
ically. Another approach followed by some organizations is to naLntain the terntor"iy
nature of selected reports on individuals where the fact of crirninallty ls tn doubt ly
i'ndexlng that rcport on sPecial colored cards and/or putting colored tabs on the re-
poi:ts. The.result is tlre sarne. File room personnel are alerted not to dissemtnate the
information so rnarked.

PRij?.''itrNc rNTEILISINCE REPORTS

The firral products of intelligence analysis are presented in fornal intelltgence

r'rports- Although the actual content and format of the reporr vary wlth the typ- of
actlvlty' the following prlmary types of intelligence reporcs are recogn{zed.
f) or"1 Tqqtlqel Res2egse. The slmplest and perhaps mosc conunon type of intel-
[email protected]
request by investLgators or other units In the department. In produclng sueh a

97
report, the analyst is usually providing inforniaEion on a particular person, his re-
centJy reoorted actlvlties, and associates. Ttie content and forrirat of the oral re*
spons:: will vary greatly, eonforming to the reguirements of the user or to the nature
oi th-e r:equesced information. Oral response should be noted so that the analyst and
irls super:visors are aware of current requirement,s for this type of intelllgence report.
A t,.'.ri,i,: t; n]lrltelri,,d oi ut.l inforrnation disseruinaced from the intelligence arro of the
rrnit.
2) !.ifl53--tagl-tg31-8espongg.. Reports of thls type wL1.1 most often be ln re-
sponse to a request for an assessnent or estlmate about a particular narcotlcs opera-
tion' suspect) or business. Even though the person requesting the report w111 probably
know why It has been writtea, the purpose of the report should be expllcitly stated.
NexE should cone the conclusion and, if approprlate, reconsrended actions to be taken.
If the report is lengthy, whlch ls not often the case in tactical tnteLllgence, a su!l-
of che contents shoul-d be incLuded that Lncotporates both the concluslon and rec-
n'.r,ary
oraniendations, Cenerally, however, tacticaL reporfs w111 be brtef and focus on a spe-
cific enforc€ment problen. They wL1l, therefore, not require lengthy dLecussions of
supplementary inf ornat ion.

3) $gFg1S--R?Pgrts.. Strategic intelllgence rItay be generally characterized aa

an estftnate of the extent and nature of a crLrnl.nal aetivlty, usually geographlcalfy or
functLonally based. It w111 lnclude an assessment of the current situation and an e8-
tinate of trends and future developurents. It ls more dlscurslve than tactlcal reporte,
but the saiae general requ{.rements for succLnct presentatLon extet. The purpose of the
rtport should be lnitially stated followed by concluslons, recoornendatione, and a gurn-
n.qry. The latter should contain a conclse siaternent of the operating hypoiheaes and
assumpcion6 ucllized in the analysts. The strateglc report deals nore wlth future ac-
tivity and involves a greater degree of uncertaLnty wlth respect to lts flndlngs.
Therefore, a more thorough discusslon of the analytic procedure is lnportant to enable
the incelllgenee consurner to evaluate the evidence and assrroptloos upon which the con-
cluslons are based. The analyst should also explicltly ldentlfy what he percelves are
the najor shortcomtngs or uncertalnties of the ieport.

98
 CttJiPTEi. TEli

Lil.lDil.tr'Oi/JlR OPERA IIOlri r

unl1l':e inost crimin3l t)f fenses, the sale of nareotics typically occur€
Jndividuals neither of whon couL<l realtstlcally be classified between tr.ro
as a-"rrictin.i-;;;r;;,-l;
ttlis type of crj.ninal- activiry there is no report and no complalnant to i,,-
"orpl"int
cervisw olr to !ll-r"e court testlmo;iy. confessions or atluisslons from the particlpona" r.
'r trarcotics sale are not obt:rlned untll afte! an undercover buy has been nade, lf then.
r1llcit sales iypically are marle under the noost prlvaEe
sons, the narcoties lnvestlgator nust rely on,rrriua"o.ru, clrcumstances. For these rea-
work to malce an arrest or to
make Ehe un<lercover buy, which leads to an arrest

of all police assignments, probably the one thac is Least understood is that
th': undercover officer. llany people'rlsualize thls of
role
characterized in the novies. ottrur" see the undercover offlceras slrn{.Lar Eo the super spies
as a self sacriflcing
indieidual r'tho cuts himself off frorn his family and friends for extended
L'[rne so that he can l:lve vithin the drug
periode of
u,,cir ih.-.;di;;i;;-oi nr* ass!-gnecl
t;rsk' Both of these v,[e:wo are somewhrt extreme and unrealistlc. Whtle undetcover
"orn*ur,ity
slSnnents are hazardous ancl require extenslve preparatlon ancl as-
tralnlng,
tact with the deal.er and hJ-s assoclates Ls kepi to a nininun. Typlcally, ln the actuaL coo-
cj'ptrl, county' and state narcotics unit operatlon", the nrost ount-
undercover
naking a contact a*d a quick buy, a waiting perlodi and then the asslgnment calls for
arrest.
. No'rrna11y, an untlercover investigation should not be attempted until
gative techniques have failed or are deemed impractical. slrnilarly, the other investi-
should begin an undercover asslgnmenr onry aftLr receivlng authorization lovestlgator
n''rrrdlng offlce:r. This ensures coordination of operations frorn his com-
and j.ncreases the safety of
the offlcer' It shoul-d be remembered that succeisful r';";;ig;;i.."-.i"-}re
te;rn:'cork a*d the rrndercover officer ls only part of the tean. subseg,:entry,rcsirLr .f
r-ti:ier:eover of f icer.should fu11y understand the objeclive the
of the partlcrrl;rr mis.;ion and
if possible, should asslst in creveloping investrgiti". pol.icles.

BtJi_qPERAIIONg

U1l-imat.ely, the arrest of a suspect wilJ- probably sten from a ttbuy.tt

nay be purchased directly fror,r the slspect by an undercover pol-ice liarcotlcs
offlcer; an

*llaterial in this chepter is based on:

Drug Enforcement Ac'lministratlon, Drug Law Enforcqnen_t-officerts
hra:sliington, i).C. i;::;.';J# Manua!, DEA,
Jarnes A, Hlldebrcnd, "The Undercover Narcotic Officer--practices
ancl Tectrniques,,,
!"-l lq_g_q$=!, IACP, Gairt'.ersburg, t{d.
LrternitlonaL Associatton of Chiefs of ?o1ice, Traiaing Keys No. g4, FolJ.ow-up
Inve,:!i,gation.; and No. 140, lgfgolls Invest-iEatLon, f,fCe, CatttrersU,rrg, Ma:=-
JoirnB.}Ictaughl1n'iwlt,),L.E.F..uti"t..'u,
Chicago.

99
inforflant m.jry m;!ke the purchase; or police survelll3nce unlts nay.obse:rve a purchase
nr,ir by a th.ird party.
The agent lruy cese directiy invotves Ehe undercover offlcer ln putchase of a eon-
troller! subsf .rnce, Th"i.s tlrire of case is idea1 for 2rosecuLicc because the trafficker
ha.'i t-io.l-'J <iir.:ctly to a 1z!i{ elforcenent officer, arrd that fact usually convinces a jury
of the suspectts gr:il"t. General.!.1', the only way that this type of case can be lost in
cor-i:: is if the bu.r';;,sr nad.;: iirro.-r3h i1legll- nethoC,j (see 1_ater material in t,his
marrual on entrapment). The agent buy case ls alinosL always Jnitiated through an infor-
nant vho introduces the undereover officer to the suspect.
fhe eontrolied Lnt-ornant buy is'the least prosecutable of buy cases because the ln-
formant ls usually involved in criroinal accivities hinself. Since such a case requlres
the testimony of the ii:formlnt, it. becones a macter of one criminalts word against,
anotlterrs. Stlllr sonetines the inforrnant buy is the onLy route availabLe to investi-
Sntors" If a controlled informant buy ls to be maCe, the following ptocedure shoulcl be
folloved:
a. Thoroughly debrlef the infornant
b. Make sooe indepenclent effort to authenticaie the lnforrnantrs
inforuration.
c. Make no pronlses to the informant. His participation must be
conpleCely voluntary.
d. Have the Lnformant te1-ephone the suspect shi.le.the cal-l is nonitored,
e. Attenpt to set the rneeting for dayllght hours in the out-of-doors to
a1low the continual strrvelllance of the lnfornant.
f. Thoroughly debrlef all assisting officers.
g. Strip Search the inforaant.
h. Give inforrunt officlal funds ln narked bi1ls.
1,. Thoroughly brief infornant.

J. Advise surveillance officers about the infcrnantrs appearance.

k. SeL pre-buy surveillance at least one hour before the rneeting
between the inforrnanE and the suspect.
l. After the buy, pick up the lnforrnanl and secure- the evidence,
m. Strip search the informant after the buy.
n. Take a wrltten stateiitent frorn the inforrnani, giving emphasis to
details occurring while he was out of sight or hearing.
o. Return the informan!ts personal belongings and get a receipt.
p. Corroborate rhe prlrchase by taping a caLl:roin the inforrnant to
the suspect in whlch the j.nfornant complains about, or praises
the quality oi nareoti.cs purchased.
q. Advis..l infornant how and r^rhen to naintain ccntact with the unit.

100
 'l'he btry oPeration can be furl.her classified with reference to the :anticipated ar-
re:j! sl:rtrlt)gy. Cen,:ra1ly, the pol.iee nay use r:ither the "buy/bustil tech1ique. or the
t'wa.l.it.-ar.rayt'
lraty .

'lite br-:'rltrrrst oper:.li Lor. is a very uset-ul prc,ceclure r-or narcotics units. By using a
l;r-lvli'usL, tite rtnir does ;",.,t hJ.i'e -o actu.r!i.!" speitd :i-ts br,ry money- AfEer a nunber of
g:tta.Ll i-r::eli.minary brrys trave bcen nada from a suspcct, the investigaior can
negotiate a
P::r:t:liase for a nricir J.:.r:i;er: quanrLty. Th.: deraler is arrested at Che time of sale w-ith-
oui actually turning ovei the buy money. The gre<riest, advantage of the buy/bust is thal
it is economical. It a1lows the uni.t to rnake arrests for major sales whlle expendlng
runis for oqLy one o; crtro srnall p.reliminary buys.
The "walk-away" buy is made by an officer, but an arrest warrant is obtal.ned at a
1&ler time. Tlr!,re:rre three mejor advantages to usin, che walk-away buy. The identity
oi'un,.itrci:ver officr:ts or ;in infc;nnenr .ls not g'i-v:n away by rnaking th" lrrest aE-ct;--'
time or- che l:uy. All arrests in an area can be delayed until a sinrultaneous series. of
raids can be- corr.:lucted, If a rtnic has made several buys f roo a suspect and Learne .that
a major shipnent ls arriving, l-t may be able to synchr-crnLze the senri-ce of the warrarrt
*ith the receiPt, cutcing, or distributj-on of the shlpnent. The maLn dtsadvaatage of
r-he walk-a\i/ay buy' bestde the fact that each buy will have to be smalL
in order io
mi.nimlze the loss of unit funds, is that execution of siaultanebus arrests .is expensive
in terms of oanpower and unit resources. Secondly, many drug traffickers are hflhly
cransi'ent and wry be difficult to locate after the first buy has been made.
The rrarcotlcs unit should always try to minirnize the amount spent on these buys,
A narcotics unlt wl-1.1 run c,ut of buy funds J-ong before it runs out of drug dealers,
Therefore, narcotlc6 units 1su5g sometimes undertake buy/bust oferatl.oas wiere their
preference nay be for walk-away buys. When the unlt decides that it rpust urake a large
walk-sway buy irr order to get to the dealerrs source of supply, the amount of sroney
needed oay be too large for its resources. In thl.s case, the local rsrl.t night cottsid"t
going to a state or federal narcotics agency for assistance Ln obtalnlng ttre buy Eoney.
Some units make a majority of thelr arrests with buy/busts, while others rely prl-
narily on walk-away buys. The 'rariance in pollcy is due to the atrounts of confldloif.t
funds available anC the differenc.es betqeen local comrrnitLes. In a rural €ettlng, a
unit can make three sealI valk-awayr buys (vith litcle invescnent), obtaia the necessary
arrcst Ttarrants, and get a colrrt corrvicElon. Convtctlon for sales, even sma1I ones,
may get the dealer a five or ten-year sentence Ln rural areas. A slnLlar caae Lnvoiv-
Ing smalL sunns probably would be reduced to sinple possession in a maJor rnetropol1tan
ci-ly. Thereforc, b.ig cit.,'officers h.rve to increase the size of the buy. By increae-
irrq the size of a w;.rlk-away bv.y, however, the unlt increases the amount of money that
wliL be lo.'jr vith lj,ctlr: chance of recowery. Therefore, in the larger: cltles, or ln
'-rntts where the br-ry money fr:rtd is smal1-, the unit has to emphasi.ze iuy/bust technlques,
'the number of bnys that are needed for a particular case wi.ll depend on a ngober
';f variab'les, inr:.1-ucling tire prevai.ling attitude of the loca1 court, the relatlve size
of che brrys, the f.ikelihood that the sel1er rnay move away, the desire of the unit to
icilt{)'!'e an infornant frsn arry conrrection vich the sa1e, or fhe possibility of catching
the seLler vtith :! large cache of contraband. When tine becones a factor, the unit n;y
con.:.ider raaking irn arjditional buy shortly before warrants are obtainea tn orae. to k..p
the case current. Better st!.11, the undercover offlcer might make conEact wlth the
s;uspect wherein the offlcer detennines that the suspect ts sti1l deallng narcotics.
The officer night schedule another buy, aLtb.ough it will never be mader-so that he can
tesr-ify to the facr that the srrgpect vas still" dealing prior to arrest. Even though a
urr:if intends th;rc frito or three preliruinary buys will be made, lt may subsequently be-
coirre necessary to seek a conviction on the basis of one of these preliptnarl.es, if the
lar3er case must be abandoned for sone reason. Therefore, reporr- wrlting should be.
coir.iiitried each tine wi.th t.he intention of going to court wlth everv buy if necessary.

r0l
 Soir.e narco!ics units naintain a policy where undercover officers are al-lowed to
r,'.rke cn;r-1..1 u(rilercover b'rys at thej.r own rlj-scrctiorl, wlthoul prlor api;rovaL. The dis-
ncr,v".,ii:aii.:,-' cf us.ing this technique should be r:on:;idered. First, there ls a danger to
thc oi';licer, since he has no eur,reillance rean to assist him if sor.ething goeg wrong.
St.:,.;i:1, a larg;e rturnber of b'.rys rnay be ',rasc(:,L. because, lacklng any preparatory informa-
t lr:rr ,l,iiirer.ir:i;, tlre of iicer nay ,1oL evel know the suspectts name or place of resldence.
Conrie(-lrtent.1y. cle suspect may not be found after a "John Doett g/arrant is lssued. Third,
a qoo'J clefense a:iorney nrlght claim Lhat ao undercover offlcer who makes 15 or 20 op-
p,:rlunistic buys a nonth cannot effectlvely lemember details about a defendant vho sold
drugs tci him several nonths ago. In spite of these disadvantages, ln response to pres-
s,.rre brought upon a unit regarding a large number of sCreet-level dealers wlthin a par-
ticular geographicaL area, some police departments use unsgpel=seg_buys of this type
fo: r:everal waeks co dininLsh traffi.cking activity in ttrat a-rea. gtt fn all , unsuper-
vi:;ed buys, whethe:r they are t'John Doe' buys or buys where the suspect is known ale not
r(.corr:rended because of t.trese rlisadvantages.

'Ihe observed sale case is another varlation of a buy case appllcable to street
ievel enf.6Iiiriinil--r-ire officers observe a drug transaetiorr,.tru"t the parties, and
charge the seller with selling a controlled subst-ance as vel1 as possession. As one
can imagine, chis type of case ls difficult to make. However, cases can be developed
on s;u:il.rP-cls whri can be obsetved selling on the street or where the r,roit has received
reliabl-e infornatloo on a pendlng sa1e.

USE OF FLASI{ROLLS

.{ very essential- parr of unlE operations ls the use of the "flashroll,rt whi-ch ls
to the narcotics dealer to lnduce him to make a sal"e. The appropriate
thr:.: rnoney shown
size of a flastrroll needed by a unit depends on 1ocal sales and distribution patterns.
Flashrolls used by many units range up to $50,000 or hlgher anounts
The source for flashroll noney aLso varies. In some. un{ts, the money is borrowed
fron the city treasury or frorn banking institutlons that lend raoney without incerest on
Ehe signature of city or pollce offlcials. Occasionally, when the noney to be fLashed
i-s too large a surn for one department to provide, state and federal narcotics agencles
riir-y assist 1n obtaining it. Unit investigators should be ar,rare that, if other agencles
are a:';ked to provi-de some of the flash noney, they w111 autornatically become involved
in the operation. At the very 1east, since they are responsibl-e for the money and want
Lo protect it, they will want to lmpose situational controls wh{ch are ln keeping wtth
their or.in policies and procedures.
Recognizing that pollce officers have been kil-l-e<l for a flashrolln the undercover
investigator should know the suspectrs crimlnal background and his pote.ntial for at-
tenpting a robbery. The invesEigator should determine tf the s.uspect lras been dealing
in lzrrge quantiti.es for some time, or if he just started. Moreover, the prellmlnary
neetings witir the suspect wiLl enable the investlgacor t.o learn if the suspect is
lrabitually armed or not. One possibLe indicator as to whether a sltuation may be a
rip-off attempt is lha retative scarci.ty of the drug being purchased. If the item has
b:rin very scarce, there is a strong possibility that the suspect may not be able ro
deliver and, in fact, may have no intention to deliver the narcotic. Investigators
sltotrl'.l also knor.r tire current value of what they are dealing for prior to the transac-
tion. If ttre valtre of the narcotic to be soLd is too high or Eoo 1ow, they should be
\'t':lry. lloreover, the investigator should be cautiotrs if the suspect ls adarnant about
settin* up the sale rrnder condi.tions conduclve to a rip-off or, on the other hand, the
srrspe{ t is too wi.tling to agrc'e ro conditions which are clearly disadvantageous to hin.
ln short, ttfeellng" lhat conditions.are not
ttrilltrr. tt ttre investigaior must sometlmes reLy on a

LA2
 hhi:n agreemenEs are rnade for the ttshowtr of a flashroll to convince
a seller tbat
che undetcover buyer <lues, l.n facc, have enough money to oake the purchase.
tlon shorrld take place at a rocacion thaE has the foilowing the opera-
"tt..""i"ri".i"",
a. It is well ltghred
b, SurveiLlancc agents have reacly access to the buy scene and a vanta.ge
pr:int to observe it.
c. The suspectrs escape rbuces can be easily blocked.
t
u^ The involvenent of unknowing cltizens is mlnirnized.
e. when a moteL is used, two rooms with an adjoining door for rapld
access by officers shouLd be employed.
E
t. The area or room must not be easily accessible or easily seen by
the suspectfs assocLates.
when a flashroll is being shown, an electronic Listenlng device
This nay be etther a room llslening rntcroptrone, .-uoay-ttansnitter onshould be utillzed.
the ;J;r;;;:;T;:
flcer, or a Ltstening nlcrophone in a car-beini used ior;h";;;;.;- il;ili;;;;;;;-
the flashroll should recorded by elther recirdlng the serlal n,r*u"rs- or';;;il;; -"
photostatic coples of_be
all the bil.ls.
To ensure that a frashroll ls not 'rr.pped offff at the scene of a buy, narcotica
units have devel"oped various nean6 or protecting the Eoney.. one such nethod ls as fo1-
'.ows.

After the detalls about the amount of drugs to be purehased and the prlce to be
paid have been negotiated, the suspect is told thar the (;h; ;;-;;o".r-Jrii"."l
will telephone the susPect when the noney 1s to be shown"buyer';
to hin. After plane have been
developed by unlt personnel, the undercover agent telephcres
cl,ose to,rhe suspecrfs res{dence. The suspect is told that he """p"it';;;; ;-;;";;--
"tt.wlii-i.-pi"ted in
five or ten minutes to look at the money. The short tfune fraroe is Lnportant inupprevent-
ing the susPectrs setting up a rlp-off operatlon.. The undercover orii"u.-the4 picks,up
the suspect to take him to see Lhe money. The suspect ls then drlven to-.-fr"ala.rriila
spot, such as a large parking lot, where other tnvestlgators have a survellian"".rii- --
tage Point. The suspect is then'taken to a second car, and the trunk ls opened.
money is shown to him and be Ls allowed to count it.
ih"
it ttr" suspect balke or arg$es,
the buyer sirnpl-y srates that he has shown good falth; he has shown the rnoney. Any
gufiIent that the dealerrs connection also wants to see the money can be t""oi.r"e-Uy ar- --
haling a pol-.r1old plcture taken of the money alongslde a neqrspaper wl-th that dayrs date
indicated' The 4rrest and seizure can be rnade eiiher when the undercover officer is
taken to the narcotlcs or when the narcotics and money are broughr togethei;;-;;";;".
location, lrhlch should aLso be out ln the open where L"cape to,rtes cao b" U1*1gJ
the back-up teams have ready access. "ii-
If at any poiot the deaLer appears to be placlng too many conditlons on the rrshow,,
operation, the officer should back off the buy. Theie is no ieason why rhe
rake large rLsks of loslng money or getting an officer inJured. usualiy, th;unit ,t.ria
;is;l-;;-
the-nnonev and the posslbtllty of Losing th- sale are sufficie;t ind;;"*l"t-irr-;f,;- --
dealer to agree with the buyerts condltlons.
Brlefly,.another technique ln showing a flashroLl is to rent a eafety depos1t box
at a bank under the offlcerts fictltiorr" i"re. The suspect is then takeo by ltt"
cer to see the money' whlch has been pJ-aced in the safety deposlt "fii-
box. The officer,
after the money ls shown, then demands to see the narcotics. rn surunaryl at.-i"".v'
must be protected at aL1 t{rnes.

103
T}i[ COVER STORY

'iire ccvcr story L.hat is used byr the undercover investigaEor should be such that lt
oftr:rs soneti'r-i.ng attracEive to Che suspect. This rni.ght be the purchase gf contraband
gocds, assistance l-n cri.ilinal acr.i.v:r.ties, or even friendshj.p, For exarnple, the under-
r:o-r:r oiii!:er migllt tel . the suspect that ire, thur officer, has a load of stglen tele-
visions that he is wil-ling to sell if the price ls rlght. Effectlve gatherlng of in-
telLigence on the suspect i.s irnportant Ln determinlng what ttactivitlestt are attractive
to th3 suspect. The invesligator must do everything he can to make the story believ-
able. He must anticipate questions that nay be asked so that he can formul-ate ans\rers
in advance.
The undercover officer must abandon his offi.cial ldentity by removing his badge
and all credentlals, carrls, l-etters, notebooks and all oEher ltems that rnlght cause
suspiciorr r:r whlch nigtrt conf-l.ict \rlth trls cover story. Some personal items may
actually verify his cover. For exaurple, if the undercover officer uses hls real- name
in an undercoser buy, be may want to keep his credit cards or ldenrification bracelet
as I'verificatlonl of hls identity,
The ficcitious roLe that is assumed by the undereover officer should allow cou-
patlbiltcy wlth boEh the suspect and neighborhood involved. A good baekg:round story
should inctude names, addresses, and descriptions of assuued places of ernployment, as-
sociates, and neighborhoods. The fictitlous inforroation should be of such a nature
that 1r cannot. be eas11y checked by the suspect. The background city should be one
with which ttre officer is farniLiar but, if possible, not known to the suspect. News-
paper cl-ippings fron that clty which the officer ttjust happenstt to be carrying wich
him can be used to help establ-lsh his undercover identlty.
(
In fact, at one time the fact that a ttbuyertt eras carrying a gun r.ras an indlcation
that he ltas a pol.lce officer. Over the last ten years, thls has changed. Now, people
engaging ln illicit trafflcking are not suspected of being officers If they carry a
gun, since many traffickers carry them. The type of gun that is carried depends on the
officerts preference. He may wish to carry a short barrel (snub nosed) .38 revolver or
a dif{erent caliber revolver, or an automatic pistol-. In fact, an automatic pistol r:nay
be appropriate as it is flat, more easily concealed and not readlly identifl-ed with law
enforcement. When an officer changes pistols, however, he shoul.d do so only with his
departaeatts approval. Moreover, it is essentiaL that the officer be trained with any
and all weapons thaE. he carrLes into undercover operations or evea off dufy. This
trajni-ng may preclude the off.i.cer belng sued under civil liabiltty for inJuring or
!:illing someone wlth a gun he was not trained and qualified Lo use. It rnay also pre-
vent the officerrs supervisor, counaoder, and chief fron belng sued under the premise
of viearious liability (negligence in the training of the officer).
Persona1 possessions such as clothes, wallets, rings and watches, and the amount
of money carrled strould be appropriate to i:he chosen character. Clotlres and method of
dress should conform to appropriate standards and degree of cleanliness. Laundry marks
and clothing labeJ-s rnust either be obllterated or rnade to agree uith the city or locaLe
in the backgrountl story. A1tered ldentiflcation cards and letters bearing the assuoed
nane and address will help to establish the l-egitinacy of the officerts story.
In an operation where tirne does not a1low the carefuL devel-opnent of a complete
b::ckS4round story, the officer can obtain sma11 cover objects, such as,a savings or
checking bankbook. Usually, a local bank w111 aid the offlcer ln building hi,s back-
ground story by providing a false bankbook which shows deposits of large amounts of
Inoney' although t,he book usuaLLy has a control number which guards againet money ac-
tually being drawn from the account. The officer can Ehen allow Ehis bankbook to be
seen, and thereby give the impressl-on that he is able to nake a large purchase or that
he is a lar1;e dealer hirnself .

104
 The undereover officer shouLd not select a profession to impersonace unless
fa*iLiar: r'r1th a1"1 operatlons aa<I terminology involved. r.f a trade o1' p.-oru"*i;;;;.;"he is
requiies tools is selected as a cover story, any tooLs or carr;-ing should not be
new' since rhls night arouse suspicion. Prerenced deformltles or infird;i;;-;r;-;.;:
"o"."
gerorrs as; c'l{':-r:::e dlfliculr to nai.nl,rin for any leagth of tine end n;ry
investl.gaior's tLue:identit-v. ErapJ.o;"rnent of fenal.: iounterparts "*rp.oortur-cl"
sion of a couple, in certaln situations is an effeetive oetirocl of toreinfoicing i;;r;;:
"r*"to.-otruthe cover
stor]'.
In surnrary, the undercover officer rnust buiLd a background story in whlch he can
be corqfortable. the officer, in esseoce, nust be abLe to say
other person." 3o hirnself, ,rr anr thls

Ir ENiTr!!!-r oN TEclgiJquu s

After all of the necessary preparations and precautlons have been compl-eted and
thoroughly understood' the lnvestlgator must then concenlrate on becomlng.acquainted
with che suspect. Thls ean be accomplLshed by varlous means, the roost cJumon and
easiest belng the use of lnfornants to lntroduce the officer to the suspect. The
undercover offlcer can also Eake contact by livlng in a locality or frequentlng places
vhere cLose assocLatlon can be had r.rlth the suspeit or hls frieirds, ;;-;t
ar""i".tiy--
disseminatlng lnfonration or creating a situacion which will cause the slspect
comel-nteresced1rrtlreunderco\''ermanasatraff1cker1nnarcotics. to be-

once contact has been made, it ls es.sential to galn the confidence of the
as soon as posslble but in a way whlch w111 not cr.aie suspi.cion. The und.erco.r.r suspect
cer should always remember to act as natural as possible. Asklng questrons u"riifv-^- Lffl-
arouses susplcion. 8y the sane token, ho'"rever, the suspect Bay
officer many questlous. The officer, as a trpusherr" should aci also want. to
tsuspi"io.r"t' iire
""t the
of
dealer and hls questj.ons. He nay also act angry.
The undercover offi-cer should refrain as much as possible from drinking.
flcer cair gtve various excuses for nor drinking, o, ,,oi ariir.iqe-i; The of-
;;;;;","",r.h ."--
the fact that he has stomach ulcers or that he ls sti11 sick .r,I h,rr,g over from the
ntght before. The reasons shotrld be obvlous. TesEinony in courE chit an undercover
officer had a number of drinks may damage his own testinony on the case. If it is
necessary for the investlgator to take a drink, he should never leave his drlnk
guarded since lt may be tampered with, elther as a practlcal un-
authentlcLty. Joke or to t*"1 ti*-

i\.0 undercover offlcer must, in every respect, llve the part whleh he plays.
this, the offl-cer musL not make too many explanations and should not ta1k, bluff, To or
do
give any more information than is absolutely necessary. Norma1ly, lt is unvise to dis*
p1;r1'too much interest in the wives or girl frlends oi suspects. A sinrp.l,t: e:cpression
of interest may result in the suspect becornlng Jealous, thereby Jeopardiztng th. sue-
cess of the case.
the suspect aPpears to be suspicious about the officerts tdenbity and begins
askirr;r questions or demanding infornatlon, the officer should dernonsErat. strong
contempt' sarcasm' or dismay. The suspect can be placed oo thr: defensive by the anger, ofli-'
certs insistence that he ls not courpletely satlsfl;d with the suspectrs icleni,lty and
deraand rnore proof. Indifference is another technique. By acting as if
he does noE
car* t"hat--the srrspect thl,nks and raislng the baslc question of r"-her,her lhe suspect is
going to t'do business or not," rhe officer nnay lnduce the suspect to nake E;;-;ti;.--
$ It rnay be expeclient or necessary Ln some instances for the officer to avoid con:
tact with the suspect for a few days. He may do this by pretendlng t.o be golng out of
town lor a gLven perlod. If thts plan l-s used, the lnvestl.gator cin reinfJrce"tis- --
$
I
t
i 10s
cover scory by agreelng wlth the suspect to send a post card or Letter fronr hls desllna-
rlon i:o the srr::pect to set r.rp the noxt neeting. The thought that an invest{gator nust
keep forcnr.,rst i.n hls nlnd is tir-:t the dealer is not only susplclous of everyone, but he
is probably Just as clever as the officer. The bLggest factor worklng agaLnst the
<lealer ls greed, Greed makes rnaoy dealers sell Lo agents even though a dealer may sus-
pc,:L Liral Lil-, l:'-r;,--1 isi rrn oific.er. A gorrl urderco'ver officer can nork on thLs greed by
"fla.string" his noney or by thre.rLening to take his busLness elsewhere.
The officer shou1d bear ln url.nd always that lylng, deception, and doubl-e-crosslng
are nornal conduct for urany of the dealers. Therefore, he ehould be.cautlous and try
to avoid creating dlsfavor or belng forced into a defensive poeltlon. Ee should be
skeptlcal, never relylng on or trustlng a suspect, and he should cautlously assess all
developments.

llany narcot::-cs units are requlred to nake tr4?o or more buys from each suspecc.
Such a procedure may be expltcitly requested by the local- prosecutorrs office, or it
may be finpl.lcltly required by the locaL.courts. Whatever the source of the requlslte,
the premise is that the suspect ls thereby ehorm to trave eold on a cont{nulng baels,
and he dld not merely engage 1n one rare finpulsl.ve act. The consequences of the re-
qulred second buy pcLicy are numerous, It forces the unlt to spend addltional funde on
inltlal valk-away buys. Flrst buys nay be lost on suspects who leave the local'Jurle-
dlct{on after the first transactlon. Suspects may becoure suspl.clous between the first
buy and the secoad attempted buy and refuse to sell to the offl.cer. Undercover offi-
cers are transferred or lheir clver t'blownt'' by ocher 1-arge cases made ln the Jurlsdlc-
tlon. . General"ly, lt Ls preferable that the uirlt retaln at least the optlon of rnaklng
a buy/bust when consLdered approprLate.
Realistlcall"y, narcotlcs unlts have to llve wlth the problem of lnsufficlent buy
funds. When an undercover offlcer can afford only a small frwal-k-awayt'buy, he can
plead a shortage of lnoney if the buy ts considered too snall. He can gl.ve any number
of reasone for thls shortage. He mlght say that he was rlpped off recently by hts
reguLar suppller, and that ls the reason why he ts buylng frorn the suspect. Converae-
ly, when an officer ts trylng to negotlate a buy whlch ls too large for eoneone in the
buyer,rs posltlon to afford, the offlcet can say that he came lnto sone money and is
trylrig to I'score," or buy enough to sell a Lltcle hinself and nake &ore money.
As unlt policy, the invest,lgator must always request a lab test of the quallty of
the purchased substance. Thls ls because he wlll vant to make a second or thlrd buy
off the suspect. If the suspect sells hlrn a diluted bag of narcotlcs, and there ls no
outrage expressed by the buyer after the narcotics have been consuned, the deal'er w111
become suspicious. If lab results lndlcat{ng purlty factors are not known before the
officer sees the dealer agaln, he will- have to lmprovi-se. He rntght go on the offenslve
and accuse the suspect of deallng ln weak stuff. Even lf 1t sas not weak, the euspect
nay thlnk he sold thls lndtvldual a I'badrt bag or that the ttusert' has a stronger habit
than he supposed, ff asked about the qualtty by the dealer, the undercover offlcer can
say thal he rntxed the bag wLth another purchase, or that he h&nseLf cut the.narcotics
another tlure for resale. The best approach, however, ls to avold slEuatlons wherein
the offlcer nrust make conments about the purchased narcotics untLL the lab resul-ts are
knoran. Then, lf the narcotlcs were weak, the.officer should express outrage and dersand
a better deal next tftne.
Although an offlcer rvLll make buys in many different places, a great nulnber of the
buys he makes are rnade inslde houses or apartnents. Such places glve the dealer prL-
vacy from the vtew of others, a place to hlde hls suppLy, safety for nalntalnlng wea-
pi:n-s he needs to protect hLinself, and--through the tollets--a disposal system for rld-
dinE; hlnself of hls drugs lf lt becomes necessary. The prlvacy of hls home also al-
lows hlm to make realLsuic dernands, such as havlng the buyer shoot up or test the drug
at the tfine of purchase. Buys roade Ln a house or apartnent are perhaps the most dan-
gerous because the oFflcerrs backup team is not able to aee what is happenlng. A1so,

106
 lf pollce lntelligence is lacklng, t,he offlcers nay not know how oauy lookouts the
good
de'a1er nayhats' the tyPes of l-ocks on the doots, or the room, apartment or floor rrhere
the saLe Is taktng p1ace. In sone urban areas, a dealer rnay change datly the apartnent
orthef1oorfromwh1chhese].1sinordertoconfusethepo11ce.
Thr v;rLire of scund iilte111gence notqrlthstandi.ng, quite often the officer and his
backtrp re'en w11.1 have to vork in a fluld sLcuatlon rlth rlrrirun edvance i"f.;ti";:-
In th+-'irr i.nglances, time li.nLts should bcl eert;rblished. If che
or give a Pre-arranged signal to Lndicate that he is all right, offlcer does. not omerge
the backup squad riii-
qulckly enter and locate the undercover officer. Furthemore, there shouid be gulde_
lines establlshed for those sltuations where the suspect, setn ud€o(pected stLgulattons.
The officer should be briefed regarding what he can and eannor do in chan;i"s-pfil-'

When an under:cover off.tcer enters a house or apartmenE, he should qulckly

the phystc'11 layout of the room, concenLracing on doorways and wlndows $rhlch survey
exit of the dwelllng or the breaking of a rrlndow to Lndlcate to the support teaniermlt
he needs help. Doors also presenL a problem, because the offlcer does not knor ifthat
ttrere is soneone behlnd thern who oay be anned. RecognlzLng t.haE he can do very l{ttle
ln such situations, the undercover officer should positlon hinself rn suctr a r.lay that
a possible assailant cannot approach hlrn fron behind, and attempt to prevent suepects
from coolng beEween hlur and his access to one of the ex1ts.
A dealer may nlnlurize the ttne that he handles narcotLcs by placing the narcot.lcg
at various locatlons and then <iirecting the undercover buyer to tire ptale. The offi-
cerrs strongest counter-uove 1rr these gituations is hls refusal to,tironttt or gtre-up
hls money prLor to recelving the goods. situatlons vhere narcotics and noney are ex-
changed slmultaneously at dlfferent places by the princlpals and thelr confederates
do
..toc present a pr:oblem, since a sale case ls still. rnade agalnst the dealer.

SUPPORT SIJRVEILLANCE

Durlng the undercover oPeratlon, there is a need for the undercover officer to be
supported by a backuP or cover team of officers'whose prlnary function ls to protect
hlm and assist him 1n uraklng the buy. Although the nolt hazardous part of the opera-
tion ls that of the undercover officer, the importance of the team should not
be rnininrlzed. The safety of the undercover LnvestLgator ls i.n",rpport
tire hands of the support
officer during the operatlon, and in a buy/bust eituatl,on, they are responelbLe for
rnakiag the necessary arreets. For these reasons, the member" of th. teatr and
the undercover offlcer must have a close worklng reJ.atlonshlp. mls reiatfonshfp
".tppo"t iust
be al-most lntuttlve, that ls, they mus! know each other and have insight lnto.each
oiher's personality sufflciently welL to enable then to complernent anl relnforce
other in what ls often a very fluld envlronment. They nust have a plan of actlon,each
only for expected occurrences, but also conttngency pi"o" for as nany sltuatlons asnot
possible.
hlhen the undercover officer enters a bulldlng to make a buy, the survel,Ll-ance
ficer should rnalntain a vantage polnt t.hat w111 allow hln to noce the descrl.ptl.on ofof,-
each person who enters and Leaves the butlatlng, as well as descriptions of any vehtcles
in which they arrlve. The guise and conduct of the survelllanc. offlcer ln cinductlng
an auxlliary strrvetLlance must be typlcal and natural for the neLghborhood. A partlcl
ular enpl-oyment or occupatlon can usually be used as a pretext.
'fhe undercover nan ruust aLways try to move slowly and cause such delays ae may be
nece'ssary for the survelllance offlcers to uralntaln contact. Change in locatlon s-hould
be made only lf there is a strong probablllty that the backup t..r-,ntlt be able to fol-
1ow. SecreE slgnals should be pre-arranged between undercover offl.cers and the sur-
veillance detalL. The followLng, for exarnple, can be used as stgnals: to lndlcate
movenent to the suspectts hone, his car, or other known location.

L07
tr
'*
f
 . The method of carrylflg a neqrspaPer or Mrgazine
+ Stnokir'.g ot not srnoli-tng

BeEore any invesflgator goes into an extended undercovel oPeration' arrangementg

fcr cumnulicating wirh head.quarEers an<l feLlow offiCers should be devlsed. When call-
ing headquarters by telephone, it is best to use a telephone which ls not connected to
a iocal switchboard operator. In soue lnsEances there ls less risk lf offlelal con-
tact is rnaintained by telephonlng a fellow officer at his hone. The undercover officer
may also call headquarters in the presence of the suspect by pretending to ea11 a glrL
friend or by using a sioilar pretext. At no tioe should the investlgator slnply duck
out to rnake a cati--tre should always g{ve a logical reason for departing'
Durlng extended undercover asslgnments, notes should be uade by an lnvestigator'
vhenever possible, as later he will have to remeober and testify as !o who sald and
did Chlngs. Moreover, places, tlnes, and dates wiLl have to be recalled. Notes or
reports should not be written untl1 the undercover officer Ls ready to mall them or
make a drop to his back-up offlcers. These notes or written rePorts uray be addrdssed
to a prearranged general dellvery address which is under the control of headquarters.
To preclude the posslbility of the reports or notes falling lnto lnproper hands before
mailing, they raay be wrltten in the posc office and mailed there. The inpottance of
sound reporEs noterlthetanding, the undercover investlgaCor should only make those notes
which are necessaty to provlde lnforrnation for the rePorEs.
A pre-buy ureetlng perrnits a last-minute conference to be heLd beEween the under-
cover offlcer, hls backup team, and the lnformant. The lnvestlgator should thoroughly
review hts own p1ans, paylng partlcular attentlon to his relatlonship wtth the susPect'
negotiated price, rnethod of delivery, and proposed cover story. The infornant should
be briefed on what he is to do anil say durlng contect with the susPect. Such plannlng
will ensure that no omissions in the operatlonal plans exlst and wilL reduce the anxl-
ety of all the officers regardlng the possibllity of inJury. An out of the way loca-
tlon i's both a basic safety precaution and another vray of overcoming an lnfornant's
fear of disclosure, since it iodicates that every effott is belng made to conceal his
identlty.
Throughout the pre-buy brieflng, the lnvestigator should not al-Low the informant
to learn more than ls absolutel-y necessary abouE thelr plan. Police officers should
realize that, tlre nore knolrledge an informant has on how the unlt. works its cases and
plaos and makes buys, the more effectively he can use this infornation egalnst the unit
at a later date. Slnrj-larly, other officers who are aLso used as undercover oPerators
should not be exposed to the inforoant.

POST-BIIY PROBLB1S

One of the most dtfficult lnomenEs in an undercover opefatLon occurs when an in-
vestigator has rnade a buy and it is stipulated that he use a Part or all of a drug be'
fore he leaves the apartnent, house, or building. In this rype of situatlon' the
un{ercover offlcer raust hluff hls way out and stl.ll nalntain credibiltty.
In cases where the undercover offi-cer is offered narlhuana, he should make every
effort to avoid its use. tlowever, tf the occasion arises and the offl!,er feels that
his cover wiLl be blown lf he does not smoke grass, he can simulate its use. Because
thls simulation process is dangerous, the officer should exerclse extreme caution when
attendpting this procedure. Basically, the teehnique invoLves the following:

108
 1) As the ofr-icer places the ci.garer.e betrreen
s1o'rlv*-q3'sing rhe fl;e end of th" ;i;;;ui.n hls llps, he EX'ALE'
.o burn light-rt:-
2) As the officer rernoves the cigarette from
th:':ri:ir h.1 ii,.-s, hol'rin:; t.e air in his 1;;g*. his lips, he deeply inhales
prl:11;; io:1 i: l:rL lhe :'tarilruaira This qives the ln-
;as iilirilled tlrr:ough the mouth. Ile holds
the ;rir rieep in hi.s llLir;Is .rs a grass smoker
rd,ll.
3) j.'he of f icer then repeats this process rapidly.
A possible situation that
sist that rhe offlcer not lea'renay occur is that, after_a sale, a heroin 4ea1er
rrncil nay 1n-
plain:; rhat he is not rnotivated bv anytre inSecis'tir""lr r-ith the drug. The dealer ex-
be:;l- interests or a1l conce.r"",i itrt distirrsc of the buyer, but that it is in the
rro one leave the pr*mises 'dirty.,, Realizlng that
Ite may encounter tiris- difficulty'
scead' he shoulcl putchase the office, a ulnlnar buy. rn-
"ho,riJ-.roid-naking, of
habit' rhus' he prepares ".o.rgi',arcotics-to ""ti"ry the deraan4s rrlth
the dealer for-his r""ti.,g',rncha11enge4 more than one
conEraband' so he &ay as welL take it au. at reast sone
friencl have pooled theit troaey .r,i th" frlende".ar,"i-"iory is that the offlcer and a
vith ihe narcotics so they can share it. is waiting for the offi.cer to return
pirop who is buying narcotlcs rhe officer ray also pose as a non-uslng
to satlafy the nee.lsloi-r.,r" glrls, Because lt is counon
street practice for pimps to keep their girls in riie- by- addLctLng then end
their source of supply, this is suiflciently-ciearble to al1ow the officer becornlug
le':ve the area' A deaier r""iu"to.y
ciangerous' such as someone he thinksavoid
aiso antagonizing soDeone whom he believes isto
ls part
ability' the officer may create doubt ln the "r . "ii;t-up team. rhrough hls actlog
lerrging an o.fficer who is por:traylng this type dealeris nind about the vr-sdor of chal-
of role.
Despite hir; attenpts to avoi.d the
nake a ninlrnal buy and then flnds tiat sLtuatlon, the undercover offlcer docs sonetlnes
gallerv' rn this instance, tt" oriicer he i.","*p""i"J ao ,r"" the deal.erre shooting
his works with hfun and thai he will should i""rii" by statlng thar he doesn,t
not use anyone elsets iurplenents. He nay rerate have
that he has been hosPitallzea twice because .i'il;a;;eedles,
another bout with an infectecl needle.. The and that he cannor
physical evidence, such as. track dealer-r.y-'."t the officer to show souetake
naiks to prove-at.i'r," is an addlct.
' Another problem m,'y occur if
as he Led the undercover offlcer tothe lnformant isnrt actuaLly as crose to the dealer
believe..
formant may become anxious' rf he panlcs, ;"1;.-p;"ssure beglns to nount, the ln-
che officerrs true t?1" o-t by sldin! qrith he r"y-"ttirpt to save hlmself by discloelng
shoulc! use the narcotics before t'"--i""',r." rhe aealer aia "gr".rng that the officer
this situation shoultl stall for :rs iorrg the preurtses. An officer confronted wlth
posslble,
will enter the building lf he "" recalling that his backup unlt
a predetermtned
"*""ui" an escape is tine Linit., The prlncipal advan-
tage of this technique over attenptiog,
necessarily have his role uttco',r.""d- when that the undercover officel m,, ,,ot
under arrest' includiag their undercover the .";;";;; arrive, they can place everyone
lice station vhere It may b" man. They can transport everyone to the po-
for a nore serious crirne in another
";;;;;iently disco.r"i.a-trr.t rhe undercover nao is rranted,
Jurlsdiction.
AfLer the buy has been rnade and the undercover
neet his surveillance team at a predetennined offi.cer leaves the scene, he should
se':l the evidence' and wrlte down the detalls locati.on where he can mark, count, and
Ehat manv narcotics officers ret aown.--il;^;";;"ati"i"'. of che buy. unforEunately, lt is here
cases the evt:ntual success or fallure of x'usr recognize that in many
o''ra;ltiress with whlch each mernbe.
the pro"."uaion rests with the degree of thor-
oi-tr',. applies hirnself to this post-buy r.,ork. rn
rnulti-bag buys, eacl.r bag musl be urarked eearn by the',rnd"rco.rer officer (see Chapter on
tvide'ce handl'lng) ' rt is not unusual foi
;omer by giving hftn a short count. tlhen the dealer to try to cheat a transient cus-
the ire satisfLed each bag has been
"ffi;;;;

109
\':rl.op'j iit(l s;ei].j (t,l accOfdt-ng Co qeparEmertL puaau)/.. rrrc er!rLs
phase of the operaEion away from the area where the buy occurred. If an infornant is
being used i,n the operation, he should not be present whlle the marklng, sealing and
f11r1;r;1jb:lng are taking p1ace. The less he knows about the mechanics of this phase of
i.nv:.::i:: ig:tilrnil , l:he 1)e Ete'r:

EIT?APMENT'(

Entrapment is the procurement of one to conmit a crine that he dld not conternplate
or wouLd not have couoltted, for the sole purpose of prosecutlng hin. It is a defense
to criminal prosecution Ln most states. It is not recognized as a defense at colanon
1aw, and onLy a few states have codlfied lt. For example, Illinoist code states:
A person is not gutlty of an offense tf his conduct ls lncited or
induced by a public officer or eurployee, or agent of either for
the purpose of obtalning evldence for the prosecution of such per-
son- However, this section is lnapplicable lf a public offlcer or
'employee, or agent of eLther, merely affords to such person the op-
Portltnlty or facllity for comroittLng an offenee l-n furtherance of a
crlurlnal purpose which such per.son has originated.
As lndlcated, most eourts tecognize the defense, but some have refused to extend {t
to certaln crimes such as bribery. Othere have siurply he1-d that the offlcer was an ac-
complice, and deorand corroboratlve evLdence of the offense before a convletl.on can be
obratned.

Although entraPnent ls often pleaded in narcotlcs cases, che plea ls not as cornlnon
as it might be, due to the following reaaons:
1) Many sellers have prior records;
2') The sale tlas iunediately consumnatedl

3) The seller had a large supply of narcotics, inferring a pre-

sumption of possession for future sales;
4) First-offenders are often used for coatrolled purchases from
steady suppllers
5) arrests are for possessicin only, to protect an informant,
I,lany
and the plea has no relevance;
6) lfany possessi.on defendants prefer to chalLenge the affidavit of
probabLe cause supporting the search warrant upon which entry
was made.

,becn Regarding specific conduct by 1aw enforcenent offieers, the following acts have
held lawful:**
1) Giving an informanE marked money wlth whlch to consu{'mate a purchase;1
2) llaving an informant introduce a poJ.ice officer as a relative;2

*Material in this section ls based on: International Association of Chiefs of Po-

1ice, Legal Polnts No. 38, Entrapment I; and No. 39, Entrapment II, Gaithersburg, lrld.
**NoEed references will be found on the last page of this chaprer.

110
 3) Posing as "belng sl.ck', from narcotics withdrawal;3

rntroducing oneself as an inter:national ttsmuggrertt representing

others;4
5) Tnfr:rning a prr;.'s-i.cian rhat ;r crug prescripcion is.nee.l.rd for
rion-et{i.s Lent f-i: i-enrl ; 5 a

5) O<:nversing in tne',;ar-gon of thr: irade;r'6

7) .Using decoy letters to consuxmate the sale;7
8) PresenLing a valid search r,/arreat, and then askrng the
to save the officers the trorrbl-e of searching for-th; defendant
and volr:ntarily giving ttren up;3 ";;;il;;;
9) Telling minor li.es, ccncealing oners occupation as a porlceman-
. or giving others the farse irafression of crir.inal
";;;;;;;;;d
10) srease on oners hands and nalrs,
:::l;;-r:ls"ilfflilrohavine and

11) Dresslng as a hign1e,'1 using an ar-ias, being lntrodueed

to the de-
fenda'r by one oE his friends, .,r ror.srep."*"iaiig-ahe purpose.
which the drugs are srrr.r.qht. 12 -------o for
on the other hand, the fol1ow1ng acts exhlblt facts tending
to show entrapment:
1) rnvolvi.ng a first-offender in a scrrene where the irlegal act
incide'tal to the plan. Example. The infonraot, a row character i.s only
individual, entrced a physiclan lnto a schene to'ult-J" ;;l;;;.s ,

inJected with heroi'. The physicLan referred hin

a flrst-offender of hlgh repulation. on roentr""r"gtoatr"
the.d,efendant,
physlcianfs
,nar!e' the defendanc was persuaded to buy the hercoii frm a dealer--
induced by the chances of maklng large winnf"gs.i3- ---*. -
2> Playing on the sympathies of a first-offender to arlevr"ate par.n
other sufferlng. BxaurpJ.e. An addlct pracea-uni"r-r.r.", or
release for results, persuaded a flrst-offender to procure and pronised
for him--ar no persorral proflr--ro enable the rrorphine
"ddr";-;;;i.p"rrir'iJu.ro
3) Giving narcotics to a first-offender,,and induclng hin r,nto serling
over his obiections. Example. An undercover offfcer gave it,
cigarettes to a 1.7-vear-o1d htgh schoor zs o,"rif,ua..
them. The studenr tried to relurn them,"t"a."i-"ii .oiJ tri-..
but the
was subsequentr-v arrested for possession. }to prrorofflce, ".ii-'
,ai"""a.-T"
p;;;.;;i;;."
4) using a lroman informant of questionable virtue, who suggests "To*.rs
favors as addec r.nducement ior the sale. sexual
a voung girl to see rwo men to purchase anExanple. The police sent
llregal d;;;.'-i"-"aiilln
to che pr:ice, she offered her plrsonal vlrtues. The def,endants posed
a successfur- defense, testifylng that they were lnir.uenced
the crime, based on promise to
Lv Lvuu'r+L
con$tt
"r i", sexual'f;;;;".i6-
5) selltng a suspect drugs through one operative, then buying
another, to perfect a chbrge of sale. it through

111
 ghen enrrapment is pleaded, the court wilL usual.ly nake a determlnatton whether
the essence of the plea ls lega1 or factual. If the events lndlcate enErapment as a
r;atEe.t' of iav, the court will. dj-re.cL a judgment for the defendant. More often, the
facts are in dispute, and nust be submitted to the Jury for a Eest of predisposi[ion or
credibility. In a fe,.r cases, the conduct conplalned of is so lnnocuous, that the court
c.tr reftir;e to subriii the isstre to the jury. Four things vil1 alvays tend to contravene
thr' }iga of erri-rirpment:
1) Wien the defendant, on his o',wt, fj.xes the prlce of the drug
sought;17

?) When the defendant lmrnediately supplles the dtug to the purehase";18

3) When the defendant has a recent record of a convLctlon for a relaCed
of fense; anrl
4) Wben the agent or lnformant testlfles that the sale charged was the
last of DEny recent satr-es to hln.

FOOTNOTES

1r1"r"r, v.gnrreg_Egq!-es., 265 Fed. 1 (9th cir., 1920); unlled.9taq.ep v; Ltnderl!9}$r

T[Tn.Za A2TTz.t gir.J944); people v. Jackson, 223 N-.8,2d 401 (I11. App., 1969).
2prrlggg--.stq.l9g v. Brandenburg,, 162 F.zd 980 (3rd G1r. , Lg47)

3L$... v. Unlte4 States, 56 I'.2d 135 (7th Cir., 1932)

4u.""".g. v. Collier, 38 F.2d 862 (D.l,ld., 1930, ltoil. other grounds, 51 f.2d 17 (4th
1931).
,Cir.,
5q"a". v. gtate 1-74 s.If. 1127 (Tenn., 1914)
5legplg v. (Cal. App., 1950)
-&hnsgg, 222 P.2d 58
TI1ggLqU v. United States, L42 F.2d 953 (10th Cir., 1944).
8qg!g v. Col.cgrd , 248 A.2d 80 (N.It., 1968)
9$g." v. Sanchez, 448 P.zd 807 (N.M. App., 1968).
lolt,rnroe v. United States, 424 F.2d 243 (10th Cir., 1970).
v. Staue, 227 So.zd 535 (F1a. App., 'l'969).
U.rvgvgg"

lzpgg5g v. State, 450 S.IJ.2d 276 (Ark., 1970).

13UgI9i v. pn:.199__q!s3!_, L27 T.zd 827 (6th Cir., 1942)
l4crrne v. Unired_Stares, 20 F.2d, 494 (8th cir. , Lg27).
l5Rarire" v. State, 301 S,W.2d 125 (Tex. Crim., 1957).
'161fqtak v. !!ak, 256 So" 2d 548 (Fla., App., 1972)
,179o_1&:g v. Unlted Srqres, 401 F.2d 3jL (10th Cir., 1968).

ilbo"h. v. !lnlteg_-9!ereg., 401 F.2d 529 (5th Clr., l-969).

LL2

\_
113
 CHAPTER ELEVEN

SEARCH OPERATIONS

Part of the duties of a narcotics lnvestigator are chose operations ln which he

t"'i11 be called uponto conduct a search or to supervise other
officers in a search. The chances for conductlng a succesgfulinvesttgators or patrol
search increase propor-
tionaEely wlth the planoing, systematic procedures, and thoroughness which go 1ilo'.-
searcir oPeratlonr whether lt be directed toward persons, dwellings and butliloge, v€1-
hicles, vessel-s or some other obJective.

PERSONAL SEARCH*

['ihen conducting searches of persons, there at'e some recornnrendations guldelines

that the investigator should constantly bear ln nind. The nost obvious ofand these Ls the
need for two officers to be present whenever an indlvldual is to be thoroughly searched.
Ihe second offl-cer can physlcall"y assist ln controlllng the suspect lf necessary. Ile
can also witness the seizure of evldence or testify against any accusacions oade by
suspect about the conduct of the searchLng officer. the

There are three types of searches that are corrrmonly made of indivlduaLs; the frlsk
search, the field search, and the strlp search.
The frisk ls a cursory search also known as the pat-down. It Ls usually a brief
search fofG-pons and ts ltniterl to the general waist area. A frlsk oay also be con-
ducted on Persons not subject to arrest. The U. S. Suprerne Court, tn TerrI v; Ohlo
(1968) usl, held that a frlsk Ls lawful when the offLcer: (fJaas observed
suspicious actlvity on the part of the person belng"."r"i.,ing
frlskedi (2) has reason to belleve
that.the suspect is a;rned; and (3) the offlcer.limlts hlnself to a seareh for weapons.
In {dans v. W1l1iaurs (1972>, the Suprene Court ruled that personal- observatlor, oi
pici6G-fcttvlElTs not necessary. A suspect may be stopped and frisked ",r"-
when a reliable
infornant has advised the officer thac the euspect Ls arned. A frlsk under eicher de-
clsion ls restrlcted to a qulck pae-down or lts equlvalent, plus an exaoLnatfo" oi U.g"
or other obJects that nay contaln weapons.
A -li9ld searcb is conducted on the scene of arrest and conslsts of a preJ"lmlnary
and a se.oiEifrTEi-rctr. The prelftninary search ls very brlef, taklng only a few sec-
onds, and consLsts of a search of the chest and valst areas and the underarms. The
secondary search is done subsequent to handcuffLng. Ihts ls a systenatie search per-
formed by dlvlding the body down the mtddle and starchlng one-haif of tne body at a
tlme' Thls search ls conducted for lreapons, narcotlcs and narcotlcs paraphernalia.
*Materlal ln thls sectlon 1s based on: Drug Enforcement Adnlnlstratlon, pggg_lg
gfflcetlgMagual, DEA, Washlngton, D.C,; and Internatlonal Assoclam- --
Enforcelqent-
;ys No. Z4g, iaklne prison;rs Igto custo.ty; No:-tto;-
Prrsg+etg; and No , zsL, 9.":.hfidF=.i*"@.lc, rAcp;
lg?fshing
Galthersburg, Md.

115
 The st_rip search is conducteil in a controlled and prlvate environment such as a
jail':t:"1 1" or di:Lerrlion area. The suspect is made to unr-lress cornpLetaly and all cloth-
ing is thoroughlyr searched. lhile in the wal1 position, the suspecL, is glven a thor-
oirgh search which incLudes body cavities--mouth, ears, nose, and rectum.
'l.irc inv.':t igator at the scene- of arr arrest lnay use any one of four baslc search
pc'sitions, depending on such fact.ors as aval1ab1e space, the potential danger from sus-
IJects, the arnorrnl of help avallabl-e to the officer, and the number of suspects to be
scarched,

In the standing posit-lon, the suspect 1s first conmanded to face the agent wlth
his hands ovEfEiJTEEE--Ii'E'open poiitlon. This ensures there are no areapons or evl-
dence concealed in his hands. The suspect is then ortlered to turn around aod face away
frorn the. offi.cer' The suspect- is then told to lnterlock his fingers on top. of his head
:r:rC spr:ead his ft:et wicle enough to p1-ace hin in an uncomfortable poslt-ion. The sus-
pectfs toes should be pointi.ng outward to rnake his position unbalanced. llhen the of-
ficer is satisified that the suopect ls in an unbalanced positlon, he coqttnues with the
p;-'r:lininary search, the handcuffiag of the prlsoner, and the secondary search.
The wall search position is perhaps the xoq€t conrmonl.y used, although a nuruber of
agencies;e going to the kneeling search. In the waLl search technlgue the sus-
"o'" directed
pect is lnitially Eo face the agent r,rith his hands over hLs head ln an open
position. He 1s then ordered to the nearest available wall or vehicl-e. He is mrde to
put his hands on the wa1l or vehlcle and back away untll he i.s unbalanced. The suspect
then sPrea(is his feet with tris toes poinced outward. His hands and feet are spread
alrart sufficiently. to prevent hls rnaktng any sudden moves. When the officer 1s certaln
t'he suspecr is sufflctently unbalanced, he continues with hts prellninary search, the
handcuffing of the prisoner, and the secondary search.

. Tl"
when
IEgi5-g"-9.ar.h is used ln open areas where the wall search 1s lnpractlcal and
there ls.more'than one suspect. After deternining that the suspect has no seapona
in his hands, the suspect is told to face arday, get on hls lcoees, cross his legs, and
interlock his fingers on top of hts head. This places the suepect in a very uncomfort-
abJ-e:'position. Dur.ing the preliurinary search, the offLcer wlll have to squat, keeptng
his eyes on the back of the suspect's neck at all times. The advantage of the kne;U;g
:;ear:ch is that it affords more safety to the offlcer by irmrobil-iztng ihe suspect and
-vet it is more practical than t.he prone search,
In the-Srcrne search, which ls perhaps tbe safest position from the officerrs per-
sl)ec-tive, ther suspect is ordered to 1ie face dor.nr on the ground, feet spread apart, and
ar=s sLralght otrt to the sides with the palms faclng up. This makes l-t very difficult
for the suspect to get up or throw di-rt or debris at the offl-cer. The suspect ls ap-
pro'ached frorn th.r side opposlte the direction in whLch his face ls turned. The offl-
cer should then place his foot on che suspectrs eLbow to resErict hie movements. As
the officer sqtlats, he places his knee on the suspectrs buttocks for more balance.
r\Ete: the suspect is harndcufied, the officer cao srep over the suspeetts body. prlor
trr h:rldcuffing, however, he should not step betlreen the suspec!rs legs as he may be
tripped. It is safer to walk around the suspectfs body to conduct che seconcl half of
ttte:;earch. I'he secondary se;rrch cernnot be completed ln the prooe posltion;1t shoull
be ccrnpleted tshen the suspecc ls belng helired up. In assisting the suspeet to stand
up' tlie officer shoul-d grasp thp- handcuff shank anrl the.'rup."i's arm. The suspect
s:ltould then be nade to ro11 in tl.re officerrs directlon and sit up. At this polnt, with
the officer in ttre squat posir,ion, the secon<lary search should be completed. The offl-
cer then assists him t.o stand up by malntalnlng his grasp on the cuff shank. If the
offic.-.r is not reatly to transport the suspect, he should keep hirn in an off-balance
s ea rch pori it i. on .

116
 verbal insEructions girren to the suspeit shouLd
Ti"is leis the suspect know that the lnvesiigator i"-r.,be given ofin au,thoritative connands.
officer should a'roid uanecessary physical cJntact when "trarge the situetion, The
p.s;'Liicn' Ttrb in'estigator should not atrenpt the suspect is in the search
to search lrith h1s harrds ;;-;;-;;;
ey's' ile pgsi nai:rlaiir a rvatchfuL eye on rhe suspecr.s
will ::o'"e iirsr if the suspect re.lcrs suttrlenry, ttt" shouldei-.;;;-;"-;;""Iio,jior.
J ust p.it Eed. "r"ini;;-;;o]i;"'u.".r,.j]rrlli";;";"
The officer should rrot bend orter to search. He should
che upper body of the suspect and the inmediate surroundingssquat. rn this positJ-on,
officer is in a more balanced position. The officer should never are nore vleihLe, and the
suspecr ' The officer should maintain self-discipline turn hls back on the
and ;.t-.ii.;lir"Jrt ro become
angr)- or abusive to the defendant.

initj'al search of a female by a male officer to her hanatag, packages,

A mo-re thorough search of a iernale may onry b;-.;;;";;.a "";-.;;;;-;;;:
either a po1ice officer or soneone ."iirrg ;";;.-;;;-iir""tio. uy "r,otirui r.r.rl,"}i;'J;';;
These rules are enforced to protecr the iiehi"-."J;;;;."y of a police officer.
of,
also to protect the reputation of the potile oftrcer-and his rhe fenale ""=p"li'La
departeent. For thi3 rea-
so'' vhenever a fenaLe is arrested, tr;osported or i.,i.".rien.d, there
two officers present, so rhar one can t""itry ." .t. pi";;;";d;i'"r-lil].;:;:r.
"to,rii-"iiiig';:-
"=
The initial search of a fenale should be conducted
she ts under a*esr.. Ar that polnt, rhe offrcers aft.er she has been advised that
can t"k;-;;;-';.;;";l;eoc rhat: she.
may be carrying, such.as hanclbag, packages, unbrelta,
has reason to believe, based,tpo. pursonal o, h"a. ri ti.lti;;.-"=
observation "o.a,
or Lnfqmatior, rr*-""i.ii"or"
fornant, rhat rhe female susfect j.s concealing a weap;;,;;-;l;i;;r';;
weapotr' rf a weapon or contraband is suspected, the feoale obtarn the
an apDropriare search pcsirion. ?he,offiier can rhen pat should be askedJo, assuue
trer-wi;;;;.;;;;.i.irJL
the hand' He mav also draw her slacks or sklrr tigili..g.rr,"i-iur-i;g;-;"
bulges I'hich rnJ-ght i.ndicate hitlden ueapons or contrabaDd. our1tne any
suspect should be told to remove it sLowly with her rf a buLge ia detected,, the
ask the fenale to unhook her bra and then leau forward. flngertips. The officer can aldo
the back and tvrist it to detect any bulges, ;; ;;-;;;-h"v. Heher can grab her blouse from
rhitt anv conceal-ed rileaPon will fali our. A police officer .nbuckte i"i-i"i.'ri'"
wj-th weapoos, but also with those items whicir "to,ria-ioi-.,,iy'ui-lorilrrr.u
$eapons. These include
"""-u"-r".d as
handbag, platforn or high-heeleti shoes, ,.t-."ii.a-.oJi",
and flnger""ri ;;i.;:'^;::
Figure 1 for a list bf hiding places on the p"r"o".----

_q!$!ti_-o_q_uELL$g__qB_Itlll.!]Ig.

- r;r-searching
equipoetl
a dwelring, the members of the detail
to perform their duties' The search irsel-f loustshould be weLl tralned and
suifi:' wi'th the inte't of getting oui of be systematic, ai.riliir:""a
vrith a nicimum of dana-ge ro rhe frop..ry. the targei rocatroo as soon as possibl.e anc!
As pait of the search operati;;";;";-;oi_
ling, officers should be alert r"r they can gather, such
"ny_tntellilence
and atf iress boohs if tlrey can be seized as evlJence, or' tel.ephone n'rnbers and""-alr.pi"^--
tirat na"'r' be wrltlen on walls near a phone. This iniormation nemes
t'ilruler thai will not be n.ticed by suspects. other*ise, should be Jotted down in a
nig,trt be compronis;ed later. -----'-----' the value vt
oe L"r-
ti.,r" iia;il;g;":

Al1 valuables found ac the target location should be safeguarded if necessary

a receipt gl'ven for all items rerooved from the Location. and
ltems taken is $trltten on the suspectrs copy or trre
Geneially, a list of the
.irarranr o,
r receipt. slmilarly, all danage done to personal"..r.t
property or the "rra ""ri.l'.J'ir"
pr"ri.""";;il;;
-'ventoried, and if possJ.ble, such damage should be pirotographed. llotrficati.; i;-;;;
to the owrer of the premises. rf large surns of ,orr.y are-found at rh;-l;;;;;"i.";.;;:

117
 Figure 1: PERSOI{ LIST OF HIDING PLACES

\r:r if ic ial linbs Match box and books

Mor:ey bells
Eaby dirrpers Mouth
lSantlages
Bi+tLery box of hearing aid Nose
Belts--sllt, zipper or buckles
Buc tocks Pens
Personal bags
Canteens Pi1l vials
Casts Pipe steos
Cigar hoide; Pockets
C j-garet r.e lighter, f ilters,
and packs Rectum
Collar stays Rings
Conpact
Contact lens cases' Sanltary napklns or tanpons
Corsets Self addressed envelopes
Cuffs and wri.stbande Shoes
Socks
Earrings stlcks cf gun
Uars--insl-de and behind Swallowed, with strlng to teeth
EyegLass case

I'alse llnings and bottoms Taped under breast and brasslere,

Filrn cans between toes and to feet
Foreskln of penis Theruos Jugs
Tle
HaLr--proces$ed, buns and wlgs Tobacco tln and pouches
Handkerchiefs
Hatbands UnbreLla handl-e
Hollow end of cane Under false teerh
Unlforu shoulder patches and
Intralers badges
InsLde fly f1-ap of trousers
Jeve1ry Wal1et
Jock sttaps Ifrlst vatch--inside and back

LapeJ.s
Linirrg of clothing and ctrange purse
Ltps t ick rrrbe
Locket
Luggage

118
 Lhi's fnct shoulc be reporEed to the rnternal" Revenue service so they can conduct an in-
'velriigntion as to its source.
A recordj'ng secretary should be selected on the basis of his ability
fectively, since he vrill testify extensively during the trlal. His nain to testify
is to ."-
ef-
Jcb
cord r"nere snd by r.rhom each pilrgs 6; evidence was iot,nd. Consequently, when he first
enlers the area to be searched, he should draw a crude, but detail.d iiagr"m -
prenises' on it he should noce where every p:tece of evidence is foun<! ri.l rho of the
lle should also ensure that whenever a plece of contraband is found it is lnitlaled found it.
as
evidence' The evidence seized should be kept by the recorder and preserved accordLng
to dePartment regulations and procedures untll it is turned over to the laboratory for
anal-ysls or introduced as evidence in court.
Prior to the dwe1llng search, some officers should be eo the exterLor of
the premi'ses. The- officets asslgned to the exterior shouldassigned
observe anyone trylng to
escape or throl evidence fron the ptenises. rf someone does
throw
windor'r' the officer must get a good look at the individual or his evid"rraa orrt Jf-,
ldentify that individual 1ater. The officer Eusr also observe where clothing-ii ;.i"r*ao
and then secure it. the !viden";-i.;;"
Later, he will have to show the official recorder where ehe evi-
dence landed and the window or door fron which 1t was thrown.

Once i-nside the area to be searched, everyone found on the premlses

brought l-nto one room so that the recorder can take dorrr inforrnallon should be
A list should be rnade of each individuaL according to the room Ln irhich each perecr.
fro,n
slnce evLdence may later be found in those rooms ind the various indtvldualshe 1;as formd,
be charged wlth pr-rssesslon. officers should observe indi.viduaLs for can theu
abuse' rnternal possesslon of narcotlce or dangerous drugs (that is, syuntoms of drug
the
drug withi-n the body) rnlght provlde probable caise for a personar seareh. presence of a

rf suspects have autonobiles in the viclnlty of the search scene, probable cause
developed from questronrng may be sufficient to obtarn a search Lrarrant
f;;l;;";;;:
hicles. An officer can stay wlth the suspectfs vehlcle r.n order to piu*rerrt
moval while a search r.arrant 1s obtalned. rn the- event that the recording r.ts re-
becones tgo lnvolve! ln recording discovered evldence, an additlonal secretary
offlcer
asslgned the task of obtalnlng informatlon frorn indlviduat-s gresent at the shoold be
gardless of quantiEy or variety, however, ttre acrual eustody of a1L sc€ne. Re-
the responslbllity of the recording secrecary. "r.iaei"I-I"i"rn"-
I'he scarch of a dr.reLling should begin by asslgnlng teams
sible, Eo a roorl. The searehers should-begin at oie wlLl and of two officers, if pos-
search everything that
resrs 4gsinsL or is hung on that wal1 and then proceed around the room. iights and
outlet switches should be examlned carefulJ-y. if patnt on the screws or around,
plate is broken, the plates should be removed and the lnslde the
area searched. The border
around the door should be studied for signs of stress since it may
be shieldlng a hoL-
low portion behind. The top of Lhe door and door frame shouil ;;'d;"k;;-for
lions' A plug in the top of the door nay hide a trap. so rnay door hinges. plaster lndenra-
wa11s should be feLc for riclges indlcatlng that rhey have been plasterel
tirnes. ;;".-;;;;;""

Any infornants in the operation should be asked lf the euspect

things under floor boards or within'the walLs. Thls is necessary forts establlshing
known for hidlng
probable-cause' sl-nce the offlcer must have good reason before he breaks
dividuaL's wall. into an in-

t{sll pictures should be taken down and searched thoroughly since contraband can be
hidden betneen the layers of glass, in the picture ltself, J. in the pager --
i;i";:-
Sirni'1ar1y, the backs of tel-evision sets and other electronic equlprneni should be re-
moved and the j'nterlor exannioed. The tap and botton of venetl-an
checked. Caps on both ends should be taken off so that the officer blinds shoulil be
can see or push a

119
rod 311 the way thror.r6'[, Curtains should be felt from top to bottom, lncluding seams,
!:cm.:i an(l Irning.

After the cfficer'iras searched the walls, he should move to the center of the room
anrl bari:r r,ri.th ti:e i:rr,:iiture. uph.olstered couches or chalrs should be turned upside
<lcrrl;r11; t'lr: bc:lou exanined to easure that all the staples are irltact and the materlal
proticting the boEtoa of the couch is the same throughout. A flashlight heLd close to
iile narerial rr111 allo'"t the of'ficer to see tf anything is taped tr.r the sprlngs. Zip-
pered cusi.ons s'noulci be taken apart, and others gone over wlth the offj-certs hands.
Telephones should be exanined thoroughly, both inside and out. Light bulbs should be
renoved from thei.r sockets, and the rugs shoul-d be carefully ro11ed up and then relaid.
Since bathroons seem to be a popular area to hide contraband, the search team
should be especially thorough in searching thbt area. In searchl"ng a bathrooor the of-
ficer should l:ok for traps 1n laundry baskets and under sinks, for watertight con-
tain;.:rs inside flush tanks. "rrd

Prescriptlc,n mecliclrre bottLes shoul<l be carefully exaurlned, never taking for

granted that they contaln only the prescrLption attached to the container. If the in-
vesLlgator believes that there is somethlng amiss with the prescription bottles, such
as a great nunber of bottles or labels oade out to people not llving in the prenLses,
he should seize aLL prescription bottles and mark then as evidence. However, he
.should ask the suspect what prescripllon nediclnes he needs and at what tine he w111
ner.rd the next dose. The officer should eootact the doctor or pharmaclsE whose nane ap-
pears on the labeL to verify the prescription. Moreover, alL piLls and tablets should
be compared with a phyFtclqnts Dgik Refergnce or sinilar source to ensure that the
fourrd drugs (:orrespond to ttre prescriptions,

When an of{icer flnds evidence, tre should temporarlly halt his search, call the re-
cording secretary, initial the evidence, trlrn lt over to the recording secretary, and
then continue tire search. It is unfortunate that nany officers as soon
"t,op "e.rchlng
as they find any contraband, and thus olss flndlng addttional contraband withln the
scope/ of the warrant

rf an officer is searchlng a room alone, after searchlng the room, he should

change. rooms with another officer who has conpleted the search of hls assigned roo4, so
th;rt each area i.s searched twice. Even though all offlcers are taught the same paEtern
of search, the second search often reve:rls so:neching prevlousLy overlooked. See Flgrrre
2 for a l"Lst of search areas wlthin a dwelliug.

AUTOMOBILE SEARCH

The search of an autonobile must be conducted r,rethodically and thoroughly. The

officer musL have some defini-te notions as to where to look, and nothl-ng must be dis-
missed as an inposslbllity. The offj-cr:r must continue the search for ,evidence uniil
the enti-re vehicle has been covered, even if he uncovers some narcotics during an early
parE of the search.

In a one-nan search, the usual plan of attack is to begin che examLnation on one
side of the autonobile, It is searched from the front to the rear and back agaln to
the front. This same proc.edure is then repeated on the opposite si.de of the automo-
bile.
In a two-uran search, each officer positlons himself on a side of the automobil,e.
Tlre search Ls then started from the front of the automobile and proceeds towards the
b:rck. The officers exchange positlons and the search then proceeds froro the rear to
the front of the automobile. Thls vari.atl-on in search pattern sen/es as a check'upon
the firsL exanination. sorrnd searching techniques recognlze ttt" .a*'r"itriray-.i il"i"t

L20
 Figure 2: SEARCH ARLq,S FOR DWELLINGS

:-:*q
Aerosol clns Flashlights
Agitator of wash;:r Flower pots
Air condirionirrgi register Fluorescent. light tube
Ancenna and base of teLevislon Footlocker
Art klts Furnace
Attic insulaelon Furniture upholstery
Fuse box
Brrudages and boxes
Blnks Garbage bags
Base of laurp
Bathtub J.egs ancl lips Ho11ow
Batteries Closet rods
Behind Curtain rods
Baseboards Doors (rernovable top)
MedicLne box Eggs
I'lirrors Fruit and vegetables
Picture frames Furniture
Posters Itoly Blble
Wall phones Soap
lta11s Hung behind curtains
Bed posts
Books Inslde
Ironlng board legs
Cameras Newspaper
Ceiling tile Radio
Cellar beams Television
ChanlCelier I.Iigs
Chessmen
Closet Kitchen Containers
Clothesline pole
Clothing Light swltches
Cloves Loaves of bread
Hatbands
Shoes Magazines
Sleeves Magnet boxes
I.Iaistbands Mail boxes
Cookies and candy bars Mattresses
MuSical instruments and cases
Dog collars and dog house
Do11s Pens
Door knobs Pet box
Douche bags Pillow cases
Prescription bott.Les
Filectrlcal sockets
Razor blade dispensers and slots
Palse bottoms Record alburns
Fi.sh tanks Refrigerator
Radlator covers Butter and meaE. trays
False ceLli.ngs and chlrnneys Frult
Fi-lm cans Ice cubes
Fire alarrn bell Vegetables
F.ire hose

L2I
 Fl-gure 2 (cont !d. )

Sal.Uanl pepper shakers

Shaving brush handle
Shoe polish containers
Sink traps
Stick deodorant contal-ners
Talcum containers
Taped tn dresser and behind drawers
Tea bags
Teleptrorre base and coln slots
Toaster trays
Toilet
Bonl-
Float
Paper
Tanks
Top of window, door sills, and noldlng
Toys and liames
Trophies

Under
Carpets
Panel or parquet floor
l,Iashbowl, strrk or tub
Vaseline Jars
Venetlarr bltnds
Wall and celling fixtures
Waxpaper dispensers
Window ledge next door
Window shade
Illndow sills, exterlor
Zippered cushions

122
 an auro'oblle. rhls pracrice decreases rhe possibiliry of
::::r;:il";":,:::$:iul."'"n
Experienced officers have learned that contraband.ls nost
relatively few locations on the vehlcle. The frequently hldden iu
motor
and lh:r tt-'ttnlc cootpa,:tmenc *re the n,rst rvidel-y used and dashbo"ta.."""*Ls, the seats,
quency of past usage of these,hiding p1-aces of these areas. Hor"rever, the fr:e-
musE not lead the searching officer to over-
l-ook other places of concealment. ihe vehiele is rlivLded
froni end, the interior, and the rear. Each sectlon riust be into three search areas: the
search is carried to the next area. -* closely
srvesr, =^'"'-'.'=*. lrslure the
examined before rrle

r) The front end. The gril1, the and the fender areas provide exceLlent
hiding pGGl-ffiiE;Ei-cs may be piaced bumper in i container betseen the grill and radlator,
or secured to the 9111L' conttaband has been rliscovered attached
of tho fencer by ne-irn.s of a magnet, a nagnetized to the inner surface
license pl-ate, the bumper and ihe undersid" of ttre container or tape. The back of the.
The nunerous recesses of the notot and the adjacent-area gr*vet pan should aLso be examined.
narcotics' A smal-l packet of narcotics may bl placei-In are frequently used to hlde
suspe*ded inside the radiaror. The battery, tt! a vratertight contalner and
cl-utch and starter housings have all been usea in battely case, the e"glne-ii;;;,H"
it"-pa"t.
pald to the ventilating ducta or any container found close atlerition must be
attached
vell' The air filter of the carburetor should be examined. to the sides of the motor
ports also provl-de praces of concealment that should be The body ri.res and sup-
checked.
2) The lnterior' The bac.k of the dashboard is undoubtedly
used placET?*6G*-1nent ror'.""o.i.J- the nost extenslvely
ql'most lnaccessible r:eeesses ;;;;;;:'inl' pror."i; ;;-"i;Iirr. w.'es,
and availabiltty*to ttr".J.cup..rts all contribute to the rhe
rpularity of thls location. rt is not unconmo" i"-ri"a wrthln thls area ltens at-
tached by tape or ptnned to the wlrlng. Fresh air
quently used to hide contraband. ventllatlng vuq^sLo
outlets qrare Ji;; ;;;-

.The abllity to rocate evldence ln thls area w111 necessarily d,epend on the search
tactics' The rear portlon of the dashboard can be ttorolrghry
scrutinl-zed lrith a mlrror
held in one hand .l: flashlighc pointing ,rp ,r.a.r ir,e aasn.
of thls are"-and groptng lrr"ary-r"to ttre dark Merery
general directlon"n9 cfi;il; il";;:
mirror also mav be used under fendeis and-in Ls lnadequate. The
orhei arlas where vrsr.uiriiy'il'iitti.ir..
The area beside and under the seats ls used frequently
the seats whenever possible, rather than merely to hide narcotics. Remove
seat cushions' The front and rear floormats arel;;ki;; or feeltog under and berween
al-so iemoved whenever poss1ble slnce
narcotics are often hidden under this floor covering. Each object found in a vehlcl_e
must be inspected' Aay.flashlight, book, magazLne
nusE be closeJ-y scrutini.zed. Jr .orrt.irrer found i" th.'";;lrio'ir"

3) The rear' The trunk musE be given a complete examination and any item
in this coii'i6e"t must be inspected, found
including croihrng, rags, containers, and tools.
The spare tire well must be ctrecked. The interlor of
amlned for possibl-e contraband. The underside of the t.runk lid must also be ex-
rear
gravel pan must all be carefull"y searched. see Figure fende.", tr," ;;;;"; and the
aqd methods of concealment.
3 f.or autoraobile'search areas

s]lARcH 0F SMALL CRAFT

The narcotics investigator must be prepared

smarl boats to LocaLe contraband. the besc tooLstoavailabl-e
occasional-ly conduct a search of
are imagrnairin and common
?nse' contraband car. be expected to be found l-n any conceivabl.
f. the nasc to the bottom of the keel. ufu"* frorn the top

123
 P igr:re 3: AUTOMOBILE SEARCH AREAS Ali'D METHOD OF CONCEALYENT*

INTERIOR
SBwi.! t, ih. htDt trilt fl hi4
{$cctinr anc
i4l t iirld rffi.btr Drlt-Cir
'i o.rttoard' crtrt 0{dr. tha lht ffi s dxint
Ana l. . o"l,r,?Mt lslnio fhcinl_
4_I[sry.r st'p
.l .lrrf tr :olguutn I t{-.\r)O 0a !0rclrl]rtll
Alt-hin! t! ttt tldmt @t@, tha
ri.int hd.. ttr d.dtbor, d io l|r
b&t oa tfi. ,6t drt3-Ptxinf iD
tll th. Htil.lio dctl il tot .l
{jl O R.di.ld
emocr, erar a,d llfi "Sr,;g
I ifiiJ,..,.i:,i.Hg tb.,tdi unil d .n-h{ to utsdt rlu 0t cotctra.Itfy I tEt t cgrcarrltn
I
il
I pt.t. s th. hor !ur6r_tio-
I pttt..lrld 5, r!9i0hna

lffi;;no_,*.n,rr.r.crd
c drt ilrt
rio 3!rt*aa of lM tlh co.t&arl.
Hl-ll*inr $dl itB h th ffi
- a,r..r,ir..
{l 1ffi1ffi'1fi.f,5i?5

ilW
il
i-+
{

:
5 (8) f.na..,
lnYf,"",*ffi*irg'h
I
sFdnr t rE irric. th. ndi}

| !-w'6, 'l' to tb !.d, bds.t

@
tiJ
.ri Dt, r lh tloi 6px|mt
lrt ba i.etd, in clotr d D.lJra
lctirA dl tudr

riw - trg'nl
rnd rrtcra lcni
r da$tard .r llr' 6.' otan, bid
d{i 6Drtmt
Ciltrlill cql{ ttr. tib.( !il It
to l|t !*l c trint
wrd'. a aajd d Dd rnai.a b
r0 i{-CdEBli.l uidr ll|l q}
@rcr tcnoa rnc
&mFltrll
REAR END
rn*nirl b lla !nd! rda
ls'd.r. llt. brt uta
-tu.titthaod
c.t-tl-i.t
ot
d Or trnta
ir tr t{l
ti

$
it
r."rwr*r. [,S"ff |.f,*i::Jl
l a b.n'nd Ur nubc.g6.
I fteint injrd.
tt rlilettt ffih..d rtsalia
,l;dinf htnd ln.:trrntt ol lh.
ta-t;drignr r 9ftinr htnt .i.
$+
S I tmt sl -Pl-ina in th. crak. bG tt b. iiddd b ir
lHa th. cd .rd th. bxt r.l- @ront rr.a $r. Llrti ti. lul tid {d rt
Uidar iE iret gaa w in th. uprrDl- rldcira trti ft! tre lh rb.l
tr rdi.tr hos d to ur .t6. ttit r sll ffir l€l td !{hut lia tD udr lh. 9{ li.. t}
fl (gl ilot, fr- | trint ! rciklEr io l.dt- $tl n rticl t|i4tmt-rrlt:bi[ b itr
I ric.t Erirl -H,dira in tE ,i, tith. mt 6.lr lidda cFlrf,tnitr t{tts'd llr tt r. .iad aaa
gt I sdlr tn. ,n4. rrt0t.t d. dt-
ll I Lrb(b. c.9. L L\. Htit.tint d*tr tli6it ii et{l F.iEE .t ttr Dcl. iliali{ ir lr.th l6tr ! hl
fl I -dtt .iit*\i.ldr.rh,liquid* tF ot lb do. d bdind DactDt - tla ttq filr { i.
t I tliE_Att-hnt to @rc btcl An*hirtbthaur6la llillridBr
t I rtFht €otric, lD U.da tlrd .!d i! lb l0d. lll cLtiiit *
r, ,at! touid ii ItE kurll Bl
d I lhr !'d.r lirh ot rtr b0d. ft.ro.t 8lcl S.al &!. Codeltd mry als !e eot a
clc.tt Onin {
V I q,'! .ild ot.ed o tog ot ri. b.tiq lia ,hdrul r erl c$hiE
t I b.tE n th. b.nrt ild it! c.W, t lt:ta &m ftllrlt .d petiit
E tlr lplilih.t f!, &.1 Dt 6;
r. NAhi strtat

*From Trainirrg Key ii39. International Asscciation of Chiefs of police, Gaithers-

burg, LId,

L24
 srne of Lhu places to check or'|. the vesseL incl-r]de hol1ow
:ie:r:ch should be maue berween the dcck and che hull masts and guard rai1s. A
beL,oren ribs o; sLoor cI fibergJ.ass saftirofts. Spaces
joinrs, a:lc ri.'ler, belrinrl or c-Jer fue!- and,*-ater
(r'lirt..i-!:cra shcrtt<l ir'r ctrgclgd- ilaint: tanks and other
cr.3irs, open conLairrers i";;e,;;iiuil .r,a oLher such
tei l-;:;rt:Ltr (t1,iri:.'i.!!er'.; musr.. trc u:...rr:.inJd. f;hccl,r.
ii:rti;' asqlp;l'rL[ients, an'] for irej'girtecl oi,iecLs at ior flo.rfgng aftiCles inside taUks agil
boc.t.rms of tanks. str1ngs or,rires
.:oi_ng irlr:,1 a:o:lti!i1l"rr_; dray frl-l)vid{::: '|'JLrlrrg,'
le;:C
Full fuel t'nks nay be suspiciorrs **hen the claims ro have been at sea for a
long period of tine' E:tcessive capacily for fuelcrer,r
cireck snralI spaces forwarc r-rf some sanpscn posts, or vater shoul<l also be queslioned.
F'llor"' the posi frorn tire deck co the kee1, i.y.r'br-b*a"uun-pori-""a"=i"*l=or beside post.
i;;". if applicable, checking
contin':-rity, gu;irding againsi f.r1se decks
paneling is removable, or j-f ihe ceric space or bi.ankei o;i spaces in the bow, see lf for
behir.rd it Is accessible for hiding things.
The search pJfty should get below as soon as possible
si:rlis' and lreads for residue i'f fl'rsirerl-out to check wash basins, galley
shou'i-d be tho.rougirly checket! for residue
contrai:and. The water surrounding the boat
of flushed contraband.
contraban<l may al.so be found in
the hLrLl bel.w tbe vater lirre. Tt nayfishing rods and reels or in scuba tanks bolted
be towec in drums pulled by the small craft, orto
it rna-v be enbedded in ttre concrete balLast cf the k.;i:
space is chipped out, narcotics
:*:::r:1.;'i;;.lt;l "*",eLc is placecr over the opening. Narcorics
;;'";;;;;---
f::;l

M{AI]__q!{Rcgqsi
The two-types (,f rrircraft rrhich
are coxllercial and pri'''rate aircraf t. narcotics investigiiEors would ostensibly search
coinnercial aircraf t have long been vehicl-es us.ed
in srnr'rggling ventur'js' Lately, however, private
len arrd one that wil-l be incrlasingl-y encounEered aircraft have beei an incr.rasing prob-
by agents. Realistically, local an.
staLe narpotics officers wil.1 nc'sr tikely find
instead of conrnerciaL planes. v,rt.ou-"r, when 1oca1tr''.r""iiu"-;;..;;;;';;;#" aircraft
ation where thev must search a conrnerci.t uir"ratl; officers flnd themserves in a situ-
ground crews to assist ;;;; will usually have plane
Fi-gure 4 contains some of'the areas in both ty'es and
craft '"'hich -tirein'
can be ucreC for c<rn.ial:rrenc purposes. of

125
 Flgure 4: SEARCII OF AIRCRAFT

U:tgS_:. of_-9-S1:ealnent _LlrivatF Aircraf t

Baggage comPartnents
Bulkhead behind rear seat
Passenger compartment
Wing structure area
Engine area
Landing gear assembly
Tail section
Auxiliary gas tanks
Inspectlon plates (remove and search space with flashlighc)

Pf".". of C""..ofr"nt
Baggage compartments
Storage coapartmentg
Life raft comparcmenta
Bulkheads
Lavatories
Galleys
Llquor locker
Life jacket conpartments under seats
Trash containers
Oxygen tanks
WheeL weLls
Radar compartxoent
Under floor of cockplt (shaft for controls)

L25
 CITA?TER TWELVE

R-ITIDS

Cco'lrlcLlng a raid is one of the more dangerous aspects of law enforcement work.
Because raids are used frequentl-y ln narcotics enforcement work, great enphasLs shoul-d
be pl-aced in developing raid sktlls by a narcotlcs unlt. In the conduct of a raid, an
officer faces a unique sltuation where he knowlngly enters into a situatlon whtch uay
result in casua.Lttes. Improper planning or faLlure to recognLze and apprecibte the
nany factors. lnvolved in rald planning have caused embarrassment and riilicule to poltce
agencies, and have resulted in the injury and deaths of poLice offlcers.

RAID PURPOSE

The word "raid" conjures up nany different mental lrnages based on personaL back-
gro'lnd and exper::lence ln enforcement work. Wlthin the context of narcotlcs enforce-
lent' a raid can be defined as "the lnvasion of a bulldlng or locality for lawful pur-
poses." These purposes, or obJecttves, are usually the epprehension of a suspect, the
seizure of narcotlcs evldenee, or the recovery of stolen property.
llhen the purpose of a raid ls to apprehend a suspect, an estitration of the amount
of resistance likely to be encountered ls ioportant. FortunaE,ely, ln narcotics work.
appreheqsion is often directed toward a known suspect, thus enabLlng polLce offlcers
to make sone judgments as to potentlaL resistance.
The second objective of a raid is the seizure of evidence related to lllegal nar-
cotic.s activity. Since narcotlce evidence can be easily destroyed or altered, Lt Ls
often necessary to surprise the offender before he can dispose of l1lega1 narcotLcs.
It is imporLant for officers Ln a ratd to know the type and amount of narcotics/drugs
they are seeklng and, if possible, the location within the butlding where the narcoiLcs
are kepL. This information is needed in order to secure a search warrant and to effect
a speedy seizure. Additionally, knowledge of the type of drug being sought !s also for
the prolection of the officers where contact with a drug rnay presenr, a safety problern.
Mcney rnay also be one of the objects of a raid if the officers are trying to recover
confidential funds, or where the suspect is in possessi-on of great arounis of money
that the officer can prove came from illicit. narcotlcs activiEy.
Narcotics units whlch vork closely erith other patrol and investigative units may
al-so conduct raids to recover stolen property. 'Narcotics trafflckers, by the naEure
of their i1lic.it professi,on, often deal in stolen goods. l.lhlle worklng with tnfor.-
m;rnrs, a narcot:ics unit often receives informatlon about stolen goods in the posses-
ston of a targeted suspect. Consequently, a rald may be conducted for the prirnary
purpose of recovering these items.

L27
 _if. l_Eri!!_\iI!
.'t,r{:i::isjc":-i, ri'iiti tci,lrrrs are nllde up ot'representativej; oi- different 1a,* en-
1-ril il'.:':lI
liorcen:errc:i::ri!c!.rls- This 1s erten nrcrrc cci:rnon io nlrcoiics ertforr:enent, beaause of
"J'r:13pDin?, -iLir'lsciict i-t1ris iiod the rtee.J ior aciditional nnnpower or eyperienccd person-
nel" Tirjs iirt,lt-i-agen(:y compos-ition of a raid te:im presents special pro5lems in rhe
pilrrrring €r;r.:i rxe,cutiotr of a rsid
lniti.-r1ly, it rnust tri: dr:Eerrlinc,,cl wltir-.ll egeacy w111 have the prirnary
for th: r':id operation- once ihis agency ts iel-ettec, ic shoul"cl ie euliy responsibility
supported by
the other pert.iciPatlng agencies. The responsibi.l"ity for the raid should rest vith the
agency which deternines that the raicl is ectually required. This re.sponsibility
cludes raid p1a'rntng, execution' securing the taiget locatLon after the completionin-
the raid, and n';rintainlng thq chain of.vld..r". fJr materlals seized. The agency with of
Prir'rary respon:;.i.bil1ty shoulcl al-so establ.lsh speclftc dutles for the other agencies
tnvoJ-ved,' l-lnes of auth.'rlty, and rliies r:ir con'nunicaEion.

The raid shouLd be under.the authority of one offlcer known

He is rc'siro;isjble for the srrpervision of the eniire operatlon fromasplanning
the raid corntnander.
to execu-
tion' Apart frorn the considerations whi.ch must be given to the various agJrrcies tn-
v<tlved' the se-Lection of the raid team leader shoulJ not be uu".a-oi t.nt .rra
al"one' Emph''rsis should be place,J on those offieers with prior experf.ence seniority
-
in conducting and ability
raid operations and who possess knowledte of the target location, and the
$'ispects to be apprehended and their abilities. The iaid cosmandei must have the con-
fj'dence of team members, and he must have confidence in, and knovledge
bilirles of raid team mernbers. of, the capa-

when the raid is a large operation which :invol.res many police

a nurnber of rjni-ts, the raid commander rnust designate unit Leaders.officers If
assigned to
these
further dlvirl..d in-to sub.-unlts, or te.lms, then tach sub-unit will have a supervisor. units are
This organizational $trueture w1ll a1low a1-L operational personnel to
vhose instrrrctions are to be followed. Addittinalry, tr,ii know preclsery
coumander a span of control which vill a1l-ow hirn to'rnore
structure will give the
easily direct
every nan assigned to the raid. Even when the ra1<t is a minor operation actions of the
thrq'e or four officers, one officer must stLLl be in charge of lnvolving on!-y
tire entire operation.
Although it may not always be possible to have a superiority of manpower,
comntrnder should strive to outnumber the opposirion. tire rald
A suspect who sees that he is
outnumberr:d rnay be discouraged from offerini any rc,.-jistance,
pect is imPorEant in deterrnining the number of men neecled to The location of ehe sus-
Tlteru should be srrffielent personneL to contror the. entire area control the situatioa.
ar'r"lnues of escape, and to,:orrtrol any situati.oi-r that
of the raid, to cut off
might arlse during the raid. The
l:eputaticn of each person expected to ba apprehended should be co*sidered,
nusL be used in any arrest or raid situation, but more Caution
manporer should be erssigned in a
raid in'"ol','ing ttre apprehension of a suspect with a hostil-e reputation,
' Thr: neec for sr-rperiorlt-v of nranpower norr,rithstanrling, the presence
on the scene can be unwise. rf ihe raid site is appropriate, of toc many sren
a re.serve of
sheuld be kept r';itilable ne.'rr to the scene, but r,zilhout active partlcipationmanpower
ra id. in the

in the seLection of team members, rank and seniority should not be primary
sirle:'ations' '\s in the rairl cornmancler seLcction, con-
guide, with the team leacer having the finaL word as-to experienie and abllity should be the
the seLection of his team meu-
bers' These te:am rnembers should be experienced offic"r"-"tto-r.;-k;;;-;"
jrrdgmenE and mental stability, offlcers have good
who are not easi.ly excitable, and.who will obey
orders' I'Ilthin this framework, the rnen shorrl.d be serectecl for their capabilities and
sper:.!'a1 skills. FoJ-towing are some of the areas that should be consldered:

128
 r Large men for heavier tasks (breaking dor.m door, etc.)
o lien rshc excel, iu tbe use of firearns
e Of [-i.cers directly in.rolved in tha case ' .

,
c Necessary t,echnicians (evidence, photcr, fingerpr{nts)
o officer to record all details of the raid for court presentation
e Officers who have unusual skills, such as:
a. Dog handlers

b. Larrguage capabillties
c. Scrrba d.ivLng

d. Appear:aoce (subterfuge)

e. Technicar equrpurent operators (e.g., vldeo-tape techniclans)

rt is lmperative to keep the number of team menrbers down to a manageable level
consistent with the nission at hand. h'herr rhe situation dtctates, j;;;";;, be com-
blned' rt ls clesirable to select men who are knor.rn ro one another. rr rnl""i.'i5i
possible, the raic leader should nnake sure thar all of rhe r."-i.""t*-i"e;.i"l"a"iJror.
the raid.
outsidc supporc personnel may also be required, althorrgh they are not
to be members of the actuar. reid tean. Examples of the consldered
type of outside
nay be consldered ar.'e: rnedlcal personnel/arniulances; flre ""p;;;;-;;;;-
departroent personnel/equip-
ment; motor vehicle operators/paddy eragons; and uniformed police
for
uniformed officers are espeei*el1y irnportant when the agencies conductrng in backup.
,rse
are not' i-n unlform' Tire uniformed backup vLll provlde perirneter tt.-op"rlii""
functS.ons; idenrify rhe operation ro rhe public, and road-block
subterfuge to effect entry to the target io.atto". ""J-p.rt.p; ;;-;;; "I-i..t or .
Personnel shoul<l be deployed so as to perform
cover' apprehendlng and suPport. The size of thesefour unit.functtons: perl.meter,
units_,,rlLl vary accoritng to the
size of the operatiou. How-ver, regarclless of slze, a1l four lunciions
forrned in a rald nust be per-

often utilizes .the greatesr nuinber of officers.

ticularly true in heavily popuLated areas when the rald takes place at a Thls
,fn:-rytUe!S!*:f is par-
time crowds
:I: 11l:1ll:,*".h.r. 3.- perimerer unlr'!s purpose is ro sear rhe ourer boundary of
onlookers who could serlously interfere with the poii""
;-;";;":";;;i;-;: ffi;";:
migtri place th\rmserves Ln rlanger should bc controi"led byop€:ratlon and bysEanders who
,:,e,rbers of the'perimeter tmit.
uniformed officers should be used in the perinerer unit. The
cers, vith r:eference to raid operations, shouJ-d also be utilizedleast ""p.;i;;;;i-"tii:"
this detail. tror"-
over, this rrnl! shouLd be ready to evacuate persons from the areaon and to set up
tional crovd control neasrrres, if necessary. "aJi--
The cover unit has the task of sealing the crimi.nal within a
capt'iG[-frItilTFE specified area or
breaks .t y rto*-the apprehending un1r. personnel in this unl.t
should position thernselves so they are not easi-ly seen and in a rnanner that
possible exits. They should not enter or actively search secures ar1
the buildlng. Members of the
cover unit must exercise great restraint, since they could nrlstakenly"flre upon-o;;"; --

L29
pol-ice offlcers. To avold auch an error, netrbera of this unlt should know clearly
thetr 1lne of fire. Only under extraordLnary clreumstances would they ftre lnto the
burlC ing.

l'he-4ppSehendlngjnit (or entry unlt) effects the entry into the bulldlng and Lhe
of the fr.rgitlve. $irr,:e fhe perso4nel -tu this unit $i11 come .in contact
agrprehr:irs;ion
witlr tl.e crinrinal, chey will be exposed Eo the greatest danger. The offlcers Ln the
apprehending unlt rnusE be accustomed to each other, cralned ln aBprehenston techntquea,
i:rd specially equipped. tlembers of this detail should have the appearance of pollce
offlcers; no long hair, beards, or casE-off arury clothlng. In addLtion, it must be
renembered that the fer.rer oembers of thls detaiL, the better, in line with the nature
of the mission.

, llhe suppol.! lnl-l- tef.nforces the apprehendlng unit. Support unit personnel shouLd
foLlow the appr:eh.:nding unit lnto the buildlng after the locatlon has been secured.
Thts tean ls ::esponsibJ-e for taking cusEody of prisoners and conducting a thorough,
svsEeuratic search of the larget location. The team shouLd lnclude the agent holdtng
ttre warrant, lf he was not a member of the enlry team. CornpositLon of the support
tearn should also prov.lde for the following:

o A recorder to malntaln. an accurate 1og of all events ln the raid,

Often the excLtement and the rapldlty of events nay not a1low opera-
tional personneL to properly note the cl.rcumstances related to ar-
resrs and the sel.zure of evl.dence. The recorder fllls this gap by
descr.lb:ing in detail what occurred. 'He supplenents his notes with
photographs of rald conditlons, the l-ocation of found evldence, and
persons arrested.

c A phoEographer to assist the recorder photographing appropriate itens

or evencs
o An evidence collector or properly custodian to receive, assemble, and
tag all goods or propertLes seized and persons taken into custody
'A portlon of eLther the perirneter or cover unit should be moblle for use as a pur-
suit unit if necessary. When it ls apparent that they are not needed for their as-
si.gned purpose or for prrrsui.t, these unlts can be used to augurent the cl-ean-up and
evacuaEion process or to asslst any lnjured persons.

9 rilsBIgg__ulpsulu
The successfuL execurlon of a raid is a dLrect consequence of the attention given
to ics preparaLion. The auount. of tirne availabl-e will deternine the depth to which in-
telligence on the target can be gathered. In some iasEances, several hours may be aLl
that is avai.labLe, while ln oEher cases the unic uray have several months for its prep-
arai 1on,

To obtain pl"anni.ng data, Chree activities need to be perforned: a reconnaissance

of the area ls conducted; background information of persons involved 1s gat.hered; a
surveillance is made to learn the behavior patterns and the identlty of persons fre-
qrrentlng the area or bullding.
A reeonnalssance of the raLd area should lnclude the strueture to be er,rtered and
rhe surrounding nelghborhood. The building should be studied to determine its con-
struction and layouc. The locat,lons of doors, wlndows, conmon exits, flre escapes, and
comnunlcations facllLties should be observed. LnfornnatLon about the pl.acernent of
lights and switches shoulil be obtained. If the building ls an apartlrent, hotel or
note.l, the Layout of an indlvLdual room can often be decerroined by studylng a sirnilar

130
room. This technlque also 1s appl.icable to houses in subdivisions. Otherwise, Lnfor-
r:tion aboul the layout of a house can be obtalned by questloning nelghbors or someone
f:-ni'liar with the property. irlhen the rald site is a business ofiice, informatlon about
ihe layouL of the buildlng can be gained from a study of a blueprint or floor plan.
Ihese can be obtained frorn the building nanager or oirner.
:

Acljoining builclings shouLd be su;rreyed to determine thelr accesstbility fron the

reid site. The crininal mlghE use adJoining buildlngs as an escape roure, or rhe raid
unj't could use th.:n as an at'.:.lnue of approach. The neighborhoodts physlcai terrain
shculd be stud:-ed to determine vari,ous paEhs of approach and escapl. Obstructlons,
vantage points for viewing, and pedestrian and trafflc patterns should be noted. A1-
though used Lnfrequently, a video tape of the nelghborhood uray be a reallstic nethod
for describing the target area to members c.f the ialding party. Alson diagrams de-
picting essential informatlon should be lssued t.o operati.onal_ officers,
People in che nelghborhood should be observed ln order to arrticipate any irarning
they night give that a taid is immlnent. The danger of attack froo syarpatnelle neigf,-
bors should also be consi.dered. If there is the fossibil.ity of an orr"oop.r.rlve or
'riolent reaction from neighbors, then the tfualng of trt" raid and crowd conErol ur.ae.r.es
should be glven thorough consideration. The raid shouLd be conducted at a time when
there 1s the l-east likellhood of a crowd gatherlng or interferlng ln the police action.
The number of criminals sought and assocLates known to be in the buildlng is vital
i.irforrnalion for p]-anning the raid, Each lndlvidualrs behavloral characterlstics should
be ascertalned, Lf possible. when anticipatlng how a suspect nay react, conslder the
1egal penalty. for the offense. Information on the crlminal should include hts physical
condition, his r;tate of nind, the posslbility of hLs surrender, and any prevlous ex-
:erience he rnay have had ln resisttng arrest. The armarnent availabLe to hlrn skilLs
with weapons shoul.d be known. Addlcionally, his preclse locatLon within the and building
shorrld be deterrained' Iry'hether he is likeLy to be ar.rake or asleep should afso Ue ae--
cided. It should be determirled if ochers in the buildtng are lllely to support, the
criminal. P.ald plans should assure that bystanders cannJt be used iy the crlninal as
hostages or otherwlse endangered. See Figures 1 and 2 for those a..as about whlch in_
formatio,n must be gathered by the unit.

A fixed surveillance nay be necessary to study the habi.ts and learn the identlty
of pcrsons fre<luenting the buildJ.ng or the surround{ng area. A contlnuous surveillance
should be maintained durlng rhe period imnediately beiore the rai.d to provlde unlt
perrsonnet wlch l-ast-mlnute Lnformation on the situatlon. Specificalty, tnfs survell-
l-ance should deternine lf the persons or activlt,les sought ir" pr"suni and whecher any
unusual clrcumstances might be encountered. lvloreover, lt is very lmportant that eur-
veillance ofEicers be attentive to lndications that a rald *ay oot be necessary, thaE
the suspects can be arrested ae they leave the buildlng or as they get in their cars.
In additlon to target locatlon surveilLance, the following sources of lnfornratlon
should be used to gather informatlon preliurlnary to conductlng a raid:
1) Tire case fl1e on an ongoing invesEigatlon caa be very helpful in
provi.di.ng inforrnation and intel-ligence on suspeccs and their habies,
accompLlces and contacts. The case fil-e may also contain inforna-
tion oa vehl.cles or residence of the suspect,.
2) An undercover officer ls usuaLly in a posltton to ansner or get.
ans$rers to many of the questlons that will have t.o be answered
prlor to lhe e:<ecutLon of the raid. At tlmes, he may be the only
person avallable to the team members who can furnlsh lnformation
on the lnternal layout of the target locatlon.

131
 Figrrre I: ;".F.EAS FOR INFORMATION CATHARLNG

'-thc follouing is a checklist of those areas whlch should be the focal point of
i.ntr:11i1ir-:;rc,.: g.,lrtheri.ng, prev-i.ous
io, .:lnd dtrri.i13, the plaonlng proci:s$:

1) Geographtcal locat ions

2) Interior layouts of the target
3) Maps, photos' sketches of the target location (tncludlng comrercl-al
naps and aerlal photographs, 1f warranted)
4) Approach and escape routes, to and from, the target location
r Fire escapes or stairs
r Dumbwaiters, elevators, laundry chutes
r trtoid air shafts
r Location of all doors, wlndows, skylights
r Access to and fron adjoining butldtng through roofs, baseoent,
holes in wal1, etc.
s) ConstructLon and peculiarltles of the target locatLon
r Can it be penetrated by gunflre?
r Does the target site pose a flre hazard?
r Are thertr underground parking facilltles? An attached garage?
Is the garage used?
r Is there a doorman, porters, and/or superintendent?
r Are the wlndows barred? rs the door relnforced or does it eon-
tain a cornplicated lock systen?
o Whlch way do the windows and doors open?
o Does the targeted elte have an alarm systeur?
r Are there guard dogs or other anlmals present?
6) The Locatlon of all utility shutoff polnts (lnternal/exrernal)
r Water
r Tel-ephone lines
o Electriclcy
7) Loc:rtion of internal utllities: sinks, toilet bowls and drains
8) The mood of the people in the lmnediate area aod thelr possible reactions
to a police operati_on in their neighborhood
e) Da*gers to innocent people residlng in the target building and nearby
buildings

r32
 Figure !: ASSESSMENI OF RAID TARGETS

The following factr:r:s ;a'louL a targeted suspect or suspects should be a..isessed

when
a r:rirl :
plan:r ir'-g

1) The cuniber of suspects and persons involved

2) The rrakeup of persons involved. Are they ntale or fernale? Are there
chlldren in the targeted site? tr^lhat are the ages of the occupant;t
3) Number of suspects ac the targeted site aE any particuiar hour
4) The ide*tity. and background of the leader anong the suspects :

5) The capabilities of the sirspecrs, conslderlng the fou.orrrng:

o Magnitude of thelr violati.ons and the suspectst classificatlons
e Thelr previous police arrests
o Likelihood of reslstance
r The physical and mental conditions of the suspects
- Are they professionals, junkies, psychotics?
- Are Lhey known cop_flghters, ,niitiants, sp.clalists
ln unarmed fighting (karate)?
6) Weapons beckgroutrd of the suspecta (proficiency)
r I)o rhey have police records for use or carrylng of firearms?
r Are they usuall"y arrned?
r Wirat is their miLttary background ?
r Do tlrey have access to hreapons--if so, what types, how many,
, ltot.r much ammunigion?
. Are they knowledgeable in the use of explosives?
7) Access of suspects to modes of transportatl.ou
r obtain all registration nunbers and descri.ptions of autos, pLanes,
boats, etc.
r Locate all vehicles for thl purpose of guarding theu durlng the
raid -

8) Anticipation of uedia reaction to arrest, or posslble death of the :

suspects

133
 3) A reliable informant who has proven hisrself in the past can provl.de
invaLuable infornation on suspects, associates and personal habits.
hrhenever possible, however, the irrfomantts lnformation shoul-d, be
ve: i-f ieC

t) Sui>ferfuge j.cvol.:*.; iirrltj.n.j a ra.id t.r:ai!r inember oJ me;rbers into the

target area for the purpose 'cf gathering necessaty raid infornatl.on.
The possibilLty of gaintng access to a target location Ls linited
only by the :'-oaginaEion o.f the personnel involved. DisguLses nay
include butldlng inspectors, utillty repalrmen, deLlvery roen, flre
department inspectors, city inspectore, or police unlforrned officers
in ci-rcumstanc.es where the{r presence would not be unusual.
Poeitive identlflcation of the physlcal target is an lnportant legal. considera-
ti-on. The i-deatjfl-catlon should tre aecoir.pllshed during the ongoing iniestigation by
the agency th*i inttLated the case. It Ehould be firnly eseablished before planning
rhe raid. Uafortunacely, when lntelligence is not updated for the benefit of the r;id
team merabers, nistakes can occur. Law enforcenent officerB are aware of the adverse
publi'ctty that has been received ln l-ncidents where gross errors were made Ln identlfy-
ing the correet physical target of a raid. Such errors have resulted in vlolations of
the ri.ghts of innocent persons and suspects, in the loss of cases at the Judicial
1evel, and ln the death or lnJury of Law enforcement personnel. Narcotics enforceoent
offLcers should coostantly bear ln.nlnd that they are not only subject to agency dls-
cipline for thelr errors {n judgaent, but they can also be frefa felafly responsible in
civi-l sul,ts.
In this day of tract hou$es, look-allke garden ap;Etments, high-rise cornplexes and
ideutical altartnent layoirts, lt is very easy to err in l"ocaLing thi target. Although
"':?ie locatiorl ro he raided muet be descrlbed ln deLall on the applicatioi
fot the war-
rant' errors are still belng nade. Therefore, lt is lncunbent upon the raid team
l-eader to verlfy target locatioq lntelllgence submitted by the investlgatlng agency.
Moreover, after the tean nenbers are seLected, they should be aLlotred io conduct addl-
tional surveillance to cl.arify or confirrn the posltive tdentificatlon of the target
locatl-on.

tlt-!:3$p.*Ltsui].q-G_
During the course of rald plarrnlng, there w111 be nunerous nebtlngs aoong ueubers
of the raid tearn, the tearu leader, and his supervi.sors. Operational pianning for the
rai-d should be kepe among the fusmediate members of the rald team and lnforuration con-
cerniirg the proposed rald op:ration should be disseninated on a need-to-know basis.
A11 of the planning activities that precede the raid culmlnate in the pre-raid brlefing
of raid team personnel.
At the pre-rald neetiag, tt is inport,ant that the following acLivities be carried
ouE:

The raid comrnander, vho should be conducting the meeting, must be

identified.
A11 tean rnembers shoul-d be
farniliar with one another, and they should
a1r be anare of the system establ.Lshed to identlfy one anocher. For
thls reason, lt ls Lmportant that all members of the teau be present.
o where an extremely Large raid group will be used, the tearn leaders
should be briefed by the raid conmander. Team Leaders, in turn, brief
their Leams ln detatl on the speciflc asslgnments to be perforned by

134
 each teau meurber. Htrere a soall raLd group is used, a1l oembers
should be briefed by one person.
The briefing shouLd incorporate a trogck-up" diagran of the objective.
Thi-s a1lows team members to relate thelr noves Eo something they can
si.:e, while potentlal problerns c:n be dlsccrned and elj^oinated duriog..
the brieflng. Thls mock-up or diagram should be as detalled aa po6-
sj.ble and strould be eornp'l-emented by photos, mapst and sketcbes.'
Along vith ensuring that all raid members are aware of the speci.fic
nature of the operation, the raid commander anC t,earn Leaders nusE
nake sure that the suspect or suspects are clearly identlfled and
knorm by the offlcers. The raid members must review and be thoroughly
faailiar with the suspectrs photograph and other descrlptlve rnaterlal.
undercovar agenc$ should furnj-sh inforrnation. on the characterlstLcs
of the suspects and note any previous stateEents about expected
vlolence.
Raid members should knov the nature of the narcotics evideuce that is
betng sought, slnce the nature of the drug may deterutne the amount
of surprlse necessary to prevent lts destruction. lhowLedge of the
expected narcotLcs evldence oay also aid in deterolning whbre the
evidence nay be hldden.
A detailed descriptlon of any autos (or boats or pl-anes) used by the
suspects shouLd be gl-ven. These vehicles can be watched or seLzed,
if it can be shown that the autos wele ln any vay used to facill.tate
narcotics trafficking. In addition to licensa plate number$, an
accurate, detailed description of the vehicles sbould be provided,
since License pl.ates can be easl-ly changed.
rnformation on tiuing should be specific. The brleftng offlcer should
give the exact time that the raLd team will ureet at the pre-selected
,assembly point, and allow a speciflc amount of tine for the teao co get
froo the asserrbly poi"nt to the target area and into po-ltloo.
The tactics to be empJ,oyed to galn entry shoul-d be reviewed tn depth.
o The team members should know who wil1 be in possession of the warrant.
Post-entry assignments should also be gtven suffl-clent consf-deraElon
and explanation. These assl.gnments include:
1) Cusrody and handling of prisoners
2) Custody and handllng of evidence
3) Cuslody and handling of selzed vehicles
4) Handling of addltional suspects r,rho arrLve on the scene
du{lng or at the conclusion of the raid operation
s) TransportLng the team fron the raid site back to the
assernbly polnt

6) Procedures for securlng the target location or placlng.

l-t under a post-rald surveiLl-ance lf necessary

135
 The briefing officer should also take tfune to discuss special instructlons and
assignments where the circumstances of the rald call. for theh. Although the list for
sui'tr r'ilcuin:itlrj.ces is ine:*trarrsLlble, the fo-tlowing are examples:
e rf ao undercover officer is golng to be present a! Lhe targ.:; locaEion,
raid tr..en nenbers sh'rrLlrl know hi-.: identi.fy and be B'vrare of lnstructi-on
.r:j to iro:r'he is to react during the ratd. For instance, iE nust be
stated if he wilL be treated like a suspect to protecE hls identlty or
j-f he will openly assist. the entry and search units.
r rf an lnformant is golng to be presenr at the target, lt may be ad-
vlsable to rnake hle ldenclty known to raLd team meobers on a need-
to-kncw basis,
r rf there is special equipment to be utll-ized, it rs important that
the people using this equlpnent have proper trai.ning in its use.
Arthough every offlcer should have his own connunicatl.on equipurent,
a system of hand or f.ight signals shoul.d be devised Ln case the equlp-
rnerrt fal.ls or circunstances prohlblt its use.

In raidlng a clandestlne laboratory, it will be necessary to have a

quallfied cheoist accompany the search detall. The chenlst wrll be
especlally useful lf the raid interrupts l"ab procedure ln progress,
becauee he can testify as an expert to identify the purpose of cherolcal
Processes. rf no chenrist Ls avallabre, either the suspecE should be
Put to work to secure the 1ab or the lnvestlgators should awalt the
arrival- of quallfied personnel to secure the Lab.
rn Lher apprehension of juveniles, care must be takeo to use minimum
force. Additionally, juvenil8s nust be processed separately frorn
adult offenders, and thts separation should be oaintaLned until they
are released.

' . If there is reason to believe that female suspects wLLl be appre-

hended durLng a rald, arrangernenBs should be roade
to have them
searched and attended by a female officer.
-fhen an undercover officer is invoLved in a situation where a rald is about to
occur, it 1s preferable thaE he not be present when the rald takes pJ-ace. If this ls
impossibtr"e or lf his absence might comprornise hls identlty, he can be apprehended, tn
r'rhich case the disposition of the'rarresttt will depend upon the circunstances.

RATD EQUIP}IENJ

In <iiscussing the equlpment needed for a rald, it j.s i-mportant to remember that
each operation will have its o'rm particular requirements based on the nature of tbe
raid, the r?$istance expecceil, the rnethods to be used to gain entry, and the inteLli-
tetlce gathered. A urril conunander should recogni.ze Ehat hls unit will often have to
bor:row_equlpurent necessary for a raid. Pragrnat.ically, a rrnit cannot afford,to purchaee
r,ruch of the equlpment that it w111 use ln this type of operatlon. Even lf it could,
such purchases would not be cost-effective as the equipment is used {nfrequently,
A11 rai<t team personnel should be arned with their personal fLrearms, as dictated
by organlzatt.onal policy. It should be remembered that the use and,/or display of the
right weapoRs at the right tine will often elininate caeualties on both sldes. If the
suspect can be convinced that he ls golng up against a sell dlsclplined, well armed

136
 lroup of men, he nay decide agains! offertng any reslstance. The follordng faetors
ray be considared:
c Fu11y automatic \reapons have a great psychological effect, although
in some_qunrLers chey nay be impractical and i.y unnecessary
c.lsualliits. 'fh..ry ,f,f *a. al:;o inac(:urate ancl ter'! to""rr""
jam.
o lligh-powered rifl.s are especiarly good in anti-sniper work that may
be part.of a raid. rlowever, due to che range and the power of these
rrteapons' their use tn raids in an urbanized'area is severely
restrlc.ted.
r Shotgunsare consldered by police officers to be the best all around
weaponio a raid situation due to the firepo,nrer Lt provides and its
psycholcgical effect. The capabilLtL"" uses are all but l"lutiless,
because ttte user cal avail hirnself of all".riof the various types
or buckshot. rn addition, the shotgun is easlly maintained andofit slugs is
relatively easy to train personnel in 1ts use.
o Arr attenpt should be urade to standarrllze weapons and armunltion to be
used 1n an operatiorr as this w111 ease suppl-y efforts. rurtherrnoiel
the exchange of annnrrnttion between members of the raid tearn n:.ghi- weff
be critical durlng a fire fight. rn all cases, unit personnel should be
reguired to ablde by agency policies concernini flrearms.
There are several advantages in requlring that all police
in a rald be easil.v identlfied t (") the Likeiihood officers who part,iclpate
one anottler for a susrpect 1s reducecli
thar poLice offleers might mistake
other pu."or," will_ not harre grounds to doubt
-(b)citizens
the jrlentity of poli.ce of ficers; and (c) orr""iuing thc raid will be a..rAre
th;rt iL is a F'llce operatlon. rnvest iHators p.lrtir:ipntrr,g in the operat-ton shoul6 Lre
pr-ovided viEh some means of identlf{catlon whlch
i" tnstantly
distance' These identlfying rtems lnclude coveralls, "rr, itgrrt-werghr recognized from a
jackets \.J,lth the
proper lettering or rnsigrria, basebalJ- caps of a dlsiinct color
ings, and/or distinctive colored head or arm bands. For securityviLh approprlate mark-
reasons, it is ad-
visable to change these items from tine to time.. police badges worn where they can be
seen offer another alternaEive atthough they may not b; as
othsr items. vlsible as some of the

Equipment considerations should include the need for

be made fo:: adequate transportation for the raid team and vehl.cles. Provlsions shoul<l
trave been apprehended, and evidence selzed. rt should be
its egulpment, suspects who
decided beforehand if:
o Tearn personnel will use marked or unmarked vehicles or a conblnation
of both
o There is a need for souncl, lighting, or cornnunicatLon type vehicles
High pursuit vehicLes will be on hand in case of a breakoui
A likelihood exists that a standby meclical unit !ril1 be needed in
the area
should tire operation involve a lengthy survetllance prior to initiacing
some consideratton shouLd be given to transportirrg food, water and the raid,
sce,ne of the survelllance. equipnent to the

Effective communicatlon among t.he members of a rairl team is a maJor factor in

ternining ihe success of the operation, since communication de-
capabi.lity must
effective control of the raid. rn addition to hand-carried radios, there are provide for
comnuni-
cation devices available that provide binaural hearing withou! resirlcting the

I37
 ofiicer's irobiliry. For lnstance, these devlces can be placed in a poJ-tce heLaet., thus
enabl-ing the ofilcer to hear messages, wlthout creatlng a nolse outside of the helrnet
io !r'a:tl r:tlt(:::; oil ttre offlcerrs presence. Officers can conntunlcate wlth ttrelr super-
vlsors, and or.iers can be relayed without de1ay.
i{r.,i-.i..-rnce rrpon .;iro,.: itng verbal c,\nr:tiiarids nirjjt he avoide-d, Hand and arm signzrls
aro
tire ci fr)r'fl 1lf gre;.rrl11niceEior. hrrt tireJ can gtill. irlay a very important role -i-n a
raid as an alternate me:rns of conununicatlon in ease of radlo rqalfunction or oLher prob-
":-5il
lens' Drrring the pre*raid briofing, rhe meaning of eactr signal shouLd be explainei
clearly in order to avoid accidents which rnay result because of confusion. publie
address equipment may also be needed for crowd control- and at tiures for courmunlcating
w-Ith the crintrral.

Entry tools should be lncludec in the usual conplement of raid equipment for the
unitr and should be augueaEed by any speclaL tools eiat are requlrea ty itre nar-ure of
the' operatlon. These J,uclude door s1ams, crowbars, sledgehanruers, uatierLng rams, and
bolt cutters.
If the unl-c 1s in need of tools for entry that it canngt purchase or borrow
through norroal channels, the Local fire deparlnent should be contacted as Ehey have
most Lools that will be needed. oftentlmes these tools are carried on the fiie t,rucks.
Other tools are covered 1n Flgure 3.

RA.ID EKECUTION

AE the end of the pre-rald brleflng, or as soon as posstble thereafter,

lnforrnation ls fresh ln lhe nlnds of tle team members, the rald should begln.whiLe
In
the
the
first phase of ratd executionr all rald teao and personnel should report to a
pre-selecced assenbly area at the assigned tine. "uppo.t
Thls assenbly point, which nay be a
publ.ic bullding, school, or warehouse, should have been selected for its usefulness
conceall.ng the operation and,/or its proxiurlty to the rarget.
in

At the assembly area' any l-ast-ninute updating of intelllgence can be

and any last-ralnute problems resol-ved. A11 vehiclis and equipment that wilLaccornplished
rmrnedlately needed at the rarget location should be kept ready, with keys in
not be
the ve-
tricles an<l officers asslgned to remaln with the equi.pment. slnce thls equiprnent
be kept at a p1-ace drfferent than the target area, lt ls important that will
cormnunicatl'on with personneL at the target in the event that
there be dlrect
promptly. the equlprnent is nu"J.a--.

Perlueter: tegm menbers should then proceed

seal off the area. Roacl blocks should be set uptoand thelr asslgned posLtions ln order to
pursutt Jerrtcies strouro
aad ready. The perirnetet detail should be especlally careful with equlpment be manned
because
an unfriendly crowd at the sr-te nray daoage or stear. unlt equlpment.
The co'rer detaiJ-, srrpport rletall, and cntr:y detail should then uove dlrectly on
the targer locatlon, uslng as .nruch cover and concealment as Ls avallabl-e and adhering
as iuuch as possible to the planned methc,d of appr"rech. The raid tearo should
their conspicuousness uPon arrival by avoiding 1lghts and siten, screeehlng ofrniniurize
brakes
and slarmlng of doors' Unnecessary shouting iiteii"u should be avoided. Vehicles
should be secured ancl locked
The co''rer detail shoulcl take up assigned posltiorrs, surround the imrediate area
of the target locaElon' and proceed wlch In"ir'assigned duties. These duties lnclude:
o Coverlng all escape routes from the t€rrgeE

138
 Figure 3: TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT FOR RAIDS

o Emergency rnedical kir

c Flashlights or hancllamps (even in a daytime rald the
of a buildlng rnay make a lighr essenrf;l) - -- darkened interlor

o Protective equipment
1) Body armor
2) Hehoets
3) Visors or goggles
4) Gloves
5) Heavy-duty shoes
o Night$tlcks or batons--for use in situations where the
may be excessive.force use of firearms

. Teal gas eguipnent

r Field glasses
o Hand radios--ensuring that batterles are charged
and are set to the approprlate frequency -----o- and all radlos funct1on
r Spare handcuffs wlth keys
o Reserve auununltlon

Sketches of the lnterlor of the targeted bullding

r Photographs of the suspects issued or circulated among the teara nenbers
. 'Fi.ld testlng klts
o Evidence containers
SpeciaL Equioment

c Gas equlprnent--with personneJ. trained in its use

c Cameras, fi1m, bulbs-*Polarold cameras are dependable and suitable for
the purpose of a raid team
r Flares for both illuurination and slgnalLing
o Rope
o Fingerprint equlproent
r High-intenslty Lights
o Rubber gloves for handllng unknown substances
r Video tape equipment as regulred
r Binoculars, night vlslon devlces and distance list.enlng devLces

139
 . setting up observation posts, with an unobstructed view of the target
o Preventing anyone from entering or leaving Ehe Carget
o Securi'g suspectst autos t.o prevent their.being used in an escape
eir..o-i1t

a Elinrinatlng disadvantageous lighting

I I'lhere previously decided upon, securrng all external utility con-
nections (relephone and water)
Locating doormen or ocher building personner who might disclose the
teamts presence to the suspect6
r }lotifieation of the raid tean Leader when the detaiL l-s in position
The support detail, ar:companied by the entry detail, ehould then enter
location and crbserve the target for any signs of activity v.ithin the target
vhich the suspects are located. During the iruredlate area in
obsurvation, the support and entry tearos
should not cluster together as thls..k"" "u"h
them a good targec. The offlcers, wlth wea-
pons ready, shcruLd allow tlne for their eyes to adJusc to
interior llghtlng. The trse
of more than one entry poJ-nc should be avoided especially during
AlL rneans of esc:rpe should be sealed by the
a nlght operatlon.
farget locat{on detail inmediatel-y outslde the
"o.r"ri.rg
The support detail. should immecliately take up thelr assigned posltlon
rarget locatlon and inltiate their assigne'd dutles. within the
These dulles inclurle gecuring
ioternal stalrs, elevators, egress roures such as au*lrarior;-;;
the lnrnediate area of the apaiturenc or room to prevent people froni;;;Ji|
enterr";"uute",
.na
from adJotnlng apartlrents or floors. Thelr tasL ls al.so to darken ;;;-;r;;-
the fumedlate area,
specifically the hall learling to the door of the targeted roour or apartmenE.
support detall-rs position should be one with a good ilew of this doorvay. The
has taken posltion, lt shoul-<l notify all detailJ inslde and outside After it
the building that
it i's in posltion. The raid team llatler will noraralLy be wlth the support
net the enr-ry detail detail if
.

It should lre renembered that these suggested procedures nerely offer'a grrldeline
;rnd vj11, ouL of nece:sity, be change<l to conform wlth the method of entry and the
nature of the target. For exampJe, irr the case of a private dwel_llng,
entry inight be
nlde direcrly iuto tl.re speci tic iargef location, thereby excluding the necessity
irrternal support detail. for an

A nurnber of strategies and tactics are available to the entry unit.

ations, the lactic rn sorne situ-
3f yerllgC the suspect that a raid is iilminent may be the most ef-
fective approach. The-warn-ing can tre given by unaided voice, over a teLephone,
a public address systern- I{hen calling upon a crimtnal or over
to give hlmseli-"0,
certain that he can hear the instructions clearly. The warning must first estabtieh ta urusE be
the speaker ;rs a police officer and pr,rrpose of the raid. The officer should
surrender, and the susPect should be told that he is surrounded, .";;;;;
have been cui off, and that resistance is futile.
all avenues of escape
gi'wen concerning the way in r"'hich speclfic instructlons may then be
the fugitive should surrend.er hirnself. If there ls
i:ore-than oirc sllsPect in the building or apartnent, the mosc potentially
should be or:der-'ed out first. dangerous one
The sulpect should be ln..;trucEed co back out of the
building r'rich his arms extended upwarrl. under no circumstances should Ehe arresting
nf f lcers loavtl tireir cc'lrer co take cusroclt'
of the suspect if t,'rere is the posslbility
LirzrL sther srrspecrrs i.n t-he bui ldi.ng might fire
on them. rf the suspect is ordered out
ttnou the threai of use of ir:rltant ijqrrnt.; br7 the reid
team, aad he does not cornply
ivi'hln ;r' ;ivi:n anlouilt of iime, Lhe rrld ecn,raander shculd be reacly to follow Ehrough on

I40
 his threat' rf a loag period of tioe is allowed,
formulate pJ'ans of escape or resistance. under nothe suspect has a better chance to
circumstances should the tearr olreR
fire against the butl-ding unless the s,rspecf-i"t." ;;;i"r detrif,renral to
ieam nembers' llarning shots should not be used. rhe safety of
io conmunlcate wi'th the fugitive over the telephone. rn so*. i;;;;;;;;;-ii-r"y-ul*n""lrii.
morc dit:uet arrd i'ttn.ete lincr of r:cr"nu;i-'{.cacion, rnis meiio;-;i"; ri. poti.u
and appeal.s to suriender can be person-
alized. If tha telephone i:; used, rtre rnessage-".rd ;;;;;;;"-;";i;-;irr"i."i" "
;;"ffiil'j-
The tactic or S!I-PJ.1+3.rr'ry b: ner:iled if dangerous suspects
or if there is the p"tsi'Sirity that hosiages are to be apprehended
*"y"u"-i.ten
of escape' surprise ls also essentlaL when narcotlcs eviaence crlurin"l;;";-;;;-
by the
conmander deternines thls type of enrry i" ,r"""."ary, it shouLd ls to be selzed. rf the
-thaLt"""ot...
utiLiziag maxlmuo safety be performed
Forced ."t.7 i.,io-ih. averiinr-ir?"ar"g
him on his horue ground, r,rhere his familiarity "rr=p..t's
ritrl uu.roundings is to his advantage.
The tactic of subterfugg may be used to gain
counlering resistancE-r rraFing to rr". force.- entry into a building ulthout en-
wiair iti" tactic, the police
nay Pose' for exa'rpler as a member uf
suspicion of the Lndividuals sought. :l
o.::n"ii"""i"iroup and thereby qot offlcer
arouse
:

have the same equi'pment as would one of thu-otti"u." po"irrg." vorkmen dress, act,.andthe
the worGerri--it"a..rer pretext is used, it
strould seern logical to the suspect.
and be abLe to gain the upper irand before lh" off{c;;;;iog"trre
tt.
pretext rrusL be a good actor
nature of che pr€te:(t used will, naturally, ",rsfeca-b."or*" suspicious. The exact
in llght of the facEs; ac hand. ""t-;i;; Jach situation an*,
zL" DrLU4Lrerr and nust be uade
''
sLnce the methorls that are open to a rald unit to effect entry are infLnLte,
is difflcult to dlscuss aLl contingenci"" i"-iti"^prr"l"'of a rald operatlon. However, lt
Ehe specLfic tactic of gaining u.,tiy to be
used--""ipii"., subterfuge, or warnlng--
will have been well- establisherl before the rald t""r'"i.i*res at the target rocation,
;;":f;:'::15 ::ff#:;,'3ff:l$',1':":":; ;i;;i;;
::[:.i. ro arlow roi-"i-o,,-site change
r\fter the raid comnander deterrnlned that all of the teams are ln positlou,
will give the entry-detail thehas signal to proceed as planned. Entrance must be nade he
quickll and forcefullv,
_aLlowtng fhe suspects a ninror,ru ;;;;".;;';iil
iumrediate sl-tuatlon confrontirtg the entry aut.ir Jii, rr course, depend.T"r""".. The
on the actions
of the suspects' For example' the mlght offer no resistance, or they mlght
fire upon the officer", .ti"ric to suspects
escape, ph;;i;"ii;-;-;r";;-;;-;;;;;r;'ro
evidence. u.".ro,
rn summary,then, the assrg'ed duties of the entry detail wir"r. be:
a. Effect entry to the target location
b. Identify themselves and slate the purpose of the entry
Gain control of the suspects
d. Secure all weapons fgund in the target location
e. Preverrt the destruction of evidence
f. Establish order inside the target
b. Search all of the suspects aod place Ehem under guard
h. Advlse a1l, rnembers of Ehe raid team as to the status of
oPeration the

141
 Ii surprise is lost during the entry or before entry has been attempted, the en-
tire area should be illuminated inside and out. to show the suspects the hopelessness of
res-.:.rlirrrj. If r,;iient enLry is t.he goal, raid rnernbers shouLd ensure that all gear Lhat
night r:ake noise is firnly secured, and that they have the proper footwear. They
shcrrld sLay close to walls while clinbing stairs or walking in a ha1lway, being rnindful
ol s'1tre-tkv fl,rors and trr-nges. if a team member does nrake noise, he should stop. If
iie is: ttrtrl':tcr:l-ecl , he shor.rld 1:roceecl . lf he is delr.cLe<l , he shorrld dr-op to the f loor
I'acin1; the sourc: of danger with his weapon j.n front of him.

Upon entering a darkened room, an officer should get in as quickly as possible to

evoi-d a si.lhouette at the encry point. If tftne allows, he lets his eyes adjusE to
lighting or lack of lighting in the rooo. He should be paElent and Let the suspecc.
nake the first n,:ve. Alternatively, he should throw something and then shoog to either
si<ie of the gun fLash if the suspect fires. It sbould be remernbered that hanclguns and
shorl-barrelled r;hotguns are best l.n an inside shootout, especially in the dark.
liaturally, the fewer nembers of che entry team who are Ln the roon under these
conclitions the better it !ti1l be for the safety of the personnel concerned. If a
s-i-.I-ent enlry has been marle ancl suspects are found to be asleep, approach should be made
fron behind the bed and a strong light should be shone in the ir.r"pl"t"' face as they
are awakened. If the rald plan caLls for the target to be isolated and suspeccs
notified of the presence of ttre polf.ce ln hopes that they w111 surrender, pLans must be
forr,rulated well- ln advance to cover the possibllity that they wlll instead choose to
resist. The following f:rccors shouLd be considered:
o An assault, lf it does take place, should be well organlzed and the
discipllne of the tean members so sLrlct as to preclude heroics.
r The use of teaE gas rnay be the first consideration, beari.ng in ulnd
the eJ.fect rhat it mlghc have on innoceot peopre, especlal-ly in an
. urban settlng.
o The team should have proper support weapons and personnel trained ln
thelr use. It ls important to have strict control over the firing
, discipline of the offLcers.
o officers should make uge of all avail.able cover that will deflect or
stop sma11 arms flre. The fields of fire should be established to
avoid crossfires.
o Teans should hawe the proper clothing on hand, which 1nclud.es rain
apparel trnd camoufiage suits.
After the entry and support teams have secured the area, the team leader can call
for a search of the preoises to begin. After the raicl is terminated, Ehe area raided
is sealeC off until processing is conpleted. Entry is Ehen allowed only to rhose per-
sc'n:-i CesiSrrated by tlre raid comnander. The processing includes recording and Eagglng
oi evidence, identlfying ancl evacuating suspects apprehended, moving property or goods
that harre been confiscated or recovered, and photographing the Aiter the sus-
"""ne. that the opera-
pccts and all evldence have been removed and the cormrander determines
ti-oIr has come to its conclusion, all units should be notified. Beginning with the in-
side units, the rai.d team can begin to depart frorrl the targeted loiarion. All thl-s
sliould be accomplished through pre-arranged procedures. 'fhereafter, all team personael
should report back to the assernbl-y point where a head count should be taken and all
equipmenE inventoried and checked.

During the planning stages of the raid operation, plans should have been formu-
1:rted as to how to handle the target location upor the eonclusidn of the rald. For
example: Are unlforcred personneL to be left to safeguard t.he location? Is a

L42
surveillance team to be left behind to ldentlfy other persons who nlght
enter the locallon and renove evidence that was overlooked? should atteept to
apprehendadditiona1susPec!sastheyarriveatthetocationz-. L""rau.i gio,rp

soon a$ possible aftt:r the r:onclusion of Lhe raicl,;r debtiefing

I)uritrg chis dcbriefing' all mernbers of the raid tears slould be held.
sioula be c1osely"q"";;i;";;;-'
pertinect information relating to the raid. NoEu.q stro,rta ,"a*-oi-itiii'Jil;;;":"'
tions' it'1l repcrts shourd be subrnlcced as soon as possiblerr.after ,

completion-;i-;h.
<iebriefing, and they should be disseurinated aceortting ar-""a"iii;rr"i-i."""i".Ii.'^* r

^{ critique of the raid should aLso be nade. An arrenpt should be nade

both strengths and weaknesses ln rhe plan_, and po""iur"-iil;";;;;""iul'i,r.oreto ldentlfy
Problems eocountered in the field shoura ue anaiyr"J-"ia-ii;;;-;;-;-";i, ptans.
.t .*," racri-
cal prans' The tacLlcal plans from a successf,rL-."ia-o"a thelr analy""" oriti'iroil'^-
valuable for future operations

r43
 CHAP?SR THIRTENN

.i,:
,

SPECIAL CASE rYPES*

t,:i

Two iypes of ear:es-are r:nique Eo-narcocics

rrolving the operation of cl.andestlne Laboraroriesinvestigatlons.
and
.They are cgs.e$,rj*,
"i"." 4earrn!-wrio-gii,tii,i#;#
ili,;;
;:.i:::5'HTil.l:':;::: :il:: :?.:":::.iliiii. "";;.;;;l'il;:-li;;d;;;: . ...rl
'- -. i.,'t.:"'
t'l' I
Ct.{IiDE ST INE I.AEORATORIE S ' ''::'i'' ' r':

Druge ln rhe illiclt trafflc in the UnLted Stares have three uala gourc,e+i,
gling' di'version, and crandestine dosrestlc il";ri"irr".'-:- {qrg-
..: ,:: .t,.".. : t.: .,
As lncreasing enforcenent and dlpLomatic preusure 1s uronghil;s
soutrces, and lncreasing regularory pre$sure i.e-broughg Eo bear-on bear o*t.;l;i ',
fegfemaid
ton, a correspondent lncrease In clandestlne doaesli. ra"trrr"nti;G-ildi.g.ii**l"i.o ;iiififi:
re expected. rn the past decade, narcoc1"" r""."ti;;;r;;;';;i;; iiiaq.a" gf clan-
destlne drug taboratorles ln the Unlred- srares. rtii*ir,
doses of drugs were prevented froro reachlng the streeil. rn;;; ;;i{;e]],**lrru"*,6f, . .

found ln isolated rain housea, oounrar" rb.r" labqratorles.bag.e beeg,

conmercial propertLes. operatlcne have ""fii",
;il;-;;;r.i""i=r"iiiil;;: anrd rrban,
ranged frorthe grudc ro rhe .iBnrg;ilIiiij-*u
the operators have varLed fron teenagers to qualifted blochenfste. rhe
uajorlty of drugs produced by clandestine. 1abor.tori."-tu"" overiiheln{ha -
methampheramlne, or- hallucinogenic rype. Litcle, rr a"v,
u..i-.t ;il ilil;;;:
been found, alchough the ltli;it
laiiil"ii.""-";;;;;;.;;;"
*er,,ri."ru." oi-.9i;"il;i.;;:-;,il;"I".J:1aJ!G-.r
tncreaslng ,

rnve=stie?tiYe ?:o-cedu{is..- latelliger1cs reg$ding elandes.tgl,ta*; i

'can .best be -Ily""c*galive
developeit-6t;ffibrtsnrng lfalson nitt-s"ipu;r"
cheraieals, suppliers of Laborarorv. eiuipn*.,ri '--
:-'F1s.91er."^,;t,;i;;;4fiqis^;i.-.
Ii-irei"irgiupq reagbn!., r

nrachinerv used Eo nake tablets ani

r .
1;;-";;;;;orl
further thal ju9!
l:"d":TF
cess ic to its final
rhe powdLi.or liqqiJ 'roii-ot
"ip",rt"".'lr""y "iildestine
.r,u ar4.
-i[.y-""t".aJ-1..y
noq,Fg
pie-:''
,

retail forn. rndlcarions thar a clandesri"I'r"i"ilcoritli-.ip;;;-

ti.s in a particular area are a 1ow selling prr"u ;n; ;;;;;-;;;*;";;--iiryi;pii-:.-
avaiLable in thar area. rf the presence oF
"'"io"iJ"r:."r rlu i.-Jlp;;r;; r:.q!! iI.1-,,.,.'.'
1owirrgacciviciesshou1dbeundeitakenbyr""""iij"i;;;;-
j
o New cenants in the coamunity, nerghborhood; or apartnent,bbilarrig,: ' '.r''.:,
shorrld be checked out.
*llaterial_ j.n this chapter ls based. on:
rren.q
l{l}Inore city Police
(1970),
DePartment, Drug Abuse, rdenclficatiog, control and s;i;.""-
police nupurtr"r,
-BaltluroreAdmlrrtstrarlon
Drug flnforcement Naticrrol Tratning rasrlEuc", i"""on cluis. Wash-
"-gton, D.C.
John B' Mclatrg,rrliir, Drug rnvestiggtorrs t'ianual (L974), L.E. prrbrtshgrs,.lcrtrg";, "

145
 . An atted. pr should be nade to j.denrlfy nev resl.dents *,lth prlqr drug. '
arrestis
o rnvesrigators shourd look for the presence of wlndonr'r"r. or other
exharr:;t egur:pnent, partlcrrlrrly thise operatlng 1n cold r"reaEler.
e Utllity corapanies should be contacted to deternlne Lf there are any
tacil,itl.irs uslog. an inord{nare ano,rnt of electrlcilyr.,vqt€r, of gal .

' o Inveetigators can check wlth the post offlce or exprese cornpani,es for
frequent or large deliver{es
e Suspected areas should be checked for vtsible furoes or unusual, odors.
c The on-gotlrg assLstrnceof a chernlst and a prosecutor.lsrveryl{.nB6ro
tanr for technical assistance'and ln cese a search llrlrrent li guichfy ':
needed. -'.,''.,,..,i',.i 'r.;''
_: ,
Pharnaceutlcal companies should be contacted for l"nforortlon on nen custotrcrs rilho
rlay do the followi.ng:.
o Phonein orders by representrng thenselves ae agents for flrns ot '

foundati.ons I ' , i'..

'I
o. Ordet by nall arlth letterhead statlonery of unknown corporatioar o,
foundations

r Suburlt cash-and cafry orders :

o Request by ua{.l order that shtpoents berfent to tegldcntial edalreegee , , .. ,.

or to post offlce box nunbers
.:.,. i
:
. ;, 1t i
,

c Order 14.rge anounts of chenicals ae ll.sted in llgure 1.^

t ' .- - l
r'
r Change order procbduree frequenfl,y , ;

InvesEtgaEors should aLso copy the.llst ln Figure. I and dletrlbute It Eo pharnaceutlcal

companies ln thelr jurisdlctional area.
orher lead eources whLch should be contacted by the lnvestigator include: auctioa
sales of drug flro equiprnent or salvage firms that ieal in surpl-ie or fire-darnaged. mer-
chandise and egulpnent; tradesnen who set up equl.pnent or thoae who dellyer heavy ma-
chlnes; library inquLries for scl.entLfic lnforoatlon or Journals; flrus that, although
they are not chemlcal supply houses, dl-strlbute or retaLi chentcals t" ttr. tocat a"ei.
?robable cause for obtainlng a search varrant for a place suspected of belng a
crandestine lab may be derlved from such factors as: activLtles olserved dutlng-sur-
'reillance, chemlcal odors euranating from the suspected dwellln$ or bulldlag, lnlorora-
tion obtalned from chemical suppJ.i.ers, or statenenl.s obtalned irom reltabli infonrants.
Thls is where a chemist and a prosecutor would be extremely helpful ;. .t.'
Tiuting the seizure of a clandesline Laboratory can be a problem, especially if the
officers do not have an rnformant. A prematur" s.i".re can yleLd toinrni ror" itt n itt"
component chemical"s. The produetlon process nay not have reached the ftnal stage tir
manufacture of the i.llicit drug. This, of leaves the investlgators yltf, no tl-
"o,r."",of actlon when
legal drug to setze as evldence. The only course chegli;"i-"yttah;"i; ;;"
noE yet tahen place ls to charge the suspects with eonsplracy to rnanufacturl dr,rgs.
However, a rhorough invesrlgatlon. includlng the services of-a good lnformant wrri tras

I46
 Fisure L: CHEMtrCA.l

. r', . ' . .

TT.PI OF ma*Rp . EAZAf,DOTIS'

CABIICAI. ,.frffft
+ WATER

H,ealth
METHA}fPHETAI{INE TIC1
Ephedrlne Raw Material.
Erhyl Erher 2,
Hydrochloric AcId
SoLvent 4 0.
Hydrogen
Reagent 30 o i-'

Hydrogen lodide
Catalyst 04.i '0,,,
Reagent
Llthlun ' r.l ':1),
r
Alurnlnum llydrlde Reagent ? t" '3',
:. t ' 1,':' :.,
: .

1, . ,,3 :. ,,,.
Methanol
- ,,: 'ifil,u ,:r.:
Solyent 'o,,.rt, .i'.;"
Methylaulne Essentl.al Cheelcal 34, q, :,:t .;;ai:'
Palladlum Black Catalyst
Phenylacetone (phenyl ,
. t- -i
2-proparione) , .'ir' i .:: : ,
Raw Materlal-
Potasslum Hydroxlde Reagent 1
Sodlun Acetate Reagent
Zinc or Tlnfoil Catalyst
STP (4-Herhyl:2,5-dinrethoxv-
aFphet+trlne) l- (2 . 5-dirne_
t hoxy.-4 -nethvlphenvl ) - 2-
rt:tropropene Essentl.al cherurlcal
2,5 Diruethoxytoluene Raw l,taterlaL
, 2,5 Di.nethoxy-4-nethyl- l
l. i r'
benzaldehyde Raw l{aterLal
':
'D::
,:

Amaonlun acetate Reagent

Dlnethylfor:nanlde Esgentlal Chenlcal 1 2
:

0
Llthluro alumlnum hydrlde Reegent 3 1
Nitroethane 2
Essentlal Che[lcal
N-Methylformanlllde Essentlal Chemleai I 3 3
Phosphorous oxychlorlde Essentlal Chenical
THC
-
(Teclahydrocannabtnols)
Arunonla Reagent
Boron Trlfluorlde Catalyst
Cinnasrlc Acid--beta,-
Phenylacrylic acld, ' ,.:l
j." ';
clnnanylic acid Eesentlal ChemlcaL
Ci cral--Geranlal r3 ,7-
Dime chyl, 2,6-octa-
dienal Essentlal Cheulcal
Dry Ice Reagent
Hexane SoLvent
Hexane Ethyl Ether Sol,vent f .,.
Isoprene-2-rnethyl -L,3
buradl.ene EssentlaL Chenlcal
Lithtuon Metal Reagent
i.lalonlc Acld Eseentlal Chpotcal U:l;.
*From "Fire Proteetl.on Gulde on Hazardous Materlalsrrl 3rd Ed. (ilailonal ffre':trstectlorr
Ass*., 60 Batterynarch St., Boston, 1t OiiiOl . Base<l on scale of 'gr' to r4rt
sith "4tt as the greatest hazard. riprr "".
fnailaies' unusual reactlvity trlth natar.:
.

I47
 Flgure 1 (cont'd.)

ITPE OF EAZARD HAZARDOUS

fitEMicAl. WIfit WATIR

Health blllty' Reactlvlty

l,lethylene Chlorlde . SoLvent

,r,{ethylnagnesir:m lodlde Essential Chemlcal
M-Nltro b enzeneiresulf onyl
Chlorlde Reagent
O1lveto1--5--pentylresorc ina1,
5-n-amy1 resotc l-na1. Essentlal ChenicaL
Phosphorus Sulfoxide Reagent
p-?oluenesulfonic Acid Reagent
Pyrldine Reagerxt 2 3 0
Sodlum ilydroxlde Reagent 3 0 1
Tetrahydrofuran Solvent 2 3 1
Toluene SoLvent 2 3 0
Verbenol-- (2-plnene) Essentlal Cheolcal 1 3 0
Zinc Chloride Catal.yst
MITHADONE
@
4i$,Selll_-eun.slrerlrjlg Essenttal Chenlcal
Di:ueEhylamine EssenEi"al Chenlcal
Diphenylacetonitr{le RawMaterial
Ethylnagnesluur brontde Essenttal Chenlcal
Ilydrochlorlc acld Reagent
1-Dirnethylamino-2-
Chloropropane Essential Chenrical
Phgsphorus trlbronlde Essential Chenlcal
Potassium tertiary--
Butoxide Essentl.al Chenical
. Propylene Oxide Essential Chemical
Sodantde EssenLial Chernlcal
PcP (!h"""v" 1191$_ t'yCfe:
chioride)
1-Phenyl-1-p lper {d lnocy-
clohexane hydrobroulile Precursor
1-Piparid i.nocyc lohexane
carbonitrLle RawMaterial
Bromobenzene Essential Chemical
Hydrobronie Acid Reagent
nyJtog." Ctrtoriae
Anhydrous. ReagenE
lfugnesiun metal turnings Reagent
ilhenyl nagneslurn bromide Precursor
LYSERGIC ACID
-_ Anrnonia Gas Reagent
Ergotamine Tartrate Raw llaterLal
Nltrogen Gas Reagent
Potassiurn Hydroxlde Reagent

148
 Ftgure 1(contrd.)

TYPE OF HAZARD .HAZARD0US:.

criEMicAt WITH WATBB..
--j_-+---+.ts
.,,Health bllity &eactlv1ty
LSP (4-lyseretc acid-ii,
N-dlechylamlde)
Acetonitrlle solvent
Anhydrous Sodlun Sulfate Reagent
Basic Aluona Reagent I
Benzene 0,,
Solient 2 3
chloroform a;i";;; 2 0
Dierhylanine Esseniial €heolcal 2 3
Dinechylformamlde Essentlal Cheoical I ,,.
Ethanol Solvent 0 3.
Erhyl Ether solvent 2 4
Ethylene or'Methylene.
Dichlorlde Essentlol Chenlcel,
Isopropanol
2 3'
Lithiuu Hydroxide Mono-
Solvent 1 3:
hydrate Bssential Chemlcal
Lysergic Acld Raw Materlal
Methanol Solvent
Sulfur Trioxlde Reagenr
Sulfurlc Acld Reageot
Tartaric Acld Reagent
Trlfluoroacetlc
Anhydrlde Reagent
'.. ,. j
Tr :: t. ...ui

l.l; :.r.,,;il' ., .-"r,

, 5, Trlrnethoxybenzole : j, ,,::::.{:.; .'+.-.i;

Acid Rat llaterlal l ',1,1 'i
,''
,r, .,,-.i,:'r: 'ilil:"
3,4,5, TrLnethoxybenzyl j: ,, , ,'.
AlcohoL l.hterlal ,r,. '..' -::-- :.:;\.
,:... '.::'
3,4,5, Trluethoxybenzyl
Raw :..
Chlorlde Raw Materlal
3,4, 5, Trlnethoxyphenyl-
acetonitrile Rav Materlal
Anhydrous Ether Solvent 2 4 1 i::
Ethanol Solvent 0 3 0
Lithiun Alurnlnum llydrtde Reagent 3 1
Potassium Uydroxlde Reagent
2 }I
3 0 1
Sodium Hydroxide Reagent 3 0 1
Sulfuric Aeid SoLvent 3 0 2 I'
PEYOTE EXTRACTION FOR MESCALINE
Amnonium llydroxlde Reasent
Chloroforu SolJent 2 o
Ethanol 0
Hydrochlorlc Acld
Solveat
Reagent
0 3 o".
Sodiurn Carbonate nealent
3 0 ot,
lo919r ltydrorlde Reagent 3 0 1:'
Sutfrir.tc AcLd Reagent 3 0 zI{

r49
 . Flgure 1(i.ont'd,)

HAZATD ,':
,
,::
. TTPE'OF HAZ.ARDOUS.

rus$L- . IDENTIFICATTONT
;.-:- - i ' . HITI I4g!N
FIsona-
Ilealth bllrtY ReactlvitY
DMT (N,N-Dftnethyltryptanlne)
Ethyl Ether z 4 1
Anhydrous . Solveat 0
Benzeoe SoLvent 2 3
Chloroform SolvenE 2 0 0
Dimechylanlne Essentlal Ghernlcal 3 4 0
Rars Mirterlal
'
Indole
Llthlua Aluuioum Hydride Reragent 3 1 2
Mathanol Solvent I 3
0
Oxylyl" Chloride Eeeenlial Chemical
PeEroler.m Ether SoLvent 4
Sodiun Sulfate Reagent
Technlcal EthyL Ether SolvenE I 4 I
Tetrahydro!'.iran solvent 2 3 L

A}fPHETAI,TINE SULFATB
Ethyl EEher Solvent
Formaolde Essentlal Cheotcal
Hydrorryl Aml.ne Essentlal Chenteal I 3 3
Hydrogen Catalyst 0 4 0
Lithiuo Alunlnum BYdride Reagent 3 1 2
MethanoL Solveut I 3 0
Palladturo Black Catalyst
Penylacetone (phenyl
2-propanone) Raw Material
Potassl-um Hydroxlde Reagent 't
Spdfio Acetate Reageot
Sulfurlc Acld Reagent 1

150
 access to the
beec ptroduced.

possibiltty of ftre aaAEGGL. EE. ratle a laborator? .an

Durthcrmr.. *d[-f;Fi
gestion on tDe part of raid{-g officers ty t
*
"aiUnfli-""
ff d:"1#:H*::ry'iqr;E',#Ei,lWs+*;X;tffi
plosl'on' frev cao :b lf of rmraruaur: trltal+1ry.lte4r,t';xgrrffiq:ul
"p+rar;1"
:ffji:li:_.::*T*,3,s$n: q1;l"l&ffiil1fr.pryocicd, A
r,Gi""a
cherdst my rlse ue_atib Lo idstify
""q-cheucar:
;"""-;f il-;;;Tb;il FffiilTileff;Ttri
arces' and otber tnfo-rntto- After tbe laboretory ti" bq secrrrcd, r
herp identlf5r, coltectr ,pd preseFee .g"*-_!, ;il;r"t ctd.nt c*
d l.;';;ffi-gft.'.
tha case. A-s a safetv p'rec.otton, the tocit n"e.J"p"Et;;;tr;;lrri&
ttDe tbat the raLd ls {nlttlted. .t: tt
. ; .,
tbqelvee rithout a ched.og' trev 5[sfu6=t'r6rrriq.bt
.o" ,f.15.;ffilffi.rlad
i::i.1 ,,.. ..',,:. :.. ', . i i r'f...
o Reep the laboratory oPerator present rhco shuctlng dotrrD tbc lrb: ||r.
adnice
offlcers'
m rh€ procedrre berog ured ny acve us iir;.;"d.'fr"G-,ftTl ',. ;.
'-"' ''':- r::.''.:'l;;
.'-'' " ' t,
';
Ilo not allov srctrng ln or near ttr. rab sr.te. l'
" t ':' ..
. .r. .':,
o P -. ;;';i.'...i,1..'.
"
""a uae cr€c'rs Ftth flarhhrlbsi o-u" a'strobe ugtc't+;a: '

r If frres irfthfr tha laborator7 .re st1:@g, shut off Eff d;cttt."r, .i . 1.. ', ;1,.
equilmt, €Ecspr Dtors b.Lg r'€d to ;L;;;rd;r;;;-;;
otherrrlse part of gfis slmrcri progess-
r Enacuate nearby people after tbe tab slte is rmJer cmtrol.

' is:nalert for any container labaled tJtbirn Al,nianr. Ftdride, rhl.ch
Be
extrerely erploslva subetance rrheo cordlned ttfti't"tei,----

, -goFeSting Fdd:nSe. trte collecttm of evl.deoce frsn a claryterttnc lrEoratory

should irclude the phoioerap&t.s of the entire rauratif-ope;.ib^;A; r& tu d{s-
n'antled, as rell as plcrnres of the {,raivfdual pr";;;;-;;;rn;;J#
ie r&v€d- lhe folloviog are iterg rhich srrouia b"-;LA-""'i.iGi.E .t. ;;&
gators: r*o"-rr-
r The flnrshed product of the DrEu{rclurfng proeeso
j
r Prtlary rnd 5g3qo4try Precursors-that ts, those substanccg rcved
one or mo steps tn the cbed.eal reactio-fror tt" ',1

""a-pr"lq;-:-'..t'r
r BasLc rarraGerltl,r to ubr.ch otier cepo@ds can te added to forra- 1... .1,
lo..

latc tte end prodoct ' -- ---:-

.--
r Eqrrt_pnt. used i.o aay phese of the rmff6gf1q,{ng procela, lnclurllrg.
tablet rilrng icffnes :

151
 o 1,1.il..ii:eratue and. for:il'.i-!-as.-*th;se are impo.rtanE for establishing
the facr that the lab was producing a conrrolLed drug and as in-
teliigence informatlon on new drug-trends' i-

Inr,'trstl.gi-tters shouid pfelr:rl:c a complete inventory of all ltens seizetl and a list
of iterns not :.elzed or destrolled by fire. Slnce many labs now process the finlshed
product irr:o retaLl form, iu.resti-gaiois sh(iuld familiarize theinselues with inachines
thaL can be used to produce tablets, incl-uding si-ngle and multl-punch machines. Offi-
cers shoulC be aware thaL, in additlon to the active ingredients, a. tablet is conposed
of inert Eaterlals. These lnclude diluents, binders, lubricants, diefuitegrators', and
co1ors,whichaIsoshorr1dbeseizedasevide.l....'.
A diluent is an inert s,.ihsi.irr.c-c uhicir ls aCded co the actLve ingrediene ln or<ler
to increase it": bu1k. The ai,'eraBe LSD teblet contalns only beiwe.t itt. and two ten-
tho'.rsandEhs oi a gram of LSD. Heace, Lt is obvious that another materlal must be added
to make tableting posslble, Diluents include dextrose, lactose, mannltolr. kaolin, di-
calctum, and phosirhate.
A hLnd,er is a substance used Eo impart cohesive qualities to the powdered mate-
rial. They insure thaE the tabLel r"rn"ins intact after conpressi.on. ihey also inprove
the free-flovi.ng quallties of the substance to be tableted. The nost coumon btnders
are starch, gelaELn molasses, ethy.lcellulose, lactose, varlous natural and eynthetLc
gurns, and sugars, guch as sucrose. Binders can be used eithbr dry'or as solutions, de-
pending on che procedure followed

Lubricants are used to prevenE adhesion of the rablet Baterial t.d dyes and
punches. They also l-rnprove the rate of flow of the uraterlal. Exanples of lubricants
are talc, starch magneeiun stereaEe, ealciun scereaEe, borlc acid, paraffin, cocoa but-
ter, and soaps.
. '.:

A disintegrator Ls a substance or a mixture of substances added to a Lablet to fa-

cilitat.e its breakup after being taken, Most cornnon disintegracors
--'---- are corn and potato
star'ch. Color *nt"rt"L" includ! r.t".-r.frii.-Jy";:--
""J
To demonstrate tablet conpositioc, the foLlowing ls a'typical rnakeup of an LSD
rable t
LSD 0.025 ng
Gum Arabic 0.100 rng
Srearic Acid 0.500 ng
Tarrric Acid 1.000 m;
Talc 2.500 ng
Cornsrarch 5.000 ng
Manni.col 20.775 ng i l

pr-Bgro!_gAqgq
At tirnes, the rrarcotics lnvestigator may be called upon to investigate arr author-
drug dealer who is suspected of diverting narcoEics and dangerous drugs frou le-
i;.'.tr'J
E'icjrnatc channels of distribution. While specialized agencles are typically entrusted
:"'irh courpliance investigaEions of manufacturers and distributors, the local investiga-
cor vill ofccn have to conduct any investigation of a physician suspected of dlvertlng
d rugs.

A physician who illegally dispenses preseribed controlled subsEances will even* '

ttglly become known to lan enforcemenE officers ln the e6onnuniry, The physlclaots '''

L52
 ParienEs will- incLude teenagers, addiets or thrtll-seekere, and 1t is only a Datter of
tj.ne before so$. of these lndi'.'iir:als i:re brought to the aitention of tocJl qnforceoent
officers' 0ccasicnally a physiclan will- act in the capacrty of a broker, u"irng i..ili
quantltj'es of control-led eubstances on the basls of hls nedtcal registr4iipn-anA tfrd
selllng these controlied subsrances to n(ln-regtstrated indlviduals-for ihe
ir'rt. ?ltis'seconJ ar:rivity ls les'J ircqrr-::itLy iourrri. h-lren encountere3, ii ifil"it
shoild
,nr._
be
iovesLigated in ways sinriiar to those used wiEh any large scale drug dealer, rn.iuai"g
survai]-1anceandundereo'r?rbi:'rteg}1niq'1o-.
when the physician uses his positlon to seLl or prescrl-be drugs outslde the scope
of professlonal practice, a unique lnvestigatlve situ;Lion 1o presinted. rhe investi-
gator should attempt to make a direct undercover purchase of a d.rug or a pregoriptlon.
A-lternatively' he can Look for a record keeping vlolatlon. The flist netiroa * i"iu'
desirable. A cash sale or a presr:rlpElon that yields actuat drug exhlblts i5, bette-r
for trial purposes tharr books and records.
rn preparing a crinlnal'case agalnst a doctor for the illegal.
coatrolled stubstance, the lnvestigator and prosecutor uust keep in distrlbution of a
rnlnd that they
deallng with e professiorral person who Ls p.oU.Uty a respected neruber of the eediialare
profession and the connrunity. Therefore, in the invesLigar:lve stage of a cr1o1nal
case, the i.nvestlgatlve offlcers and prosecutor must be very thoro;gh. Lf the case
goes to crftolnaL trial, the judge and Jury must have no doubt that;he acte co@itted
by the doctor were outsLde the scope of professlonaL practlce and were crininal-i;-;;-
ture.
Tr'ro irnportant factors must be established prior to proaecution of a case
doctor. First, it nusl be established that there was no doctor-patient agalnst a
relatlonshlp
')etrieen the doctor anrl Ehe undercover officer. Second, lt must be established
t,hat
there was a crirninal sale of a controlled substance. The second potnt will not stand
unless the first polnt is firmJ.y established.
Thg -Ptryslclan-Patient Relationship.
. -The lssue of what constitutes dispenslng of
drugsvttrrrnr|sprofessionarPract1cehasbeenut1gatedtn
numer'f,us rcss€e. These cases have established criteria by holding that there
rarlt b" a
bona fide physlctan-patient relatlonship. In establishlng this ielatlonship, the bur-
den is upon the practit.ioner to prove the followlng:
1) A physical exanlnation, an,J/or
2) At least some rudlnentary quescioning concerning the health and
: condition of the patient, and
3) That the drug r+hich is prescribed, adninlstered, or dispensed by
the physician is for a legltLmate nedl.caL purpose
Thus, where the evldence shows that in every Lnstance in whlch a purchase or a
prescription r!'as issued for a controlled substance to a lahr enforceneni agent, and no-
physical exarninatlon was made and the physiclan faiLed to ask rudlmentary-q,ru*rro.r"
concerning the heaLth and conditlon of the patlen!, such dispensing (adninisrering
prescribing) was outside the course of hls professional practlee. In additlo..n, the or.
case against the Practlcioner ls made cLearer where the physiclan charges and
payment for the dtug or prescrlpLion and makes no charge for hls nedtcJl iecelves-
".rui..r.
In DeFreese v. uniqe.d.s"tqtes, 270 F,2d 737, (5th cir., 1g5g) the courr held that
drttgs we'iJ aispensea ifif,in ttie course of a bona f ide physlclan-patLent relatlon-
ship when the"ot defenclanc physician did not arirnlnister a phylfcar exarnination to the pur-
chaser and did not consider hin h{s paEient.

153
 In'rl*!t.e. y. gflited S!g!gg, 399 F.2d 813 (8th Clr,, 1968) the court held ttrat Con-
g:-esi,, in passin! il;E-G:;;;e pontrol Amendnents, intended to resqrlct the condrrct
.f li"*ns.d physiclans regar,ting Lteir prescribing and aclointstering of .con.troJfll
substances. The provlslon in these amendmente is.very similaf Co that in the Unl'forn
Coltr;tl,-j Srrbstar:ces Acr and the Mi"hi;;; Coo,.toit"a-SuU"it-tt."s Act with resPect to,,
ihe i.:-;cr-rLctii:n t'ltr t1e course r,F p-rofeselonal. practlce.rt In edCirtonr the court held
in rlie l.ihlte case thaE, a prereqrrlslt,e to the lcsuance of a Prescflptlon for a drug ls
a bona ftde phVslcian-pariant rcl.ationship. They physician srust conduct an exanination
of one r,,hc has cone t.o hinr for hls.medieai o*perif"e acd ttre doctor-must then aake an
lntel1lgent deterDlnat.ion that a partleulat dtug would be beneflcial to that Person.
Orrly then, doeg he have a right to admlnister or prescrlbe drugs. A more recent case
thst reinforces these two coirC decisl-ons ls Unlued-States v. U9or9, !.S, Suprene
Coutrt, No. 74-759 (1975). .

Cases un,ler trre nil:'crltlcs Laws have aleo def ineil what constltutes dlspenelng drugs
wlthin the scopeof the doctorfs professional practlce. These cases indlcate that lf
a prescription ie issued for a narcotlc drug to an habltuat user, not for_the Purpose
of cr.'eatmen! in an attemPt to cure the habil (r"'hlch would requlre decreaslng dosage)'
but rather to provirJe the user with a nareoElc to keep him confortable' such an order
is not, a ptu"""lptlon lssued tn the course of professlonal practlce.
!traking Contact. In arranglng an office visit and establlshing the lnltial contact
wittr EEffiffia--phystclan, ihe undercover agent Dust eonslder numerous factors Ln
developLng a cc,nslslent and metlculous case.. Ibowledge of the physlcianrs modus oper-
andi shouid be obtsl.ned before any contact is made. Thls should not be too dlfflcult'
because a 6uspect physlctan w111 irave an established tePutatlon for provldLng pre-
scrlptions to addlcts or caterlng to other abusers.
In sonre iustances the undercover contact can be made successfully with the assls-
tance of a coopelatlng indtvidual who w111. arrange the lnitial lntroduction or Eeeting.
The more careful doctors w1.11 generally not accept Patients that salk ln off the
sgreet, but wtl1 requlre an lnirodrrction from a known PatLent. As ln roost undereover
operations, it ls best for the lnforrnant !o be excluded as a witness Eo the'transactlon
any actlve particlpation i.n the lnvestlgatLon as soon as the lnltlal I'ntro-
"r,drfror
duction has been complet,ed.
The ageotts explanatlon upon enEerlog a physiclants office should be vaguer buE
oriented torard obtitning drugs. He should make lt known that he ltants a certain drug
for a non-rnedical putpo"-. He can represent hinself to be in good health 1n oriler to
ar.,oicl a physi.cian exainination.. If en. exirmlnatlon is offered,, he nust aclvLse the Physl-
cian ghat ire has never felt betcer in his 1lfe, that he dld noE come to be exanined
anyway. He should make Lt known to the docotr that hle rnaln purpose in maklng an aP-
pointnent ls to obtain drugs. Moreover, the invescigator shOuld not disclose to the
pharroacist the reasons for having the prescriptlon filled by hlu or the nature of Lh.e
lnvestlgaEion.
The can never clairn that he is an addLct. Durlng hls inltial vislt, he
officer
should discourage any verbal exchange that could be consldered as establtshi"g ll"
doctor-patient ielatlonshlp. The expressed or inplied existence of a doctor-Patient
rel,ationship would.detract frosl the successful prosecution of the case. The following
reasons can be glven by an undereover officer when rnaklng a purchase of drugs or ob-
talning a prescrLption for controLled substances:
He is a truck or taxicab drlver needing "upperst' to keep him awake'
lle is a stud.enc n.:eding I'upperst' t,o stay alert whlLe srudying for
hi.s examinatlons.
o He needs them Elerely to nake hln feeL good.

L54
 . Ile ia a ouslclan and he needs then to heLp hfuo pLay bettef.
o He needs the drugs for his gl.rlfrtend or hls hookers.
.rIi+'needsb.1ierlru.qsiorafrieiltlwhohaaahabit'.
c IIe needs qual,lty rarher chan quantity and doesu,t !,rant to use
uukgowir str:et pr9,1ucis.

The undercover offlcer cannot say he neeos oepressant drugs beeause he cannot
sleep. The reasofl ls that sleep ls a nornal body function; consequently, a prescrlp-
tlon for barbiturates, for exanple, would be the correct tr".tt""oi. Hoieover, if tire
officer rel.les to the physlclan that he is an ad,lict, the physici-an een later sla1ra
he 1o tresttng rhe addlct, and th!-s'cou1d harrper the prosecution. If posslble, .t wlde
va?lety of drugs should be ourchased to rnake Lt overwhelntngly clear tirat no nedical
usage was lntended,

The undereover offlcer hay at some tlne encouncer a doctor who w111 Xnslst on ad-
ministerlng drugs at the tfune of the qfflce vlsit. Under no circunstances th*
offlcer agree to thLs type of procedure. The offieer c.anravold the adrnlnlstration
"fr"ufa of
drugs by enploying the following ressons:
'
r rt'freak
have Juot- taken drugs, and any more at this tloe would make lee' I
out.r'
lIhavetodriveuP-state'andanymorea!th1sstagewou1dnakenq
high.
r I want to walE for the weekend when I ann havlng a palty.
o I only use drugs at nlght.
The-freguency of purchase should fal-1 welt short of the dosage perlod if the
dosage w6re belng taken Ln a normal *onner. For exrmple, where the physleian sellg or
prescrlbee onl-y a one or tlro-Ireek suppLy, the officer should ret.urn loi .n additlonel
supply well before the one or t$o-treek perlod has expired. Thts w111 qake it koown to
the physlcian (and the Jury) that the diugs are belng used for non-nedical porpo"".. -
If the physlclan asks the offlcer why he Ls returnlng sooner than scheduledl tire of-
flcer can use an explanatlon such as:
r The drugs road,e him feel good so he took then nore ofteo.
r The drugs were glven or sold to a friend.
o The drugs were given out. at a party.
once the offlcer establishes that he is a paylng and trusted custoner, he shoul.d
be able to i.ntroduce a second undercover offlcer as a nerr customer or he rnay be able
to obtain a prescrlpEion for a non-existent parlent. It ls inporrant t'o l"lp-i";ia
that establlshing the lack of any 4ogger-patient relationship is of the utoost impor-
tance ln developlng a case agalnst the physlcLan.
Another tectnlque that can be ernployed durlng undercover operations of thls eort
ls the recording of teLephone conversations between the offlcer and the doctor concern-
1ng a prescriptlon or the purchase of drugs, The recordlng should be treated as any
other evldence. usually a gearch wrrrant ts not neceseary slnce one of the parcies to
:he conversatlon has consented Eo the recording, As in any undercever operat.lon or in-
restlgation, survelllance of the uodercover offlcer ls parauoun!. Thl.a procedure pro-
vtdes nor onl-y a safery factor for the undercover ortrcer, u"i it til;-";;;;;;;;;";--

1s5
 . ,.'t.;-
' -
his testi.nony. The official tunds that are used' to'pur+iasq arugrrtrd*{,r4??*thelt,:'
s.:rinl nui:ibers ::e,c-crrrier'l in orCer ro corroborate tbe bull. If ttc-,arreCt,leraCf,: ,ltnq-
diaiely after the final purcliese, the official frradt'--€hCIuld, be'fulircd:fn{t.ni*f+8f
evidence. :

156
 {lt i;\,i"r':.:ri }-0ltRl i.l,tN

CONSPIR{CY INVESTIGATIONS

conspiracy occurs l,het't two or more persons enter {nto an agreement to viol"atei,
ehe -A
law and tirere is a cornrrisslon of oae or ntore overt acts iri furtberance-at-arr"---
agre€:nrrlt" The va1ue of a corrr;piracy case ls its potential for prosecutlng,
the heads
oi tirug trafficking organizatioirs. Iosr dr-ug trafilcklng organlzat.iona-are pyraotdal
in cesign in orcier ro put "bufier.;,'between leaders and Ehe;;;. -;;;;irr, ui';;;];;
a vioLator has become the head of hi-s own organlzatLon, he no 1ong". tou"tur'tra"-aii},
so he ls unlikely_to be found tn possession of dr,rg" or peraonally oaklng
er''er, due to the flexibility " ";i;.-'#;:
of evidentiary rules in conspiracy law, p.o!""ufu"i-er--l-
inportant crioe figures ls iossible. Although the amount of work that goes lnto devel- '
"f1"g '! conspiracy may be considerable, the anount of evidence needed
vidua1toaconSpiracy1ssurprlsirlg1yinin1ura1 iio['ii,;;;:
""
conspi.racy has been defi*ed in nunerous court declsiong as:

a A cornbinatioir of persons for an i1lega1 purpose

; , r', :
c An agree;oenc by two oE more persons to corullt a crime tn conceit
...
o An agreement manifesting itserf ln deed or deeds, by whleh two or
6ore persons confederate to do an unlawful act or to uae'trnlawful. :: . ,

ne3ns to do an act vhich is 1awfu1

Conspiracy is an inchoace crille, vhLch means that lt does not have to
unlike bank robbery, wirlch may occur over a perLod of several be coopleted.
mlnute6t a"ruii";-!-;;;:'
cotics consplracy nnay be extended over a long perlod of t1ne. Lt can.atso.havel-rftr-
ole pur:goses, such as conspiracy to buy and dl"ttib,rt" dlfferent types of
In conducting a conspiracv lnvestigatLon, Lnvest:i.gators try to shoi'ttrat-s;;;;;;:;;"-
".r""ti.".-
spired to cor'.rnit:
o An illegal act by using illegal means

I An ilLegal .rct by rrsing 1egal means

r A legal act by using lllegal means
Legal1y, a conspiracy caanot exist where both the object of the agree-1.gnt
ncrns ioten<led to achieve it are lawful. rt is the and the
tite cri'me, and not the object of the endeavor or the"g.""i"r,t itself constitutes
ieans undertaken"fii;;
to accompl.i;h-i;.

*Xaterial. ln this chapcer is based on:

IJomesticCounci]'DrugAbuseTaskForce,@(r975),U'S'
Government Prlntlng Offi.ce, Washington, D.C.
Drug Enforceqent Adoinistratlon, Conspiracy
Office, Washlngton, D.C. llanual, U.S. Governoent printlng
Internatlonal Assoclation of Chlefs of Police, Legal Points 17 E 18, Consplra-cy I
and ConspLracy II (1973), LdCp, Galthersburg, ![d.
-
L57
 There are three areae of lss wtrlch are particularly Lryorcant to consptracy Investi-
Satioos- The first i'rrl are slmilar tn tbeoe; ttre pinkelt";'ft""t i""r U.S.
Pi:kertcn 3:3Us64O (i945) and the lbeory of viearicus Liabiltry i; criernrt-coospt.""y."r.
The Plakeltoo rB paf
of, cne dar:'iher eld,T:or7-states -tgl **"rs
tl'.erefore, ass,rmr+ -l.labj.lity for
of a roo"plrr.y are acring'r"
"i".or*
the actiqns'of tie other co-conspira-
to; lii.ira:
il .:{.t rr}igr:cti to cucspiratorrsl objeciives
, - Vl.carlous IlabilLry generally states tbat a party to a go[spiracy assups respoa,e1-
-biliry i'f,r sub.stastLve offenees eomttted by othel co-conspiiators if- ttre offense ;J;
foregeeabl-e coneequence of tbe plao or a pa.e of the Ltabtlirt attdcbeg
ev-en thoug! all- parties did trot partl.cipate in the crLoe, "omosodesL6n-
tool as they rerc derr
of the eonspiracy ar tbe tlroe tb; crloe nas couoltted.
Tbe I'ast area is tbat of the Accowlice Stateomr Exceptlon ro the Eearsay Rule,
Ilr'-arsay i-s gr:rr*ra.1lly aot aclnissi.ble. I;l r:egtaio situations aod rmder cert;ris cLrsr:m-
stances' hearsay ls adnissible; conspiracy prosecutions beiog one.
In the co-conspirator-accorpllce exception, sEaceretrti nade by ooe co-conspLrator
durlng the consp:lracy and-in furtheraace,nf,lt are biodlog oa al'l Lttrer conspl.rators so
loag as there Ln other erd-dence to establlsh the extsteoeJ of the coaspl.racy.
This exception to cbe Eearsay Rule, thorgb uot finiggd to consplracy cases, is a very
helpful advancage in coospiracy prosecutione.-
EijyE:{Ts oP COrisgtRAcT

Pederal csurts ar€ Dot alrrays in c<rrylete agre€oent as to r&at elsapta are requl-
sites to a coospi.r.acy, bowev.r, lI1 agree that i$ its elgplegt fott there qrst be at
Ir-rasr an agreefi€crt and one overt act. One district court has stated that tbe obJect
e;rd the plan or scheme are also requisites- E:idence lending proof to any of.tbeee
el=aeots Ls pertinent nad adni^ssible-
1) obtecE. The obJect of the conspiracy need not be prmlsbable as a crire- For
exq-Plet soue frauda are not cri.oea, but they obstruct lauful goremt functios by
misregres*rrtatl-on. As sucb, they are coasidered to be offeoses rmder a conspiraey
statute. The conspirators may a.l-so have any nuober of objecte, sone of rttcb ccrl-d be
innoceot. Eonerer, if qe of tbe obJects is to cqrmlt an offoose, thl.s e1wot. of ttre
r:cnspiracy is satisfLed.
The conspLratora lay n€reer acbieve their obJectlve, or tbe obJect nay be inpos-
sLble to accorplish. A conspf.racy corryicticnr, lroreletr, could sEif.-l be sustai-ued if
there vere aa i-ntended object aa<l other elenents ere proved. The fact tbat the dafen-
Cauts EiSht be incapable of coMttti.ng the substa!.tive offeose, sueh as nhga they have
inadequate Laboratory equlpn*nt, or ehen they inadverteatly bought oreqapo insteail of
marihuana' or ailk augar lnstead of heroin, is oot an acceptable defeose.
2, Plzn or Scbere. In a consplracy there oay be .oue scheoe aad varlous tacEieatr-
plans dev6"pEI'G tfne to tire- tihi-le it is not necessar5r to prsve the scbeae or
pl"arl of the eonspirators, ersiderlce pertinent to it is 3'lpisgflts- Horeover, i-f tbe
coaspirators fail in their first atteopt buE later succeed, Ehe first failure ca be
used as proof of a conspiracy.

3) Agreeneat. Ibe agreemeni aoong the conspirators need not be ir any pa-rtLcular
fori:r. It loay be in writing, but usu.ally it is not. It tnay be ertered into by tele-
Plro:re' telegraph, or verbal-ly. Ic short, if trro or Dore persons loovtngly operate ln
eoncet: to achLeve ao il-Legal end., even with on1y a tacit rmderstandirg, tley are
co'spiralgre. :r '

158
 ,ha're 4) overt Agt- An overt act to achieve the objecc 1s regulred, The conapiratdrr
an opportunlty to change their roinds aud es"ape prosecutiou up to rh*-;;i;;-;l*;-
strrilecne does something ln furEheri:nce of che.greeoeai," A slngle io"rt r"t'i;-;"ffi:
cient to cornplete the offense. The act itself FaI be Lnooceat except for-ial-.""L
tion '"rith the unlaltful agreement- For insrence, LorrorLng eooey in'further;";-;;
<:c'1.;pir:i:{:',f i\) h'ry rtlleotlics'.;.rrrr-J l.e:rrr ove:r: act. Oi caurs,r, ihe cr,re?t
act rnay also
be a cri:ne itself , tn vhir:h c:rse rr 'iI; n new alrl. indepeodenr cri-oe ln addtcioo.to birinq
parr of the conepiracy. A staEement ln furtheraice of a coospiracy oaiz also b" ao -
o:,rert il(:t' strch as rrhen srrsf:r:cr "A" tells suspeci "B'r that he vill' buy the narcottc-1f
"B'r \rll1 sanrggle it from MexLco.
veubers of a coospiracy alvays eonsist of tno or rnore persons nfio into the
origioal agreement- Hovever, a pereon joining in the orlgl-oal agreeo€ntenter at eor" t"le,
date also becomes a uernber. Moreover, p"rsil becones a-oeraber-wlthout specr;i.;ii;-
jo,inicl in the agreemenr if he has krowledge
" of the .""rprir.y-;J-;;;#;-;il;
achieve its object- when a person',rith knowledge of the conspiracy-5oins atl;i-.di+,
he becoues a pa::ty to the acE,s already r1one, evin though all ihe ilt"ii"-"r the col-
splracy are not knowo to hlm.
original oembere of a consplracy can succesefulLy lrtthdr&r pri6r to tte co14ieslon
of the first overt act by uttering a provable reuunciatloo o. p"iforrrog ;;;At ;:-
tive acE of w"ithdrawal- However, the law presuresr that roenbe"rrrrp i" rEtalned fo
seace of proof of rdthdrasal. If ttlthdrasal takes place after rir ouert
nitted, the only effect of slthdrawal ls to start the stature of Liultarr*" ;;- "U-
";t-i; p.ii.a
ruaning in favor of the withdraser. In essence, it ls extrenely
sPirator to get out of a conspLracy. Ee must go to the polLce dlfflcufi
afe.
ior-"--"-
-oiU.rrf""
tU"
burden of proof of ternination r-s on him. tn iaattton, ih. "r ;;;;i;;;;",
the conspiracy vlolation does not teminate bis liability for"rr.rt-oi-a
the ..-ai"r"gt.it"-ar---
conspirators vho have yet to be arrested. rn other words, a person ro-ains";"p"""iuf"
for what he set into notion - '---- -: -l-----':-l-:
,i

The conspirators need no! have any contact ritb each other or be o.rtoo"fit ee- i
quainced with each other Lf , wlth knorrleilge of the conepiracy, .t"y-.olp;;;;r;
;
affiraative nanner- rn rnost conspiracy trlals, the actual d.etal-ls-of tire agreeuent
rnot are
provSd. The asree'ear rs inreried"f;;;;;;"=iia-Ji".;;;;# ; ii;;:--d;_
investigator ehoss what nas sald and dgoe b1 the conspir".""",-J-d.-;;[-;ii:f*i:
conclude that what occurred corrld not have bappened. eieept by agteeo6t. Sirilar-;;-
sonl.ag is ofEea applied to provlng the plaa or the obJect of-a lCnspLracy. Bqrwe1rl1s,
all cases, it rrust be shoro thar the percona cbarged ttaa Uort.age of 'thi coaspira '" -

and its purpose- The conspLrator'nrst bav" knorlfoga rhar rhe otj""i',-j-,tiI'iIiI'."
accomplish lt, rrere illegal. ' , , '-1: --
'
EVIDENCE OT CONSPIRASY :

TestiooaLal evtdence in a coasplracy case caq be described as ant enidence pre-

sented by a vitness to develop, or shov, the eveots of the conspiracy-. corroUorative
evidence is evidence that rrill corroborate eveots or supporit the tesituooy
and/'oi a logical inferrence of che consplracy. For .=*ryle, a hotel ."..ipi-oi[;ff
"f-Jt""L"
noay frou a hotel clerk nay corroborate the iact that th; statera
"*"pir"to.-Jolog
evldence did actuaLly travel to a city rtrere be claios to harye let ytth
of the conspiracy. ro esseuce, a eoaspiracy nay be provd. by cLrcrmt"riiJ-"trr&"I.-
"tt!'-*i"j"
Ilowever' in order to coavlct on sueh evidence,.i-nferences dflm froc 1r
the reasonable presrrlption of l-nnoconce. -r"i ffi-";'

. l) A!:gcaatron
spirators
of conspira . Although it Ls not necessary to sboe that coo-
rlere persoralLy acqGru-tE rith eacb other or thar oo. trad dlrec3 .o"t."i-
sich alL oEbers, direct or iadlrect cooperatloa lu sm fon n.st be sbm.,-: rf Ehe .

conspirators knerr each other rnd associeted together, proof of tbeee faBte. is ',,

159
 or assoclation betneen
r\rr:suasive. lfcreover, evidence tendingf Eo show relationshlp relatiCrns *ere no! in f urf.herance
cor.r:;)i I af r)r.q l.i; tcknis:;.ih!e ev*:n f hough lle ParEictjlaf
:rf cir.: c,)tr:roj-.".y .ha.g.,1.. Even evi.ience shoving that one conspiratoT $ade bond for
.-'no!h.er is adrn:ssibl-e.

?") tgti'r:r!'!-1.uj'.-la-ij/r--lljj:j]-11-'l*!:rj'ij]g' ,wben sr'ibpoenired' Lhe crrstotlian crf bu'sj--

lrr;ss clr corporalrr reeords mgsc proctui;-tT;;, evea thouBh they nay tend to lncrlminate
It is, horlever. Sene-ral1y betEer to u93 a search lterrant lfis the prin-
hin personall.r.
,,the conspiracy rhe best
c.p:ris aie An"originai doc.r-rr,re1!..supporting
(a) when
evi-dence, and mtrs! be produced. Exceitions to the "beit evidence" tule are: or
"orr,ri.ai"..,'
t'ire original is lost and an unsuccessiul diligenL search has been made for it;
(b) when the or-lgi1al has been desttoyed and lhu ptopottent did not destroy it tq keeP
the reaph of court process; or
ir from the couri:; or (c) vhen the original ls beyond cases' secondary evi-
(d) when Ehe original is i1 the hands 3i it* oppu"itio"' In such
ri-.n,:g t.:ay be uSeLi

SecordaryevidenceiseltheracoPyoftheglfeinllortestimoiy:t?witnesswho designating one

reri.rrnbers fhe coarent of the oi:iginal, TechnicAl-ly, Chere ie no rule proved thaC
type of seconclary evirlence as superior lo the othei. I{owever, it :Y:t.be" that the copy
ai!r* ro.r an origtnal. If a copy ls offered, it must al.so be established
j-ti a true and coirecE copy of the original',
Papers bearing handrrritlng of one defentlant and executed in furtherance
of the
Hoveverr the idenfiflcaEion of the
conspiracy are adnrissible agaiosE all consPirator:s' purely hear--
wricer is essential. If the r^rriter cannot be'identified' the document-is
say. To establish a conspiracy, teregr"is on the subiect are admissible.ln evldence lf
ideatiflerl anc rr:lated tp rhe clefendalts. Moreover, .it is a seperate_federal offense
Etl us,i a communicatiolls facility to Perpetrate a federal narcotics
offense' Notations
the of a defendant t'encl to
oF telephonle numbers found on the person or in reslclence
show the assoi:iates of the defendant, including possible consplracors, Telephone coro-
are -
admisslbls'
pzrny toll and trilling ..""ti" showini calls betveen conspirators
anything
3) Res gestqe gule. Under the req geqtae rule any statements made-or would be inadsris-
4oae so c1c,se ao iffi; as to be cofii.feiEl-i-part .of it, but whieh
E;; be admissible as a part of the rqs 999!ee (or.
;;;i"t;";;""it.-t"r.s of evidence, be a part
;hi;;" done). Therefore, anything ot done to further a conspiracy r1'ay
"rid be lnadurislible in ocher tyPes of crtme' thls
of the fj,' gesLae_, eveo tto,rgt it-wouid-
is an exceptton to,Ehe rule rlni"tt prohibiCs'accusatoty hearsay statemeots of, a ca-
and aeEs afEer the ter-
defenriant who is not subject eo cross-examination. Sfatementq it' llos-
nination of Che c,:n*;pira-cy is admissj.ble only against the persoil vho nakes
ever, the eonfessor coul<l take Lhe \.ti,tnes$ stand and testify against other
consp irators .

starenents which are merely boasts or careLess revelations may not

be ln further-
by a conspirator iluring the conlinuance of the
ance of the conspiracy, even if rnade interest'
.:on.spii.:cy. They are-not part of the res Eg-sleg but are adrnissir:ns against
sta6emene'
end rs srtch, are aCrnissible only againEl-ttre peison who made suc'h

4)_IIlsnL.Incentn'ay,beProvenby'<lirectevidenccofactionsbyconsplralorsor
Ehe conunissi'on of
irrferi:ed fror,r other available evidence' For instarce' knowledge ofintent cannot be
the substantive offeose could srrppfy-ttte elemenl of iotenE'Cefendantl{hen
be rrsed to
t-stablished oEherwise, evidence of sirnilar offenses by the nray
should be a lasb resort, since iC may not be
nrove inEent, Retiance on such evidence
adinissible, or migtrt prejudice the case'
5) AcEs
Acrs and sratemenEs
sratenen of Lersqn: nol on tr191'
trlal. Tescitoqny regarding Ehe acts eod
Tesci
,rn.**lnrffiffig on a coaspiracy m4y be used ag
eviilence agalnst all consplratclrs once"thiS basic conspiracy has been esLabllshed"
This is Crue even though the individual is not arlested or.naned as a defendant in the

160
lndlctrnenE.. If one consptrator iras been tr{ed separately.and acqulLted, testlmony of
ii.at lndivi;lrral t$ ac.t:i and Ceclaratj.r:ns..y be adltsslble aeainst other
all"eged consPtracors. The acts and statements "*'*r"riheless
pertormed in furEherance if afr. .""--
spiracy by a conspiraEor who dies before trial are adnisslbte in evldenc". - - :-
'l3ig cr.,tsp1.r.1c ji:{; 1n'":r1vj.n}l i;rr:i:,e
nunbers of pers()Bj; usually lnclude several
sraaller conspiracies. [ach of the:rre consplracies nay be tec.hnically complete w{t1in
it:elf. This raises lhe prohia-at of whether to report such vlolations as one or seo.".r
cases. If it can be proved that. each defendant knew of the broad agreeilent and in so{re
way perticlpated in Lts furtherance, 1t can be charged as one conepiracy. Triala
great numbers of defendants, however, are unwieldLy and expensive ar,a r"y lnconvenlence of
hundreds of wllnesses for long periods of tinse. Size alone should qot b;," a.a"r.uoa--
when conspiracy evldence is decisive, buE. it is usually berter;;-";;;.;;t.a.-"i-----
several- clear-eut srl,aJl con$?iracies rather than a slngle large coasplraey whJ.ch:utght.
be difficult to control ar trial. ___--
Itmust'a1sobedeEerminedwhetherapparent1yinterwovenconppiraciesactua1ly
consist of a slngle conspiracy or several s&aLler conspiracles, The courts have he1d,
that-when-one large conspiracy ls speclflcally charged, convictloa cannot i"-'Jr"a"ii!a
if the defendants have been prejudiced uy proor or iitierent and dlsconnecred enpllei- ,

conspiracies. For example, if "A" .n6 n6r-operate a narcoties dlstrlbuti.i-ri"gli;

and "D" operate a narcollcs srnuggling ring; vhile "E" and "r; a..i-r"
they are clearly three separate conspiracles. I{owever, if {t can u. pt*Ei-a;.;-il;
"iiggrJ^'Eitai
narcotics distributors handle rnerchandlse for. the other tr{o rings, there r" siiif-fL*
possibility of prosecuting oner two or Ehree conspiracies, and itr" t""t" r"";-;;-.;;;-
fu11y evaluated. rf all three are prosecuted for a slngle large
ro':rt decides that there were three conspiracies, ir iilrrt u";.";i;;;;l-":r.l} "-
"o.,sprr""y-;"i-ail--
,ltiance and thus defeat the prosecution.

- . Determinlng
whlch
whecher buyers and sellers are in the same consplracy pose6 a problea
the courts have not resolved wlth sufficient clarity to aliow foiulatlon
exacE rules. There are some general guideLines which can be roriowei.
of

r A singre sale does not consEiture grounds for charglng a consplracy

involving both buyer and seller
e For the buyer to become a censplrator he must understand and becoqe
a party to the general" agreement
o When smugglers sell contraband to middlemen, kuor^ring.them to be uriddle-
men, all may become part of the sa[re conspiracy
o A vendor of legitinate supplies who knowingly ee1ls to conspLrators does
not thereby becone a conspiraEor. . I{e mu$t join with theq in furthering
rheiri].].ega1accivitJ.es'e.g.,fa1sifyingrecordsorreportstop'ii.lt
the conspiraEors.
Lctment can be returned eit.her in the district
rvhere the agreement \tas encered inlo or in any district in vhich any overt ;;a-;;;
mitted. Thus' a consplracor may be indicted, removed to, and tried in a afstifci ".r-
which he has never been in, if one of the overt acts eras counitted ln that, district.
If che conspiracy was entered into outside the United States but sone r"a"-*.."
conmitted i-n the United States, the in,Jictnent roay be returned and the"".ia
whole cese calr
be rried ia any distrlct wherein an overt act was commicted. Offenses colEitted wlth-
tn the terrttorial Ltaters of the Uniced States give t.he appropriate distrlct court Ju-
risdicclon over any consptracy involved. Trial of all offenses begun ir;.,
:he high seas or elsewhere out of rhe jurlsdlction of any parricular district
"r ";;i;;; or staie,
oil1 be ln the district where the offender is found or into which he is f,irst brought.

L4I
 StaL,ule of Linitatlons. Indictoents charging consPiracy !o vlolate lgws enforced
t,n.1e,r-:ijECEFi.-1G;ust T;retrrr:ned r.rithln five years af ccr the last prov'rble overt
!r.ct, iiur:litJ,imore, the f irral overt act in a conspiracy may take pLace after lhe sub-his
sianlive offense was comoiEted. For exampJ-e, after a susPect has eouggled heroin,
subseqrre;rt d.r'1j.verv and other acts c-onnected with Cistrlbuting the heroln rcould corrsij---
lL:l:: (rl-,!-, L i.::.il-::;. 'lhg s!atute r.r.!- 1-:rnilaLions v:ou1d nof, cor:rr.ence io run un'.i-l t-he lnsu
of tirese ouert acts
Lrld1ctynenls. An indictrirent for eo:rspiracy is n-ot expected to describe a sub-
sranEit;;iiln!" wirh as mueh'preci.dlon and detail as would be required in an indict-
ment of the substantive offense ltself. However, the.conspiracy lndictment l[ust be de*
tailed as to the consplracy. At Least tlro persons musE be menEl"oned 1n the indictroent'
Hor.rever, failure of tire grand Jury to lndici all the nauted consplrators is not fatat to
r:i.e j.ndlctnent. The lodictment lray charge one per6on, by naroe, of consplrtng wlth
p.3rs.,rr;..r t,nkno'.n LL, i..ha rlrancl Jurofs. Agaln, af l.eagt One ov+1:t aer:, though nrrt neceg-
La.'ily a crininal overt act, must be charged ln the indictnenC. Hhen offenses charged
in an indlctment are of the same or sfucllar characte!, or they are based on the salne
act or trensaction, or two or more acts or trangactions connected together or consEi-
tuting pnrts of scireme or plan, t.hey nay be joioed I'n the saroe indicteent but
as separage counts. ".ontor,The conspiracy and the substaative crlmes growing otlt of lt alay
al1 be chargeci. i1 Ehe sarne indictraent. Hovever, the conspiracy and each offense
sl',ould. be alleged in separ.aee couoEs. Each count constitutes a separate and distlnct
tlifense and the 5ury rnusC declde guilt or lnoocence on each count' Likewise, lf Con-
victed, a defendant may be sentenced Eo consecuti.ve tlme on each count

lN,{.4,:lI94lI v E _PI o c_E-D uRE

l,Ihen a case j.s initiated, the lnvestigator should do a tecords cheek of the sus-
pected conspiraEor by checklng wlth other iocal' state and federal agencles to detet-
mine what type ot' lnvolvemen! in narcotlcs acEivlty fhe suspect has had,. One of the
corlnon failGgs of invesEigaeors is not developing informatioa which will irnpeach the
defendantts expected testimony. The lnvestlgator nust dlg up everything thet he can
orr the defendant in antieipation of the defendantrs denials of involvenent.
In chronological order Ehe invescigator should take the oldest case file or re-
prrrt on the susp-cE and study it. On a separate sheet of paper w"ith headlngs of dace'
ca:,e number of reports (al.ready wIitten by the investigator), overt act'-and corrobora-
tive <lata, he must.reduce the action of the targeted susPect to Ehe sinplest act and
lisr 1t. The invesr:.gaE.or does this will all teports and infonnatlon Pertaining to
rhe target. lle then conducts an investigation to corroborate the acts of the susPect'
A1mosr- anything can be used as corroborative evidence. For example, a drug pusher
tcscifies that he purchased $ZO,OO0 worth of narcoElcs from John Doe, and that he paid
the entire amount in $50 bill denorninatlons. Lnvestlgetlons show that subsequectly Doe
paid cash for an autornobile, an expensj.ve womants coat, and a vacation trlp, Plus he
ieposited g2,000. Receipts for these purchases and deposits' vith the testimony of the
sales people antl bank telLers, would corroborate the tesrimony of the drug pusher.
Si.15c11ents fron t.hese people that Doe paid for these items in $50 denoninatlons would
further eorroborate eh; pusherts tesEintony. Although these acts by Doe are 1egal, they
arr: cLrcurnstantial evidence in proving conspiracy.. Hence, investlgators on a conspir-
acy case should Look at all acts in Doets 1ife, not just his lllegal life, to shon that
these acEs corrld not have happened without the conspiracy.
In garhering this circuinstantial eyldence, the investigator trles to lsolate per-
tfirent rcfl.riry of members ln Ehe conspiracy. For example, if pollce have reason to
believe that a conspiracy neetlng took place at a given locatj.on at a Particular tinre,
there are going to te airline, hotel, and rental car recelPts Eo prove that the meeting

r62
 tool< nl.!ce' ?i'rere vill be totl eall recelpts showlng that rhe r.ndtviduars
lnvolved
iori;,viir; i:, a'iisi-;;-i,;"-;yp"s or co*obo.".ii.'li;;;,."
:nl;i,:Iij ;:.l,,ii::;;0.',,,-,
ii.;i:el.::':corr.ls Pl.-rr,. ios of co-conspi.rators
'telephone call rectrrds A11 prior arresEs
Passport ent.ries EyeilEs r-refore/af ter conspi.racy
Local police records Diari.es
Car/boat rental agreemeats Records of purchases
i\s a furth'ur exdnple, a case reporl rnight stata iha!
Los Angeles ro nske a purchase of heioin ;;;;-.-;;;J"-auy John Doe uent fron chlcago to
Angeles by air' the rental of a car 1n that period. rtre trrp ro Los
lrich the heroi'n dt:aler woul-<I all city, the stay at a rroter-, and the contaEt
be activities ltrat would be considered overt
subsequenrrv, rhe investigacor would ;;;r;-;;-.;;'.;;-;;d";.;]";;"ii"lolrouorare acts.
He i'rould check with airlines and cre<lit
eorfuoies; attenpt to verlfy a car rental
ir.
with the rencal agency; veri.fy the suspectt" ".rd
which telephone numbers were ca1led by the "i*y-"a-a loa.r;-atcenpt to deternine
and bi1ls would be colLected. whl'le all this a,rirrrg hls stay. copies of recelpts
"u"p.ot
lnforuration does not dlrettly prove a
he;:oin purehase, it ls circunstantial evidence
ci:r:ie' rn essence, the investlgator ls trying to wtricn-is adnissibLe in a consplracy
purchase heroln, rhe trip, car renEar.., show-that without the conspirdcy to
ttre
tivity while in Los ,tngeies do not m"ke sense rilre"j;-";;;-";-;;-;";"i,.lnu orher ac_

HITNESSES

I{hil-e clrcrmstantial evldence is very loportan!,

in"'olved in the consplracy, can add substanee'ao a live wltness, go'e_one who was
ft"t"""".
that the/ wilness be believable to the Jury, even someone Although lt is inpbrtant
felony arresls, although not ldeal-, ro,rra who has had six or seven
of other corroborating witnesses "tirt u. Moreover, ai" iiJlla""""
""ir.uru..
should not be nrnr.iizec. Hotel clerks, tlcket agents,
bank t'.llers and the iike, also
"breait"--iir"; ;;;;-;il case sioce they can
tescir,rony arrd, because of thelr occupations, offer live
they ar" .r.ry believabr_e. . -
There is e cerEain aulounL of vork
to-r begins debriefing a witness vrho wasthat a
nust. be accornpl.ished before the lnvestiga-
particlpant
in:e:;tigator shsr'rld farnlliarize hi:rself. wiln the in the conspiracy. Flrst, the
includes the sc':Pe of-the conspiracy, the conspirators as much as possible. This
"or,"pir""y
anci thelr associates, and as
rn:rnlr of the events and actj.viti""
that he be able to deternlne whether oi the.conspir".y-lrorrp as he can. rt is ioportant
lacking informatlon on the case. Second, a witrress r" iyi.,g, holding back informatlon, or
he rmst u.r.ii.t" the L'E witoess__his
u/t'toess--nl personal_
'itv. his srate of ni'd, and iris role ln the consplracy.aLE
l'ir:: investigalor::l:ould be clear on the Lega1
arr:.sted? rf so, by st.:;r.rs of the witness. Has he been
and for what? rn ora!i-to-t",u.r. trrr" wltnegs
con:lplracy case, tlte 'rhon
lnve:;Ligator' cooperate on the
fo'the wicness should get tJgerh.rthe-witness, the prosecutor, and a defense counsel
arsc,rss ilialii"""-r"iir*'irln-inl
clroperate' This will Prevent a misunderstu"aing-iotJi,
"nd "arrr.ss
wi'.
wirrress that the prosecucor's offj-ce or rhe .. subsequent charges by the
t iors -
invistigaiors failed.'to r,rriiir any condi-

There should be two types of debriefing sesslons

are €ieneral sessions '"rhete case lnvestlgatols helil with a wltness. The first
con'spiracy and i-ts operation. The s."ond type"rr.it-g*rrer"1 information about the
sessioi" rhose r./her.
".. "o"liiti,'
163
der:aiied inforcratlon is sought frorn the witness. There should be.a lapse-of tioe-be-
ti.r':in 1'.:it,lc:::^1.:i :lnd 5'r':"'if 'c ,.je,::':.it:'15, dur:itlg Y'-hich Lir.'invci;tigLtor wilI have to
verj.fv that info:nntion g1'ren during a general sesslon is acculate'
I;nrJ..r- Tirle 18-350r1 of fhe fe,.l+;-:1. sla;J -f(';' eve)'y doc.unent' statement o:: not€ re-
1.:',r., lrr l'l Lr i('t;lriil.()n 1 ::f n rj. l:tr*s:i ri,::it lzt lrt::;tt:d ovcr Lo the dtrfensg c{rltngel upJir a
i..ci-.!(.\rr oi cliscovcry af:ter rhc Lestimony ls glven ln trlal by fhe rtltnesS. This
meaos
tilat- eYery pir.c<,r of pitper, a-1,..!- c"rSc a,r{ ir:.:t:on,t1 notes, mintrtes r)f grand.iury te'stj.ogny'
pic:,- triai::i, tal)e recordinils under fitle IiI, or recorded statenenEs_which pertaln to
the witnessrs testinony *.r"t be turned in. Basieally, by obtaining Title l-8-3500 na-
terial-, the defense aLtorney is l-ooklng for l-nformatlon favorable co the defendant and
informaEion that vil1 help him prepare for the cross-examlnation of the witness' In
sun, when intervierrlng a aritness the i""."aig"aot "ioufd take extretse care in taklngof-
no:es. lie shout4 be irgani.zoc! in his notetlking, and he shortld oinizrize rhe amotttlt
rrol(:i ;ai.;,*;r,
Title 18*3500 does not apply Uo the states. Hoveverr a recent Sullgue Court ease'
!I'rq: v, Marylg:r..<l , does app1y. in Brady, the CouTt ruled that poliee-offlcers have to
cuin-o.r"t-c-o-1{6 defense attorney cflfffiaterial that dny tend to establlsh the Lnno-
cence of the defendant, Investigators should contact their'state-rs attorneyrs office
vrhen they encounLer sdch informatlon or materJal.

A conspiracy case itself ls usually initiated vhen an accornpllce to a conspiracy

sllrrt:l c"operaElng, or.?rcurnst! or "rol.ls.tt An importaot thing to bear in rnind is that
aa ln.io:lrant wtll-at flrst t'roll" only part !ray. The investlgator nusE work wlth hitr
unti.l he turns over 100 percenE of the infornatlon he has. To ensure that the con- go
spirator-turned-inforna.ri i.r giving all his informatlon' the agen!-musL constantly
ouc an<i corroborate portions of ct't" story as they are revealed' The same investlgators
should patricipage Ln all the debriefing se:rslons of a Particular witness. If these
same officers are not avatlable, the debriefing session should be postponed' The rea-
son for this ts Lhat every tlne the witness ls interviewed soneone lrho has talked to
hlm beiore can evaluate tire new lnfornatLoo for consistency and accu"acy. When.a new
investigator debriefs the wltness, the nltness may be reluctant Co tell everything he
knowg.

A statement taken from a ltitness can be recorded in a case rePort narrative or as

a fornal statement. The latter is the better form slnce lt tl,es the wltness down to
speciflc slatemenLs. If possible, tape recorders should be avolded ln taklng notes or
statemenrs unless the suspect caonot read or write' lf possible, the Prosecutor should
be kept awa-* frorn the debriefi:rg si.nce his in'"'olvenrent ac this point rnight make hlm
v':lnerable Eo being ca11ed as a defense wieness.

PROSECUTION

;r.f!er preliminary lnvestigalions have been conducted to corroborate witness eesti-

uony and the elenrenEs of a conspiraey have been identified' the invescigaEor should
take the case rePort and lhe r,rifness to the prosecutor. The pro-secutor can then eval-
uate Che case fil.t: ald the witness to determine lf the case can be taken to Lrial' The
i.nvestigator then undertiakes whatever further invesligation and documentation is neces-
s:rry to prepare the case for prosecution.
Each ind.iviclual in the conspiracy shouLd be l<ientifted and given a numerical or
sinilarJ-y coCed identiflcation to facilitat.e graphic demonstretlon of his invoLveoeni
in r-he conspiracy. The relationshlps of participanrs should be shown on a flcw chart
or llnk charC. This wil.t nake the nembers' the associatlon, and the hlerarchyjury'easily
discernible to the c<1se iqvestlgalors, the prosecutcrs, and gventueUy to the

L64
 'i!1iit.'11:)1 tor .:lrrper-.iLi.rn uiri r:lr:ri.l i.rl,rl. lon br:twr:en ca64 inyr3Ltgato.rs and.
. prosecutorr:,i
!'ire thcoriic.e
11.eC
can br: saici Eo exist in al..l casss, these factors are even rnore
.irl1;i'iF-.-tt'tl. irt c..:;{i; in'rr.'1.,, i1,.', -.;_1.r..i.-,r;- i,,.;. l.r;..ruse
of the aatlire ,:f f l,ese ;,r;;;'.,;-'-
ti;;"_^":y
cr.s'.lsr the orc:;cq:trfor aird c:'r;e i-,I,.'ij.jtiirJiorj r,,:oc sta:: rrorl:i"1;
s;t.alles of the case. The invesliqal()rs rmrsi fuil-.y und*fstand..vhar
cr,1.ti,.;-;r
c\)l!;r)i.r.-' . pros"fCrii-i()n. '"\,..,. n-..,... iura.ish r.n.:irly riun:rar.j.es is needed i.ur a s;urd
vci;t.iii,,,. i:.i i,,, Lli'' i,fr):ir:.:.,, i .; . :r-,.1(1,r'1,, r,;l.trr r_ti1.Ln i-tt re5ardi:li; the. On_goin:4 :i.r.-
Lu,*:t, er::lu;rti, tlie case ;i.C Ci_
reCL Lile ltrv.:lJLj.jrrl.q:rt; fo:,\rilr.tl !hrrl-,iri:.:aS tl:1i_ i:i..r,::V iu,:.:l rerluifC
inr'+st: irirlitlon. ,\i1,.-i.C{rlt,i!1,,, :r jr11.l i:r,t::pi.ri,-.v c:r.;irs ,r..,c,:osJ.trt".sC.fong mOr(,JnfOrrr:ar:i<rn,tad
pru:ecrtc.it-rn, Che invesr- i,1.-r,-i.'.; ilusit eni.;iire f ilat che prosecuLor. an,J r.:-itclr;elic
abreast of the case so that case ncmenirrm ac the prosecutoriar is c_orrstinlly k.::pc
level is noi lost.
Because of courE stip'.tlations that a sdspect Gust have
i'nvestigator must have a caJe fully developed befote arrestlng a speecly tr1al , the case
ti'"re oi presentation to the gran,l l,.,ry folindictrnent, the casethe suspect. At the,
reguJ'ar crja1. .\- c:.:l--::hould no: be pte;enLed to ihe grand jury sirould'b.;.";';;;;
neede'l work cen be h'nd1ed b::tween arrei:t and,the triai with the thoughc th"ri
daie.
lilrenever Llc)$sible, local iina' sEaic enf orcemenL agencies
splr:at'y cases ErJ.ed jn feder;rl courts. There shouL<l seek to have con-
er:al prosecuiion of consp,iracy. aCvant-a;e"
"ru "u.ri.ol '-" ir, r.rtifi"i.r-i"o_
'9" -!$trLs 4^' sL

o Federal laws dealing with conspiracy are very good tools to use
such e case. For exernple, it has been mentionia trrat'o in
tion .f an acc-onpli.r:b/wiEness is necessaqy, anrJ hearsay is"orroioir_
:rcnissi.ble.
o cases on big traffickers can be made solelt on consplracy wi.thor.rc
h:rving to make unclercover buys,
a 'rhere are very ribera I jor.rer rult*si, alrowlng prosecuiors t' unile
several distinct ch;rrges of crine ln the sane indictmenE or pro6ecu-
tion.
o The rules oi evidence are, similarly, very l.iberal. For i.nstance,
'the prosecution can io[rocluce previtus naicorics arrests as evi-
dence of the defend;lntrs knowledge of illegal conspiracy.

o The selection o! juries is typically better in a federai courL.

o Federal atrthorit.ies have better resources. for prosecuting Ehe case
and guarJing vi.tnesses.

conspirac;v cases provicle tiLe narcotics investigatoi wiLh :r powerful

cooL urith which and effective
to ptirsue the nart:t)Eics trafficker. 'fire investigator, hcue.zer, shcurrl
reccl;riize some of the aspeces of conspiracy cases that pose sone
Lo the investi-gator-. I'larcotics supervisors rnay be oriented degree of difflculty
tttl toward !a.rgi.,g case results
,:tly by the number of arrei;ts, but also b,r, the axlount of narcotics seized. The
pub Iic and narcotics enforcetLent
i,eop]-" ar. .,..u,i:one.C io read.rng about large narcotics
'leizures ra0ging into the nillions of tiollar:s in street-price valrre" lt nay be d.iscon-
certing to sone Eo ectntrast such <{rainat j.c si)i.rrures i,ritir cases wler-e no n.,.rcotics v:r:re
seized and only ttro or three trar"fickers vere convj.cted. conspiracy cases also tend to
move sl-orv1y and involve long-tern invesLiqations. Thev
tions, aod sometimes-they becone disjointcd. The nar.otics often are part-tiure investiga-
tyFe'J of cases should be aware of ;hese problems so that he investigator worklng these
si-oned' The narcotics cr:mmander, on the olher hand, should does not hecome disillu-
apPropri-ate temperament and capabilities to work select individuals who have
on conspiracy c3ses,

16s
r65
I67
l6B
 cI{tPTnR r ri;TrlEN

o? ti.nl AND 0l't.tar riERI1,.\TTVES

Opiunr derivatives refer to thos

is a natur.r p,oJ,,"t crerlved r'o", ,r.r,r'i!li:idill'iil:"::r::*f"iil:r"i
the gther hand, are purely synthetic 3lis;;:rl'l't
possese addlcrive l'abiritles similarar,rgs (.oai";";-;; petroleum derlvatlves) qh"c
oirrum conraias over 35.rit.i"iJ"l'^iir."n.;;;;;i;*'1"a"o.i,"1 ,r"r"oti" ;;;;, powdered ;

opiun. Ilorphine, coderne, ;;;;;i,,;;'-;;o;;;;;",'i"lilir*

";;;;;;;"-.il"I. 25 percenc by welghc of rhe
imPortant' The remainlng arr."roiJ"'occi,r and narcerne are rhe rnost
neconic acld. onry i" ;;;;; quantrtres:ii"Iriiirarron wlth

ehernical. confi'gorat,?r:
.r.""33l"i.llril'il llr" fall inro .* u.".*.
natio*allv.
. ;;;;
t he ro rrne r ;:: f;ftilfltrtft#:":"jJy rffi.rf:;ri*"1:
-oplum-alkaloids
Ar-kaloid* jg lh" i;;;;;-s*;n ,Jii.G'i"'llil;;r".-irilii;;i:"
rhev be ieadilv col::rt:d ."-fa1igi"!-u,ri"i.o".;:',{h; *, can
or incernarlonal conrrors. trre'i;iii"ing is are nor subjeer to,.nat10na1
a rlsr ot il*a,19+dq fpgnd iri optum:. ,

I rr .,!:.

PHENA}ITHRENE
BENZyLrsoqurN'LrNEs
l

rtrGi".' "' '' '

qd;_s
Apocodelne T.....,
Apooorphine .
Codaolne The Corydeitg,,,,' .',
Codeine
Cotarnine :i
CrypLopine
Codeinones
Gnr.r ;cop ine
-
Desoxycodelnes
Hydroxycodeinones
Hydrocotarmlne .

Lanthoplne
Yethylurorph irne thines Laudanidlne (I-Laudanlne)
llorphine Laudanise
Morphlnols Laudanosine
i.lorphol
Meconidlne
llorphoLhebalne
Narceine
Neopine Noscapine (Narcotlne)
Pirenyld i hyd rothebaine
Oxycarcotine
Pseudomorphine Papavermine
Pserrdo thebaine
Thebalne
P;rpaverine :

Protoplne
Thebainone Rhoead ine
'lhicod ides
Tarconine
Tritopine
Zanrhaline (papaveraldine)

169
HNROIN

available <ler:i'taEive of'

iieri-r in! .Jr ll:acet'7lrl,rr:pi'.it'.',r. is prob'ru1y "he -rnolt ispotent saidl to be ooe to four thou-
norpiiine. Icorph-ine, which is derlved from Ehebaine'
tts use in
u.nd ti*"" the Potency of rnorphlne, but its hlgh level of toxlcftY Precludes
-ii.:l.cii l-af:ic.
ilttre heroin Js a La:-;t,le,.ss white por,rder. IlLiclE heroln nay Ysry
ln color fton
ieft frrrrn the uanufacturin$ lrliesli or the
wirltc to t.ii-.:"r trriac,r:t br'('ar,Je of irt!ur:lr:i.eo
or sugar' HerOln ls
preiten-ce of diluents and adulCefants o" food coloringt coeoat
"o"t.] ftli,!::|:1":^.,
solci tn varlous conraj.ners,
]liir'il"ii#:,
such ." gi"""""e
-;J"i"ra"a"p.p", stanP and coln enve.lopes'
i""r".' _H":oiL f .T T:i1::_:"*1":l.t:. *t
";;;i.;;
;:";;";;ii-'r"'io";;"i.;;"-;;-;iliit r--
white.
3-^!aa^6
rt ls the adulterants tbat
rlro ovrDheoira acetvl
acetyl
sive
gfoupg inpart
groargs
;r;;;";.;"ili."-"r""i"ri-."J For instaace, the exrraneoire
a vi.negar odor t'r Nexicsn her:oirr. "otor. ". ;
pure heroin is rarely sold on the street. A slngle dosage un{t of heioin nay
rveigh abour 100 r.g, usuaily containi;;;;;;il;t. tetrllen tto io ten Percent of heroln'
brrt usual-ly a,.rerlging about ftve percint. To lnerease the bqlk of the rnaterial solcl to
the addict, diluenrs are nrl,xed wlth the heroln in raElos ranglng ,tron_11n3 to one to as
rnilk', and qUinini are- among.the diluents
much as ninety-ntne to one. Sugar, powtlefed
pricee
used. A bag of, heroia uray be sold to-u;eiu-for $i to $i0, alttrough' obvlously'
;;;-;yp;";i.';igi;;-;itiu,dosagewl11varyfrorrreg1ontgreg1on.
Heroin is the most widely abused ngrcotLc because its onseE, of
actlon Is very rap-
id and produces inLense euphorta, Tolerasce ievelops ."piafi,.re3ulrl*9-f31u"1r"Sff '

and'peychlc ilepen-
larg,er quantltles to satlsfy tfre useils'"tivfng". !!To"g Physlcal and.grailually Progigss
dence also quickly'develop. Users t"y-t"gi"-i!'snlffing-teroin, get a qulck-
to 1nJecrlng lr under the top layer ol ttl skln wlth a lyrtnge ln order.to
ttis pracli;;; krt; as "skLn pofpingr" leads eventually to
er, more intense reaction. t'nainlintng."
j,ntravenous inJectlon or

When heroin is rnalnlined, the lnitial feellng is one of lntense exhilaration aod a
t?rush.'t first eflotional reaction 1s an easing of
tingling sensation, koown as a The
off, the user
tension and relief from fears or anxiety. l'lhen Ehe tilttlal elation wears a Pleas-
begins to t'nod out, " as his senae percePtions becone dln' The drug Produces
ant. tranquil state of lethargy and drowslness whlch lasLe for several hours.
belng nade-ir
I"lcst diacetvlurorphlne produced today comes from clandestine sources' illega1ly or,dl-
so-called kirchen 1aboracories. Th. ;;;; materlal, opium, lsharvust' The semi-purified
produced
verted from legitimate stocks 1n countrles rvhich permit iis
Generally, the oPer-
morphine alkaloid is extracted and "."u..aua to diacetylnorphlne' , ofcen are injured
ators of these clandestine laboratorte"-"t" .ot skillei cheurlses and
sone kngwledgeable
by fire or explosion or are poisoned by benzene fume9.-'However, purlty'
oputuaot" succeed in produclng dlacetyirnorphine of hlgh

A.n- acceptable 6rade oI opium contains betr"'een nj.ne

percent and fOurteen percent -
(1'000 graars) of
anhl,'drous norphine, Based on an average of ten percentt'one kilograrn
opiun yields 100 grams of morphine. if,"r.r"tu, ien kLlograms of oplY" vlll yield one
;li;il;=;;"0;;; io.pr.inu bese wtrich ln turn 'itt vioto, theoreEicallv, 1'22 kilosrams
;;;;;" which rnight oecur during the
,! - -t-^-:
chemical ^^1 transforna-
+-o-eFarna
:;';:::\:i.ii'it"."il;;;r";;;
;;.:::= ili;."t;';-"r'""1it"";"-;;;;i", ryield
t in. l.D
it'"o'I.ica1,vield of 100. P"'lu"l:-l:91tT:::
^6.i 1

,,'oi-i."a, a maxinum of gg.5 percent. The clandestlne oBera-

es p"i"unt vield. usualrv, the herorn
ii- *L^ La*a{

;;:";,:;;;;:.;ii;1;":;*"=il;";";;;"';;'l;;;-;l rrorn cire incomprete chernicar re-

-L - !-^^-il
-t1--

-l'o-'i aa1 ro-

,llo',llu'i;=;;:'i";;";":;";;;;;-;y-;,;;ei"-'"".r.ing
";";;;"";;s groupings" al.so enit u o"tv Pungent odor slmilar to
^r^
--t-! I ^- F^
:";;;.: "acetyl
Viietl;Lr

170
 Due to iEs addictive liabilitles.ln sna]| herofh is cop{ucive lo.illluelons
wlth other conpo'ents' The peddl'er dllures nrsdoses, s,rpfiy $trh lacgoee,j ruannose,ogir6l:.,
nitol, then adds adulteraats such as quinlne, pro".irru, acetophen*aiar.i,*,. .

enhance the bitter taste of the mixturu errd conceal.the eaffe{ne,,tb

lack of ireal .he!oln,...gtlret.
adulteranEs may lnclude barbiturares, rnethadone o.-"ibn.tr"i3esr, r.

acd food co!'or:j'r-'g to ti-,eir heroltr as ao idenLifying tiadernark. See? tf€flle{ers"aISo.

the final user containing n' more than five perceni oi :,lt trequently reafhe.g,
qrrantltatlve darerrnination ot heroin ""cu"r
ar"i*iiiJJrplrne,'b*t r,tre
in . ;.;; nor affecc .cr.inrh*11 r:,abar*!y.r.
""iru;; ,

. - Frlt the quantltatlve determinatlon of heroin in-a sel,zu."

lnal 1labi1ltv, this data is usually desired do"s'*url.'u'i.p";.#t;-'
quantltative determinatlon of varlols diluents,uy -fhe+ :
""""oir:";;;;;;ii,l?it"*"s...
present suppries rnformar{.on as ro the possibre .a"ii"r""ts, and 1o*rr*ttte' that ?cly,be
irricit
used in tracing possible connecclons beiween "o,ri.". rr.*i-"Je;d;;#a#;
turers "r.""a-""uers, wbol;;;i;;'a.r-rd.nenufai-, ,
. Tt.tn".tlt years' the vast majori.ty of lllicir heroln
ported from llexico' Typically, the heioin that narcoiic 1n thls count--ry ha" r.*o;
cotrntering is Mexlcan brown heroin. enforcement offlcers are €D:,
-Thisto
mountain areas of northwest Mexlco close ""ti"u opi;;-i";;i;;;il i.,in" will
:

ican sources or supply have usualr.y "ranae*iin. conversion r"[or"il.l*j],, or"i-'

lty' esEablished conmunicatlon lines,u""" ,,on-";;;i;;;;,;;;";il ,ie]ii"..ronar ebrl:
ingenuity, and haid rrork necessary.for the suc-..:
cess of the European trafflcker have not-hlsrorical].y
border' r't was, and scill is true, tuat. anyon;-;ilt'g."ed ue"r, r"fui."Jl"ioia the, llextcan
and an autonofii-=""T'illl"
ro r"Iexico, obcatn drugs, and rerurn ro the iinired sa.i.J-J"-"-ul.rl.."*,-**''-i.,*.]^'=.-
Eeyond that which orlglnares in,Turkef.lnd
is also cultlvated in the Far East. Mexico, a certaln percentage of optull,
A considerable amount of opium Ls illegaLly pro-
duce'l in Thatland,-Burna and Laos by h1t1 trlbes
angle' There ls also evldence that opium 19 cultiva.; in ttr" area known as the GoldenTrl-, ,

the anount of narcorics frorn Far Eastern sources 1;;;;;i"i'aiil.. uowev€r,

the total sold in the united states. i" tiought-;JT;-;-"J.ri"s;oalj. part of.
seized in the unlted states origlnated-D.rin;-itto,-r""" lhan r"r, p""""rr-r of the heroJn
corne frgn thr.s area was of hlgh purity.
in sJuthea"a-e"iu. However, herplnn that dld
Lrr6L qtrq

Although the problem of heroln remains serious, the

this country has leveled off over the-last rate of heroi.n seizures Ln
severar. ;";;".
in avallabiltty of heroln drrring the latter harr ot"is7e. There was aleo-""i.=i."ir.
itrdicrtor used to measure the The purlty of herol.n ls an
purity of heroin scized ln theavailab'.lllty
united
of rhis narcotlc. Durlng lgi5;-;;;"'";;";"
a"".".""i-by about on"]nutf-of a percent,
fron 6'6 to 6'1 percenr. By L977, thestaies
purity level decreased to five percent, the
lotvest in seven years.* This a deciease 1n avallablrrty-oi-aipii"r*a"1:
Percent' credit for thls should ",.g!."cu
primarlly be given to narcotlcs enforcenent efforts.Lnterl
this countrv, ancl the opium poppv eradicailoo
i.ogi.r-being jointly carrlej'"ii'i=r"ini"
llexican governmenr and rhe uiug-inrorcenenr eaiiii"a.rliorr.*
Heroin is one of the most potent analgesics of the
deslrable side effects such morphine derivacives. The un-
"" n.u""", vomiting,
by morphine, usually do not occur with heroin. and constilation, which are produced.
effects are minima].and it produces a hlgh degreesince-lt- acts very guickly, i"te stde
oi-"uptorra, ihus maklng lt thsdrug
of choice among addicts. Hiroin addtcts are difflcult io treatrand show a hlgh lncl*
dance of relapse after apparent cure.

*Drug Enforceraent Acirntnistration,, Dr-ug Enforcement (Dec, , LglT), u.s. oefartaiint

o f .luscice, hrashington, D. C

77r
 f"a:Sg!gle_of Heroin Use. Because the narcotj.c investigatof ffequently eones into
c.:nr"Fffishou1dbewe1]-vet3ed1nthephys1ca16}mPton'sEhatac-
conp;rny r.rse cod addirtioa, AL flrst conE,act, only one sjnirptQm euch ae snlffllng or ab-
normal tearing may call attentlon to the user. The lnvestigator shpuLd then watch for
aCditional symptoms, such as dilated pupils, interinlttent aopearance of,googe fLegh,
deepbtee!iiing;indextremirr:es-:].essaesg-.
I^/hen exarnining the pupiLs of the eyes, qhe investLgatot should rem€arber that pupll
sjzes vary J.n lndividual-s, Thc puplls should be exposed directly to ligtlt and studied
carefuLly. The user should then be told to close hls eyes. :Aftcr ghe eyes are cLosed'
tirne Ls allowed for adjustment. Upon opening the eyes dlrecEly intd the s6urce of
light, a user's pupils will flrst be dllated, wi.l1 then contract, again dilate, and
renain dilated. Thls reaction will occur sometlme after 24 hours from the last'in*
jeccion. Prlor to that tine, there may be noticeable pulsat{on in thaf'tha pupil will
tend tc d.ilatc and coatr,rci: r.r1'eatedly.
The examinatlon should also cover the usuaL areas where inJectlons are made:
anns, hands, lower extremitLes, calves, thlghs, and groln. lhe lack of tnjeetion marks
on the arms, when accompanied by conspicuous withdrawal s)rmpton.J, necessitates an ex-
amination of other body areas. The narks nay appear ln a continuous llne of scar tig-
sue overa vein called a "track.'r' Repeated lnJectlons result in hbrd raised t,i$sue or
a promine:rt pink swelllng. The user may aleo alternate injectlons from one arm to the
other in different places from bicep to \rrlsts to avoid obvlous scar tlssue.
Scabbing ls the resulE of using non-gtertle or dul"l equipnrent and the lack of an
antisePtic on the skin before and after lnJection. Generally, the scab wlll appear
withln Lr.ro days and remaln approxlnately ten to fourteen days, dependlng upon the
cleanl.iness; of the user. The fresh scab is sma1L, usualLy sltghtly smaLler than the
he;rd of a conmon pin, round in shape and in the center of ralsed pink tissue approxi-
maEely the same diameter. It will be similar to a pirnple in appearance. A clumstly
usecl hypoderntic needle wlll leave a rnark in the center of ralsed Elasue frequently ac-
companied by black and bLue discoloration in the surtounding area. Occasionally, a
scab will have an elongated appearance. This Ls the result of using a dul.l, benr or'
barbed hypodermlc needle or lnjecting at an angle.
The age of a seab is determined both by its color and the appearance of the tissue
around the perineter. A fresh scab is a light plnklsh red and the surrounding tissue,
if ralsed, will be pronounced during the first and second day followlng the injection.
The third and fcurth day the coloring of the scab is more orange and the sweJ.ling has
subsided conslderably or may have vanlshed. As a scab ages, i! will darken tn col-or.
At three to four days it v111 be orang€r; four to six days a l{ght brown; seven to nine
days brown ancl slighcly raised from the skin; ten to fourteen days a dark brorcr,
raised frorr the tissue around its perlmeter, and flaklng of whl-te dead tlssue may be
seen. Tirere are tlmes when several- scabs w111 appear to be the same age. Two conclu-
slons may be drawn. The user rnay be making several daily injebtions, or the uber l
mis'sed the vein on severaL atfempts before he finally succeeded

A <iifferent type is the user rrho repeatedly injects in the same puncture, which'l-n
time develops a large s,::ab and raised hard scar tissue, usually round in shape and
called a ttcorn,tt Generall-v*, there are one, two, ot three such rnarks. Extent of use
anC tine of most recent lnjection can be estirnated by the color of the scab and ap-
pearance oi the surrounding tissue, whether it is hard or soft, pink or dark.

Addictiq!-. It has been denonslraced that anyone can becone addicted, if he takes
opiales regulatly for a feu veeks, Even anirnals c::n become addicted. However, certain
kinds of people are more IlkeIy to becohe involvecl rvith herofn than others under sirni-
lar Life situations. Certain itrdividuals hav.: a low frustrlElcin tolerance and great
depend'ence needs. Impulsi.ie, irngEu.::. lncli.,,i,iuais are likely candidates. l,lany are
"no'*"'()t:i.:i::-ed, seek-1ng ttre i:lnediattl "higil" r.li.Lircrrt regard to future consequences.

L72
 scne have a character disorcler thal permits
deviant. behavLor,wi,Lhouc, guilt feerlngs.
a reasr,uar)ly mtrrt,ro, sLable p.r",.,, io"o".*"jai.rial-.ir..i_;;;":;;,of,:
'-iircul.t
habilit;rtion are nrrch better than those of rh" i;;;;re, hls re:,,:r.,:,.
ic y. unstable,addlprive pegsonal.r:,

iiome reet:nt srr-rdles rrf hrr.otn .-irrd other narcotJ.cs. ,,ldt.rr" alrrt
to o!;ter"'s by 'Jrug users' They nnay i" ;;.;jnr'
gether:; rhey rnay p:r:r.icj-aate i.n a reanr"ir"-"r;i*"i"i'.t,"y-nly lor-li oi,-Jiog,U"i
es.,-to,,echool .f,6-,-
cernbers of lne sane famlri'. Thls cownunity
or olher g;;;p acci.vity-.rogeFhEr; they gtr4y,trg,,:1,.,,
nonuser to learn about narco.ics from of-te-ai""a".
iite.!st grov{des iehe,.oip'r,turr,iq}{fgir, ,.r,l
more easlly.oveEcone, and.,the appeal of "o,nuon rnltlal:{e11 ot the <lrug J,s
are rvpicallv "infecrious'r for only the .r,p.ri*".. i.s lnade credibl.e. Hsroln:usg1s, .
.

heioin use is when the hablt rs mosta_13r1tiveiy shcrt ii*J--ri"-iir"i'y""f

j-ikely a"-i"*"piead,frou, Lrie user ,to or"so of.,
ilie explanation for this short period of ror."tio,rri*ri, a rioiiijder.:,
n:i'ir u$er he(:o$:r1; r0r.a1lv actdi.cted, ;rnd i" that tr. :p";gr" Qefo;e .t6E .
grr)up' AFrer becoming a confirmei addict, vhi.r-e-h.-i--*irrr-i,r,;;;"h.,;ii-ir"
-',iu-."tiII'tic" gsuql:socf4L
.

drops o'1s or schoo1,. quits.work, ;"-l;;;;; o*.u.in ;;;;;"€_, .lre usu+rly,

his tiure satisfying his addicticq. once in;;;"=;;;';pual,friendsl and ipends
thls m,cde-of llfe, he.racq'lresrnewooer,of:ri;:
ciates wtro rend ro be like hirnself , ;;;-ril ;;;;";;." 4sso*
are no lo4ger e6poaed,, ,.,,,,, :r.,,,..
. The negative effects of heroin addictlon are numerous, both in its dlrect
direct
l
impact on the bodv and ir ttt*-""i;;;;";';.ri"'ior,".ro
formerlv fert rhar rhere-were socrery. Arrhough"oa,i*" it wae
has produced evidence to indicare "o Jii"".-;;;;il
rhar live.r;1-#-;{
,irlt""n effacts oq hh6.bqdrnirebqerch
use, rn addition, heroln reduces hunger qesult.fron ex.esgi.17q,befqlCI
and thir;r".;i.;;,;;;_i;;=il:s".re"..,detryF.,. _l__..,,
drati.n and/or malnutrirLon. H..oi.,,-throu;h-ia"-"i.i""
depresses the ecrivitv or the adrenai <in the o"ninii i"ruoos systenr
mones and decreas.ing the actt'rity of "oa "Ix ;ilr;;;-;;riri."i.Li=lii"l"lr"oi,on
r"proiiliiii or,hsri.r,,
lcrds ro a reductio. or el.imination ofrhe "y*."*,as a,whole, Addl*tion..;
sexual ir.-r"".';;;-;.;;rityl"*iir"*
,

impotent' and fernare-s cease ao **rr"a.,r.t"l--itr"",'iii""on"upt bssone,,,.,,.,,,

a "sex fiendt' ls entirelv lo"ort."l. of tir. heroin addict ae.,
under the irrii,l"n.*-"i.h;i"ii, illirratvid$er
;:Hi'i,':ilil:."1i""i:lx::*" aod he
'""o".""io;;ilili
'
;;#$;luii ,. {s,:, ,,,
,,*nmneeg,s,.,,.:
,1. .. , . .,, . .r,.:
the.heroln that he purchases has
sometimes
dict reallv is sacisfylng onlv leen:"cut" so *ariy ri.qes,g;;:6;"*-ill'
rti"';"""Ji"-r."ii.;-ratrrer
d1e habit" is one ro wni.In th; ;;;r satisfiee ttan r,lroii-h*ti*. ,A |nee1,,
trrs,
li.ng" for narcotics, and rhen uy rn:*"ii"*-irr"iif neeJe " rhe qecessary,!,huit-.,
through
;il; . uareriaL, evrR though
contains11tt1eornoheroin,tou"Li..,";;il;;;i"gi""r--J"";;;:'FvEul .. ir.
!$!3:avai' Addicts often cite fear of withdranil sympronn es a. rgagon er' i;;11,
tin',ing;;;sil bur this is prouaiiy-,,"i-ir,"^";i;";;;;, . I
the drtrg provl<les are enSovable, and.it"rJ;;;; The preasanr ssnsarions wtrtch
thefi: "real world." Narcoti"" ffi;"I.""n" frorn rhe u4pJeas{r.rlnep',of,. ,

;"-;;;;;"i;;i; Iaai"trr,g
and the two tvpes of dependence"."
.n thc user. "* ir,uy-lie physicaliy,
work tog"rt". I" i.iir.tee.the-trq1a-6-iir.-irr.;drqg
has ..
Withdrawal
. - profes$ion, ynries or the .rbstinence,syndrome-,
syrnptom-s
ical -aependl;;-;-;i.-"rou.it.
a tern,more ofqen used by ,na.;;O-
in inr:.:rsitf
Hirnrnelsbach anci Srnal-1 conducted exie""i;; or i,ricJci*..lrg"a. :;.goct6pp.,,:
drawal s)'mptoms at Ehe unitcd stares-Governnsnr ;;;;a."r,-r".o opiate addictio11 an{ w{t}r* ,-;,.;,,,
<!oc r'rs'lescr ibed a.d -rirt H""pii"i-i;-;;fi;;.rl"iur,..,nioy-,,,,ihe;,,
carego.i"uJ aru,rai- forlows
"no;;;;;"". :

L73
 :\t()DER-\TE 'IAR(ED
I
thase (When these eigns (Wheu these signs'
- (hheo' uhege
It*.o
lsi gns
on1,u
are pfe.senf-) ar:e a<lcled) are added) are added)

Yeruoicg Loss cf appetlte Deep breathing Vouiting

Eyes trtaler nilated pupits Fever Di,ar'rhec
Nose Luris 'f ri: rr:o r Tneorrqla llr[lght loes
Goose fl-esh Restlessness' ' Convulsions
Sneezing
Perspiration Rise in bLood
ressure

Heroln wiEhdrawal symptoms reach thelr peak of geveltty at' 24 t-o 36'tOurs
foal$t-
,ir:g .;]rJ"..i".-;i 6i1i.:g us€. rtren begii'.o,.r""ri"e arrf .1er1lt :::::
3I^11i:X;,,
"nervousn8ss"'ans ,*1-
L:rJtic signs are oveT tn seven to ten days. SyBptoss llke lnsot6iet et-add'Lcts
may contlnue for any;he." i.ot stveral months to;a fgart-
Haay
irritabilit)'
aiso <lescribe a periodic cr:avj.ng for narqoti.cs vhtch may perstsE f,6r'tec to tlven'ti
years. Tt is this contirrued gravlng ioi-t.teotigs"the abstinence Syndtooe';*that'@kec
atldJctton so rlifficult to treat over a long perlod of tlme'

Non-narcotic treirCEent of acuce t/lthatrawal can be acconpllshed byalkelotdsSyBteEatically

for "
treaEing eech syoptoo with non-narcoti"-t.af..tlons (e.g', beltr'adonna
sto-tqaeil'"t"pp*;'nild hyPngtigc al{
na.gal di.scharge, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, aod
for
sedarive-hypnotics for nervou$ness and'insouria; afid non-nateptig analgp€ica bonq
and muscte aehes). Durlng the withdr;#:;;i;i'-"""""" to gsychologt€+l
: -counsellng';
-lt,
anclpeer.supportarehelpiul. ,'',t,t' ,'i' ,,t:.'
Treatment. The dicturu, "once an addiCt, alvays an- addict" EAy or nay^191,be-l pet
L---!.. Li-^> *a*alrJ I lf rf 'lali
Althoi;ffi:fr1'"..'"., procedures {:f
lh".h":ol1-illl:^i-tfl**3.:*n
.

:ilH::"#'ii'iill"i'I;; ;;;;;i;;
Ls"Lsro E^Y'rr:v'r\'v,^::"-;:;-;;-;;;";;
".*rn*niut* ;;;;'--iJ"-"iai:t*,F"'.*ne1lE::l:t11g*lf"
e'narcotic'.
prograsrs. A raethadooe ptogr"t consists of the s{bstitut:lon of nethadone' ef*
lllill notlce so euphorlc
for heroi:r.. If the patient on neEhadone- takes- heroln, he uses cyclazoclne'.whlch is
fect rrom it
recE from Dtssauut of
rL because vr cross-tolerance.
Lrv'D-L Another approach
a na/cocic antagonlsE, though not a oaicotic' If heroit i:r* tttcttt afttrlcyclazocine'
no
effect is noEed.

Iaking the addicl off heroin is not too difficult. Keeping hiu off is very
dif-
f ictrlt. lle usuallY needs counseling, Job trainlng, and other rehabilitative efforts'
The federal government and some states have clvil,conoritu-ent and voluntary
rehabillta-
narcotlcs arldict rehabilitation eenters &re coui;tg' into .ex*
tionPrograns.Manyn<rrerrarcoE1csaodrcErenaDIIlL4L*ut1Lg.E9 trelp ean be gtven
icr-cnnp
istence ar at rhe conmunl.tv level.
rhe con'munl.tY At these centers' the adilict seekiag
rchab ilitar.ion asststance-

liistorically, diacetylrnorphine, or heroin, rras first prepated- aad descgibed by tt*o

Eight years later in
E'glish chemi-srs, G.H. netke't and C.P. Al.der Wright in:1875. heating oorphlae rith
L883, a German chernist, O. llesse, also prepared the compound by
the Friedrlch
aceric aci,i. Diacetyloorphine was firsi'piaced"on the market by H' Dre-ssiir' naned the
Bayer
arrd Company of Elberfeld, Germany in 1889. One of lts ernployees'
Bhe ?lr{rg-to the
conpound ',Heroin." Dr. Dresse. i= g"i.taI1y crediced lritil iatroducing origln of the
inedical profession. There is no definite ii'rfonnatlon available sn the
t.:-iide uame ,,Heroin,', but t_t vas probably coined'by Pr. Dresser becaose its ssrall but
theroic rerediesr" 1,".r powerful
eftective close placed it in the class o'f so callei ttheroisch" aeang heroic, dyuanic
reinedies effective in srnall doses. irr. c".orgo word,
or pr)uerfuL.
Ironi.cally, heroin was first introduced by the Bayer CoopanySorne as a cure for opiun
and morphine addiction, and it sas claiined to be non-a.ldlctive'
cli'atclaqs did
chronlc heroia addictioa' but the
sarn the medical Ptofesslon about tlre dangers of

L74
 Profess{on ?as EoE recePtive to ttrese 'lrirniEgs. Fy }9r0 there r*rrr betweea
and 1'900'000 herorn a.liicts i-o rh; Dnited si"t.s.'-'riln 5qor@o
Acr in 1914, ghich restricred heroin oaaufacrur. ru" passale of the ltarrispg',r ,

connodityl.ut'heillicitaarcoticsmarket.',:-;__,---:.-:,
"oA
ii"trrb"ii;;:T.-i"iJi"e;iilile*;o
.,i
congress"asr€o.led the Narcorrc Dnrgs rrporr: *a ta,#*.,.I
:,:":.:j::,::::1
Act' rhar 1?t1:_:1":
iupor:ration or opium for rile
:""yf;;;;"=;; il;;;;;,io$;i'i-i|*:0ffi"fiffi;i
iio ei':Iiieiriaed doranstic io;r.ufacture of tta'ar.rl'be".ia*;" - -:-. r-T.,*s1+8. .:
place slncc,.'Ehat tture.; .Eki$+ 'l
rhat .iiJr:.].*ii$i.,,i
rh1 drus, proaucea .ilefor"tigii, -ili. ;!ilJj:?i .ffi;dfi&
;l"l:,.fft1^:"i::r:::i :,f ,,,".,"=-.,oi p;"iiiii;.;";i;riisi=il#I,iloiiXi;ffi;ff :l
lij.:l::..:l 1l: ilaryaror
:l::_:"1:tred all^sry9|1 +e dnrg .1, u"-"rir;"d.;; ii.lo"-i"iiil,
*t:.:.November 19, 1956. Stqce thit tine, h;;;i;-;;;;J; ;;
il.::rl:.::: :::j:::ll'""; ,T_",_11*''3,r.*,;;;F;;;;;""iT*"ti#ifitlT"i;;ffir"
iliTl,
tion; :l#:" :r;:1lt: :i1v-T,";;fu;;-;;;;";;";;;'i#;i#;
:?::: nanel"y, the Uoited Kingdoo
-T:1il and-gefgiun. :

qrTigR oPjuil DERTVATTVES

Norphine isi
{orphine is the nost rnporranr
Jnportant alkaLofa,oqlogfua,frorn
alkaloLd of,o
-rt bottr 6tr"l.tfrtt u$dl 'iliibit,r.
staodprint.
staodprinr. rt is the principar pu."""li;;;i;*f;4-"il;li*,.TliHl;.ffi
prlncipal phenantbr.enC ri*iio{d-of ooft-- amcrir-rt;lb *:.' *d.j-,.,.
;:iTil_,.'
::::"::_:lt::::-:":::1._:'_::.'lirt!.;^rn*o-nil
1r_gr,",;iJiil; ", ;;G;id"qtt;ii,sarrirus ii:, ,,
::'::*:::,*::l:.:::h^:,_:1"_:1,"f. rci"J.j-?n:*S..;l;;il"fiL$[illo..
::r:::*.*^o::It::.-of..l" fornlr{ne ,"recui", 1*;;-"i;.;;;;;#;1;"}}t#Ti ,ff;
llll:i."-1":.*:..:I
- :::1,1":1y:ii,,",,r}' u" ;;;';-;;; ;;;;:io:l;Li$
-r;i.ril"Iit;fi {"iI
;:::::-""1"9:h"'
January, 1974.
subsrances subjecr ro rhe c'"ii"iied ll'ilitl illl, ' :

codFine' or methyLated mrphine, has long beeri-the of qhoLce algot phystclans

as an ideal anrirussive and analgesic. -dtug
tbat possesses both the aoalgestc and .t {ere-is ""\y"rq*tiC-i.6;ly. aealleblil.,,
,or cfoerne,--i6diilr"*--'il
ttt.r"sii"t p.Ji"rti"r
codei:rr: is tare' nor do codeiue prepararions contribul.-;;.;ilil;;
health bazards- $inery-f iv" p"-"*tri of the' mrphtnci aiilpiiiil'i,r,
lptoa.r".r rn :the u"i,t€d 'states :{,g:r
converted inro codeine. The ernpirical conjfsuratron r
:,r,
-
unique amons the opiurn deri.vatives. or il; ;"dbi";-;;;ip";;;.fi
rte slt[ht
"u.""ii"-*I.;;;i"T Iti[L* bz gg1,.,
,.
deiae .1.re uot enhaced by increased dosage.
Dilaudid, or dibydronorphinone' is.another senL-slmthetic
First developed {n EuroP€r ii t" touted ddrirrall,ve of uoriihrle-
phine' Hopever' i't proved to be four tiDes to be aadiltroo.i-";:J;iiiot" for i*rri,
"n
n"a.Jls mrptrioe alttrotrgh tbe durat{otr
Lli acticn sas 'less- l{any heroin addrcts wtll"" seek
ilrie:; up' Dirarr<tid results fron the resrraxlge*tent Jiriuaia rhen tlrelr';;f";"*;1;
of *rtpr,ro"-.,oa-"a-anl-'aaaioo of eat-
al'vsts ipiatinun or palladlun) in the presence of hlailrogen.
:'ighly €":.,lcsir/e' and sor:e clanttestine operator" t"i.-iu"r, This reducttcr procbas {c
vhj.ieatien'!i.irgtoproclucedihyd'rcmrpt,iaone._-:-;*"!gVN'L &noln to utorr,-ffi;;; ii ,

o:<vcodone is another drug introduced as a substl.tute

fr*r EFe-TtEn-Lihreoe alkaroiJ, crreuaine. for norpbiue. .trt i€ dertved
_-;";;;;[n*",
&icEion occur w'irh thi-s drug' ind quire ofren both rorerasce aird ad-
ir rrill ie--uscd by tbe aaldi"I IJ*lLro
"i" ..;i"";il-'i;;*i;;ffTlrcoa"n-o.rr..
rs rnaiierea rLder
?H: fff;,.*;"S:"
@:gI?lggg rs a potent derivative of oxycodone ptrssesering trrice.tu" .o"ts*"1. #,
addicii:rg properries of its parenr- rt is uahe.J-"i-i"u;-ht;;;;lJ-*a"",.t" , ri

L75
f r;riie n:rne t'llumorPhan. " Because of its increaslng nisuse, Ehq cornpany no longer 'Pto-
rluc:es :i.rr i ei l.,tb I.c l'cr:l-.;, i.L[] tlir,':abl-et ()r oral. forms ha.ve noL, ac.irieved inuch accqpf;ance
;rnong 1:hvsi cia;rs .

I :l \
'\'\riL'

llat II as a stlb,qtiEuEe 'Lor nor:-

l'ret lr.'rrione 'a.::i d(r\.'.li.oped i.r'l r]e6111irrr cluc:i.nll LlorLd
piri.r:r.-:. lielhadoner s s j.de ef f ects may inciude llghtheadedness, dizzlness, drowslness,-
swe;rEing, coqsLipaE.ion, ltausea' vomitiog aod constricted pupits. Meihadone abuee w111
procluce very 1itt1e euphoria in a pain iree indivldual. Long term use Ptoduces toler-
ance, anri plrysical ati<lictiot. t,'ithdrawal s)'irPtons occur when.the drug is discontinued'
In Eacc, the behavior of bt,e mechadone add'ict is remarkably slnilar to that of the nor-
pl:ine or hero-i.i: eid-i.ci
t,e given orall1. or by iniecLion. In meEhadone naintenance Prog'rams'
Oi.ahr,-.t.,,,,. nr:ry
trovever' ic is orrly admini:iteretl orally, uliualj'y diesolved ln a cup of orange jrrice
srrbstit,.rte. A.tChoug)r nethadone's chenical structure ls differenL frorR morphine feriva-
tives, the phari:racoiogical effects are similar. Therefore, lt nay be substituted for
morphine, c:r lteroin, to forestall ehe onset of withdrawa'l sy4ptolls'
In the nethadone mainLenance program, the drug is usually given ln amounts equal
to Ehe narcotic use<1 (9r in gradually increased quintities until the addlctts craving
for tha drug is satisii.e<l) until srabilization is accomplished anC the necessary-main-
cerianceleve1isfoun,f.Unlikerrorphineaodheroin,methadonehasanextteme1y1one
ha1.f-tife in the hum.rn borly. Instead of requirlng an injection of heroin every four.
to si:{ lours;, a1 adclict Ci.iir s.ll.:l:;ily hi.s cr:.:lvi.ngs for a mr.reh lcnger period through 'ofal
methaclone, vh.icfi lasts within the body for 24 to 35 hcurs. Stabilization Ls usually
acconplished in four to five weeks.
fire:rddict htrs been sfabilized, he can be released from the concentrated ned-
Onc,.r
ieal- supervision which r^rithdrardal requires. He can then be lreated in a clinic set-
ting, recei.ving supporti\.'e help in the form of cotrnsel-ing and other P$ychotherapy. ,The
concept of supporEive help is an important factor in the roet\adone malntenance Program
first conc-ej-vecl by Dr. VincenE Dole and his wife, Dr. Marle Nyswander', of the Rocke--
fell.er: Inst:.iuce. Belicving thst drug addiction should be cqqsidered a disease reqtrlr-
j.ng continuous necl.Lcation, Dole and Nyswander advocate a mainbenance plan whlch in-
.'.roiour dal'l1y {,cses of the required anount of rnelhadone along wlth. intense suBport and
extensive rehabilication efforts. Professioqal and peer grouP counseli'ng should be
pro',ri.ded, alcng with vurcai:i.ona1 rehabllitaLion and employment referrals.

The g,cal of such a pr:ogram is to al1ow the addict to function. as a responsl.ble

rnenberof socie:y while oveicoming his drug needs. The basic, cgPc.eFt is corunendable,
although some criEics see it simply as a substitution me,asure rather lhan a cure,
since neEhadc'ne support cannoE easily be discontinued.
r\ per.jon regularly taking nethadorre r"rould need to injecE 4 very large amount of -
hrrcrin to reieive any euplr,-rrtc effects. As long as the addict recelves the.daily, Yln*
tenance 1eve1 dose, i'ru tiLl not cuffer withdrawal synPtons- .{lso' the addlct thoqld
not exhibit nrarked objecEive s}'lnptoms of being unr1er the influence of_a narcotj'c' so
/rfLar a period of time, the patient is permitied to take home,doses of rnethadot-re
that he need not visir ehe cl-inic claily. A container capable,of being locked ie pro'
virierl to the patient for the purpose of transporting the nethadone hqme' .

Participants in the rurjor rnethadone Prggrans are issued an identification card'

Any metha,3one dispensed for home use is labeled wirh the patientrs nane in<I
"i""ity
other percinent informatlon. llhen any po11ce ofticqr finds a Person siEh oethad,one
apparently obtained from a maintenance progran' he should first ver.ify that the susPect
has s valid identLficacion indicating his partictpation l-n a methadone program. lle

L76
 sir.'-rlc then determi.ne if trre mec'',clrrne
progran' He should al-so m.ke sure chacisthethe type and.aqount issn,ed !y ttre concerned.
metiradone is ln
,

labeied correct.lv. Flnallv, he shouLd dcrernine lf. rhe t:.r"" ;;;;; llnratner and
are consj.srenr L/iLh the locaLion aad business hours of the ".alit;;;;;;" io'I.r1".,
";;;{;;; ;;;;;;;
rf pr.:lin'i*ary invesrisacion ravtars ."t-;i;;.;o"i"r;:.1;-"fr;;.lT;"H;{b ;;;il;.
for further in.,restlgation. deraraed,,:,.

Investigarors can verlfy u in a nralllt€rffcd progran by :con*

"r"l::::i f::r"iparion
tacEing the concerned agency. verlfication
the only information which will be released of a patientts e".ot"irent-ri a progranirls
uy *"lir"aone clinlcs.' offloerg shoutd.not
interprer rhis as a reck of cooperarlon, as *l"y *iir;;";;t';;;";;";;:';#;;'t,
law fron diwulging patientl.""oi.]". :-''--'t."",;:,":4+: PrEvErtl oI
_*
,
rn adci'cion to rhe orange liqui<l dispensed to pati.ents in legitinate progra's, ..
meihatlone rnay als, be encouniered ias a"ii.a-or-;";;;.,
prescribed for home dosage. Hethadone TabLets and ponider are nevgr
" tabters o.'po;agr encountered
dicate a .probable violation. one cor'non urethadpneliiii".-i;:;il;nfte d il-";;I"i"iil .
isbaped srrh
rounded corners, and is double scored.
Occasionally, al offi.cer uay encountef, soneone whs exhibltsi"yrpt** j
abuse but clains to be on a methadon" p.ogrui.- ,f optate
maintenance Prosram mav have constrictid
I.ga*o" on a legpurmrtg...uEthadoae.- ;,.r.,
iupils.
objectlve svmptoms' such as puncture_r{ro""a", ne-srr"ura ..,,,'
"";;T;;;;;il]];sr.,
or.ati.oi],'I"piifii,',
yannrn;in
ecc' "-i."pli"I",
A suspect on the 'nod" or displayin-g orher'irre."*'itt.niir""il;:t"i;:il",&"rr.
to the police staclon for an exarainatro., ry --- ', j.. : :,.
" "o.eii.i"", ""p;;:;-,- ,,i;
rn cities, notably washington, D,c. anil Ner.r york €ityr irr* o'rf** of 'r.a*- *'"
some
done overdose deaths nearl.y equals lrr" r,,r*u.r l=i""i ffiil:,,.
done program expands in a paritcular city, i; "i-rr.i"i" overdose deaths.
.

i; cJi."'*.;i;i;-.;;;-it
an iccrease in ilLicit methacone and .n io"r*".a'Iu"i.l-;i-r"inJli.*""i".aorEcrty .ryill .se.e :

dearhsi

.'.....i..'.'.'.,:..
when a substance is suspecced of being
invescigaror shculd use the I'larquis Test (J heroin or'another-lpiln deriva5fve, ah.: :

cornbinaiioo of, sulfuric acid and .foraal-: "

debyde)foridentificat1on'recogni.zingtt'"ti-.---
rThefie1drestsarequa11tativeandnot,quancitat1veinrrature.
oFie1dtestsareon1yprecursoryandPresunPt1ve.
o Field tests cannot be used as evi<Ience.in eourt. Only .

testimony as to his analysis J.s vali.d as evidence. a.chenistrs "

A negative cest does not necessarily preclude .the presence

' trolled substance nor does a positive test guarantee lt of a eon-

rn utilizing the }larquis Test, the lnvesti.tator should carefully

ureak the vlal to
Prevent having a piece'f glass fly into_so"uon"tr.1."". The tester-"r,orrri;:':;;;n::'
clip' dipping it first lnto the sample of the suspecied
into the Marquis vial. A purple or vrolet color will narcoric and then dipplng ic
d;;;;;^;h;^;r;il".
derivative' when a positi.ve test is obtained in the lrarquis of an op{u*
should be used to identlfy the specific derivaii"..-'.- t Test, the nitric
------ acid Lq:L
eLrq test
.
I'gain using a.paPer crip, the tester places a srnatL quantity:
nltric acld' The invesclgator can expecr ;"* ;; in""ioiro"ing of the saarple in the
color reactioni: ,

177
 Hererin--?ellow Turni.ng to Green on Standing
o DiLaudid--Orange-Red Color Formed lr:uoedlately

e llorphine--Ora:rge-Re<l Co.icr Quickly Facling to Yetlow

chemicat test for methadone, the offlcer may use Lhe so-eall'ed "Coceine
In the
grirn cf cobalt. 3cetilf,e, nicrate, O'; clrloride and f.5 gran*
re;.ii',entt'(1 Of gotasstqn
-The ea:eple
i"n 90
ll'riocyanate qrl or' \rater aird I0 rnl of gl^acial acetlc acld). dis-
-{s
solved in a minimum amount of lrater and Tlltered if possible. ' Two to tllree drope of
the reagent is then a,ldeC and shaken for about, one mlnute. A blue PrecQitate '11111
indicate che presence of methaclone. :

l;a.rc.otics f.r;rfiir:hers use a fr-.:ld tesr ca11ed the l{eltiog Poi.nt Test. Although
this tesi is faj.rJ.y coa;plex, it cloes Provide an indlcation ofr lhe p$lty glesa of ' the heroln'
flask
The resrer rakes an Ertenmeyerts f1-ast, which ls a emall. flat-bottoned,
used for heat.ing chemtcals, and fil.ls it halfvay wtth heavy rnineral o11. tlie testet
use:; a two-troled stopper fir che flask. One hoie is used as an,exhaust' qhile g chesil-
cal chermometer fs pia.ed through the other hole. The tester fllls a three-ineh-1ong
glass capillary tubl, havlng a diameter approxirnately that of a p€ncll lead, -wlth .

heroin. The tube is then heat-sealecl and placed in water to enFure that lL is eom-The -
pletelv atrtight. The tube is then fastenld to the boctom end-of-the thqrqometer'
bottom end of the capillary cube ehould not exteod Past the end of, ttre ther'mo*:t9:' ,

Also, r.rhen the stopp;r is subseguently placed on ghi flaskr,the ther:p*eter and 4t-
rached capillary tuie must be ciose tq ih" bottom of the flaekr,bUt-nort toughing'- The.
mileral oil is then heared. The tube containi.ng the heroin t€ watched closeLy. th'
fi;:sr sign of the rlisi.ntegr:rtion of the heroin is thar lt w111 '!urn.yellow' Irune4-
lately rhereafter lt will dissolve completely. *The tester notes the teeFgrl!:le at
vhich this. occurs. Pure heroin v{11 reach rneltlng Point 'at approxiraately 2459F'.' '[fn
the substance melts at loner ternperatures, he divides the tenperature'by 2'5 and this
will give hlm an approxirnation of the purity of the heroln. 8or exatple'only a temPerature
of 220oF would inAfiate approxlmately 90 Perccnt purity. ThlS ls vaLld for heroln
which is about 60 percent ln purlty. Below that level the neLting p?l{rt is nore g
funct'ion of ttre adtrlterants Ehan of the heroin.

-q_!!!l!q34$1l
Drrrg Enforcement Admlnlstration, Opium and OPJPTn DerivaElves (f975) '
prepared by
John T. llaher, Washington, D.C

John T. Cross and Malachi T. Harvey, The Narcotic Offlcefrs NotFbgok (1973)'
Charles C. Thonas, Springfield, I11. #' '"
National Clearinghouse for Drug Abuse Inforrnation, Heroih (1975), Se ries 28,
No. 1, Dept. of Heralti, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D'C'
r'

I'iational Clearirrghouse for Drug Abuse Informatlon, !19!ha$!9 (I974), Sertes 31,
D'C'
^'io. 1, Dept. of Health, EducatJ-on, and Welfare, I'ieshington,
n*aLional Clearing house for Drug Abuse InforrnatLon' Narcgtic Antgggn3gE$ G971),
Series 26, No. I, Depi. of Health, Educatlon, and VJelfare, Washington, D.C. "
New Jersel' College of }tedicine and Dentistry (Divlsion of Drug AbusE)'' Tbq lnEef-
nat ionaL Journal of the Addictions (LglZ), Vo1. 7, No. 4, Marcel Dekker, Inc', N'T'

178
 CiIiI,?ER SIXTEEN

COCAlNE*

ijocaine is a pot"erful stinulant conralned ln the leaf

.i-'civared chiefiv in south i!,nerica and aiso gr;;-i; i.tr.nlof i"".]-i"aii
the coca plantr'lrh1ch is
parrs of
Aii:ica' The effeecs of coca were flrst reporred ro Europeani uv ii"-ip""i"t, "neconqqlsta-
dors who observed the inhabiianrs of the Andes Mountains chewin! the llaf
plant. rn the larter part of rhe 19rh cenrury, cocalne *." r"oi"i;; ;;;; ;;"-;;";-"-
;;til;
leal' Shorrly afEer, lts anesthetlzing effeci on rnucous nembranes was discovered.
thougtr it has been replaced to a great degree by syntheuic drugs, 4f-
medicinally as a local anesthettc. cocaLne,i"-"iiii d"a
'
. For a long tirne, the illicit use of cocalne was not cons{derea to be
lous probian in the united scates. European a very:
tradltlonally ".;-,
experlenced
a higher rate of use, whlle the quasl-nedical"o.r.tiiiu"-t"ve
consumptlon of coca tras ueen-a';;;;;;:
for cenr':ries in sourh Arnerica. rn recent years, th; unir;; ;;;;";;";-;;p;ri";;;*"
'se in the lrlicir use of cocaine. For
cral agents aarounted to 24 kllograms; wheru.", tn i., rso:, seiz;;;;;-";c.ir,.
eximpL", by fed_
f973 ttrey selzed Oii tiios"ans, ancl
in 1977, 1008 kiLograms were sai.zed. Thls substanrlal il"-..;;;-t" i"ir"rii"d of 'ai
ever-growlng clandestine narket

4!t[ug!3u9L Arp_lqg
]

cocalne is general'Ly lnhaled through the nostrlls where it is absorbed by the

mucous inembrahe. The typlcal cocaLne user wtll place a q".o.i;;-;;-;.;.i""-
hydrochlorlde in a spoon, hold it close ro the uostrlr-ana "r*rr
iilai"-..-!"iit. ths ,,crk.,'
is tiren absorbed alrnost {nrmeclacely into the bloodsrream rhrousli rtr" ti;;-;"piii"r;;;-
of rire nasar nternbr.rne. The user rnay also hold a pinch of "cokl'i;;;";;'thurnb and
fc,reflnger and sriff, or place the drug on a plecl of paper or rinfoll_. c;;;";-;"
also Laken oraliy in soluiion, and lt ts absoibed fron the snall inrestine.--;--;;ty.'
user inay "snort" or t'sni.ffrt flve to cen grams a day.
h'hen sniffing or oral ingestion of cocaine is lnsufficienE to
.he resorts satlsfy the user,
to lntravenous lnJectlons. By, adrninisterlng tit. ot,rg-di;;;;1;'roto
bl'o'rclstralr, lie onset of reaction is nuch quicker and rnore pronounced. Ho*evar":it it.-'
Is ''rl -' sirori--i.:'.-ec. and sornetlmes iajections are repe3ted every few minutes in an
effort to recap:::" the sensation. rniections .r" ,r"ry dangerous because ii it,u-.",ra"
to:<icit)'of cocaire. A lethar dose for the average aautt 1s considered to be 1.3 grams/
75 l'riicgrans (approximatery 18 mirligrahs ro l kilograra b"d;;.;i;;;t:--Til.;;";;;
:;;"'"'

'fllacerlal in this chapter ls based on:

Drug Enforcenent Admlnistration, Coca and Cocaine (I976), prepared by
Agent
"rhn T. Uaher, I{ashington, D.C.
Internaciocal Association of Chiefs of Pollce, Training Key il8J. ',Narc.otlc!r"
tialthersburg, lt<!.
. Rlchard R. Lingenan, Drig:._!-ron_-d_!o J (L9C9), ltcGraw-Hill Book Conpany,
N.y.

l-79
abrser ofte,i injects it along with iLs arrtidote, morPhirler whi_ch antagonize$ the toxlc
rnanifestations of eocaine by asserting a depresstng effect' Moreover, because tne
t'rusht'qf!,t the
sl-orver onset of action, rnorphine does not ineerfere with the irunediacd
COCA].n:'

In legilimate medic:r1 practice, cocaine is used as a local SnesEhetlc in surgical

ilvolving t-hc:,ele, rrise and throat. It has been used occasionaLly as a
pi--oi.,:dures
v3,;oconstrictor in relieving congJstion, such as hay fever or laryngiils, and to abort
hcrncrrhages frorn the nose and throal. Cocalne hydrochloride, when used' is applied
ropicall! on the mucous membranes ln tlro to five percent, aquebus solutlon. For nasal
anesthesia,.ten to cirenty percent soLutions.are used. By rnouth 15 to 30 nllligrams is
given. Maxlrnum safe Cose is about 100 inlLLigrams.
is rrsed bcth as a s)'stenlc and as a 1ocal reroedy, because of its
Aj.lho,rg,h cocaine
toxicity, lEs use as a systemic drug ls not always advlsable. Its secondary action as
a depressant also somewhat restriets lts use. Baelcal1y, cocaine acts on the pirl-
pheral nerve errdings' releasing a chenlcal called norepinePhll:te' whlch causes the blood
pressure to rise and rhe heartbeat to increase. . Cocalne causes an lncrease in body
tehperat.ure by stlnrutaeing muscle actions, thus releasing heat. Ite vasoeonstrictlng
properties dirni.nish lhe slze of the stylus of blood vesseLs, thus causing; a sharp rise
in blood pressure and causing Lhe heart to beat faster. The drug does not cause eun
phoria, ancl the body does not develop a tolerance to it. Moreover, phystologlcal ad-
cli.L'Lion to cocaine is unknor,rn.

TLLIC lT COCAI tTE

Illicit cocaine may be virtually 100 percent pure when smuggLed into .Ehis ccuntry'
yet it is sel.dore over 15 Eo 18 percent pure when sold on the Street. The other 85 per-
cent of street cocaine is an adulterant, which ls added to lncrease the productrs
r;erght and its dollar yslue. The rnost corrlmon adulterants for cocaine are procaine (a
synthetic loe-al aneslhet:ic), lactose (rnilk sugar), and mannltol (aIso calted Mannite,
a nrild laxative frequencly preparecl wlth lactose added as a filler).
Pu':e coceine is a';hitt: crystallioe substance. Street. cocaine is generallY a
I lg,ht, f 1uf fy whitr: powcler sometimes called ttsnoro/,tt but 1t has been encountered ln the
for:n of a pink liquid. Yellovr or black cocaine may also be encountered dePending on
Lhe bleaching agent used in the extraction process,

For street sal-e cocairre is frequently pacliaged ln srnall paper bindles (with a net
i,'eight of 200-30C rnilligr:rms) and sold for up to $20. A larger $40 bag (net weight
/r00 nill-igrams) is also corTmon. 0rher l-ess frequentLy seen packages include gelatln
capsules, plastic or glass via1s, snd 30 cattber cartridges. Eveq though cocaine.ls
pop..rlar wiEh all economlc levels, it is an expensive drug to use, An.evenlngrs suppl;t
n!-ght easily cost the user $50.
Although the chances of a loca1 narcoti.cs officer encountering a clandesllne co-
cairre exEraction laboraEory are not great, it is beneficial to know the sglvants and
cir.rni.cals that are used in the ilLicit extraccion process. Theee chenr,icals are:

Strlfuric Acld
Potassium CarbonaLe
Kerosene, Beilzene or Melted Paraffin
Potass iurn Pe rroangama te

180
 o r\n:lonia , :.

il Acetone or Ether ' 'i .,'

, -., . ,',' ,-,i r.
'
e Ahs;olute r\Lcohol (rlthairoi) . t
-:'
.t' .,
o Sodi'.rm Carbonate 't

o Hydrcchloric Acid
Kerosene, which is utilized in great volunes in the inltiaL excraqt,ion.,,,ls
aiail"'ble' Reagents such as sulfuric ieadllv
lcld,.porassiun carbonate, acmo;i;;i" ir;d;;:t'-'
,:IIori-c acid are also available for inct,-rstiiil
while available, are. usrral ty cont rolled ir,i"rgt .purposes. Ether-ana absolute aLeohol-
"tr;;;;;; ;;^';;..il";;;;;;';":i.llllii".
ritry lar:ge sales of these reagents and chemieals warrant
investiga.or checking on clanlresti.ne cocai.ne productlon "r"J*-r.t"il"r-;;-an- narcottes
-":."e!re,'!rsP
':
Iloreover, the presence of ciunamoyl cocaine in a sanple is always LndLiai:ive
i11i.cit origin. This compound is never present in legltirnately ot
produced cocilne,
having been oxidized and reduced to ecgonine.
ln order to better understand the-present day use and nl.suse.of coca ind cogalne,
itnav be heLpful to reLate the historical backgt""r,a oi-"";;;;;;.--ii"ring
a ve'"v o1d habit, especlallv aruong the Tndlans i'f south Ar.;i;;: u"iy coca iE
ii"ntoiogii.l-:
artifacts of various Andean cultuies contaia plctures and syobol-s of ihe *:,--
iis leaves, depicrrng coca *se in various civit aoca bush end
":""::':
""a."iigr;i;-;;;";i"."-
The fidelity of the present day rndians to
coca ls due partly to
ideas retained from ancient times aLour rhe beneficial effecis "upcrotlgioqsl-
of'.h.;ilil-"
considers coca in the same caresory
;"'
::::=l:_31:I"u.."n
rare consists of maiae, drled meat and "" toir."".--in!-iiil"]'itor. -- -
depends on coca co susta{,;',61" .
streugth' liithout the forcificatlon of-potatoes,
coca, tre couta p.irorrn-ai"-tt ro,lcork re-
to survive in a harsh and hosril" "ot
eit.;-;;;;";;;-iilroao..d
luired
ruroPe3n counEries' nany concoctions and ".,'ni.orrr""..- to the
infuslons of coca nere pre"crilJ ;;-;;.;; ;"-
variety of ailnents from stornach ulcers to broken. legs apd uotion.sickness.t-*;--'
tuallv, phvslclans learned that, rather rhan contrrbJrini-."-"ri;";-.o"."ilg
actually caused debilitating sicle ef.fects. il|iil.

C_tXr\ TliE CiIETYICAL TliST t

rf a substance is sttspcct-r:d of bei-ng cocaine it cen be
Lassiun Thiocyanace as a reagent. Thts partlcular reagent tested by using qobalt-po- --
can be prepared"bt;i;:
solving 2 grams of cobart Thiocyanate ln 100 ur1 of watJr. Hydrochloric
a<lded' using a paper clip, the tester puts a acld is then
j'nto a vial with the cobalt Thiocyanate reagenE, amount of the
"murr "u"p."t"j*;;";;;"
co".i'u r;il1 produ"u
precipirate. UigJ..;il;--.
"
There are several "srreel" field tests for cocaine that are being
trafi.ickers'Theinvestigatorshou1dbefami1iarwiththese.tests used by sone

r rn the "waler test' for coc,aine, a small amount of the purported cocal.nb
is dropped inro a clear glass of \,rarer. The cocaiae
rapidly whlle the adult.erants r.ri11 dlssoh,e mueh slower
"iii;i;;;ir;-;;;;'-
or.not at aL1.tj'
oI'nthe'lC1oroxtesE,,asma11amountoftlreaJ.1egedcocaineisdropped
into a clear glass of Clorox. If the substance ls cocalne it
drop to the bottom in a milky form nith . s1lght ml1ky ,'vapor""to"ia tr;Il
vlsible in the liquid. rf che substance turnl red it ls piocaine.

181
In thr: 'rheat t'-:attt 'r slrall &tlpunt of the PlrxPorted coca.fne le placerl
on a piece of ti! Jc,il and the foil ie heated by bolding a oatch rm-
der it. If the substaDce ls cocabe, lt ltlll Prduce eleesslve s@ke
and should burn clearly to a goldish colot, If the substance bur:ns
blar:i;, r-ire bla.ck resiCue nay be atlulteraol-s whlCh can be scrape-d off
or shaken freel the cocaioe rrill be fused to the foil.
In tlre "r.ihiskey test" a soall anormt of the purported coCaln€ is
dropped into a clear glass of liquor of aoy tyPe (Pure ethyl alcohol
wltl do). If the substaoce ie cocaine BCl, the adultereots rr111
float on top vhile the cocalne dlssolveg slovly and ssEtles to tbe
botton. Cocaine HCI rrtll. dlssolve very slouly and on17 !-o bt al-
cobol, while cocaloe base y111 dlssolve very rapldly fh colil al'co-hol-

L82
 I
il
Dl

CHAPTIIT SEVENTEEN

DEPRESSAT,ITS*

' Depressants are coiirpounds which;rffecr the centraL nervoqs gysten by deceleratLng
lts activities' Ttrey nav* be synLhetil: rrr.natural .
as hypnotics (producing or inducing s-leep), sedative" lDepr:essanEs can atsb be categ6rized
can lerd to sreep) or tranqurlizers (bri.nglng about reiietl;.;;;;r-"irlill f,
:3"*l"trl"r"r"".i;";;;
' "r",r.,thar,,
musc1es,andca].nin3wiLhouts1eepor,arowsinEgs).:,'i,...
"i
Ttris class of drugs was f{rst discovered tn 1864 by Adolf'rroo,iL..ay.r,
chemist, who siyntheslze<l barbirurlc a91d_. nesearch r*I'so. **r, "t,::
hypnoric derlvarlve of tt,e "
a"v-aiiil;il,ie ,,IiFii.u,t,
.baibiGirr "clE, Barbirat, .i"-igol,.., ;ir;;' ;;;[ . ;;;-# ;$;
derivatives have been diseovered. D"p;.;;;;i;-h;";- i;5i;i".;it';;bil$";fi4il"r ;;;:
as anesthetics for minor surgery, pre_ and po$t_operative serilatl6;i-tia-;F
aaflcs. afltlFcoreul-
' :.r' , , I;:.,,.,': - ':,i:.,ii. ii,i. .' ,,^'>,. l.ilit
since physicaL dependence resur.ts frctm the abu€e o.f,defrceslnfa,
there
'"ithdrarval syndrome. wirhdrawar from non*narcgtlc depressanls ean:be'fatai
nedically supervieed. These non-narcotic depreas"ii" le arviJeg-i;.,i
categories: barbriurates,. tranquilizers, and '";";;ti;rii" ".n .;"riiiorg.a.
trt.t

BARBITURATES
. ,: -l , , l,; .' 1:, 1.,,,,i
,, -,r-.. :-
Barbirurates are also further claSsifled tn four eat.eg,grles,!,ired
onsec and rhe lengrh of acrion. The long-acttns.baiii;.,;#;;ril";-;[plii.ot "".r*a;rreil of, :
30 to 60 nlnutes and a length of action if onsEr of: j,
tI
"n "ighr t\ou-rs.
bital are exaoples. The litermediare-actlng'barbitiiaqes ,t616Jq"i.;a-ih#II:":l' ,

navg.a speed of ontet:,of,.1.5 ,

to 30 minutes and a rength of actlon rrorn tfui i"-J*-io"*,,'lr"iliuirii
bttal are examples. short-acting barbltura-t"" ntJy"".!;:;;q9;-;{j#il;;"
end budNbar::
20 mlnutes and remain- effective iwo to slx hours. pentouarurtaf
n{thlh 10 ro,
examples. rhe urtra-shorr-acrins barblrurar"J-p".ar".-; ;;;;i;f atkEeioferurtrrrere,-,.
and a length of acrlon of up ro 30 .ir.,,rt"".. mrlpeitri ;;;-;;'a:ilT":fiu"
:in.-rt"ii_
lnlermediate-actlng barblturates are ""ai"*-r;'";;*"pi"'.
:.he :hoili;dr-"g;'or abueb au.rto',ttr-!t1p.r;iiirl't.l'-
length of tlme for onser of effects, the trength of ;iqi; rt.-;ira:cif.it$:
duction of euphorla by the drugs. ', -. .,, atrtr .the,piii;:.
. r .. :,..,:,:
'. | ..1 .-. iii
Although one can become addicted to barblturates at norural
bi'turates can be continued ror years withour airri."ity: aqsrg;, use'of t'':.;;:r,'
high doses leads to addiction and toleran"e: i;;;;";";;;il;;"ir!li|,"-,1,',
ta1 or Pentobarbital in hlgh doses such as 800-rr,
ror-!*"mple, sompdne used secabitb{-, ',
oi 1000 mg daitl (efght r.,i*i='liiiiiirll
for abouc ten neeks, he wolld develop prty"i""i i"P""i""".. The datl,y dose us'et
addicts rnav be as hrgh as-Trrteen by Jonrj
"rp"ur"s
of 100'il ;;;;, .;',isoo.il,a.t=,tJ.l,':l
;::
- Dylins the treaLment.for barbicurate addtction, rhe dose of ttp uarurilig4;"1';"t,t: ,

gr+duaLLv lowered over a perrod of weeks whrle .ta

e"ti".t-t" rrl*riT.ii;ii.. *l&'td]..-$,i1,
*Bibliography be found bn the.last
w111-
PaSe of {htp ehafrer. r l^ -i' e" ..'.,i ,

183
done c;r',rciously io avoid the aore serious withdrawal syroptons, During untreated wlth-
the addir:t- rn.:y ct;i .'tL:i.i. inii.d .:iympLorls, coni;i.siirlp, cE uaakness and anxiety, clt lte
dr.',r';ri,.L,
nay h;rve rnore s.:vere :iy;.ll):rn:: tl.*i consist,of deliriu& and gevete convulsions' : Genef-
ally, the s]'nptons which an oif:icer wrould notlce in a barbitgfate user undorgoing'v!th-
d.ra.:,ral rrould be sirtri.lar to 1.lr-lli:irufl Erem€rns. anrl ndiphlne wlthdrattal . In progressi.on
Itre:;e r;i t hdr,:wal syurp Loms ,t I r) :
I
o Insorni-a
r IrriraDllity
o AnxieUy

r Halluci.nations
o Tremors

Nausea and vontting

Abdogrin:rl pains

The barbitrrale abuser can alse overdose, The coxlc gr l€thal doee for barbl,lur-
ates is essential-l-y the sane in acldicts as in non-addicts; this d{ffers froa berotn
addiction, in which the heroin addlct can tolerate much Ldrge!-doses than the non-
a,ldi-ct, lrr other Trolids, in heroin addictionr'with an increase ln tolerance there ls an
increase in che lethal dose. In barbltgrate addietion thpre ls lit|le er qo Lncrease
in the lerhal dose. However, therg ls a iotentfating effect.*{hen barblturates are gsqd
Ln conjunction vith aicol"rol , or some other drugs, Generallyr'i 4eath fron overdogage gf
barblturates ls due to respiracory failurq. In serrre cas69, lbe patl'eaf nay bq tn,a
cona for da1's and death may ultioatety reiult fr&l heart-:fallnrelor grrcqolortia.

The barbirurate abuser often has che appearance of drunkennees uithout the odor of
alcohoL. For lnstance, he rnay appeaf drowsy and confuged; hls uuscle:csntrol nay be
poor,, which will result in poor coordlnatl.on end a staggering galt. His speec\ qay bE
slurred; his memory nay be lnpairedi and he rnay exh{blt qn inablfity to qoucF+tf,ac-e.

TMNQUILIZERS

Tranquilizers are conmonly classtfied as either najor ol ninor. Ihose designated

as roajor rranqullLeers are generall-y not abused. Major trangr,rilizers are used in the
treatrnent of various psychoses, while minor tranquiLizers areiused in the treatnent of'
neuroses. The najor tranquilizers are so naured because of their potent antfpsyghqgg
effect. Included ln t,his grdup are the follor*ing: .*
Gengric Name Trade Name

Chlorpronaelne Thorazlne
Pronazine Sparlne
Perphenazine Trilafon
Prochlorpera.zine Goropaz'l.ne
Thlorldazine Me1lari1
Tri.fluoperazine Scelazine
Triflupromazine Vesprin
Ilesorldazine Serentil
ReserpLne Serpasil
These drugs caln the excited, violent or fearful patiene without putting hin to
sl.eep like the barbifurates. Death can result, however, if enough drug is consuoed.

184
Toxicity vnries fron one drug to another. The najor tranqulllzer$ are not addlcting;
However, they <lo have side eftects some of which ire si3nifi.canc, such
blood pressure, loss of mrrscle control, and rhe posstbiiicy of skio analor-ri.r;l "" ",.arop-;;:
orders. There is no withdrawaL syndroine with the najor tranquillze.". '*fat"r;;;i;" ai;-
drlrgs :lrir pf ,3rqcrj.ption iten:i;, they i:rre n,,t ,:ontrolled or abusa$le.., The6.e arogS ,"i"-5i*-
senied here co differenriaLe rncic frou Lrre nrinor tranquilizers. r . --''r' i--.-- '--':rl-
Theninor trairquilizers,.,lthough not as potenE as the naJor"r"*o,riti""r*,' ,""*, , :

produce physical dependence with long-tefi! usage. Moreovet, a vithdraraf'synaronre-i"

seen when drug usage stoPs. In the absence of the drug in a patient dependent
drug, convulsive seLzures nay be seen just as in barbiiurate wltbdranaL. ;;;r"i;"iop the --.
tranquilizers' hovever, are relatively safer than the barblturates i.n ttrat
are necessary to cause resPiratory failurer, coma, and death. An,o,ffseqtlng nfgier Joses
dinger;.horq-
ever, 1s that People te;rd to l:eEirrrd them aa totall.y benign. The.fpllowing"are.ii"i1 i-
tranquiltzers: - .'_ -- .

Generic Neme Trade Name

Meprobaurate Equanll
MiLtown
Meprospan
Chlordiazepoxide Libriuru. 1':t,
Diazepam Valiun. r-' ., :.l
Oxazeparn Serax
Flurazepam. Daluane.
.' l. -' ,
':: ' +.] !
' -."1t
JN-BARBITIIRIC ACID DRUGS
.

0ther depressant drugs, which are not derlvatlves of barblturlq actd can be oif1"e
non-barbituric acid sedatives-hypnocics. Tfrege drugs will" induc.
hvperactive individual. A11 can cause psychologicai depend;"";-i"-;;;;ui"
"i.ue-""aiJ.:i;5-1f
nsr€sp.;;-
tr'rost' j'f not all, have a Potential for phystcal-dependence rhen auusea.- tlfi-rilit"--
followi*g'non-barbituric ici,r drugs have
dosage: "ua"riv"-erJ-typqo"i;,"*;;;;:"C,i.s;r"i,.1.1,,;
Ceneric Name Trade Naoe
. i .. . , l
Sodiuo bronide Sodlun brornlde ,
Paraldehyde Paraldehyde
Chloral hydrate Noctec
Sonnos
ChLor'a1 beEaine Beta-Chlor .. . : ., '
Carbromal Cabropal (found in Carbittal
'capsules) ,, ,

Glu te ch irnid e Dorlden

Iterhprylon Nolud.ar .' .
Ethchlorvynol pLacidyl , .,, ,, ,. .,
Ethinamate . Valnid
Mcthaqualone. euaalude
parest I

.Somnafac..l
sapor :
Antihistamines
_ ,
Various conarerclal namp$
j."
Thernajority of depressants are controlled under the yarious ifetlgr,al and
ug control acts. Generally, these controls are cLassified as follons:

185
 Schedrrle ll--Aruobarbttal, SecobarbLtaL, pentobarbitaL and
i'Ie i hi:.qua1.r n I

SchecluleIll--Sarbituric Acld Delivatives not in aay other

s.:.hedr:le .

Schedule lr/--llarb!ra1, Meprobanate, Chloral Hydrater Phenobarbltal,

Clrlo:d.iazepr:.-< ide, and . D.irraepan
.

IDENIIFICATION

rdentlfication of depressant drugs shoul.d be nade by a gual.ifted cheoist. law en-

forcenent officers can on!.1' lrntsr;.vely ldentify,thes.e druge by gslng fleld tests,
traile marks, p::odu':tion idenilf ication codee, anr! .patenied-tabiet or-capsule shapes,
rnforrnation for rhis purpose is listed for the *o...o*nonly abused dr;|".
Secobarbital- is the generi.c nane for a depressant manufactured uoder the trade
oa,r,e_SEGiIf*b-fElr Lilly. The recornraenaea Jos"g;-i;; sedatlve purposea,ts up to I0o
mg; for hypnosls it is up to 100 mg plus. Seconal comes ln,the form of red, Lullet-
shaped capsules ln 30, 50, and 100 urg doses, bearlng the Ltlly nane gn then and the
nurnbers F72, F42 and F40, respectively. Seconal aLso cornes ai at ellxir, anpoule,
Hyporet(reglsteredtradename)--adtsposab].asyringe,andsuppos1tor1es
genEobarbttal is sold un<ler the trade nane of Nenobutal by Abbot Laboratorl.l. ro
capsule foro the drug comes ln 30, 50, and 100.mg dosagesn the gane as Secobarbltal. i
The 30 and 100 rng c.rpsules are all. yellow, although ln-a iiffereng size. The 50 mg
capsules are either orange and whlte or yel"l.ow and vhite. T[ey all bear the Abbot"J.ogo.
Hor^-ever, the 50 and 100 rng capsules have the name Abbot on them. pentobarbital also
cornes as an e1i.xir, as suppositorLes, as a bolution for lnJeetLon, and ae tlne-release
tablets made of plastic called Graduaents (registered tradl narne), whlch 4re blue ln
color, tn l00 rng dosage. : ,, ,
i
'Amglbgrblt3l Sodiuno.is manufactured under the trade nene.Anytal by E1l Lill'y anrt ,
cornpany. For sleeping purposee 55 to an upper Limtt of 200 ng ls reconnended wh-l]-e the
usual dose for daytlme sedatlon is 30-50 mg Eh'o or three ttnei e day. The 4$yta1 cep-
sules are blue and bullet-shaped. They cone ln 65 to 200 mg doses with the nunbers
F23 or F33, respectlvely, and the Lllly logo in scrlpt on the capsules. A;y;;i-;;;,
lcts are llght green (15 mg), yellorr (ro rni), orange (50 me), aad pink (100'ngi, ana
are capsule-shaped. Respg,ctively, th€ tablets bear the nrr*bers T4b, T56, T37l and T32.
The LiJ-ly logo ln script i"s also lnscribed on the tablets

A comblnation of Secobarbital/Arnobarbital Sodfuur ts also rnanufactured by Eli L1lly

under the trade name Tuinal. The recommended dosage ls 50 to 200 rng. the oiaoge and
blue, bulleE-shaped capsules come in 50, 100, ana i00 mg doses bearlng the numbers Fd4,
F65, and F65, respecrively. All the capsules bear the iftty togo.

. Roche ii tranquilizer, i.s nanufactured under the trade narne LibrirtlO,

the -chlor€iazepoxicier
Cornpany. The reconnended dosage for oral adminiscratLon is 5 to 25 rag three
to four ti'mes per day for rnild to severe anxiety and. tension. For injectionr,i.I is up
to 300 mg in a Z4-hour perlod for wichdrawal symptoms of acuGe alcohoiiem
anxiety and tension. rn tableL form, Libriurn is blue ln color, in 5, 10, "ni
s"ver! '
and 25 mg
doses with each tablet bearing the Roche name and t.he numbers 13, l4r.rri 15, r"rp!"-
tively. Ltbritun capsures are green and ye11ow (5 mg), black and-green (ro rnil,
green and white (25 nrg); they bear the Roche.tare atd the numbers-S, 10, "fd
- :: and"Zi,Tespec-
tively, on each slde of the capsule under. the name. -
:
giazepam is.the generic name for a Roche Company tranqullizer lrith the trade nane
of- -Vallum. The recommended oral.dosage ls g ro :o mg per day for teosrgn ana anxreii

186
 and psychoneurotic states, and the recoiErended iaJectl.on
elght-hou:: pericic for psychonetrotic raactlons, valtum dosage 1s up to 30 ng in ao
white (2 og), yeltonr (5 urg), and blue_(10 mg), "o*."-irr-ini!"aior, forn aad tn.
lets bear the numbers 2, 5, and r0 and the ilrl.t"""" -.-,
""or"J1"btets. R;;;;;;;*r,'tnl?il,
-=lt=-t"
,-. . ,.,... .,.;,-l ,

iYgl-ti'belsls, atlother Lra'':riull-izcr, is uunufacrured by the }iallace cdnpany under'tha

trade name Milrown. rhe recocnen<red dosage rs rioo-;;-1;60-;;;;T;;
tensLon' rhe 200 ns tablets ari' whiL,::-coared and bi:ar ii" r"itirir-ii iI. 6nd:
ihe 4c0 rng tablets are while-suored with 37 waltace "*r..y
i*ilgce 11o1. l
toot on rhe s;de: iil*f,f,; ii-'''
bullet-shaped tablets have wallace 37.-^160l r;;ki;;;.--ii"-lirilr*r;;".i;" ,

clear (400 ne) and vellow and clear (-2-00_mgi.- i"3p""tr,.ri;-tta'-";;![il,ylll,bear are btue and
nunbers 400 and 200 and the ur,arkiogs riarlale 37-ii0i-;;l-wiir""; tl,"' the
;i:il;;, '"o 1"".
lletgqgalg1e,anoa-barbituric<lepressant,1snanufacturedund6rvarl'oustrede
nailies' Thi:ee of these are: Quaalurle, sopar, ancl parest. This
induce sleep or to cause daytiure sedatlon. quaalude a"pi*"""it l.u used to. '
150 and 300 mg doses bearing che Rorer rogo in whi,.tie-s.or"iriiUi:;:;;
and rh. "oro""
ParesL ls manufacturecl in turquoise ur.,e Inc-iigil-gi[" ";;;;"-iri"""Jliiitrr.ra*trvely;
capsulas.tn 400 ag.dlosage.
They bear the Parke-Davis 1ogo, PD, on both sidls
and 574, respectivery. sopoi come" ir,_g.o.n,-y.ir"r of tt" capsule and the nuolere 572
150' and 300 rng doses, respecEively. ttrey ueai. the Ainar or or"ng.,
side.
";;;J";.;;H:t;"';;,
stone logo on the unscored

is manufactured under diff,erent

trade narnes: Felsutes (Fellows Company), K.";;;;;;;-'i;"K;";;;-;;il;,*.ii-rJiill.=.'
(squibb company)
' Tlis drug is ,r".i ao lnduce aleep or for daytlrue Bedat1on. The ,
>ses for sleep are 500 to i,000 rg and rhe
doses r",
.he forms in whlch rhese drugs are manufa",.u."ai";;: ".a.tr;;';;;;;;"r.iir:rri'L.
Fersules ;;"Ti;;;nd.white,
b1ue, or vel1ow capsules in iso, 500, and
1f000
name "Fe1lows" is placecl on the 500 and t,o6o d-;;"";;-;;;;;";i;-ii]= in" company
:

aoeIs. kessodrate
in 250 and 500 rng dosage bearing the company name ,,1{cKeqson,, cones in red capsules
drate also comes in syrup forn. Noctec is manufactured on eqch capeule. Kesso-
mg dosage beari_ng rhe name "squibb"and rhe n;;;;;;-il*.;; 1n red capsuLes in 250 and 500
is available in syrup forn. ;;,;:;o""ir#r". rt, too,
lgfUiturate fiefa fest
The Zvikker test is used for the presumptLve
test consists of thr.ee types of solutlons: ldentiflcatl.on of, barblturates. The

1) Anhydror-rs }lethanol

' 2) cobait chloride (cobalt.us chloride) dlssorved in Methanol :

3) Five percent Isopropylarnine in liethanol

To use the zwlkker test, the inve-stigator places part
pected capsules, powder, or crushed rablers of the contents of the sue-
en'.,r:gh io cover the "0" oo a typewrlter
into a t""t"r. ?he anount shburd be
key. Two "pot
droirs iiethanoL) are added tr-, ti! e-.grn.nts on the drops of the rirst soruii;]A#y:"
di.ssolve. Nexr, rwo drops of Solutiln No. 2 (Cobati spot tester. The frag:oente.shoulil
produce a violet or blue coLor- Flnally, two'drogs crrtoride) are;;;;:- They ehould
oi solotioq No. 3. (flve perbent
rsopropylami.e'i.n l"fethanol) are added, and if the cor"or
b1ue, it indicates the presumptive presence of a barbiturate.deepens 1.,"-a"it"r vlolet or

187
I-I:U"Ioq:.Srll_Y.

Drug Enforcement AdoinistraEion, Drug Identification--Depress3ncs: instrucE,or

Cuidq (1973), prepar.:d..by A1len W. Schwinn, Detartment of JustiCe; gasl-intton;tlc.
i:r:tg ilnio;:4::nenl- ,rdrninisLr.rti.;nr i:dcL Sheets (1,973), Department of JusEice, Wash-

lnternational Association of Chiefo of Police, Training Keys llo.81, Narcoclcs;

and No. 97, Daagerous Drugs, IACP, Gaithersburg, Maryland,

Stralegy Ccruncil on Drug Abuse, Fedqral-strategv: Drug Abuse-P:eyentlon (L976),

Gc'vernmentPrintingoffice,IrIashl.ngton,-D.c.
Edward T. Superson, In'resuigatiol of,Nalcofigs. (1975)f Citaael press, Ina.,
SacrlmenEo, Cali.fornia.

lB8
 CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

STLUU-I,ANIS*

, stirnul'anEs are cc'npounds whlch af fect the centraL,nervous q.yFten by accelet-ating

its activities. sri:nrrlants are eifher c:rt.ural , such as Eplnepherfnq,, or ,;;h;;i;;-"
such as Arnpheta*lne Phenmetrazine. The firsr natural lii-"imt a-i-;;";;; ;;;-'.
Epinepherlne (Adrenal'rin). The eff eces of Epineprr".i"" *";;li;;;i;;iffi;"-iiSs.
The firsr DvuLrteLrc
rr(E tr!oL of any sl'Rnlr1canc9
synthetic or slgnlflcance wa-s
was, prepared in 1919
in 1919 by a Japanese che1itS!.
The substance ltas later identlfied as Methylaurpheiamin.. tn
l-Phenvl-2-A.nino-Propane.and its actlon" *L.. irr"i a"i"rlbed t9i7 a
gubscance called
catrerl. ,.
major research on this conpound, horrever, was left ro the tri.tt, by " ";r"il""e
Gordon Ail:""'it]* l,
rui;;-";-*I.*i"i.rt,
oratories of Phtladelphta. The reeearch 1ed.to the aeerotieni'citu"i""Jifi"=;iC
to, developnent of Dexedrine. rt was dur'ng. thrs develip*Jt' that il.;"
-rhe the
cslled by 1ts trrre chemical nane--A1pha-nerhyr:pi."etrrf1-arnine or . amphetamLne.conpound was

The abuse problen began in 1932 wich the introductlon of

he abuse probiern was furrhered by rha introductlon of B";";;ri;;
the'benzedrlne lnhalef.
;;J-;;;;r;.';;;:'
lets' overproductlon duting llorlcl uar rr p.olriJ"a tt,l L.ri.ar.r materl.als
mine abuse. Japan was rhe flrst country ro experlence for amFheta-
intra'renous use of methanphetanine, whlie th.-ihi;;-ir"a"" ;;;i;";-;;;;;-;r;;i;"il-;.
"
"*p".i"i""e'ii" rlrt
'

seri.ousprob1euintheabuseoftheBenzedt1'netnha1er..

rn progressive stages' the acute toxic effectg,of ampheeamine abuse include'ra"a-

ressness, rreoor,
resuqtsss' carFst.I.veness, irrireblrlty,
Ereoor' ralkarlveness, irriteblrlty, il;i"=;-i;lil,a"iiii*i"il.Ie
lnsonnla, anxietyrlderlriurn. panic
ij?lll:-0":::'11..::..l1li:_patplrarlon, cardiac arrhythrniae, rryieri;"il;;'"ir""iutory
iilt:::::
:lu
i:::::l:^".".yili: yoTirlnc,-abdonlnar 91?d;;;;;i;il;;-;;; il-;;liil'. ..
..":.. uose varies.widely and may-occur as 1dil;il.;;;;-;;;i'i"-iri"i;*";'il1'
ng, "" rtt" i""o*riJ;-;;;";;:--
usualli' it occurs in doses far above
buE more -:.*"-
rn an analysis of 310 cases of high-dose intravenous metharnphetanine abuse,
snith (1970) divided psychological advers. ,"""tio";-il;; Davtd
;i;;;;;;;il;, . ..., ,

1) Anxiery reactions, in whlch the lndividual becornes fearful and

tremulous, with concerns about his physical uel"1"-being
Anphetanine psychosis, i' which rhe individual mlsrnterprets tlie
actions of orhers, hallucinates, and becomes - -
suspic ious "".""ri"ti;;iit
3) Exhausclon syndrone, an intense feeling of fatigue and need to sr.eep
following the stlmulation phase

*Bibllography wi1L be found on rhe las! pags

of this ehapcer.

189
 4) Prolonged depresslon
5) Prolonge'l hallucinosis, in whlch the lndlvldual contfnues to
halluclnate after the drug has been gletabollzed
afi,:crs of thc ilse cf r-h-e drugr'r{herr r.'elnutr.J.tion 1s 4 fscgoE lnc-lude ftfn
flecc,,r,i.-rr:' .

lesic:rs, abscesses, respiratory probLems, acute gastrolntes-tinal dlett'ees,'and abdom-

inal cranr;s resulting fron factors ln the userts envlrontnent. ltigh-dqlte users usually
srisia.in a narked welght 1,rss, multiple i!,tamin deftcl?iicd,ei dcil dental decay. Thc pos-
sibility of brala danage has been suggeated, glnee cooa and ltb'reeultan! braln damage
canoccurfronanphetatlrineoverdose...
There has been controversy as to vhether an amphetamlne w{thdrar"el syudrolte exlst€.
Fcr nany years the medical consensus wes that atnphetantnaq vete not addlctlng beCause
oi rh' .;, g'1-,trsed sl,sprlce c: a wiirhdrawal'syndrrinne, P.rrt of the dlfficglty' lay In die-
agreemen! over the clefinitlon of addictionr. but a gre€tcr.pdrb $ss the. fa11ur6'to rec-
ognize the wLthdrawal syndrome beeause of lts qualttallve dlfterence frotn thE'aarcs.tlc
cr general depressant withdrawaL syndrome. The anrphetamLne sl.thdra*ral gyndrohe. is
characterized by apathy, decreasediactlvity, and to a gr".!.t degree, eleep.dlsiurb-
ances which can last for weeks or nonths. It was also found that, folloulng a,brupt
r.rithrirawal fronr J.arge doses of amphetanlnes, an lncrease tn the perccnt of rapid- eyc-
movement sleep (REM) occurred. RE!'t returned tohoi"lral vhen aa"irhdtbnfue waa glvbnr. but
increased again when amphetamlne wae wtthheld. Thls phenome{o.n, whl1e obse.rrtable urrder
clin:l-cal condltlons, provldes additional ev{dence for the exl-stcrrce of plryslcal depen-
dence. Since suicl.des have occurred durlng amptfetarnlne vltlitltawal, doctors have been
advised to bring abcrut wit.hdrawal slovly, ln a controlled..envlronment:,
.

There ai:e several speciflc corapounds of a stLmulant rteture with whLih gl{b .in-
l'estigator shoulcl be farnillar. These conpounds f"li t"to three categorlesl, anpheta-
ui.nes, non-amphetamlne stimulants, and cornbinatlon (aurphetasilne-bartlturate) producte.
Within the arnphctarnirre catellory, three products are very leportEfiit--iAorphdlantn€r'De:i-
t'roanphetamlne, and l.fetharnphetamlne. '', t :

.Benzed.rine is the trade name for the racem4 eoFpoun-d. produced by Snith, KlLne
and French Laboratorles (SKF). The reeonmended dosage ts 1,0 to 1O0 og per day for
obeslcy in adults. for treatment of narcolepsy and nlninal braln dysftmctlon ln cblLil-
rt-n, snaller doses are prescribed. Benzedrtne com€s ln two foruo-*tablets aail cap-
sules. The tablets are fl-at, three-sided, slngle-scored and ilnk Ln cotor. Tha logos
SKF-Agl and SKF-A92 are placed on the 5 and 10 ng tabiets reepectively:' The capeuLes
are pirr:pJ"e-cappcil , c1.ear-bodiecl , and corne itr a L5 rng'dosage firrn. 'Ttre capsule w11'1
bear the logo SKF-A9O. l

Dexedrine. is the trarle name for dextro-amphetq4ntne sulfaEe produced by SKF. The
reconnended dosage ls 30 to 50 rng per day for obeslty ln adulto. .fot'tieatment of
narcolepsy and mlnLmal- braln dysfunctlon tn chlldren, smaller doses are prescribed.
Tl'is drug, cones in three forms--as an elixlr, tabLet, and capsule. The triblets are
L'lat, three-sided, siugle-scored, pale orange 1n color. Each tablet ls 1a 5 rng dos*ge
lrr::r and bears, the lcilo SKI,'*EI9. The capsules are brown-capped, clear-.bodted and con-
cain orange a:rr! white pellets. They corne l-n 5, J.0, and 15 ng dosage forrn and bear the
logos SIIF-EI2, SKF-El3, and SKF-E14, respectively.
.!SSoU.f,- ls the tra<le name for methamphetamine hydrochLoride produced b1r Abbot
Laboratories. The rec.omrnended dosage is 2.5 to 5 rng up to three tlfr€s Per'day for
obesity anC for a.djunctive treatment of rainlrnal braln dysfunctlon. Desoxyn comes ln
two fol.ms--as tablets and as Gradumet (reglstered tradename) tablets. .Ttre regular tab-
l-et Ls r.rhite ln color ln 2.5 and 5 og dosage forn and bears the Abbot 1ogo. Ihe
Gradunet tablets are vhite, orange, or yellow, in'5, 10, and 15 ng dosage form, re-
spectively, and bear the same Abbot 1ogo.

190
 T
ro non-axnphetanlne stimulants that the narcotlcs lnvestlr'.aEaE rnay encguir'ter ars-
Rltalin and Preludin. : , .

3ltetr". ls the trade name for rnethylphenldgte hydrochLorlder. producid,,by CtrBA-.,

{:-:eigy Pharmac:euLi.caL Cir:mn:r'r.y, The reconrmended
freec.r:Ilg.q aggeggt+i.Zd f.g !0'qg':9e1,
day for minimal brain dysfunct,lon 1n chlifren anh narcol'epsy. f{talin c'or*e.s lir,o'ln*le-
scored tablecs h the colors of pale yellirw, p€le glgenr or-pale pqsch. ln 5i 10, arii' ZO
rug dosage forns, respecriuely. the tjbLets'l,ear iiie U[o'ciil. il,,:- ...',",;
,.i;1 --,.,"" -
Preludln ls the trade nane for phenmettazlne hydrochlorlde drbduced bv BoehrtdEei
rngleheLn conpany and.dlstribuced by cIBA-Gelgy^iharmac-eurical Coitganj.. rire '
prescrLbed dosage is 50 to 75 mg per day'to asa{st'in,the'rranagqqti'df "vetagE ,,'
obesicy (short-term program). The drug bearl.np lhe Foehrlnger'lrigtetrefrn "*60;,oris'.
Coipan trade-
mark L;il1 be in either a pink, cross-scored, 2i mg doeage rablet.'wlth'the-ii"o:fi:ig.
or as a round, tine-release Enduret (trade naure). The Endutets wttt be ln.50=or ?5'inc
dosa.qe forms, white or plnk, respectlvely, with the logos B{:29 jnd Bt::6?; respectlvel
Iy" Preludln may also be found under the Geigy pharauieuttcal C6upaoy n"r" lrLth the
same shapes and dosages.- The logos, howev€r, wIll;be as followe-.,'25' ng tablet
logo GErGY-42; the 50 and 75 mg Endurets w1.11 bear the Logos.GErgT=7g \4s che-
respectlvely. "r,a'ctrlcy-Er;
Corrbination products conslst of an amphetamtoe/barblturate 'IhFre
d.gpqfo"tfoa. are
two specific products which should be described, Des'butal and otircaioyr.
.,

Desbutal- ls the trade nane for the csmblnat{.on of netharnphetanine hydrochlortde

ana s6lG',lEnrobarblral produced r,v riuoi-'i;;';;ilr;;"]--il;t;ff;hfi';rili;iui
,'osage ls 10-15 nP methanphetarnine hydrochlorlde/60-90 mg sodiurn pentouaruiiii-p"i-J"y.
Desbutal ls manufactured as cradunets ln rhe colors of orang,e an4'b1ui:o;
t;ii;-; i-"t'
blue' There are two dosage forrns. The flrst ts 10 to 15 ne netfi"nprregaotrn;-it;r;:'
chloride/60 rng sodlurn phenobarblral (Desbural to) I tte
rorbs. -'Tht ;ii;;;;-"-
""""ia-'r"'rij-;;-;;;il""oiliL.r""
hvdrochloride/90 mg sodium pentobarbltaL (Desbutal 15) rtoeage
the Abbot logo' Desbutal also comes ln green capsules rn aosages of S-*e"""ai-pn"t*
nine hv{rochlorlde/30-ng sodlurn pentobarbital. ihe capoules bear rtre aui-ot-i"g ii-ir,"
cap and the vord ',ABBOT" on the bottorn.

lgATJf ls the trade name for the cornblnatl.on of dextro arnphetanlne gulfate (DAS)'
ancl anorbarbital sodluro produced by Srnlth, KLlne and French Laboratori"", .oa ;;J-h,,
weight reductlon Programs. The recomnended dosage ls the lowest effectlve-j"".gi-pl-
slble. DexarnyJ. comes aa an elixlr, tablet, or Sfansule (reglstered traje-";;;t:'- A;
tabreLs are flat, three-sided, sLngle-scored and green in cJlor., rhe doeag;-;;"r;;-
5 nrg I;AS/12 ercbarbltal sodlurn dosage. The rableis bear the logo irr-bsi-"rt;-;;;;-,,,
sul-es are Sreen*caPPed, clear-bodierl,
.contalning green and whltl pellets. ffr.-a.l"s"
forns for the spansules are ltt rng DAS/55 rng arnoibarblral sodlum (no. 1) ;;--^-
"na-ii ;;_
DAS/97 mg amobarbiral sodiun (no. 2). Ttrey bear the logo SKF_D9I ana bXf-O9Z,
s pec t ively

Chemical Tests for Arnl.heramines

_In Performing a chernical test for amphetanlnes, the lnvdstlgator places a srnal1-.1
sample of the suspected capsules, powder, or crushed tablets tnto vrat or spot
tester. one or two drops of the I'tarquls reagent ls then added to athesmati
suspected ma-i,
terial. Amphetamlnes wl1l react wlth the reageot to gl-ve an lniltal red-oranps color.
turning to reddlsh-brown and then to dark brown within two mLnutes. ttre speed wlth
which the color ls formed depends to some degree on the hardness of the tab1ec.., ror
exanple, the red-orange color forms irmnediately on some tablets whiLe ochers *y t"-
qulre ten to twenty seconds.

I91
LEVi:LS OF {\LPTi;IA}{I,'JE LiSE

Ttre foiio'.ring classification of levels of amphetanine use covers mosc situatj.ons

i-n vhich a=:,1:!aniaes are abused, that is, they are used beyonc the intended prescrited
Dutposesorbe'/l:rdinir-.ia'l.expe-r:i'nan|at1on...1,..'1
InLerrr:ienc lov-dose abuse. Many indlviduals occaslonally take 5 to 20 mg of
a'pn"Tan.i'r"@gu",t1'u*ter,ioodwh11ed,ointaaunp1easanttask,'pro:
<iu:e prolonl;ed rakerulngss, help iecovet fron a hangover, or to "get high." often the'
pills are obcained from frlends, who more than llke1y obtained, then by.prescrlption f,or
weight reduction. only rarel-y are they purchased on thg'bleck,natrkeL. Indtvtduals fiay
be any age and usually have Iittle lnteresi ln aophe'ta,ntne qee Ff a ttlife slyLerr'. ,

slrstai:rec low-to-qg-.alusg. In rhis patg,einn 'i,r'r;linaf"aauil ott"ins,arophetarnine

pi1:.s-ffi-Ji.l;.r.;;,;eighiconLrcl'o.li-J'+"_cr'"pi'ii"-tt.'*._i'f;i;i;;;;:
day for Lhe stinulaclon and euphoria produced by the drug. He rnay develop a strong
psychological dependence on the pills and feel that he cannot,get along without then.
If he sEops taklng Caily amphetarnines, wlthdtawal depresston iricure. Sinoe. che de-
pression eap. be easily and temporarily ttiur,edt' by renewed docf,ge of ptlls, the depen-
Cence beconas dit-flcult Lo break. Sorne lnill.vfduals.g:aduelly:lncrease rhelr datly in-.
talte of anrptretanines aic! begin taking sleqplng pills or atcotuil to relleve the lnsognla
which usually develops. lhe development.of thls ituppeg-dovner" cycle ls eapecla$y
Cangerous because Lt increases the probablltty of overdose.

lligb-dose intravengue methamphetaulne abqge. rhts ls rh; wfitel-y pubLiclzed par-

tern paqtern tnvolves f.i*lr.lndivlduals
than does oral arophetapine use, the blzarre behavlor a:rd dress oi the Lniravenous
"speed freal':," the high lncid.ence of vloLeni behavior..aud the rciriltadt rnedlea]' courpll-
catlons have focused dlsproportLonate publlc,and professionaj.'atientlqh on this pat-
tern. A uajor aotlvation ls the itflasht'or. t'rushrt'an intenge feelin{ of pleasure io-
mediacely,follo'rlng the inJeetioo. During a epeed blnge, an lndlvldual may inJect
bets,reen 500 and 1,000 rcg of nethanphetamlne every tnq ;r thrqc hours; by cont,."gt, the'
usual preseribed dose ranges beireen'2.5 and 15 mg per day. .The substar.rce,,.ca'Lled ,;
"cran|<' or "crystal," &ay consl.st of {11ega1fy proauced rnirhanptretsrltpe or dlsgolved
prescription tablets
. I . .: ,

6IBLIOGRAPI{Y

Drug Enforcecent Adninlstration, Fact S.heetq (1973); U, S. Departroent of Justlce,

Washington, D.C.

Internat'ional Association of Chief-s of- Poli.ce, Tralning Keys No, 81*,llarcotics;.

and No. 97, Dangerous Drugs, IACP, Gaithersburg, Hirylaad.
National institute on Drug Abuse, Arnphetanine, Series 28, No. 1 C1974), Departnent
of iicai.th, Education, and Felfare, Roclwilte, laiytana.
Strategy Council c:-, Drug Abuse, Federal, Stracegv.;. Dlug Abgse Preveqqicir (f916),
Governmenc Pri.ting 0ffice, Ifashington, D,C.
EdwardT.Superson,Investigation-of.Narcotics(].975),citad91Press,Ine.,
Sacramento, California.

192
th
I

CIIAPTER NINETEEN

IIALLi]CINOGENS

The cerrn "hallucinogens" refers ro a group of

drugs whlch afiect'the cerrLre:L ner-
sviren' producing pereriprual. arLeratiJns,'l"t"o"""o1;
vor-rs
ego disrorrlons, and rhought rtisruptior,. ;;il;;-I*rirl.,"r cbanges,
However, because of its widespread use
recini;;iil, these arug;-in"iiae ,ailhuana-
discussed in a separaie chaprlr. Here we and ;il;;r;;lr,d effecte, rnarlhuana ri,11. bi .
Mescallne, Psirocvbin, lou/!rp' DET, Um-"iJ. witrl-cover rsD;, pheniidili;;-?iiirii..i;il.*,
Glorv seeds' I'Iost of these subst"i"." have iril'ii"u"t"e nufoieninq, an.t ltornlBg :
of the subJectlve effects they no r"ai".i,".;;-;;1';.I,siuqly
produce. They are noi cons-td:Ied.to !_e addxcbr,ve,becauee
though rhey can and do produce a1_
isycirofogr""i"a"p.iil"". Halluc&rqsen$ e-re exoric.
drugs whLeh have recelved conslierabr,e
.,
i...iri-;i-i:ii*-.ir"
tors. Wtrile urany of rhese drugs enjoy p"rfoie of-iJ_fff."'edia-a1d.arog--:;J;":i;*,
panylng temporary demand for tieur o" itti popularlry:slsh arr aecon_
beenabusedoverthe1astdecade...::i..i... iir."it-at[ r"rter, o.{hrdrs,'eogu as pcp,,have

. i{alluclnosens
tir:re !.i:" calred
and sPace perception,
p"v:h"g:ifs) arl .,f p"o.,okrng of
""p"!1"delusi.onq,
tllusions, traltrrcinairoi"'"na "r;.ious ,v"r.t-
naculrq,-1rC
able; a "good rrip" or a'lbad trip";t-;;;;;ilJ.b-n,;r!re
occasions. Many drugs w111 cause'a deirrluil;;;;;i"a sa'e:pe{ggn olldtffirent.
sions when taken bv people rvho are hvperseasiri.ve ui Li.Efi;ffils.,cr!d derri:_,.
io ttren.' il;J;fr;;ity
aEounts of other types_of drugs r"y,i"o pi.J"*-t.iticf.ratfo.,s tarle. ,,.
action os rhe braln cells. necause or rl;-;;;;.i;ii;-;;;*#;:;="; becau*e of thelr dircct
on the huuran body, these drugs pose speci.al haltuer.nogeas,
sr.nce very soal1 quantlties, urlcrogratrs.f"- dangers al ..ryo,'. h#ii.,g ;L". Horeover,
lice offlcer must be extrernetv carltut Ln how ""rng";"".", ,.y hawq gr1at.
h*-h;;i":-lnd pac*a$ee F-9,,!€ncy3,g6s,po*,
seized as evidence' under no'clrcurasl*."-"n.L;-;;:;ffi"er halluclnogqFs ,,
type of drug or narcoric- Equally rmportair,;J;; ,"$qe thls gr ayry-,otligg.
contactL'ithehesuspecteddrug..:--.--:..-- avoidrs4y,dlrect phystcat,_:
"lsq
Mosc of the halLucinogenic drugs in illlcit
channels of distributlon are nellu-
factured in clandestine laioratorie!. r,eglrirraie-"i".i."r-"il;;il;:;"^,rililffll"
countries produce some hallucinogenic
gT"i": il;-;il*;;;-r;;;d;"lrl"i*a..1
Poses' some of these drugs have beec divirted.o pur_:
tt!,iiii"ii,";;";'#;gh
illegal purchases. ettiroigtr ;p""i;-;.;;;;;-;r';"ii,i"i""." tfrefts or
consciousnees, the halluclnogens trave y"t ." '"'i...,J li' expan6rirg.
# ;;;;;-r.it"niri,.""i.*ui;. Hence, ;
there irre nelther standard disage forms-nortornarkings .
which make-vlsuei-iJ",gtrrreatLon.
ilil"."'llTi;"i:::Ti:l:T.fii:::'"*'l::::;*li :l
iliae tnes" ;;;;;:-'
wr'rrs Pes,,rers ar i; rd;r ""p""r"1:.ti**r:-'
ze 4nf; Eet,hod,ta rracsgor,tnor '
LsD (LYsERcrc-AcrD-prATIlYLl"YrDE). Tire nosr powerfuL.and
tosslbly rhe rnogt wi{ely
""uaLSD'asem1-syntlrettca1kaloldiubstance-.exJ
tracted from a fungus vhlch gror" on rye, whear,
"oi o.i]i-r;;il::*riTi'r'extrem€ly
Potent drug, requirlng only a smal1 arnount to inau.u
erage dose (abour 100 rnicrograms) usually last
encugh to provide 300'000
t;;;-";""-;r.rri.;-lh* "iflir" One9forsrce
to terelv€ hours.
an av_
ls
doses. is
"o"o""i.i.a-." i-riq"iit";"i"frrr. rn its.
LSD

193
original sEate it ls colorless, odorless and tasteLess. Ic is often.put on or in:
suger cubes, Eo,)thpicks, aspl,rin, crackers, pos!:age stamps, or bread,
Physi-cal effecE.s oi LSD include dll-ated pup1le, a flushed face, increased blood
pressure, lowered temPerature) profuse sweating, nirusear. and .rN rapld h€artbeat. These
.:'i iectri ,i.i,sr;rpe,rr as th,.'actton of the dtrrg subsides. Consldlrable psychological. ef-
fr:.:i$ oir v.rri.orr; levels ale also trlggered by tt,L lngesrion bf LSD. iTbbse are highJ.y
subjectl.ve, depending on mood, arlxieties, tenstoas, dosage! and theleondltions under
which the drug is taken. I' ll : -: .
'
Vtvld hallucinations are experienced,, as well as a confuslon and blurrLng of
sound, taste' toueh, and srnel.L sensations. fn. phenomenon known as rsynethesiatt Le
produced as sensations trcross-overtt--that is, music may be exgdrienced a6 a coLor or
colors tray seem to have taste. The user rnay suffer loss of depctr and tirne perceptlon,
decre,'islng his ah{1i.r:y gq pel.c(:ive danger and fo rnake seneibie JudgnerfCs. The custom-
iti:y.:cntroLs over one's cmc,tiorls dimlnsh or disappear. The user uriy dxperlence feelings
ranging from ecst.asy to horror, someElmes feell"ng.tlso strong and oppoeing efiotlons with-
in a single Lncident of use, It edhnot be predlcted whether onets responsie to'the drug
will be a "good triprt wlth pleirsant sensati;ns or.a "[email protected]! rrith terrifying percep-
t lons .

An individualrs thought patterns may und.ergo tlansforrnation; resultlng in a bLur-

ring of the distinction between conscious and unconsclous thought. It is prturarily
from this effect that LSD derives lts reputation as a 'rmlnd-expanding" drug. A trlpper
nay see hirosel.f as divided inLo two parts, an'ttobservlng being" and an ttexperienclng
self;" he rnay feel rnystical or extrenely philosophtcal., repoi-i.,g. sense of rebirth,
or profound pers,tnality lnsigirts, or a hel-ghtened awareness of llfe and nature. Be-
c.rttse of lhesr: trconsciorrsnes:-<-:xpandlng" eftects, LSD has been extensively cested as a
pi)i;:ilble treatment for mentaL illnesses. In studies so far 1t has failed co help the
severely 11.1' but some 'inprovement. has been noted ln less extreme cases.. FoLlow-up
studies, however, have suggested that improvements are not ladtlng and therapeutic
i'alue may be very linited
The drug ls not considered, to be physically addictl-ng because'the body does not
devel6p a need for ir nor experience phystcal sickness rhen it, ls lr"lthdrawn. However,
a psychological dependence rnay develop. The regular user wlII also build up a toler-
ance to the drug' requiring an increased dosage to produce the desired effecf. The
user may also suffer perlods of acute anxl.ety or depression fo? varying lengths of tioe
after Ehe I'triP.t' Recurrences of hallucinations ("f1ashbacks") *ay-oc"ur diys, months,
or even years after the lasc dose. Panic reactions to this phenomenon have occasLon-
ally culninated ln suicide
In short, LSD is not yet fully understood. One posslbLe effect of LSD 1s Lhat it
rnay cause an abnormal, amount of breakage Ln the chromosomes of the white blood ce11s.
Chromosomes carry genes thac transmit hereditary traits from parent to offspring. If
abnorn^al chrontosomal darnage occurs, there is the
possibllity that miscarrlages and
birth defects in the offspring may result, although deflnite confLrrnatlons of thls
theory have yet to be made. Ir has been shown that heavy use can causd an lmpalred
n,emory' mental confusion, and difficulty with abstract thtnkiog. It ls not known
whether these condltlons can be reveried upon dtscontinuance oi ttri arug.

LSD was first synthesized by a Swiss chemlst, Albert Hoffman, ln 1938. FIve years
laEer' Hoffmann accidenrally discovered its rnlnd alterlng properties while performing
an experiment. Its use spread rapidly, boch through legltlmare reaearch and illlclt
trafficklng, reaching lts peak during the 1960rs. The drug vas outlawed Ln the Unlted
States (except for experimental research specifically desllnated by the federal govern-
t:"1)
-9y the Drug Abuse Control Amendrnents to the Federal Food, nrug, and Coeoetic
of 1955. 'i
Act

L94
 In splte of penalties lmposed for non_nedical user.
widespread use anong the pseuio-reli.glous the dtug enjoyed .parilcutarly
crrrt.-oi n iglra-e"tbury,1n san Franclscq and
Greenwtch Vlllage in Nes iork durin;-;;;-";;ir'rcio?n.
as the cutts graduatly drslnregratei. rr Thls parrern of ugd tapcred off
ir,"i f";;r"t3
lla' where L5i) expar:i-nenratton lncrcas:d. :;i10re 6ubur_.
Due to the possibi-1i'ty or chronos,oruar
"gii"i-;;:#ddi"_91aso
trrih sctrooj-*ln g.rie!"-age.popurations.
LSD bv students has decrea""a,
or.rrirer f"!*q,*nt'bi,;i.osi*;ilf"r*g*,.thb use qf
u.o'nur"ori""-;";;;;*rt
drug as frequenrly as rhey aia pi.ri";J;.-- vsrYlLs{ offtrcere,.:dd,not
-.---,:,, eo€odnrar rhie
,... -,::-:-
l .r,-,
PCt (purwcvqHo-r-Nr)'*
-' drug scene. Knor,,rl onPh-tt"v:1111i"-lrgr) has.leaped ."""o.r, iFro rhe forefroar
j
-' the
ot the streets as,'angel-ailtl ,, I,iog,;,IiA-h";ari*r
exotic names' pcp has become .'ury pop,ri;.-;r".;;";i"iiltur drug usrire. o.ther i
' Phency'clidine,was.invesrigared
in the late 19.501s
analgeslc (paiu kl11er). rt wJs;i";-';;;
Parke, Davis and cornpanv r"""r.r"a-;-;J;; ilr=.til'irearment "9, "rr.;i"rf".*U, "rnnai.rfo uoal
qf nienrar:dfsordets.,
the drug under ctre-tiaae n"r"-i"i"vr.. ii;l!"=ollenr for it in r.9o3,ard markee;d
often produced unpleasant ;;;.:;;;;.ttve Alth;;Jr,-;rFJ;ii""-;; ;;;"",iiili.r",,the,,drus ,
dellrlun. rts leglrir"t" r.r"" side visual-Jletrubances
clldine became avallable rn s"r,riro., "ff."i.,i"c-luding
rJi-i,r..n" ,""-ai"6iiirr,r*c {l 19g?, bu.t,Ia tg6g.pheitcy_and
nylan. ro"u'iort;;;;il;ry
'"' ":*:""*r uqg .=f giriidi,.ttre
Yt,"J. .rrade,niac,Ser-
:1" __:

The flrsr reporred

Ashbury disrrtct in.1967,"srreer' "":-:f,fr"ncycr-idin-e r.1 ro lrr,rr"ii"rr.rj",t*Jr*oi-
vhere itL"lif"gaif.y.r.ii".ua
earlv appearance was in New york ilty where";it;;;ii;i aE the.peg.{" liII. Anothet
cei'ved by the d.rug using corununity ils:',-d?;".r,or *erl^ re_,
rhat air",-irrJ-in-l-96g the Halght-Aehbury
{edical clinic reported i:rrnt u""-lrat. Free
;ormronly rntslabeled and sold as other cru! tui ":it".LLy ceasee.:--it,"", hgrrever,l
.
rhe
synthetic THC. ;";;#d;il""il;t;;;.;;;h"iir-*"*u""1ng,as rr",.

: +

The effects of PCP vary wldeLy.

bodv are not vec clear, pcp'rs kioir,."Although lrs exact pt4pi.l.;gr"a1 actlong
"o .rr",,:,
l

rn small doses, phencycl{dr". arreii.i" i;ii".i{,d.,cur,tl"i:ie;;oss."syirrenj

analgeslt and anestheslu occ,-r.,"""."" seaatroii liil; ;;;a ,,dolrners.,, rn-notfur*te,doees;
doses, pcp raav produce by rn.large
"t".e"r"rraed
;;;-ir"irii"il
""ngory,arsiurbqn€es.
qtur!,.
"ono.ri"ioi;;;
experience a confused state udar,persosc:rur{ng.pgg:r,
characterized uy-i."iligs-of werghtlqpenisa,
and hallucinations' Reports oi-Jiiir""tty_in
;;;;ili;s; poor eoirc'entratiopunrc*trity,
.: :.
cupation with death are frequent. other artil preoi-
sweattng, lnvotuntary effs.a" ii"iiae nausea, vonttlng, profuse :

o'oo"menrs (;;;;;;;i; il;i: vt1lon

has also been reported"y"
that PCP users ir"rru-r.rcit.""i--ut"* ieifilfsncssl rt
"na ios!.; ehsnrosme
breakage and decreased fertiliiy.---- oo=*
': of f.atal , ,r

More pcp users die from aceidents

ln thern than from the actuaL .rr"ii".r glused by rhe str'nge beh.avlor an. i*, h.od,r"""l
cror'med in shallow water t."""""-"tiJy effect'or'tt,"-aIog itser.f., people on,pcp haVe
.r" oiroil.ii"a
up' orhers have had auto accld"nr",'f;ii";-";;";;-;;;" .n., canrt terl whlch way rs
"o and out of wrndbts b,icjause of
thedrug'sintoxicaEingeffects.-;;'"r'"""ji"a"i".;;"-becaus€FtP.nadeL'ien:1*:.
sensitLve to the pain of burnlng
escape from the flames. "na'"o confused ".ra-Ji"o"iented rhst they igirriinrt- ,

The reasons why pcp contr'nues ao-11:.:."e

publicttv, remain unclear; r{;;;;;r;-mosr exper."
in populeilty, in splre of the adverse
Iri-"r the opinlon
probablv three maJor facrors contrtuuti.ng
to';;;-"i;;"; pcp probllar.rhat.:tfrere,are
: :,
, ,., .

*Natlonal Inscltute on Drug

* 3

irlel-fare, Rockville, Md. Abuee,.qCpr U.S. nepartnitrt sf tlealth; Educttlon,

and

195
 Fi.rst, it is readily avallable, For exarnpler. in one WesL Coast city the locaL po-
i rce riep.r r:mzrrt ::L?iriirit?d t'lrat in 1972 tt'.ere \ras only one indtvidual rnanufacturtng FCP
in that city Hl!3rc3s, at presenE, iL is estlmatcJ Lhere aro ovet fifty indlvlduals in-
vo-lveC in large scale nanufaceure of PCP,

SeconJ, 9C?:i-s ii:..r;.:i;erisii'e boLti Lo lnar'lrrlac-t:qre and to buy'.,trrf,iin compared ko mosl:

oEher drugs. Subsequeir:ly, ttrere is :r trenr:ndous proflt bargiq fof rranufacturers and
dealers in PCP, more so than any other drug. A small tntt{al, liwestnoent of, for ex-
snple, $5,00C to Si0,000 erralrles an indiviclual to nanufacture 60 to lO0 pounde of pure
PCP crystal. The pure crystals uny vhoLesale froo $10,000 to $18,000 per pound, there-
by producing atr iwaediate high proflc. Depending on the deslred strength agd foro of
the end product, the PCP crystaLs are then cut ten to flfty tftres tb tretiCet!' poteney
by uslng powdered nnilk. IJhen the final product is 1n the forft of p11,1s, the pure PCP
w111 be cut ten to t$renEy tlmes wlrh powdered milk and then mLxed w"tth a "blndlng"
aduliera*e to p.o:l!rc+ r,h.e pi1l. shap'e.. One p,6]rn4 of Llre adulteiared pCp wiruld then
yield apProxinaLely 6C,000 pills which may sbL1 for $2.00 each. I,lhen the final pro-
duct is to be "angel duslr" the pure Pcp will be cut as mueh as fifty'tings.
ThirC, the greaL.est concentratl.on of PCP users ls ln the 15. to 25 age group. one
reason is that peer pressure and the deslre for group acceplance at these ageg are at
Eheir highest. To be accepted into the'"in" group, nany peopLe wlll use drugs for the
firsc ti:ne or expand ninor abuses to include poly-drug use. Many users have indlcated
that thelr first lntroductlon to PCP \f,as. a result of peer pressure agd that thelr
first drug was rnarlhuana. Urfortunately, ma:ry of these new users 'a15o snoked PCP,
thinking it was narlhuana. Therr, due to peeq presaure, they Contlnued to use PCP.
"Angel- dust" is normaj,ly produced by dissolginB one teaspoon to orie tablespoon of
the cut PCP into a pint of acetone or eEhor. Cufrentlyr the rnost popolar'ne-thod is'to
then place mint or parsley leaves into a contai.ner and mlx the plnt of now ltquid PCP
with the lea"res. After rhe highly volacile acetone or ether evaporates, t8 to 20 :

ounces of PCP-l.reated leaves remain, These lesves,are conoonly referred to as t'angel

dust.''Anotherfrequent1yusedrnethodistoepraythe1iquidicrootheIeaVes
Generally, no less than one ounce of ltqu1d PCP f; spray.d on one pound of l,eaves.
frengel dust" prepared by
the rnixing rnethod is more potent and, depending on the
geographlcal regioo, seLl_s for $1?5 to $j.35 an.ounce. ''r'Angel dust" is also cornroonly
packaged in $tO bindles that weigh approxirnhtely 1.5 grarus. From a blndle, the user
can make seven to ten I'pinrol-l" joints. "Plnroll" joints are much soaller than notr
maL marihuana joinrs due to the poreacy of pCp. 'Though not ueualLy sold lndivldually,
"pinrollr' jointe have sold for $1.50 to $2.00 each
Because aln:osE all the PCP seen on the street j.s lllicitly manufactured in elart-
destine laboratorles, the strength, appearance and type'of packaglng vary depending on
the source. Investigators report, horrever, lhat the Itaveragett angel dust.cigarette 1s
more potent than the same quanti.ty of marihuana and that three '!hitst' of angel dust
wil 1 produce a "high" equa1 to or greater than t.hat caused by srnoking an enElre mari-
huana cigaretEe. Occasionally, users will combine angeL du6t arld marlhuana but, be-
cause the mixture (also called Killer Weed) is exEremeLy poEent, this practice.is not
colrtrnon.

'{ESCALINE. }lescaline
is the primary actl-ve ingredient of the peyote cacLus,
Lopttophor,a williarnsii Lemaire, a plant which has been eripLoyed by Indlans in northern
Hexico fron the earliest recorded tlme. 81'the tine of the Spanish conquest, peyote
had been adopted by a number of tribes who spanned the geogtaphlc dtstance .froqr Central
.Lrierica to Texas. In this setting, individuals ingested the..mescallne-contal.ning pey-
ote buttons to relleve fat.lgue and hunger and to treat victLnrs of various'diseases.
The dried Eops were rtorn as anulets for protection against danger. In trlbal rltes,
mescallne r,ras used in group sertings to facilitate the achievernent of a trance qtate
necessary for tribal dances.

t96
-l
The iocldence of llllctt rnescallne use on the street has never: been,accurately de-
terreiutC. ?he dr'-ig, ln the fonr of Lire. pe)'oce buttons, wa$ avaltable for petsonal ex-
Perinentatlon fron the beglnnlng of thls century, but li did not galn &uch of a follou-
1ng untl1 rhe l960fs. At that tiae a number of "beats," poets, artlsts and stu6enEs
began trylr.rfi'.r+!()i:e as a s;upnlen?en!._ to t.heir use of ot.hel.Crugs.

Ingestion of 300/800 nilligrans of peyote "buttons" produces hall-ucinations, oc-

casionally s*<ual 1n nature, e.nd l.rriensifled sensual qxperlences.. Side effects:may:.be
feellngs of terror, anxiety, *npaired space and color perceptlon, and psychocic re-
acticns. Peyoters effects usua1"1-y begin withln one hour after lngestions of a single
dose and may persist uP to t-*-elve hours. The physlcal synptons are sinilar to those of
LSD: di-lated pupils, increased pulse rate and blood pressure, and trenors. Although
no physical ctaving or need may develop, excesslve use rnay result in psychologleal ia:
pendence. ;

Peyote buttons average one to two inches in dj.anneter, are brorn in co!.oi, and re-
semblethe underslde of a dried rnushroorn. They are occaslonally on the.tlllcit -
narket. Because peyote has an intensely bltter tEste, the butt;Arfouad
dr€ generally .
groundupl.ntoadarkbrownpow<1erandso]'d1nclearielattncapsu1as."
ItlescaLLne lrnd other alkalotds such es anhalonidine, anhalonl,ne and pell.otlne ln
Peyote are resPonsible for the halluctnogenlc effects. The tentrJ.trpeyotert and rtnesca-
line'r a,re often used ioterchangeabLy to refer to the same gubscance. Mescaline,-Clin-"
isolated in 1895, may be extracted from peyote. or. synthesised in a laboratory, flrBg.
lcally, mescallne has been used experirnentally in.the treatment of schlzop6r"nfa aiJ
oEher psychotLc states,

"Bad trlps" orl mescallne can usually be reversed or ended by a competent therap{st
or suPPortive frlend through the process of t'talking down." This technique lnvolves a
mLnLmum of physlcal or nedical intervention and emphaelzes provtdlng cornfort,
and reassurance. Although chernical intervention (prlua:clly rdth. phJnothiazine""fpoit-
tiao:
quillzers) has been wldely practlced by eoergency wards ln the pu"t, it is usually not
necessary excePt as a lasE resort. Coopllcatlons rrtth chenotherapy of adverse melca-
line reactions include: creatlon of a nore confusLng pl.cture, wtictt ls harder for the
physl-elan to diagnose and treat; paradoxical respons.s, ir, which tha treat&ent nay,nake
the trip worse rather than better; lnterference ulth norroal breathlng patterns;
idiosyncratic combinatlons of drugs whtch can cause shock aRd even eeaitr. The'laeter"nd,
possibilities should be taken lato consideratlon lrhen the bad trlpper hae taken ,ts1m-
thetic" or t'extracted" nescallne procured from illlcit sources Ueca,rge tbese t'drug!,t
in all likelihood are noc real mescaline, but conbinaEions of any variety of psycio-
phar''lirceut ic a 1s .

in demand on the illlcit narket. Ilowever, the amount of

Peyote and nescallne are
real available is insignlficant compared to drugs whlch are pur-
peyoEe and roescallne
ported to be peyote that are belng soLd. For lnstance, brown sugar, laced with tbD.,
is frequently sold as mescaline.
PSILOOYBIN AND PSIL0CYN. Psll.ocybln occurs naturaLly in geveral sp€cies of
nush-
roo*s.A].bertHoffuann,thedl'scoverer.of'BD;-;J-hd-....
colleagues at the Sandoz Laboraibries in Basel, Switzerland, isolated tlro substances
fron Psilocybe-rnexicana. Psilocybin was lsolated as the rrjo. eonstLtuenc; holrcver-
psilocyn was also found Ln smaLi amounts, but was equalLy a"tl.r". These aik"loids balr"
slnce been found present in numerous varlaties of mushroons. Interestlngly, psilocybln
is relatlvely unstable and upon ingestion is converted .to psiloeyn by ah; L.t"1,p.,
llne-phosphatase. Therefore, it seeos llkely that.psilocyn ls responatilc"it"-
for
the drug effects accredLted to pellocybin. "Ln"ify
Psilocybin exhlbltE a rang,e of ef fectg sinllar to those produced by tSD *a *u""*
line. However, the potency of LSD lq conslderably greater.than psllo.ylin, whlch tn

197
lurn is nore porenE then mescaline. A dose of 225 rnicrograms Per kil'ogran of peiLo-
cyb'in i;ould prcldrt,:': c1:ini r:ir'l- ef f r,'c'ls comparai:1e to 1 ro 1.5 urcg/kg of LSD. Tolerance
:o psilocybiq has iree it demoirsrraEed, alrhough ir does not oceur as raPidtY as toler-
3nce to LSD. Inclividuals tolerant to psiloeybln are also tolerant to a "challengingt'
dc.;e of l,SD. Si:'ri-l-an]-y', ln'ji.viduals tolerant la LSD display croa$-tolerance to
psi'!o-
cyb::r..

The physlolog,ical eEfecrs produced by psilocybln are uot unlike those seen wlth
LS1J, TSese'ef fecis are usr.rill;r rlinima1 and tend to be oediated. by the autonor0ic ner-
vo11s system. Cor,non physiological changes includet , pup11lary dllation; increased deep
fe:rdon refl-exes; s1lght increases in pu1se, blood Pressure and body temperature. The
use cf psilocybin ouiside the realrn oi cllnlcaL researeh can be cgrrelated with the use
of othei psychedelies, notably LSD. lnitial use of these drugs occurred at severaL
cosrnopolitan universities jn the ntd-1950rs and prollferated lnto the "youth ghettoesrl
of the 1.ar"ge n'etrirpol-ilan c.ilt..:)].{ of the l:i:lst aod Werit Colsts'
Tvo faccors apparerttly Led to the lncreased populariEy of psilocybln; flrst' the
f.initec{ availabiliiy of psilocybin as compared to LSD made lt uore attractive; and
second, reports of LsD-i;duce<l genetlc darnage directed users tolrard urescallne and
psilocybin, Wlth the increased demand for these nore exotlc drugs, dealers began pro-
noring LSD as psilocyhin and mescaline. Due to the illicit nature of psychedellG'drug
,r"u, it is exceedingi-y difftcult to accurately assess the contents of "street-producedrl
drug sarnples. However, recent chemical analyses of street ttlisilocyblntt and
ttmescal'lnett
ha.re usually proven to be LSD or sometimes other drugs, such as PCP. LSD and psLlo-
cybin produce quite sinJ.lar effects. However, because exPecqations pl,ay a slgniflcant
role l.n the outcome of the psychedellc drug experience, users may rePort subJeetive
differences between the LSD and the supposed psilocybln exPerlence, although they took
LSD both tines.
The "talk-downt'technique has been establlshed as the preferred oethod for.han-
dli.ng "bad trips." This te;hnique lnvohes non-morallzlng, comfortlng' Peigonal suP-
port fron an experlenced lndlvlduaL, This is aided by llrnttlng external stinulatlon
such as lntense light or loud sounds and having the peraon l1e down and relax. A1-
thor.rgh use of rranquilizers is widespread, these drugs should only be enployed to
"aboit." the psychedelic drug experience if t'talking downt' has failed. Several prob-
lerns may arise from the use of tranquiltzers or olher sedatlvee lncluding: possible
un,lesirabl-e interac!ions with unknown street drugs or contaminat,ed drugs; ereatlon of
a rTrore confusing plcture, vhlch ii harder for lhe physician to dlagnose and treat; a
paradoxical response potentiating the drug effectsl and lncreastng ehe possiblliey of
subsequenE itashbacks.

Doy/STP. DoH (nerhyl/dirnerhoxy/methyl/phenyl/et.trylamine), cornmonly known as STP,

i" . lliiEEEic <lrug whicir was introdueed cq the drug scerre in. the early spring of 1957.
1n 1964, Dr. Alexander T. Shulgin synthesized DOM whlle working on the developrnent of a
series of methoxylated amphetamines for the Dow Chernical,Conpany. DOMI MDA (3r4-neth-
ylene-dioxyari.phetanine) and I.MDA (3-methoxy-4 ,5-nethylenedioxyarnphetanine) ' are ln-
trpeychoton:Lnetic .an-
cluded in a group of some 28 psychoacti./e drugs,referred to as
phet-amines." Th; psychotornimetic arnphetamines display halluetnogenlc aCtivlty and are
chenically related to both rnescaline and anPhetamiue.
has been estirnated to be approximately 100 tlmes more.potent than nescaline'
DOM
but 30 co 50 tiines less potent than LSD. Effects report,ed by subJeets in clinlcal
circumstances may be susrnarlzed as follows: nauseai aPpetiEe decreaedd more often than
increasetll inereased sweating; feelings of heat slightly more often than eold; Parea- ' :
Ltresj.as (nunbness); tension; rremorsl fatigue. Measured physiological synitome guch
as pupillary ciilation, increased deep cendon reflexes, tremor. and lnereaBed pul6e rate
present evidence of syrnpat.hetic sf.tmularlon. Early ln the course of the drugrs effects
drowsiness was noted with no apparent direct central- nervous stloulation' "Increased
pupil si4e, blood presssre and- pulse rat,e were more clearJ.y r.elated to subJects

198
 receivlng htgher doses. Only. Ehrce of etghteen sub-iects hod a
1oC or more ancl all were ter'perature Lncrease.of .

rfie higher dosg^?. Al"thougir sqbJecrj&ve' febft'ris.;i-;;;k;;,

-on
irere reported, none vas decectable clinlcally. . Douy'€ip ls
Elle street today. verl,lseldo*
"*r;;rare;il;;]:
DET (DilirilYT.Sillggu.U-. DET ls one of the lateEt
btot'1;hfitlEi-$iernment control. rt, is a_r"st-."riig halluclnogenic'dfugs rol be: ,,,,,:
syntheriq,.aallogrrq of
,g1fr;
is chenit:all'y related to brrfotenlne-and psiiocyhin, aithgugh tt: arfr -

plant life' DET is produced in both. rrqura ;i ts..yet,,to, fq.fq'nd,r1n..r

tured in a laborarory. rr does ;;trd;; forn and ts not eqor+r aEl'rluraer
r,""J-.;y-;;J;;;;'r;;;;r#{"":::
"ot """iir.ilrijtil-
a rise in blood pressure and rnay rup.t.tire small- qlood vedse.te 1n.the
DET causes
braln' rhere are no reports of its.having.ove.;.;;';;;"ili: :ffi:";fi* a do$€ ,ef
50' or 60 mllligrams of DET causes visua]
tj'me' The experience may last two ii""otiiorrsl tlizztnessland, v'',,'.,,
a-vdguei:sdrrre:of
tea' or marihuana leaves are soakedtoi1rrhree hours..-iot
"t"""r usgr p"rri;i;d;
polution,-d.r"J,-iia-i'il";;;h"r
;

insested. presenrry, however, there isDgT sookeil or

rir.!i;-;;;ia-i;"-is['lni,ii"'i;::;r"il;;],11,,,,
. Dlfrnarr.ve
a ptant
(DTMETHYTRIPT4I{TNE)' Dlrr is a short-acting
hallucinogen found ln the ieeas or
to t}re weEr-Tndies and_irr parr,s,t-6l"i6-er";i;;,"il;';#;;;
have been used for centuries r" a s*,rff-{;ii;-,;.JiJi"',r-rn il;; "'
rel{gtoue cereaonr.ea ,ro.
produceastateofmindwhichtheHa1tia"""ti"."-oiai'"aendb.14d,tt.eo.o.i]tii;;;. .

r"ith their gods. rt is also produced

;i.ij;;;"tfi;rilrr]**'"o'"
"y"th;ir;ir;-;;
Dl'lr is not laken oraL1y. rnstead.lts vapor
is inhaLed frg+ sroke given
burning ground seeds or pori", rnixed wftfr toiic"or-pir"f"y uy
rr can also be lnjecred. The effecrs,of a stlte'al;"__oo leavesr.or even i,rarlhuana.,"rr
fron 45 to 60 rninltes and ;;.i;0'*iirigr"r"=_rast opLy
rnainly t.rru"ii.trorr". For thia-reason, lt Ls
"iir-pr"a"ceTrlp"
sonetlmes known as rhe ',Buelnes6nanrs ;;;;-i;;;;-;;;".ii,in;;';;,
psvchologlcar bur not phvsical dependence. ;, i; d;;;il qayr€aiise
orange crystal. li-iaii;i;ir..il;rfrnlrq'=,,;
IBOGAINE. Ibogatne, an alkalold, is extractdt frorn
iboga-f,rEirl-ivhich Is ,r"ii.,. ;; il;;";. the rootsiof the tabefnanthe
Thr"-;;;-".u""" a rrse ln.blood pressure and
stlmulares the central nervous 6vsrem in addrtroi"..-r"ii."r*-i.ii;;i;;;i;";;;.;;:
No streeL dosage is reported for lbogalne. rn
on the drug. rhe drug ie 1r1ega1 because of rtst""i, iiatr. inforoarlon ie sval.lable
po;.n;;;i-d;;;;;;';"ln"i;;;T:;:"""
of its pasr history of abuse. For a1r. practi".l;;;;;;es, lbogatne
the illtcit marker. ':ie nonexlstent bn
BUFoTENTNE' tsufotenine, whlch
is related chernlcalLy ro Dlfr, is also a recent ad-
diti; tc'lI;Jlst of harlucinog.n" under the Drug Abuse control Amendrents.
Bufotenine is derived from rhe Jried"ona.olled
gland;i;;;;;.ion"'of
amanita fungus, and it can be found ii rhe seeds e€lrsln roads, fron rhe
;J-il; ;; ;#;;"b;l;"'i;in;:
denia peregrina)' a.shrub found ln the-norrhe.n p..i"'oi-si"rir'iJ;;;-#
Indi'rs. However, buforenine can also U. pr"pr.ei-ii-ai" lEboraloryn in rhe r{eet
will increase brood pressure, whire abuse ,i'.rr"-ar"g p.od.,c"s and noderaLe doses
tenine is used as a snurf . svmptorns appear t"riu"irrati;;::;#;:=F
"il;";-;;.;;;.i;.";
thisdrugisnonexi'stentontirei111cii.u.s.a.ui-"'""r."t. ;ii';;"ili,i1ilyl-
MoRNrNc cloRY-qrEps.
rngestion
:f :llr.*l:nate1{ 300 rnornlng grory "."d"'rr1,:"",r""
ha][email protected]'sared.escr1bei1asni1dw1th
the high lastlng from seven to fourreen hours. r*e otiir-;;.;ili;;:"ilr"fi;l;fi;.
cinlgens,-mornlng glory seeds were used by e*"rr".r,-rii:..nr.
seeds to fJ-our, which nas then soaked r" r.l"i.--ii-r"-ri*.ure The rndians ground the
liquid ingested. Modern abusers eat rhe nas rt..,
ot borl them rn"trrii"i"Li:'irr.
gest the llquid resLdue. Some of the more "".J"-ari"".ii
popuJ-ar nAnls for rnornlng gfory"ui.|".fi"1f,:'
e"eas ere:
"Heavenly Bl.ues"' "Flying saucers" and "pearl;-a;;.;:;;- Dlzziness
quent side effects' The actlve {ngredient in mornrng and diarrhea are fre*
gl.ory seede rs leireved to be

L99
lysargic acid amide, an alkirloid chem!"ea1Ly related te LSD. t'iorning glory seeds are a
anrl tiruir pir:sess.iorr Ls. noi illegaL. Iagese'iot of r:rorning glory
cori.n,'r'': Alrr:.1.,:n Lt.:r,r,
seeds *as a farl a few years ago, but is almost unheard of at pregent.

i[ :-r-!.qci!]ll|'
Drrrg Enforcerrenr Admlnistrati.n, Faqi. $*qle (1973), U.S^ Departmerlt of Justtce,
Hashington, D.C.
llarlonal Insriture of Drug Abuse, DOM/STP (1973), Report Series 17, No. 1, U.S.
DepartmentofHea1th,Educacion,andWe1fare'Rockvi11e,}{d.
liaticrnal In:ittlute of Drug,r\bnse, lte"a,Sgl$g (1973), Report series -15' llo. '1, U,S.
Dep;}ItmencofHeaich,1iducarIrrn,andWe1fare,.Roakv11ie'Md.'
National InstLrute of Drug Abuse, PCP, U.S. Departnent bf'Health, Education, and
WeJfare, Rock.rille, Md.

Natio:ral Institute of Drug Abuse, Psylocybin. Report Serles 16, No. L, U.S. De-
partnentofHealth,EducaLion,andwe1fEiEl-Eckvt11e,Md.
Edward T. Superson, Inve-st-lgation of Narcoties- (1975), Citedel Press, Sacramento.

2A0
 CIL\PTER TWENTY

I'tAF.IHT'ANAIt

)
il t.

L. frorn the genus cannabls and the. famlly'cannablna.igae,1,.ri,i^th€,.;i,,,,

cirnnabi-s sa.tLva
botanical namefor a ta1l anlual ,-woody, orobctous-"it,ru_"or.orii
The rerm "marihuana" as defined by law neans allrp"it"-of nq*"tis qrili4rntr1l:
the plapt .

or nor; the seeds rhereof ; rhe resr-n-exrracted frora any

n..1 "f,"rtL" grov*ng..
compound nanufacture; salt derivatlve, rnixture,
o"'pr.ia.a!{on"i-qq;;jil;, ipd,e;a-
or reslns. such terns do not include the "fl;;.it;ilnt; tts sa-Bds
oature
rron such stalks, oils or cakes mnde frou the scafts of ii.u".,.j.
"".rr-pifi;;,.'lh;i
""";;-;;.";"h-;i;;;;;'iii,"irr.r,compou*d,.
manufacture, salt derlvatLve, mLxture or prepararr.on of (elscepr rhe
"ir"1 ,r.lti;;i[;
resin extracted therefrorn), fLber, otl or''cai<. ."-.r,..jt;riiifi:"i.i-li*"uoh
planr
.

which is incapabJ-e of gerrninati.on. 'qvt-,r r?+'r&L

Gravrs Manual of Botany lists two dlstLnct genera

nanelv, cannabis tn the cairnablnacead fauily;
The main borani""i-;i;;";""""-u".".;;;;*;r"
"na-lt,rr','1i6.
snfiguration of the stems and the arrangemenr" -Sil;l;"';;
o*el.ng the
"r-it"-pt"igr.i;-il#;".
che Humulus senrrs, namelv lr. rupulus and-H. r."tt...us,t;;;;;ii-d;;;ril
rlvvp dtE
sLill of econornr.c importance to lnpart rhe bltter fi;;;r'i;;;il il;;;s:€ "tild.J;-"i"'
some varieties of the specles cannabls satl.va have been
various designations sucb as "cannabis indica. and ,cannaur= descrlbed and asslgned
areiic""..;-'-u"";;:;;-
botanists are in agreement that these represent varietles .ra-r"iiir"Iirorr"
cies can'nabls sativa, which is the only-irue of the spe-.
"pu"i""-oi-.n.".r]Ir:'-;;:';;"*!.e
cion on Narcotic Drugs rnakes a dLstincrion between conven-
the "d;";;i;';r""t'; J^a rtcannabis
resln," the former meanlng any plant of th:-c"nr,.ui" g.ro=.na ttr"i"tt.ilneanl.ng tlre
separated resin obtalned frorn the plant. The convention
rutu" ;h"r-;;;;i"e dlsc1nction
betveelntheprirnarynatura1p1antmateria].anditsderivativeso1e1yforstatisti'ca1
ptrrposes' espee{a1ly in the research area. }Iany si-gnatory
sanr: definitions in their natronal narcotlcs 1aws. The
countries have adopted ihe
unlted
tr:o1ler1 subsfance's Act of 1970, does not disttnguish between states law, f[6
goo-
the plant
resin since 'i I is generall'y accepted that the ti'o terms are synorrymous *"a.ri"r-irra an"
and the .deffni-
tion of "marihuana" includes the extracted resln. llowever, in some countrles
definition of marihuana to cover both the plant a single
and rhe i"ii"'r""i"r.ii""i";ti"g-r"i--
this has posed serious enforcement problem;. sirnilarly, a raxononiial arnbigulty
bcta.ical classification of "rnarihuana'r has exlsr"i. u"ro.;;;;;;i;;-Joiu"uo."rrists in the
earlier assigned separate 'specie names to varieties and hi;i;;-;;"ir,.".J"I";;;;;;"'-' hed

r,Yaterial in this chapter is based on:

Drrrg Enforcement Adninisrratlon, cannabis sativa, prepared by John T. flaher, DSA,
I.l:rshington, D.C.
National Gcvernors' conference,
I,lashington, D,C. Yarljuana (Lg77), Natlonal Governors, conference,
N'ational rnstitule on Drug Abuse,
a-uion, and hlelf are, Rockville , Mcl Yarihuana and Heal.th, Departnent of Health,'Edu-
_

Edward T' superson, rnvestigation of Narcotics (1975), citadeL press,

sacramento.

201
 guch as soil chemlstry'
species, It is now knonn that certaln envlronmental factors of tire ni;rtihuana plant ' Ptior
tc-.1:;:.)raiiir1, , 31-1,r:!trr.1: - ,-)tc, . p:'od:ce pivtr""r varlations
seParate nanes vefe asstgned to
):u Li13 acce-Dia:lce of a'|,niuursal elassliicatlon systemt such differentiatlons'
trlese rnodifiei plants. Botanical authoiitles no io"g"t recogaize
,'C:rnnab.i..; err:jv.a" T3r..,.?-j...r tl.: only ana aE-inclullve designaClon for thls plant'
a'.rrl pros;eutor-^to prove that a de-
Not:.riii'rslenrlirl,l tl'js f;rcr' :r('1::c (:otttl'* i^'"" ttqt'ired the ln t'CannabLe gat'lva"
ferrrlant r:har1;r,,j w'ith cle;:r1i.ng in "rnarlhuaoat'Was ln fact dlallng
ttCgnnabl's mexlcanl'lt These lat-
r.rr,f not in ,'Cannabis in,JLca," "Cannabi,l-.*"tl"o"itt' or
rer rern:s should be avoiCe<i. otherwil;,-;;; starus of the violator will be eo lulcer-
tain as to invit.e acquittal.
Henp (cannabis) is cultivaEed the r.rorld over. Its culture
is presuEed to have
wl1d or is cultlvated ln
orlginarr<l irr China from where ff tpiu"l.- It presently Europlan
groats
countrles-' Although the
North and Sourh Anerica, Asla, Afrlca, and 1n iome
the extent of
ptant g,r.ws in niu-y ar..:s of ehe woriir-ecoJ-ogical variabl'es govern of. the plants
growrh and are rrr"io.,uiUie for many toiph"f"gical rnodiflcations

It is cu!-tivated for ttrree purPoses: (1) for the fiber, frora which rope' tvine'
which_a rapld-drytng o11 I's obtalneil
clotir and hacs ar:e made; (2) for the-""ua, irom ln the resln of the
rhat has comrnercla1 value; (3) for ttt.-""if"" principle contalned
polLln extract are occasionally used
ilrj-ed flowering tops. Dilute solrrtiois oi ttti* Eanifestatlons'
to deveLop* .*ligurr" in t6ose persons who exhlbit allerglc
placed under i:t::-.
The prodr:ction and use of marihuana and its resio was first signalorles of that
narional consrols by the Hague corr.r.iiion of 1912. However, many
irrstrument and succeedtng documents iai neither the facllitieg nor' ln some cases' the
the strlct prohl'bition agalnst
iitcllnation rr:) enforce prohi.blElons. Notvrlr.hstanding for lnstance' the
thc pro<iuction and,r"" of marlhuana and hashlsh in the Balkan,States' seizures of contraband
e-1en<lestine market flourished. Although authoritles report uany
material each ye:rr, there sti1l" exisa""..,u.y large illiclt it trafflc' In North Africa'
whert: quasl-nedi".i had been tofei.lea for ceituries, uas finally Prohlbited ln
""" percent of the populace stlll ue€s c€IIl:
the 1950rs. Ho,../eve!, it ls estimated that 25
nabis to some degtee
i{arihuana ls knorsn as the "poor mants opium" because lt is relatively
abundant
to other arrrg". uniite heroin or cocaine, marihuana does not
anrl inexpensive cocrparecl prtce dor*r' In re-
r,:qr-ri-re any chemica-l transformation paiol. to use, _vhich
keeps the
iriglr", econonlc, soc1a1 and educational strata heve
cir.f years, however, persors in rhe
ir'.'.,irir to use marihuana.

In the tinited S[ates, canada, and llexico' the drled Asla, crushed tops and leaves are
rollecl inlo cigarrtt"" ond smoked. In Indla and ceiltral the raw resln 1" "T] -
into sticks or roixed with varlous spices and called
tr:ircted from the top. kneaded
are also Poltdereil and
Charos or Dawameslc, r,'hich is either smoked or eaten'
"rra The leaves
a referred to as Bhang is eaten or
mixed with spices, honey or rtater, and concoction
and smoked ln
rlrunk. In North Africa, the dried.t""t"a tops are mixedoflithArabia -t9ba9co
the raw resin from
piPt:s. I-n rhe Eastern lfrrditerranean and around the Gulf
po'na"t-foi stotittg (calLed Chira) or is kneaded lnto
tl:e flowerinq tops is reduced ao toPs are soaked ln butter
sricks for eating (hashish). In tbe same area the flowering the form of cakes'
aod water ancl nixed with alnonds and honey, then eaten ln

t,ittle 1s knovn about the toxlc effects of cannabls, althoughseems research is Ln pro-
gress. 'lire effi:cts of the active pti.1"ipru tetrahydrocannablnol llmlted to the
an increased
hig,her nerve cengers. It produce" t-i."if."g of weil-belng accompanled-bylnaglnatlon ls
r.celing of physical strength and a !"n"tof luphorla-. Stlrnulation of the
followed by a m1141y Celirious statl c\aracteiized by kaleidoscopic vislons' and Accornpa-
thlngS
is a loss of spatLal and llne relations; persons
nyirrg this Cerl.irious state hours Like davs' t'Ihile
in the envlronmene look snall; seconds selm like mlnutes and

202
 Flgure 1: COIA{ON PR0DUCTS Of THE ltqtp pl.{q

d t,5&
"{
at, 'rl !gr{
c,
Ir HdH
Ul |:
a boH
sql SHH
UJH
d
d
qt
() >I
o
r-l
cl
rrt
<t)
cq H
H GI 0,
E{ l,t
d
It a
Z^ {., .Fl
3
SE d
al .r.lE
tr{ ql 6 qt
g4 a *
tt k
E(rt
E
Fl
H
,
8"# !t
o
trr
c) '.f
vt>d Eg--$ F
EI

H.H
(.){J
!)rd
Aa
o
3s; D
e
d
d.A.r{ .r, +{
q
A{ p
Zti
<
od
E$
o() ut
tl
C)v o
zr-{
tt
*n
g
fi
f
F{
H
14
-l (a^
4a4o
tH8
HLr
lrf
A.
c4o.
PHE
H('o.
Egs
203
ttre leiirlus is ons of degree, Lt graduall-y roergei,'if the dose is Pufflelenr' inEo a
ijL' 1r: of gen,-.'a1 ;notor t;e.rkness, farigue, drowsiness and sleep'
i'inner.joy" thaE is
Shorrly aErer inhal.ing t5e smoke, the user notlcbs a feeling of rr!iigh' t'
or:t o! psrrp<:i.t. ia;l iLr 6r't)/ p-i)p:rTe ir! ':aus,:. ThiS iS ,le.sCribed rrs being :f th'
uljer is a1one, he r:r:ry rlir.iet-.i.y sii. ancl r.ratcir the pass{ng parad; of techcicolor i-Llusiorr:;
whj.ch may occrrr. In .oop.ny'he m:ry be extrenely talkative. Coordination 1s altered,
although the user lury tail" to re.cogrrize thls hirirset.f, fntellectual capacities are Lm-
pa!-red, partlcularly those whlch Bovefn sPeed and accuracy. The lndivldualts baslc
personaliEy is not appreclabl-y changed but hls behavloral reactLons oay be roodified.
lncreased self confid.ence, often unwarranted, is one of the usuaL reactions. The user
loses lnhibitiona in varylng degrees
As the "Lrip" cnntinuct, judgment aod memory are inpalred. The uSer becooes
easi!-y irritated and may becolri confused or afrai.t. Behavior is lmpulslve' and iload
reactlons are variable. Not infrequently the user exPerlences phantaslnaSorla--the 6en-
tremendous gPeed' increasing in size as
sation that figures are rushing toward hirn atttltts
theT approach. As one user descrlbecl this, like a zoom lens on a TV camera.tt
The tocaL effects of a marihuana rrtrip't last from three to flve hours, after which the
user feels sllghu lethargy and hunger

IDENTIFICATTON OF THE }IARTHU\NA PLANT

The follovlng section Is concerned prlrnarlly wLth the gross aPpearance of the
rnarlhuana p]-ant durlng grosth. It is intended to assist the observer in ldentifying
the growing plant and po:lnt$ out in detaLl Lhe otrtstanding characterlstlcs of the fol-
lor,llng:

1) Stalk
2> Branche.s

3) Leaves

4) SexuaI dtf ferenciation

5) Irlale flovering top

6) Fenale flowerlng top
7) !'ruit and "hulls"
8) Roots

Stalk. The lengrhvise fluting of the stalk frequenLly inparts a squ€re aPPearance
in cro"s se.tion. 'lhe green outer layer contains the rough fiber. Under this lies a
layer of r.roody raaterial and within this the pith. The l"atter is generally ho11ow- In-
conspicuous rtodes occur on the stalk at intervals of 4 to 20 lrtches, and fron these
sprlng the leaves and branches, a branch inrmediately above each leaf.
Brancl_e_s-, T|e pl-ant branches iit Ehe nodes, a branch apPearing immediately above
the feaf,-;;d occur at opposite points on the stalk virh alternate palrs siluated al--
most at righE angles. Near the top of the plant, this afrangement becones alternate to
that oE the matn stalk, producing leaves and a flovering top. The number and slze of
trranches and leaves ls governed to a gteat extent by the proxirniEy of other plants dur-
irrg, grovch. Hrr.:n planCed lhtckly for fiber production there are neither l-eaves nor
branches, except near the top of the sLalk. A plant.growing in the open' on the ofher
hanrl, preseqts a bushy appearance. *

204
 Figure 2 : MRIHUANA pt A_hiT

MAFJHIJAIVA I.EAF

FEI'[\LE FLOI{E11

205
 Lr:ar,es. Th: Iea.res are compound. Each of the larger ones consists of 3 !o rrore
-r,1*s;ri!r.,
t;ral l-i:aflet:;. 1j::,:ir J e:it. j.et is characle::istically hair covered, serrated
(with notched".to edges) and veirrs. The upper side is deep green in color aad the lower
sicle lighter g,reen. Leaves become progressively srnaLLer toward fhe toP of the planf
itild i-n ih* hi;;ire:;r leav.rs some oF thc ieafl.et's of tire compound may fai.l to de'.'elop. iL
is Liius;,o;sl:rle i.-'r so.ie of the higlri,ut l-eaves to appear to consist of a single leai-
1et.
-1q.U*-l-4.i-i:.ttiil4-911.. Mi.r:ihuana Lrel-ongs to that class of plants known as
Diocious, that is, the starninate or nrale function and.the plsrillate or fernaLe
function are invested in separate plants; therefore one finds boEh male PlanEs
and separate (but equal) fenale plants. These cannot be differenelated with cer-
tainty until rhe llowers.appear. After po11lnatlon is compLeter.the rnale plant'
having fu1fi1led its fuoction, slowly withers and dies. :

-{tl.-j.:g'jC-Ll,lg-l-gg. The uale floners appeair conspicuouely ln sprays about six

inches in lengrh at the tops of'stalks and branches. They shed polLen profus€ly. The
color is 1i-gh: greenlsh-yellow.
&!gl-g--flgy3:1g&J-gl. The naln twig of the flowering top is threwn out from the
stalk inmedi::r:e1.v above a l-eaf, just as the bradches 4re throvn ouE from the lower por-
tion of the stalk. .These twigs bear the flowers.and fruit. The flbuers, fol]-owed by
th: fruit, appear on the twig irmrediately above a leaf in the positlons corresponding
to branches in Ehe Lo.^rer part of the plant. The hair with vzhich it Ls charactetls-
tically covered is clear, as is the polrtt of attaehnent of the fruit, The leaves of
the floweririg top differ only in size and potsibly in number lof lobes fron those ap-
pea r.ing el se;he:e on the plant .

Fruit an,l hull,;. As the female planE approaches naturlty the frult (conmonly re-
f,,rrei-*Ii-Tii!iia")-"ppears in the posltlons descrlbed above,, They. are indlvidually
enclosed ln hulls or pods. These are green and gu*te sttcky'to the touch. The in-
dividrral nature fruit is lighe greenish-yetloq to brown,- freqi.renrly rnottled in coLor
and ovoid ln shape. It is dlvided into tno segsr.ents by a ratber sharp ridge extendlng
around the greaLest circumference and Ls covered lrith Lacy markings. The Lnterior Ls
fi116d with a'*hite, oiLy, meaty substance which superficially resernbles coconut meat.
The fruit and "hulls" are especially valuable aids ln recognltlon of rnarihuana.

Roots. The root. sysEern of the plant consists of a tap root, which may be as mueh
as eilEl-inches in length, frorn which sprlng a number of comparatlvely tiny branches.
Scattered stands of wild hemp are reported each year throughout the United StaLes.
'fhe plants are indigenous to many areas and are adapEable to aknost every type of sol.L
and clirnatic conditj.ons, except those ln extreme northern latitudes. The total area of
wild hemp in the Uniued SEates is conservatively estimaled to be in exceas of 154,000
acres. The ireaviest infestation occupies an area fron Indiana eastward through New
England. Moderaie grovrth occurs a1-ong the southern tler of states.
The problens of controlling wil-d growth include: (1) lack of recognltlon of.the
plants by lanCovrners; (2) the tendency of the plant to grow in widely 6cattered stands
and its ability to adapt to many types of habitats; (3) the resistance of mature plants
to herbicii'es; (4) the production of viable seeds over a ten to twelve week period fron"
.lu1y to October
In addrtioa to marihuana, cannabis al,so is the base for hashish. Hashtsh is a
resin-comple:* produced by both the rnal-e and female f1-owering parts of the marihuana
p1ant. The resin contains hal-lucinogenic alkaloids. The scientlflc tern tt0annabistt ls
sorneti,mes applied to the plant anil also to 1t resin derivatives.

The produr:tion of resin wiL1. vary with each plaot. The TIIC concenL of the resln
will also vary fron plant to plani, Some authorttieg believe that THC productlon l"s

206
 governed by genetlc characterlsttcs; i.e., some plantc pogsess the:donlnant genea ihac
conlror of the alkaloid, wh1le oth"" piauta eontlrrn roc;;;ii" - -' *ri.a
che biosynthesis
genes, and resin proCuction Ls lower. . "i -l---
Heshish o11 is extracted from both the plant materlal and the concentrated resitr
by sy:i::tbLe s'llvc-'nt.s sut'.li ;rs alcsrhol.". The resulting e:(triacts distiii;;;;-"tri;;-
are high in TIrc, are used Eo enhance Ette effecls of rnar{hua", anrl .rge-r;!r"l,t tr..egncen:
trat.ion of rHC in "hash oil" r.rirl vary from 20 percent to g0 perie,.i:, -

gqlYrlgrE-lT! F,gR,JYg=3L!!w
THg CANNAETN0L, CANNAST'I
rtir cAliN4gq:Dri

of all nethods of testing sanples of naterlals suspected of being marlhuana, uicro-

scopic exami'atlon is generatly the most satisfactory. The typtc.i ,,fr"oti;il";;;;-
tor, hovever, will generally use a chenical field t"st co raenliry;;il;;"..
The most comnronly eurployed fie1d test is the Duquenols-Levlne Teet. ,fhis
three step test involving 1n the flrst step rhe exrractlon of the-actl". is a
i"gilaii"i"
fton the suspected rnaterial; the second step produc.s . .oto; ;;;";i;;-"h;"'.ei.ilii ,l
for approxlmately 2 - 3 rninutes, a positlve r""ctlon being a blue-viorli:ol-il.pr.
color' Tire thlrd step or the Levine rnodification
"o1or involves thg icaitror,
which produces a vl'sible sep:iration of layers of ltquld vltb the "i "tririrt;;;'-.-
ln the case of a positive reaction, u g"trlle aglration will cause"ri.i.a-t"lution on tsD.
extract the violet-color frorn the top. rf the bocroo layer r"."io" tte uqttoi-iii".-to-t'
result has occurred. negative
"r;;;; "
Because thi.s test is commercially packaged ln a number of forros, the product
tiorrs will govern the cxact mirriner in which ilis rest rs to ue;;;Jl' instruc-
ii-rl'irp"..;;;-*-
that these instrucEions be follo,,ved e>:act1y. Notwithstandtng theee varlatloqs, the
threestepprocedureout1inedabovew111.1,uy"ueappricabi;.--=

lHE lrARrHUtu\A CoNTROVERSY

A n'umber of narlhuana research findings highlighted in previous years have
created.
muc:h concern over the possible bioLogical impllcaciJns of cannabl",r".. Sooe of.the
possible effects involved are:*
c Impairment of the bodyts natural defense systerD agal-nst dlseaser-that
is,interferenr:ewith,ordepressionof,theimnuneresPonse9
r Chromosomal alterations such as an increase in the number of abnormaL'
chronosones and a reduction ln the number of chronosomes in tbe body
cells
o Rasic alterati.ons in cell metabolism
r irupairrnent of endocrine functioning--thaE i.s, a recluction in the
rnale hormone testosterone and in growth hormone levels
r Brain damage

*Material in this section is based on: NatlonaL lnstltute on Drug Abuse, !,tari-
huana and l{ealth, Dept. of Health, Education, and lfeLfare, Rockvil.J.e, 11d., pp. t4-ZO.

207
 The resulrs of tliese sttrdles have been inconclusive beceuse the lirnttations of the
ri:siiarcii .on.,,,sgl:,::rl :h',rl l-g.: tra.s precl.rrded clefiirir i'v'a ccr'c'l-usiorrs in these areas" There
are, horverer, several ;rre.:s ;,,hich trave heen stud.ie<l and have ylelded hore eoncLueive
resul ts
t,lit-"r .lI: i:.rr.tl ic..,,ll,icrr.[;r|' i'Lrnci.iOrring irave b*:en 4xt(inglVe].] 9tr.:dieC. 1t ires
,.llh;. ,:t
l;een fornd. t:i':slt a1n accel{:rifted hear! rate (tactrycardla) is the most conmon an'd prorni-
nanf plr;-sicl.ozi-czi. ie.s:i(,nse tr:r matihuana use. ileporte ltave stressed evideoce that the
effec!s of r:ar.lirua.:.a i,ia-r' be danqerous for rhose raith catdlac abnormalities. Inweaken fact,
e.,zi"dence Ehar. narihuana not onJ.y increases hearE rate but may also temPorarily
heart muscles has led, researchers who originally studied patients atlth heart disease
to express co:':ce:n :rbor:t roarlhuaria use a*ittg pe""ons \^tlth such problens ' The research
concerning tt.a effects ()il. persons vrith any iype of healch prctblen cannot 41vays be pre-
dicted fron studi.es of norrnal volunteers.- Stuclies of ootmAl young me0 have revealed
r:o seri-o'-:; efftct., cn i:{itrt funcLioning,
t\nother area v.lhich has recei.ved coneiderable research atEention in recent years is
the effecr of narihuana on lun.g functionlng. Ihis has becone a continuing source,of
concern because of the increased popularity of marihuana and the known adverse effectq
of cigaretLe snokinl:. Tire irrttaiing sensatlon assoctated with deep I'nhalaElon 1s
.vrell knor,m t,; naritruana use!:s and there have been nunerous cllnical rePorts ofpulrnonary
lung aod
throat irritation. Moreover, reported research has lndicateil impairments tn
furrction in chronlc raarihuana smokers. Recent research using nore soPhlsticated
measures lave shor6 detectable lmpairment of lung functioning aftgr. slx-to eight wbeks
of heavy cannabis srnoking. These changes persisted at least one week after snokLng.
This srrggesrs rlaf, heavy chronlc uee could well lead to clintcelly luportant changes
s-lrnil-ar"[o those found in heavy clgarette smoke.rs
The AIc,riiol Argunent. The controversy regarding marihuana le often sinplified by
*rty Ii- u-iffi;;i".n the nost prevalent and frequent results of narihuana use with
"f
sirnilar consequences follorving the use of alcoholle beverages. Some see all emplricaL
investigagions as irrCica-tlng that alcohol holds a much greater soclal_p-eril than does
reduced to either, "I have just as
r,rarihuaia. Ttris is an o1d- irg.rr.ot r^'hich can bet'two
muc\ right to ny poisot you Co to your",tt lrrongs make a rlght'
"" lt
In countering these argunents, it should be noted. that there ari: flve to six
rnillion ph1.sical.1y ancl mentall-y sick people r.rho are in that condition because of thelr
aberrant use of, or reaction to, alcohol. There is reason to belleve that marihuana
has che sane potential to prod.uce an equa1 Lf not Ereater nutber of soclally diSturbeC
peopi.e. In view of the trenendous to our society of alcohol abuse, lt is per-
"o"i
ptexing ho...r proponents of marihuana cao rationallze the legalization of the Crug'
Other proponents of marj-huana argue that i.t is cheaper, qulcker and noE physically
addictive and, therefore, it can provide the cornpetition r"filch would drive distilleries
out of business. This is specious think-ing. It has been proven in sountries such as
Inclia wher:e narihuana r;as socially sancEioned anC aicohoL dl-sapproved, that those r'rho
prefer one c',rug will pursue it regardless of the availability of the other. India has
had constant probleins with enforcenent of its alcohol laus desplte the fact that rIrarl-
huana, until- recent years, was legally availat,le to anyone tsho wished to use it.
of marihuana wil-1 also argue that the srnotctllg of
The Tobacco A.rClrnerl!. Proponents
toi,acIffiysica1andpsycho1-ogica1dependence'yetit1sacceptedby
society. Since rnarihua,na is less of a problem in these respects, they say lt should
not be prohibiced while the use of toba;co is sanctioned. These arBum€nts overlook

208
some vast differences betrveen the srooklng of tobacco and the snnoking of marlhuana.
For
one lhinF, cobacco can L'e snioiied whtle the individual perfornrs othei aciivitles and
r'rith rnininal danger to others in the in'l'rediate envlronrnent. To geg the effects of marl-
huana,theusernuscexertanintenseeffortwhich1i!.iitshisab11itygodo:oth.er
Lhinlls. Fo:r: anoLher: thing, tcbrcco lras LittLe ef fect on oners erootioaal reactions,
while marihuara specifically aifecrs the enrotional 'brrd menlal re$ponses. flual1y,-the
detrimentai eifeccs of tobacco are slosr'to appear and even therr tirey prinarily aii*t
Eilr: r'::;er r:arher tilarr his associates. Conversely, the ef f eecs of nariiruan" app.""
quJ-ckly anc. may resurt in erraric behavior on tire part of the user lrtui-"""-ili"is.*
others around hirn.
As for associatlng tobacco and na-rlhuana smokiqg, very few trglpqqs srnokers pro_
gress to nrarihuana use, and then only becauge of an almost unassqcldted relatiooship.
Indeed, very few users of n'.arihuana will progress to the use of Aerpfn. f-""v;"r:il i"
of some significance thaE the lerge rajority of heroin users seen to begin.the hablt
f oltovring thelr lntroduction Lo n'_a.rihuana. *

Acditional sources of lnforrnation concernLng the possibLe detrimentalleffects of.

cannabis, marihuana, use are:
1.''DrugEnforcement',,Ju1y,1978;DrugEnforceueltA.le1ntstration'
Washingron, D.C. - pp. 31-36.
l
2.''TheEast1acdCoturitteeReport,'l.U.S.,Congress'sengte,:9ub.*,.
mitteeonrn:rrJ.lruana.Hashl-shEpidem1candits1npactonU;s.
SecuriLy. llearlngs before the Subcorurlttee of the Cousnlttee on
rhe Judiclary, U.S. Senate, 1974. ' .
:

*This section on the aLcohol and tobacco controversLes ls based oa DEA, Cannabis
Sat j.va, prepared by John T. llaher, DEA, hlashington, D.C.

209
2LT
 CTIAPTER TSENTY_ONE

U}] I.T ADMIN ISf P.AT IOII*

OR(;A}iIZAT IO}i

Traditionally' most narcotics units J-n munlclpal department! h"re been comblned
with other vice enforcenenL unlrs, such as gamblini, pr""tit".i;;, ;; ii;;r;-;;;_
forcement' some unlts, however, are part oi intelrig"rr"u op"tations. some are part of
the investigative divislon. sorne, becanse of the tnio1v"r""a-oi=y;"in ,ran dangerous
drugs,areassignedtotlrejuveni1ed1vis1on,
rn rnny cases' narcotics units, as separate
vlce enforcement sections, are posltioned eo thatentities
rhey
or'in combLnation wlth other
chief . There arei rvo primary ru"so,rs commonly "i"-aii."ri;-;;;;r"1ble;i;;; to rhe
i; ;;;.
a police department's failure in narcoti"" "rt"J-ior-J";;;-;;;.';;
"ni vice.".1eifor""."it
the chi'ef of police. The second is the sensrrlve "iii,"ii.;;';r;ir';'
;;;;;;-;;*;;-";-;;;;.il;^i;;"
investigations and the poterLial for the
"ice)
unitsarep1acede1seuhereinanorganizat1on. "o.pio*i".;; i;f";;"lioi*rt"n narcorics
-t should be recognl-zed, however, that there may be'gome problerns praclngnar-
cotics units dlrectly under the chief. First, uni.te responsible to the chlef often
l;rck necessary directlon and control beeause t. aoe! ;;;';;;;-;ir.".""i"i;;;:.;^;r.
operatlons. second, since the unit arrd olher investigati"u ."tifi*;-.;;-;;;
responsible to the sarne commantler, a separatlst attitude often J.u"rop"-..o.rg;;r;;;iy
cotics intestigators. Thls attitude will lnfluence tt"-r,.1-
cooperation, coordination, and con-
municarion berween rhe narcotics unit and the other entities.
arrangement often causes rron-unit personnel to feel that narcotlcs iti.a,-aiiis organl.zatlon
and vlee enforcenent
is not their: responsibility, but ls, instead, solely ai".u"pooslbirity of the nar-.
c{)ti.cs trnlt members-
IJecause of thel;e reasons, 1t is recommended
function in coordination rqith other vl-ce units andthat narcotics unlts be structured to
as an lncegral part of the genera1
investigative operirtion, since officers in the investigaLive
narcoLics users and pushers. rn very small department;, the field frequentry deaL with
narcotics enforcement ef-
fort should nor be sub-divided below the division level and should
spons'ibilitv of one detective or investigaLor. be the;;;;:;i;-;.-
cotics and vice operations should be cornbined asrn medium-si".d ;;p;;.r"i.ll'i1,;^i!.:=-
a part of the invlscigatrv" Ji"i"i""
so that personner ca'be inrerchanged as needed. tn large;;;";;.;;;"1-;;"
lnvestiga_
tive effort should be arranged into separate, specialized organlzatlonbl units,-;ii'-
under che sarne division or bureau cornmander. see figures 1, 2,
or8anizet ional posit ioning. J<"; and 3 i.r-r"."*.I"i"a

*lfaterial in this chapter is based on: If,anuel R. Gar:za,Multi ARency Narcotic

lq:!l*!!eSe! G976), LEAA, washi.ngton, D.c.;
";; and International Association ofCtrtets
"?T"t i"., __-
!r;ngeg1_&l$-; ;;;;;;'.;; izatlorr of llunicipal Narcolics and Dan-
s Units
!erous Drugs Unirs (1970), Gaithersburg, Md.
**International Association of Chiefs of Police, Standards for che Staffine and :.
_qlgg"f I1""1.
".ti9" "f I' r.ra.

2L3
 Flgure !.: RECOilMENDSD ORGAIIIZATIONAL POSITIONING

NDD .Ui{IT
(SI1AI.T, DEPARTI4ENTS)

cHtEr ot Potlct

Drtorlivr or
lnvlti jrlionr Divirion *

*fretecEives or investigaEors have responsibllity.for speclal{zed dangerous drug

law enf orceiilen E .

2L4
 Fl.gure 2: RECOMUENDED O8€AIIIZATIOIIAL POS ITIONINC
I.IDD UNIT
(HTDIT'U-S IZED DEPARIIIXilIS
)

cHtrt ot roltGt

y' Qtbot Dlvllonr -

a

, D.t..lb. aa
Javottl;rllotr Dlrlrbo

Orh.?
lav.tt,C.?lvo Eort loar
/, 1

Ylco !111;1rt

*NDD officers ueed r.nterchangeably ulth other vrce enforceoont offtcers,

2L5
 Figure 3: RECOMME}IDED OREANIZATIONAL PO9ITIONING

. NDD U}IIT
(T,ARGER DEPARIilENTS) '

cH!Ef O? POttct
Or turtou (ornrnondar

Oth.r givirionr .
a

Dtlcctiv. o?

lnvorli go.tionr Divirion

Olh rr
lnvcttigoriyc -_ ronr\\
Scct:
r'-

Yicr Scctlon

Olhc r
unirp
*.zvic' --

N DD Unir

216
 The decentrallzation of a narcotics
tiost eor'nonlv found where the rerriroriar unLt into dlstrlct, or r,local,,
*ilit.rris
sub-unlte, tr
Lras bee. :-ound that siatd uniEs and
j"ir"Ji"ti;;-i;-il.;i,
heavili-p.p"i"i"a'"o.niv-i"i."'Ir"";re ".""or,,
ciecencralize than are munic.tpal police oep"rinenr". litely
r.c

h'wg';g1'' rny also decentrali"e tirerr nareotlcs u"j"t-lily-.p.rig. ilp".tp.nt", to

dcn-si t';' rire geographJ-c r;ize of unLts because of the high populatr.on
the jur:isdicti";;-;; ,,liun du""r,trallzaLion
such ;r* drsrrj-r:E ,r precincr rtcallons facrlities
considerarlon in decentrallzalion sLnce arc available. p;;"i;;i;; a lrirnary
it is people
for poi'ice service' The'refore, porico agenci.es "il;;;"r"
g{.,re rrqe to the baslc needs
contact between the narcoEics staff and
"io
rrr"a J.a".nine the a{rount of dlrect
of these contacts--that ls, f.o* rhat .."a" of ihe p"uri",-"" well as the geograph{c gources
with whom the narcotlcs ofiicer the Jurisdlctlon do the-peison!, corrre
,.t." contact
rf the burden of direcE colliact becween the public
elther the capaclty of the staff and unlt personnel exceeds
;; the physic"i
to meet these needs. Everyrhing should ie-aone ;i;;; rhen 1t 1s wtse ro decenfrallze
disadvanrages of decenrratizatlon fi;;-;. avold.this step, bqeause the
f";-;";;";;;=r;;';;"in."r.r. ,,,

For exarnple, a number of rnanagerlar functlons,

pla'ning and person.el admini"....ion such as-poricy-maklng, hudgetrng,
ity' I'loreover' an organization vhlch "r. ,ori-i;;;";;; performedt by a central aurhor_
has been iu"!.rarhized rnay glve rise
problems in dlrection, coordin"aion,'"ontror to serlous
centralized departmeot operates in aiiie.""i and connunlcatrons. rn many cag€'r a de-
volved' To a certain deiree, ;lyr"J"?lo.ootng upon the distrrct tn-
problens of orher distriirs.' "."i Ji"ati"t op"r"i""-o[rrorous to the proeedures and
:

of staff and office facllities F;;; Ji aarolnre;r;;i;; pJi.,t ot vlew, rhe incr.eased,cosrs
.,,J .qurpr"r,., loluitt"l .niap che'pgobren
and superviston, make the a""u"iiari]"c-org"nr";;r;;-;r;"qh1ng..tb bf coordtnatron
possible. be av_otded wtis,never ,

In addltlon to these administratlve factors,

;rnddisadvantages of decentralizarron-tiat,should there are :itl
sotre opera t lonii atlvAnragee
the advanrages of decenrralizing rnto f" r.oma. ^"y,, followlng*aie eooe ;=f-
ibcar '.
".r""aie":"iil", t
e ,I.'ithin
There 1s rnore exrensive-knowredge of
addlcts
indivldual dlstrlcrs. and distrrbutroii Plac€s .

o There is raore frequenr contact lrith narcotlcs

ating in the intlivlclual distrlcts users on..-
"no iren"r"
r There is lncreased famillarity with the
res i.dents 1ocal neighborhood and t-he

e The 10car narcotlcs officers are able

to malnrain c10ser contact wlth
the *niforrned offlcers working the loca1
narcotics enforcement among the pat::ol "r".r;:*,J;;;;; i;irlilrli'"
o Local r:arcotics teams allow enforcement
"fii""ri
pushers when deslred. on small_level
3l ,u;trg
u5ers tno
and
,i

o iiarcotics enforcenenE is naintained under

under the control of district cofimander rocal control, thaf t.s,
;
'1''e disadvantages of
decentralizlng the narcotlc uniE are aB fouowe,i
r There is greater difflcurty in coordinating
in the departnent ------^"6 narcotics
"qrsvLru' enforcement
'r There may be some varlance ln narcorlcs a
district commanders enforcement prtorltle8 among

11a
aLt
 . Undesired conpetltlon between narcotica teams ln the illf f erent
distri.,:is nay de-,'e1-oir.
o The district comnander may use local narcotics teams for non-
na rco t ic S i:] :iks .

In shorE, tlre generaL rul"e regarding decentraliiatlon rray be staled as follows:

"Centralize lf you can. i)ecenf-Lglize if you must,tt ,:
l{nere major city narcotics unlts have decentrallzed, the prlnary authority for the
control of loca1 leams rests with the district senTanders. The reason for thLs is a
vaild one. In decentralized police agencies there has been a recent trend to hold thti
district commanCers accountable for the crLne la thelr respec,tive areas... Lnherent Ln
this accountabllity ls the need to givq tlre conrnrnders control of thOse componenes'
whose funcE.lon 1! is to deal wlth crirne. Thus, ihe need of aaslgqlng authcirlty chat
1s cominensuraLe rvith ttre reeponslbillty outwelghs the problens ln coordination and
supervision that may be encountered ln havlng th€ precLnct cor@ander control the 1ocal
narcotlcs team. A.gain, thls guldellne ls intended" for those units whlch must decen'
tralize.

ENFORCEMENT POLICY

A st.aternent of the enforcement poJ-icy of a narcotl.cs unLt is a natter that re-

quires the mutuil agreement of all the departmencrs top cofiln&d staff. It ls lmpor-
tant that this staternent be developed, if posslble, before the unlt ls structured, as
the number and asslgnment of personneL, the breakdown of tea$s or gquads) and decen-
trallzation coosiderar-ions will" all be dependent on the eoforcement prlorlties. lf
they are not dlecussed aod agreed upon at the outset, those priorltlas w111 ceuse many
pr:oblems after the unit is Ln operatlon. A narcotics unlt can'coqceutrate on hfgh-
volume pustrers, screet-level pushers, or users. Obviously, the fitst tvp types of of-
fenclers should be ttre princlpal targets of unit efforts, although target selectlon will
depend on the environment and the local publlc pressure ln which the unlt operates.
Giver,r t,he amount of drug activity ln most parts of the United States, unitd usually do
not have the time to work cases agalnat users. Indeed, the naJority of units do not
even have time to investigate street-level pushers, aLthough,. out of. neFessity, unlts
often have to work cases agalnst ueers and street-level pushefs.
The primary investlgative effort of e narcotlcs unit should,be dlrected toward
naJor pushers, whlLe the patrol offlcers dl"rect their cfforts tolrard street-level
dealers and users. Depending on locaL narcotics activity, ic.iE posslble for some
units to investi.gdte both big pushers and street-level seIlere, leaving Ehe usefs Eo
the paLrol shj-fts. Units should avoid handling user cases unJ-ess an arrested user is
an important source of informatLon on narcotlcs acElvity or the unit targets a certaln
user a "1ead-i1" to a particular dealer. Regardless of whether or not'the unit handles
c.ases involving users, the unit must ensure that copies of all case reports of .the pa-
t-rol dl-vlsion on arrested users are sent to the unit to keep on file. The foltowing {s
a Sanple Enforcement Policy which can be lncorporated by a nunieipal police departnent.
'rNarco:ics and dangerous law violations will not be tolerated 1n
anyform.Eachmeinberofthepo1icedepartnenthasarespoasibi1ityto
take action and nake arrests for dangerous drugs violations. A11 uni-
formed officers should direct rnajor efforts towarcl the arrest and pro-
secutlc,n of street-level use and saLe of narcotics and d4ngerous drugs.
NarcoEi.cs and dangerous drugs enforcement speciallsts should direct ma-
jor efforcs to the arresE and prosecution of sellers and wholeealdrs of
dangerous drugs.tt ,

2LB
 The volume of sales that dlstlnguishes type of pusber fho3 an,qther,
quantifv and varies from region ro resion. _one {a- hardi.go
:.

llhot iiy ol l-;itg'l-il;;;l;oserreslon"

nav be a relarively snalr one 1n another. taklng,".ii""n"-;:
the u's'-l'texican border will probably not r.i".pl;;; d-;;pib,.u.,rrrtt neer
agalnsr a rnarlhu4ni:Jfi:"1ff:,
less he can de]'iver over several hundred pounds or o.iit.r"nu.
are so qant mariirurna ptr.lhers dealing in hundreds of pounds .r1"tThe reason is that,there
.it"tiirta; ;;;J;-:
of the unft canrrot be used co investigate ,,smalr-ri.;"t;-;;;i.;;:':i;;#;';gffi;:;;*
ever, someone pushing severai pounds of raarlhrrana a week
dealer- *y t.,r;;;;i-r, a brg.
"(

Another factor that conplicates-categorizing drug ll

sale level , users may also be pushers. A user, For dealers'in angar:*!,tfrg
tistar,ler
with the inrenrron of serling ih" e*tr" p.;;i;; ir-""pi"...hi"Tlbl;:
a.4;y brry "aj".r
rnogc,.than,he.oi6s
:--'l,r.'*':*.,::,:.?.
rn sura, the trafficker classiflcatlon.ser down by a un{t stibura
be riiloiea:
1ocal situation' l{owever, the ultinate obJeccLve
l" io go afqer:the hlghest l€\raLtolinu
dealers in the jurisdiction. The followini r"-.-"i.""iric"rroa
agenc-v narcotics unit on the west coast of on. iJ"g" nulti- ,

and rypifies trt" ,slassfffca-

tlon: "o"J.it:"e-"J"ilit
l,Iajor Narcotlcs Trafflcker
e Heroin--25 dirne bags or an ounce or more
o liarihuana--one kilograu or more
o Cocaine--an ounce or nore
c Any hashish ol1 or J.aboratory equlpment
Street Deai-er
,
c Any lesser quantities than thoee mentioned above offeredI t"l. :.1; :

for sale .;
o Any non-user in possession of the above
o 'Marihuana in lots of over two_thirds of a poqnd, but
'* :.
pounds (approxirnately less than two
300_900 grarns)
o Possession of over ten, but less than 25, dlne bags of
any quantity over o'e-half ounce but less than one heroin, or ,.i,
ouoce. r :

Addict
':.
r By marks, physical.condition, and where necessary, a urine test :

o B:/. admissi,.'n of the arrestee

Because the volume ancl type of drues used varies among areag, lt is
uniis set priorities and objectives lnportant that
thai ttrey teei.i.-.pp.opriate for their respective
locales' This will help to ensrrre that the unlts actively pursue
variotrs types of drugs on sone systematic,- caseg inv.olving the
policy must include the participation of the priority ia.is. Forrnulat.io"
chlef administratot and hls"f-;;i;;irr"=
poLicv should be reviewed after periodic evaruatlon"-;;';;-;;;;;; staff., ?tre
and other deparEments encounter rnost frequently fi;."il";rrii"o
denev to make a branket recomrnendarion about in lit.-..gror,. Iitrile there ls a ten
which
tively' units must be responsive to local condttions, dr"e"-;;;;; #;i; ;;;"';;.'II
respecttve states --' iioulems
r- aqd sratur."-i"-li"ii

2].9
RECORDS UANAGE}IENT

Eejtrre beiriS filad, all repl6r'gs shou].d'le re-lletred by tbe suPervlsor.and, prefer-
ably, by the cormrander as well. Review engures that the rePOrts are Conpletet correctt
ana-ieaiy to be taken into a cour!. Revlew also glves the supervlsor or counander an -

oirpori,.rnity to rn:r1ie certa.i-n lhat the rePort rioes nrt liclude any extraneoult or sensl-
tive r$;rt(:!i;r1 6r.li ir as j.liorliatioil aboul Bhe irie;riiiy of an ,lnfonnant'
Securlty of raporis ancl accessibility to them often Presenls a probl.en to a nar-
cotics unit. It is reconunended that access to unlt rePorts on on-going I'nvestLgationg
be llnlted to unit personnel and those other departrneolal Personnel the.counnder be-
l-Leves should be kept aware of unit activltles such as the bureau colmander or the 1o-
telllgence section. The reason for thid precaution ls to prevert aQ investigatlon froo
belng comptonised, or an informantts identiey froo being given, altay. tlence, a nar-
coilcs recor{s systern should be esta}rlisired whereby the unit ralatalns lts otm flLes.
The u.rLt can not{fy ttie cenlral records section that. it has been lseued a partlcular
offense reporE nurnber so thaE the records section can malotaln control of the offense
repore nurnber thar lias been used. The .central records secEton can then place a blank
the tndicatlon ttNarcotlcs Case" on
ofiense reporc with the offense repor! nunrber and
the forn. After an investlgatlon has been conpleted and warrants lesued or arresta
rnade, the approprlate coples can then be sent to the records section. The follorlng
files and records should be kept by c.he unlt:
c Master lndex file
- o General case fil"e
r Identification file
o Address flle
r Infornation/intelligence file
o Informatlon dissemination 1og
,
o Offlcer case 1og

A descrl"pElon ot these vnrlous flles follows below:

A. Master Index File:

A naster index or "Alpha" flLe should include a l-isE of al-l persons
who have contact wlth the unit or have been mentioned ln reports.
Thts file usually conslsrs of 3 x 5 lndex cards arranged ln alpha-
betical order. The cards should list the case or intelllgence sheet
nurnbers of those reporcs where the suspect ls rnentioned and should
also lndlcate, whenever.possible, the subjectrs address, date of
birEh, physical dese.ription, driverrs license, and soclal security
number.

B. General Case File:

A generaL case fiLe should contain coples of reports on narcotlcg
lnvestigations made by the unir as well as the narcoties investl-
gations rnade by the rest of the agency. These reports should be
iftea Uy a control number: which ls lssuecl when the case is assigned
to an officer or at che polnt when informatlon that has been re-
ceived or gathered lndicaees that a case should be, started. the
designation of the control nurnber may vary, depending on the speclal

220
 needs of the unlt and the procedures of the departuent. GeneraU.y,
however, wbere such procecures ate lacklng, tha cases shourd
ue given
a nunber in which.rhe first two dlgits aesignate the year;i;;"";;;;,
and then a four dlgit nunber gives the repoit_ ite ordi.,a. poslt.oo.
For exampre, a unir wculd have as tts first i""".,.rri.. zalo00i.--it"
s:ecncl ce ,e n.rrld b': 7B-0c02. rn J,arger
districu eonsriturlng rhe polnc of orig{nagencies, the precr-nct or
io, ttre'eas" ;;;-;;-i;i-
cated by a prer-i:<, such es a letter. i"rrc" a case ori.gG"tiig-i;-
distrlct t'A" r"-orrld be A 7B-0002.
rn cases where narcoti.cs enforcenant responsibfllty
with other investigatlve funetlons withr.n unrt, the unitrscorooander
coublned
mlght give conslderarlon to asstgning a coce " .o it"'".".-iii"lr"i":
dlcate a drug rnvestlgatlor, andl peihap", a code to tadlcaie;i"--
various types of drtrgs involved tn the case. !rhether-;ht;-i;
or the types of codes to be used (color or dlgiiai ..a;i-rii1-;;;*d ;;;",
on the current nurnbering systen and rhe numbei .r,a iyf"a"of
I -- ----*
generaLly handled by the.unLr. cages
':
c. Informant Iderrtification f,ile
An ldentiflcation file consists of {ndlvidual forders
on confldentlal
lnforraants and narcotics suspects ttro trave-i""a-"ar""aaa.
should contaln a personal hlstory sheet, . ,"p:"i"".r-r"a Each folder
or photographs of the suspect or lnformanr. "-;;;.;;;;;;
poses' 1r should lncl.ude a llst of numberg i'e.'ii"J"r;"r"nl*."i";:"
;ho;;-;.po.t" and lnteL_.
ll.gence6heets1nwhtchthesuEpector1nfornant{e#;i;;j:
"f
foldere of confidenrial rnforrnanrs, it i"-"a"r""ui. tr"i#;;
of the cases in which rhe informani proved-;"ii;;i;,-i.;;;;;"'H]=*'#r*grrn
rests and convict{ons vrere made. Thus, an offlcer ca" grnpry"i*k-rt
an lnfornantrs ldentlfication flle and deteroine vhere
has proved hls reliabtlity. the lnfonirnt
Search o. ,r;."i-;r;;;;; ;;; ;;;T:t'-.
easitv obcalned wirhout havrng .o
- '- - -r: weF *rr
""ur"i-";;;yl;;;ii"ii'"."!"ri=
which the inforrnant has prov{ied assistancej
D. Informat ion/ Intel1lgence Reports

A fl1e should be maintalrred contalnrng alr the infonnatron

,]
llgence reporrs subrnitred by a unit intel-
narcorics. The reporrs should have "ia a"pr.ir;;;-;;;;;"""i"rIi"taros
a nuubering
dietingrrish thenr from the case reports, The purpoee "y"ir*of.;h;;-"lii--s-"6
infornatr.on
reports is to docurnenr rnformatr.on about a ." irii"ii-;;;;;-
tion for r"hich no case reporr. has been inrtiateJ.-
",r"p""t
a cAse reporE ls started, a copy of the lnforraetioniiei"arter,
rep'rt
ir--
included in the case reporr Jacket, and the inforrnation-i.p"ra-"i""iashould be.
make reference to the case report number.
rn the unirs that do not m:intai.n infor:-ratlon/interligence re-
ports, inforination that does initiate a case report i""""""riy
lost to the unil. Some unlts'ot initiate a case report
stanEial piece of infornaLion chat is re,:eivea. 'rr," on every sub_
,."rir-i"'at"a -
many case reports are starLed but do not. result
Thus, these unirs ostensibrv have nany
ln i_nveatigacions.
not cases under acttve investigation. The r"foit,
"""* potential;;;i;;-"ti"t'.r.
nlslnterpretatlon is obvious in these lnstances. Flgure for siatlstical
suggested lnfornation/intelligence report form, 4 shows a

22r
 Flgure 4: INFORMATION/ TNTELLIGENCE REPOBT FORM

INFORMATION REPORT
Date Number: I

Sub1,-'..;1,
(p.:rson, bus s$, organization
Alias:
A d<lress :

l)escription: sex-.-- race_ age_ height weight ''eYes halr

Verhiclc: Occupation:
'(Year ) (make ) (license )
:

Associates: Crlminal Activtty:

(persons & places) -'lltrrown or susPected) a

FRI # State ID # Other ID i

Places Frequented:

A dd itional Information:

Received by: .'.,......--

Date Received: I

Ilece ived from:

(A{dress)
A<'tual Name: Assumed Name:

it e'li:rbility of Source : Itc'liable Unknown Doubtful

222
 E. Address Flle: ,
, !
An address file 1s made up of addresses that have been:exprlcitlyl
mentioned ln reporrs or are known_infornally.to be 1";";i;;;-;-;r_
This tvpe of informatlor, i" .o*ron in. narco;";-
:::l"t i:_tt:l,,'..
riLll':' tof e-xo*ipre, pol.ir:e orficers, infornantg,
reporr loca!i.ns of suspected drtrg rraffr.cklag ir"tor clgizeng vL1L,.
nanes of suspects. rn tbese and elrnllar
ii "iri'pi*ril-i"
La edvaRtagso'e
for the rrnir to r-ist the address r.n an acrdre-"'rno"i-r;i;;;:;:
""""!,
fere rhe officer to rhe orlglnaL ,.poir-""-ri."riG;;;";;;_
maEion sheets. such a file, however, "."" ro,rta'not i""r"JJT;;;-;;:."
-
dress mentr.oned in-a1l unlr reporrs.' ro i""i"J"-tt"i-"oui;-;.--
futlte, as nany addresses of vlcrtms, wrtnesses; ;;-il;;;Ir,iJ,,urr.
:: 1"..i1igence value. A unlt shouli be set^ecri""-";-i;;il; ;i;
rnose irddrerrses wirere user/pusher actlvlty is known
be occurrlng. "; ;;;;;;J;;
,.

In those units that nake buysr.i.e., buys fron'n-

idenr{fied persons' a loc&tlon"John_Doer,
should
case a reference polnt. Thereafter, whenever "rrry!-i"-gi.ru. to glve the
r"turr"tion'o-i-aiii
cation cones in, it can be consoliaatea tn if.,ac--ilport fffe: ro-
F. Inforaratlon l)lssenlnatlon Log:
The informatlon dlsseminatlon 1'g is mar.ntained
to monltor and con-
trol rhe inf'rmation disserninat.d by the unii io-itt".."t"n"i"".-"ro,
exanple, when e r.etter or note wtth lntelrrg"n""
irrtorr"tror, ie sent
to another po1lce agency or even when lnforirii""-ie gdven over the
telephone, an enrry shour,d be made i. iir"-i"e-i"ji";.i;u-Irr.-""ri"r,"
name, the reerplent of the lnfornratlon, date-and
tine, the generar
infornarion glven, and rhe reason f". ;*;i;;s;"i";;;ier;l
ii]l-'^
G. Officer Case Log:

, some units urainLain an officer case in whlch every buy nade by

an offlcer is llsted. By referring 10g
to thls.fii;,
readily see whar his offlcers are Jotng. artir""it-a " .omarrder
rog of
can
thle
type creates additi.onal work, the irrfoir"tlon it furnlshes
tremely useful. The only otrrer way of dererrnir,rrr!-.n is ex_
qrtic.rt"-ac-
tivlties would be to check all the case reporte durr.ng a particular
per.tod of time or ro srudy the officer'e
rnd1"ia""i-"i"iri""iiii'i""a
ledger' whicrr wourd nor necessarlly tndicate ." .iri""i;;:;;;-i#l-
H. Other Fil.es :
OccasionalLy there rny be a need for ,rntt"
flles on hand. For exarnple, units operatingtonear
keep other types of
the Mexlean and
Canadlan borders, where prtvate alrciaft
wlsh to keep a ftle on alrcraft numbers.url ,r""i ;;;#il;;r';
airpor! employees, rancherb, and so rortr, netevait-infqrnstion fron
under the speclfle alrcraft number. Telephone
"o"ii-il" and.flled
""ruaenrli;;;;---
rrrrrtur-urrJ
plate number f*es can also be nalnrai""a'io.-rr;;;;;.il-;i"i"i!r"a
entries. These entries, ir shour-d be noted,-riii';;;;'.""'iil"'r.=lll,
name or ttAlphart flle.
rn contenpratlng the addition of fl1es, a co&nander must coneldet
that as more files are adcred, nore work must be aon""'iJ-"oJ;-iiil;"='
the addlrlonal infotmation. The key ro mainralrrfng
cords svsten ls slmprictty. Therefore, a unlt-;ffir;-'.;;-"jj"iir.,
"i-.i;;;;;;;"_
for teJ-ephone number"-o-. irc"nse plate n"ruur",-liiexauple,
a real need ls established. unregs

223
 Flgure 5: INFORIIATION DISSEMINATION LOG

INFORMATION DISSEMIN.{TION LOG

Subject and Reason Source o Inforrnatloa

R*qrrest ing for inqulry by Irrfor:ma i 1
Tirnel Agency Requestlng Age Conveyed rsona
ntact

224
-I.U!AI. rI4IIg!IETI
Ir:scne to unit comanderg. &r-
ever' since rew things;trouse as rorrch co''r.rn as dtscrei;;;r;"-;r-ii-
pub'lic revr:nue by public official's, conrnande.s -irl""i.ture of,
ehouLd ctevelop appropriate guldeltnee
Jor .l'.igcal;nr!rnini.;ir.rtj.crr in orcler Lo FroEecf prrbl-ic.iunrJs,
f 'Lci':itL acliniuiscraL i.rn oi a urrlt. and rrake poselbLe the ef_
varies among unlts bec;ruse of loca1i\lchcul;i, tr:o ri{rcai-*a**riut"ation cystem of fen
requirements, each un1t shou1d have u #rliil""a"rr-
d;.':rd oparating proceilure (r;oi') ftrr fi.:cal
menagencnc
o trfno ls to authorize expendltures.
"r,i"i'a*ii"r].ll"itl;;ii;il:*-
o l{ho ls respcnsible for keeplng records .. -.

o who is responsible for recelving, authorlzing payLent ofr-bnd

nayr.ng;y11i"'
oAgenera1descripLionofLheuntc'sfisca1s-;stem
hhen each of flcer Jo.lns the unlt he should
soP and slgn a scatemeni to the .ii""t be .requiretl to read'the unltts fiscal
statemenc, after a signed verlficatlon
that
he has read and underetands it. Ihls
placed in the offlceris fi1e, which-i; has been aclded by fhe unlt commander slrbuld be
k;;t-ir".i""""ri;
To allow
the conrnander and other unit. nrembers responsible for
fLscal adainlstra-
tiontocarryoutthelrduEies,theuntt"r'ouia-"."r;;;i;Lhe.fo1lotllngrecorda':
A. General Flscal Records z

The unlr srro.].d have *.n tts

posseesion
'

ning record shoving rhe anounrs expeodedsome forrn of ledger or trun-

to be expended in each budget "{a-ii" amountg
generar
remainlqs
unlt funds
""a.ioiy-i"i--at,"".
which are not consicrerecr c6nfrdenti.r'r""is."-iener"r
uni&. funds uay
be considered rno*ies used for_p"""r,""rig--.r'r"""i"g-*Ii*r;a'-"u'
supplles, while confidenttal funds ur" ir,or"-;;;i.3
narcotics buys, or for purchasing inforrnation.- il;T;.;.;;o, :,
dlfferentration
is rnade since generar funds r".oid" ;t-;;];;p.".J Thls ;;";-il;;;-;.*- ".
ber of asency personoer or city or staie f{;;;i
fldential expendlture records i"y U"-""i"i;;;;: "iei"*ir] ;ii; ffi:
Those records that are needtd to naintaln ,

be kept in such a manner that their reLease an audlt trail should

promise the confidential operaribns to orra"ia"rs wLJ.l lrot com-
of the
ditlonal detall needed for operational matteis-shoula
""r.otr""-Jii..^-irrt-ia-
be nad.ntilned on
separare records properly cross-refereneed
to code .r"r"". '-ili;-i#";_
rnation should never be released excepr rrt.n-""-ii"""Ti.gii*"ri"ii.i"q,r"-
useoffundsorma1feasarrce1noif1cei;r"p'og,q"".'.
B. Confidential Fund Records:
The unit should account for arl expendicures
!1 n_ainiainlng rhe following fiscai-recoras: of confidentiat frrndg
1) conftdenrial Funtt ExpenJirur" L.;;;;:-"^ t"ag". should
malntalned slrowlng be
"ith". tn" firrJ"-i"f, to
be spent or the money spant to"o"iiaentlal_
date, or botb. fhe i.eage.r
should include an individual reference number
for,""IiTuy,
the dare of the buy, and rhe amount;;;il;;y.-'rl=1s
suggested that a reference to Ehe lnvestigato. also
,*taing
expenditure and a brlef descr{pttron of the expenditure tt"
be i-ncluded. See Figure 6 for an exaraple of a confldentlalshould
fund expenditure ledger.

22s
 FLgure 5: CONFIDENTIAL FltlID EKPBIIDIIIIRES LEDGER

@
G
o
<)
<>
o
''.1 it ()
lJ rn
a o
F
N o
FI

}|
tj6
cd o
o
oE!
€io!
h.rg
ro
N
dH
A.A H

o o (>
o o
(t
.d r+{ co e
(,
t.
0g rn
t
Ar &

tnl.
c . NO
F{ O.o .
^E ^r{lH
rrrlr
r-l<)hF{rj NO .c!rn
o OO A\O OO C
l{ OO C6l I F{ OOH+. O
a
r, o I o\ rd c) I rl
l!n r{tr{J lln()!lJ
rl
.d @t\ >r rd g (DF tr ql
F- i!..5CJ N O0rE
d *+O,algt.Cb0 +O!Jdorr
q) o or?{<
h('€ g C !(!
o
>d . < $ro
3C) o h
FqvC{hE.o 5()1, hc
FqvF{.on{

Fl (\t
q,
! cl a
d
F)
fit
F)

226
 2> Buy Card F1le (Buy reporr ftle). ?hia is a card fite
indlviduaL card mace up for each buy." it" p"ipo_;.i; vith ;;-;r;
an
vlde an orlgLnal record of expendltures whtih'".n ua-*.,iii;i'
wtthout golng to rhe confidenrlal case rgcor{
important for malnralning the tnregrlry cif unlr .ftfe!;' -i[i;-i,
rii.l.--i; ;;-
cor'npl ish this, each card shoura co'catn ttre'foiloro"tnh
tlon; ; i#;r;;-
;-e-------':
'
Reference case nuinberto the case for which the expenfllture
was uade, or a reference to the Lnfora..nt f11e
fornant (by code nane or nutnber) to otror-rt;;;;t"td.;il-i;:-
,aJ p"ra
Reference buy nunber as entered tn ttre expendlture ledger
AmounL expended

Date on whlch the.noney was expended '

.
Purpose for which money was expended or descrlptlon
artlcles purchased of

Name and slgnature of offrcer expending noney wttft gtatenertt',

verLfylng thar he spent, money ln the rinne. iescrtuea-
Nameand eignature of the eupervisor who has appfoved
expenCiture see Flgure 7 for an example oe a iuy ."ia.the

Flgure 7z Btty CARD

Buy Expendfture- -Ton?

Case No. Expendlture No.

Date of expendLture Auount
Subj ect

Purpose

Agent Date
Approved by Unit Conoander:
Date

3) Recetpt File. Receipts shour.d be on file to accoulrt for all

uron-
1es that are not in the unit cash fund or accounted;t.t'uy-it""^'
confidentLal fund expenditure ledger.
4) rndlvldual offlcer Ledgere. A ledger should be kept o,, ev€rt;
unlt officer risting the expendttu;e of confide-ntiar r""J"-ii
hlrn broken dor* into evldenee purchases, lnfornatlon purchases,
and expendltures for expenses, lf any.' Each
to.ra
the date and the buy reference nunber. Thi; ""ary'"to,rio
r"Jg".-""y-u" t"pt
ln the officer's flre or r.n a speer.ar'fi1e wiih lii r"i.r.{ga!ors,

227
 ' ledgers. Thus, the unit cornnrander can rel1 at alsJance the
rr;ir:!:i3, the deies, lnd the reasons for aLl thg,Aipenditures
;t i;tr,'..:';EiBator has made. These ledgers are inrportant ln fa-
ciliracing general adointstratlve review and iq case sone dlg-
1':'epanci; in an officer's expenditure i's nbred. See Flgure I
r'c r: :'., --:iitp'!.e c: an c f f icer s Ledger.
t

5) Indi.zidual- Informant Ledgers. A ledger should be kept on each.

i.ndiv"i-c1ue1 infornant showtng the dafe anrl amount he was paJ-d.
Ttiese entries should be referenced in the confidejncial fund
expenditure ledger, and the recelPts, lf obtained, should be
filed in the lndividual lnforurant file or lnfoEnant recelpt
file. See Flgure 9 for an example of an lnformarltts ledger'
Irr those tit".its subsidlzed in vliole or l.n par:t by a federal or
statel grant, confidential funds must be dlfferenttated from other
rnonies ur;ecl in the oPeration of a unlt. There are reslrlctioas as to
the nse of these funds; usually, they can be used f,or the following
purposes

.o Paynrent of confidentlal inforrnants

c Purchase of items to be used as evldence, stich as drugs
and stolen goods
c Payurent of the expenses of covert oPerations that cannot be
pald throrrgh norrnaL fiscal channel,s without conpromising
oPerati.ons (these usuaLly include exPenses for horeL rooms
used in surveil"lances)

Confirlential funds are lmportant to the unitrs flscal ability to

operaLe and shouLd not be used t.o ftnance nornal unit operatlons or to
pay unit employees or any others enrployed on a regular basis, except
, informants. However, informants paid on a regular basls may be. con-
si<lered ernployees by Uhe grantlng agency, The fiscal ramifications
of using paid informants should be thoroughly investlgated by the con-
mander.

C. OEher Records:

1) Incliviclual officerrs fj.les. A flle should be malnEalned wlE.hin the

unit on each officer assigned or fornerly assigned to the unit'
This f.i1e shotrld contaln the followinS:
o A picture of the officer
o A llst of all street names used by the ofticer
o A copy of the officerts sigtlature j-n both his real nar're
and all conmonly used street nanes
o A sratement of farniliarity with the unit's confidenEial
fun,ls Procedure signecl by the officer: and the comnander
o It telephone and gasollne credit cards are used by Ehe unit,
a lisc of relevanE phone numbers and license numbers of
vehicles assigned to or freqrrently used by the officer

i:d ;
-tr}*. 228
,
 Figure 8: I\DIVTDUAL INI'ESTIGATOR LEDGER

,t?n S r rEefoi-'f - -3tm

INVES e;- Jo n e;

Da Le Expenditure i.lo. i'ur cha se Payoents Expenses Runnlag

of to Total
Evidence Informants

Jan 10 7B-0090 100.00 50.00 150.00

Jan 19 78-0101- 100.00 250.00
Jan 20 78-0105 50.00 300.00

Figure 9: INDIVIDUAL INFOR.,{-{NT LEDOER

CONFI DINT IA. INFORI,IA 38

Date llxpend i cr.rre No. Recelved Recei.,'ed Runnlng

for 'for Toral
TnformatLon Expenses

Jau t0 78-0007 20.00 20.00

Feb .l ,5 78-0101 15 .00 35 .00
l.Ia r 1{l 7B-0210 20.00 55.00
.Iun 2 7B-042CI'
30.00 85.00

229
 The officer's file nay aleo lnclude the followlng:
o A copy of receipt for pocket rnoney, if pocket moiley is
carried
o Tir." oCf icr:'. ts i"nclrv.{,dua1 expendiLure ledgel
o Descrlptlon of all- autonoblles used by offlcers
o Descriptlon of equipment lssued or used

o Slgned statement acknowLedg{ng reedlng and uailerstandtrng

of rules and reguiatlone
2') Infor.i,rar:,tts ilLe. The corunander should maintain a ftle on every
informant, whlch lncludes the followlng inforrnatlon:
o The lnformantts nane and known addregs
o The lnformantrs picture or, Lf none Ls avallabLe, a
atatenent of reasons for nonavallablllty
' . A copy of the informantts slgaature
e Receipts of all monles pald t6 the lnformant! or a state-
ment by the unl.t conrnander as to the reaeong a receipt was
not obtalned, counterslgned by hls eupervleor
In cases where untt offlcers are assigned funds that they carry wlth thesr at all
tirnes, a cornrnander should conduct regular inspections of such pocket funds. Inspec-
tions uray or rnay not o'e announced beforehand. Where the offlcers are not notifled ln
advance, they nay tend to rnaintaln betEer, strlcter control of the funds. Sometftoes,
though, conrmanders announce a few daye ln advance that such an inspectlon w111 be held
to a$ow the offlcers to separate officlal and perBonal monieg and to replace any of-
ficlal funds that lrave been spent on personal items. The fact that offlcers are given
the oPportunity to replenlsh these funds rnay relnforce the practlce of spendlng of-
ficial funds for personal jtenrs. Therefore, unarnounc€d inspections are reconnended,

230
 CHA?TER TWTNTY-TI.IO

I'[]R:jONNEL ADUTT] ISTNATION:I

The many variable factors

difft-cult co est:lblish a sysr.rnaffecctng
for
the-lnvestLgatlve process make ic
sclentlflcarrv "*ar"ili9
,

for criurinal investigatlon unLts. Nonetheless, theJJiernining personneL requrrements

r"npor.a needs of a narcotLes unlt
can be estlmared with a reasonable degree
sub.srarrllal effort be direcied "f-;;.;;;";:--il;-p;;;;"-;";"Lres that a
personnel. The purpose of thistoward keeping trait-li the tlne spent by lnvestlgatLve
approach is io length of t&he.that
"st"blish ao,:avpr!g€,
should be alloeated to complete a lirei" .r".'ri""liii"aro'
stage. beyond rhe,prert&trnary.
:

rn addltion to establlshtng a tlure-per-case average,

o. adminlstratlve tlne fictor unrsl be eotatr.isiea.an
gati've avefage da11y.ion-rrr.r.et;-
An average t.!r eiper,'.case.
factor can be derived by requirl"g ii;r-".;; r"";";lt**u
:

conpanied bv a rlme accounrabrllt! sheet.. for lnvestigatte'te,ac!.:\

The ;;e;;ge"aauy,;";:i;;#;;tive or ad:
rnlnistratlve time factor can be ditermined uy tte-u"E-of thi nreteriasliis, aeglvtt$.rei
Dort' rn a large agencv' actlvity reporrs r*y-"iry-i"'..qu!ruc-;;;il;;;otte6
nel se'Lected on a tandorn basis. ih. t"potts shouLd person_.:
sufflcient to provlrre a fimo base for be. reguired ry'
f,q,r *
a *r*.,,.,
length of tlirt " ,
"irp"riig-;;;.;;.;:'-:-.--- . ,l
once the average daily adurinistr"atlve or
per-case factors haue been established, uon-lnvestlgative tlue and average arr.-
the volume
divislon over the past several years should uu .*"rirr.o. io*ar,. narcotlcs
dlcated by past experlenee, an estlmated
"t-i";8"-n""ig""i
on a bis{.e oi tL" fjgn{s;tn+
annual be proJected,for thr ...
nttltipli'ed by the tlme-per-caJe factor. The ..",r1t".""iu"a ehould
followlng year. once thls-rrilure is establLshed;-;;;-;""ual
aunber of caseg should be.
qu1redtoinvestlgatetheproJectedannua1".;;i;;. v1.11 be the nunlEf 0f hourg, re-

- dally adrninlstrative-time factor should then be subtracted

The average
nttmber of
hours durlng a normal work day--s.rch as
trrt".
frosr the
the rnaximum number- of i.nvestigatt.re hours "igit This flgure represerite
aval.faUfe-i.ify.
ilrto ttre total number of annu,i1 lnvestigative Thls ftrgure 1e thqn divicled
ho;;; prlrrio,r"ry :deterrntied. The reeult
is the number of investigative p".sonnei required to'ianare
load' The resultant figire r" iner, r,rltrpliea uy the proJected annual. cager
the deparrrnenr. This figur" ."pr"".r,rs allowan""" ir,"-Lr,power availabillty factor of
off, ard usually averages to 1.6 rorli;k-i;";;;;"-;;;i;", and days
(that ls, it takes 1.5 otftc"rs to
positiorr due to stck leave, vacatr.on, LU {r*r
fill uss errr:€r s
one.offlcerrs,
and days off).
The final result is the nrrmber of lnvestigSlive
projected annucl caseload, eight' hourl personnel, requlred ,o,t"oal. the
5os a"y"-a year. Thle {danpoweq.syste' rs
"-d"y,
nathenurtlcally illustrated by the follorrlng:
: l

*l'laterial
in this chapter is based on:
i"lanual (1976)' LEM, washl'ngton, D.c.: and llanueL R. Garza, I-fult_i AFencv Naqcotic
Pollce, rnrernatlonar Association of chiefa of
-ortl* Standalds for the slarfinp or"""-i"1,-li'I'J';
," ""a
"

237
 :. .. r\',.erai,.c {niii:.stiS.?i j./c tl.me-?ef-caSe
t = l.ilrlr:r,. ff FrojecEdd annual case:r
Z = Average dalLy non-investlgatlve or adni.nisLraElve t1x0e factor
(.6-Z) = l'!aximurn number of datly lnvesLl,gatlve'hours avai-lable per investigator
,1 - i!an:,)|,.. r avei.l.:r|, j,r.ir-y .i-.r,r..t:or j

A XY = No. of i.nvestiga!,ors required to handle, t'Yt'nu:nber of c.ases

36tG --'
Narcotj.cs speclalists recognize the special probleos in narcotics investigations
chdt make many investi€iatlons complex and drawn out. However, thls rnanpower aysten can
sci1l be used if record-keeplng procedures are utillzed to assess how the lnvestlgatlve
tine is spent.

.lijrES-u-i-!-Io.\

Supervlsi-on is a control and developmentsl devlce whlch rlust be actl.vely and con-
tinuously applied in order to malntaln and enhance the effect{veness of the subordl-
nate. The responslbility for providing ef,fectlve eupervis:lsn naturally falls upon rhe
r'irst-line supervisors. Supervlsion involves face-to-face l-eadership and dlrectlon of
subordinates. The administrative duties of supervlsors lnelude:
e Give Hork Assignments o Hold Pre-trlal Confereaces
o Traln New Narcotics Offlcers o -Debrlef Infolurants
o Revlew Reports o Hand1e Expendlturec
o Pass Along Comnunlcations o Malntaln Diactpline
o Srrpcrviss Cases r Initlate Conrqrendations
o Hold }feetlngs wlth Subordinatee r Evaluate His Agents
o Inspect Equlprnent . Serve as a Public Relatlons Offlcer
o Revir:w C:rse Files o Conduct Prelfuutnary Lnvestlgatlons
of External Couglaints on Agents
,While this type of actlvlty ls an important part of the supervlsory function,
these admlnlstratlve functions require that the supervlsors confine thenselves to the
desk rather than spend tlme in the fle1d. Hence, very often fteld supervlsion of the
investigat.ors is 1.acking. Although unit supervisors should asslgn sa6es to investiga-
to:s and review their written reports, the supervisorsr responsibillty to provide di-
rect and active supervision in the field should be balanced with thelr adnlnistratLve
resoonsibilities.
They should spend part of thelr tiroe accornpanying subordinates in thelr dally ac-
tivitjes' observing their perfonuance, and discuesing the cese at hand. The super-
visors should be careful to reslst taklng over for an investlgator whorn he feels is
nr:rking atl error, unless the error 1s very serlous and wouLd affect the ultlnate result
of the investigaclon. In fact, other than exceptlonal sttuations or where a unit or
team is very snrall, the supervisor should not partlcipate in operatlonal.dutieal :r1-
though he should be knowledgeable in narcotlcs enforcement.

Most auEhorities in po11ce adnlnlstratl-on agree that the properspan of control,

thlt is, the nunber of .:ubordinates assigned to a superior, depends on the courplexity
and the level of functj-ons and tasks. It should be recognlzed that the span of conLrol
qrl1l also depend on the types of operations the unlt or teatil ls engaged in, the nana-
l3erial capabilleies of the supervisors, and the capabillties of the subordlnates, that
1s, theI.r level of tralnlng and aroount of lnvesrLgaclve experlence. For a narcotlca
unit, a span of control from three to seven 1s usualLy efflclent.

232
 HoRK ASSrCJnqS ANp CASE_MANAGEUSNT

supervisors should actlvely undertake operetionel plannlag",?or .ttre:untt:or specl.-

flc teams by developing weekly schedules. For exauple, they shol*ld.outline,.trtat:i1;ir-
ations the t.e.'rn will uni'rrte"k":, which suspect.s thay $ll1 try,to ftake a buy.:on, Eh*ch
dru.; .locations rhey w111 try to infiltrate, and eo'forth, irririougtr s,tpurirro;"
tre expected to accurately predtct everything that w11.1 be accopp[ished'mch "iioot
practl"ce forces tirem to formulate obJeccives that lhe Eea!0.can itntrr" to,echteve:,:At;,
"*ufr-iii"
the same tlme, supervlsors shouLd write brief synopses of the.aqttvitles of thelrire-"
specElve teams for the Past lteek. Thus, at the end of every n*ek, supervl.eore.eap.
evaluate whaE they achleved reLatlve to the objeetives that bad.bien iornulated.' .

tai!;
Equl'iable procedutes for asslgnlng raork to ofSicer" ,**b be'f,drou!.sted- A.
non-systenarlc approach, where the offlcer who tntlfafly receive.b tnfprrrdCloo';i
velops an lnformant autorratically {avestrgates the case further:ehould u"-"iifa"al*r,ur. a"l.'
unlt officers specLrrllze as either cover or undercover offlcera. r,n." iot"r"it-i;"-;;:'
garding a parrLcular pusher ls obtalned, one of the co*rer tnvl"ifg"io""-il;il;';;:
sl'gned to verlfv the lnformatl.on and, lf necessary,: to uake
approach assiste the unlt supervlsor".ll:gqrrzrni the case";#-A;iq;I;il.--i[i"
1o6d roi aLll.mil:*n*rtf-
,

gators' otherwlse, the supervlsorg rrl.l.l ftnd that those offl""t" wito ui" rot* r"-
sourceful in sollclting lnforrutlon frorn lnfornants and p"ogie;-"fif-i.'-
"street
11s1ened a much Sreater number of cases than those pffl,cers wtro iaci thls abtlity.
Although some invesrrgarors may be drsappolnted thar ttrey are ir;;;"i;;d
cases they irritlate' lt ls lnportant that the squad eupervlsor" to all ,.
ngi"i.i1-"onatli-gt.
'
case asslgnnent and nanageneqt ' .- --'*--:- -- :.

- In asslgning
velopnent
an offlcer to a tarteted pusher, a deadllne should be set io" tne.ie-
of a subsranrive case agaln"t tt.- srppecr, Th;-;;";;-Ji-.iL=Jr;;'.;;.;:-
flcer ls given will depend on the spectfie case. "'-
offlcer should make aa lnltlal lntelligence surveyrntoi""""iii-l'i"e-tii.;.;;;;;;i;
deterrulne the amount of tirne
needed for tha case. After worklng on the c."", if an offlcer ls
uraking a case agalnst his target, the other officers uray be
havlng i*ir""ily
formatlon eUfe,t"-ee"ist,l{s
or advlce. An addltlonal offlcer may also u"'.""rg[ ;; ;h;-;;";Tr"ii"ti'- with"1n-
deemed decessary. By utiltztng such procedures, a unlE ,"y in".qe"".
---.l-*t it" ----= - i"i"^
ln apprehendlng targeted pushers. l-- ",ro""** -*:'
rn naklng these types of assignnents, however, a potentlal probleu area ie that of
too rnuch ego involvenenr on the part of rhe offtceis, ulhen.an siflcer 1"-;;"i;;l-;r-;
targeted pusher and told to "get hlmr'r the supervlsor and tte cgo,'anaer-irg.t ma,lntain.
close supervislon over rhe offrcer to ensure that he a;;i;;;;.i;;;r".;;i"
the lega1 and procedural guldellnes that have been set "onarr"l"
down. il-";;;;-"i.rra be re-
warded or otherr.rise relrrforced when he usee questionable nethods.

A unit shoukl devlse a system whereby lt can uronltor and control caee.assignments.
one r'rseful system requLres that when an officer is asslgoed to a.case,
lssued irunediately. The case number should be the aane case flle nurnbe, a
general case flle rePorts. A11 eubsequent reporra on rhls ;;; ;;-;il :-
"";"-;;il;;-1;
cer or other lnvesElgators strould reflect thls nurnber. When"""" "uu.iii.a-iy-*," Jiir-
the officer' a case control sllp ls completed and placed ln athe cage Le ag_slgn€d to
one weekr ;;;;;
three week suspense flLe. The control slipe shouli llst the case ;;
nuurle., oqrie."",er-
signed, and date of asstgnnent. Each assigned offrcar is then,requirqd io
progress or supplernentary report within the ltmit prevlously set. - "uiJi-.--
ls needed bv the offlcer, he can subnlt a report. siating the reasonrftrraddltlonai ii]-
tine
tr,i-iir*
tension. The s11p can then be reflled-on. rreo, i'd,re 4ale." The frr.po"g-ot,.iit"l"-
lng thls tyPe of coatrol over case asslgnnenrs and reports ls tr ;;;;;-riat
cases receiv€ pronPt attentlon. Thls systen provl.des an adolnlstratlve essLgned
actlvlttes of lnveslLgaEors sh1le futnlehlng a procedure for asse""ing "tr""f.-:o"ii-iie
ii"]"-
tors' Aeslgnments of an exploratory nature, 1,e., those that are Rot=tn"u;.i;;i
,."po.,". to ,
particular lncident, also can be contrglled using the sane nethod.

233
 Srrpervi.sors nusE determlne the speclal abillties of their offlcgrst'afld nFke as-
so tli:'l tiri:srt abiilties can be fu]-ly urillzed. For examplb, an officer who
si:-rri::1,:l:.-s
n:ry be a poor unCercover lnvestigator beeause he cannot adapt 'Eo the roLe of a buyer
na;r sti1l be utilized effectively as a cover.offLcer, Lf it ippears that €a officer is
hr.''ii:.g d i ii. Lculc,r i.n 1e:trnq aLrng r,;l.lir hi.s parLner or oLher tean ftenbgrs, he can be
s:iii-'.:!i:i ai.sunc in:c' <ii.f f.er€:irr-- -D-o!klng coinbluatlons wi.tlt ttre Variorrs tearir's; The supor*
..'isors should not automatically glve up on an offlcer. There ls probabLy Bomeor:e with-
in iir;r t.earf, ol: group who will conplement hiur,
The r':tir.rity report is intended to provlde a dai.ly record of che perforuance of
each in''rescigator. It r,rould include the lnvestigations madei assistance to other of-
ficers, courr api)earances, and any other activities, operaEi;nal or adminf"tr"if.r"--
utrich che officers conduct' The report should include the vehicles used and the miLe-
a-ge, ti.ne of cor::rre;eing and ending assignments+ case nunbersl end nanee and address.ds
cf ^-rerscns i.nl.en,iE;rcd
The docunentr in essencer.sen/-e6 as an adninistrative method of control over
actj-vities of investigators and provides the department with a rleans.of deteruriningthe
nanpower aod vehicle use' and can be used as. a checkf.lst of reports due fron the in-
vestigator
on the reverse side, the investlgator should be requlred to note the beginning and
ending tlme of eaeh intervlew or each ac.tivity, the case nuober, and tte narne and ad-
dressoftheperson1ntervieTIedorcontacted...:
Supervisors should examLne and approve dally activlty reports and dlscuss any
qLr':r;lionable items-,with thi: reportlng investigators. The supervisors shbuld also spot-
el'reck entrieij oo the reports agalnst investigatlve reports wrltten by thelr gubordi:
tlates lo ins;rrte that lnterviews and other actlvltles are aecoirnted for and rtported
properly. :..
.

- and Unit investigators should be requlred to uraintain continuous radlo eontact., report
ln out of service, and provide telephone nurnbers where they,can be reached when
they'ls3vs Ehe car. These procedures provide proteetion to th; inves.tlgator, assist in
naintainlng control over the acti.ons of the offieers, and establLsh a systen t.o locate
officers in the event they are needed for energency asslgnrcenlg. Furthernore, these
techniques r.r11l also p:eclude the necesslty of having ttle investigatore
ttnlc supervtsor tvo or three tlmes per shlfE, r"qui".rent that. becomeseall in to the
" very burden-
soma to the caller and the recipient of the calls. i.
Control over working hours must also be considered. The nature of the narcotics
prc'blern, the enforcement objectl,ves of the unit, ancl the number of offtcers assigned to
it are the nrajor determinants of the worklng hours of unit personnel. For exarnpie, a
sna11 r:nit nay be unable to break up into tlro shifts, even if it were desired, i"""u""
of the lack of sufficlent rnanpower. On E.he other hand,, a unic,that could. b.ssign teans
to both mornlng and afternoon shifts nay not do so because of 1oca1 condltlons, such as
a 1ow 1evel of drug actlvity during the morning hours. In th{s case, lt rnay be best to
assign all the officers to work the afternoon ihift vhen npre narcotlc suspecte are
'active. Moreover, unlt officers are usually able to set up buys for limea during worl-
ing irours. Tirere are occasions, of course, when surveillances, elther noving.or sta-
tionary' niay have to be conducted at any hour of the.day or night. When a unLt has
tlj.tferent shiEts wor:king, there should be clatly neeting; of ali supervisore and offi-
cers so that general notes and lnformaE.ion can be exchanged. 'rlhen the unic regularly
wo.rks only o6s shift, dealers will tend to conduct their business when the unlt.is not
working. To courrteract this, a unit nust change shifts periodically. In sun, the
urits mus! lrork whenever the neerl arises. However, there must be some genblance of
structure and routlne to glve t.he unit a sense of cohesivenegs. l

234
 3914U_qL_QI_ F n19 !S!r_{:

Determin{ng the optlnum Length of officer asslgnnent. to a narcotl.cs ualc is dif-

flcr'rlt. 'rht-'re are some good argurnent:t for maklng cie aesignrnent an una"nJ"i."J.--it
tlkes c.';i.i,Je':i'tblc c':<per1.crn(:i,'ilrrd n,"ri:h r.,i;ec"tnttaicl tratn-l.ng to m{ke a good narcotLcs
of f 1c':r. P.oL.r:..in5; of f lcers ueo tregucnily reducesr ghe ben;tir a un1t, ;i;rtv;;
lnvestng:nl. in an inClvidual. The crlulnals lnWlved tn illlctt nercottga eettrrtty tn a
i."r-ia"
given 3rr'3 generally are lhe same people year after year. . An offlaer gets to:tnoii
these pushers and users arer and can put ttrat knorvledge to gooil use. ilttg. 1rt" -
cer is assigned to a uoit, he must leara who these inJlvlduils ate., how;ht",", "ili-
aad ho'; the unit can get an undercover offic,er ln qlth thern. there r*y 6;r;;;;
lin'ited nunber of personoel who irave the quallfLcatlons or the eapablfitiur #;---'
"f"-oto nake .
good narcolics ln"estlgators. By rotating p"rsonrrel too
tinetel'/ ll'1ve to change lts standards becirrse rher:cr are noilenough frequendt; iha-unrt uay. ul-
the necessary qualitles. rt cakes a considerable amount of tlne-toi"or"ri"aib*iio-lurr" develog:g,oatact€
and inforrnants not only on the street but also vithin orr,"r
Iry'hen someone 1s re-assigned fron the unlt, "t"o"i""-*J-organizatiomE.
the contact may be-lost. rineli;: Hh;;;-il:
form:rnts are ccntrolled bv the offlcers lnsread of rhe
of personnel rray tend to "coor off" informaots rr at,.y arl ""i"i"r"ri", r..c-i"i'"Iiltioi"-
offlcer too freqrrently.
transfeir.a irou -F ogri"ri-lo
:--{iE- bv

0n the other hand, there are good reasons why agents should be left la nar-
cotics assignrnents for too long a period. Narcotics-offlcers -io"*-ttt.-i*"p*ir""
4ot
..y
of basic pollce goals because of their excluslve involvenent. vith narcotic,s. ,thev nav
become too ego-involved ln their work and ulrlroately i"a
;;";-;;r;;;;;;".;j;d'i"
the nost lmporrant poJ.ice function. of course, tnfL is-iru.-"f--"Fif";;;
specialized functicn ;il;;T-;;
closely akin to this is the tendency of narcotics officers qo developlan iEola-
tionist attltude af cer long assoclation wlrh narcorics enforcenen!. of;i;e;:riy-ig"r.
thar others are not concerned about narcotl.cs ln t,he sane,r.y
this is because other cifficers do not perceive narcot{ce ." ih"fn"i tt.y-aie. perhaps
nost iarportant furrctlon
of the pollce. The generar narcotlcs Lnforcernent poltiy of negotlatlng'charges {n re-
turn fc/ lnformation and cooperatlon rnay rend to nake .rri"Ei-i""i"in"l-"le.ar;.iL
burglary c'r theft charges, for example, ls Justified in"l order to get-" p";t"il--;;;;*
po1iceofficers,ofcourse'maynotsharethatbe].tef."_-_.*'--.
Everyone connected with natcotics enforcement
ular hours that officers have to work. These typesisoffaniliar with the long and J.rre3-
worklng conditiong nay..bedetri-
nental to an officer's physlcal health and hoare ilfe. A narcorlcs investifr;";-";;;;
work long and irregular hours i'n a demanding job for a prolonged perloa
his soci'a1 or marrled 1lfe being affected. -Further, o"i"ottcJ rrii""r" oi tiaie lrlthout
sociate with pushers' users' prostitutes, plmps, and other people relateig*"ur"lly "s---
narcotics activlty. constant exposure to such persons trar*s a.r .tii""i-iy vlth iLliclt
i"ir"li"i"-
him to believe that a1r peopr-e are unscrupulous. This reactlon ur.ti,oat"ri;;i;."a"'^"
itself in the offlcerrs general attitude toward. others. trrhile rtl i" ;;iizea tbir po-
lice cifficers must have a healthy anount of susplcioi-ana stepttcrsi,-.-i"r"bai;; d:
vesti:lator may becorne too suspicious and skepttcal after working ,,".ooti"n ilr-i.fn-"g
period

Another reason why iu ls advantageous to rotate unlt personnel freguently

this policy facilltates narcotl-cs enforcement ir trrat ,

in the entirl police aup.rt .oi: -Hh;;-;

narcotlcs officer is transferred back ro another secrion,
of its men in thaE section. The ex-narcotlcs lnvestlgator ir'i;-;;
ls
il-;;;;;;i
faniliar
n.i-..]
wrtilti.";"}I;t
work' He can pass along the benefit of his experlencf to tt" p".pi"
Given materlals and resources from the narcottcs trn1t, he couli even "ti;-;;;-il:iiit".
.orma}tra1n1ngsess1onsforh1sfe11owoff1cers. condu"I-*ior-iti]t

235
 uslng the services of regular operating supervrsors rs usually the
and ;:c.itci'ical nier:hod to p,:ou'ilo o.li't,, the new- nost f""d",a .ft
"rri"eis. ?he unlt.ls able,to utll!*
:::"':ff.11:iril':;
;:;;# il::s:"r::,th
rate ;:::.?:: bv *:;:li;:i^"ni-.i,.."i,oliiil;." are ro evaruate
and qualirv of learning
o:'ficer has djificulry wrrh so.. rhe i'arnees. a6;;;i;;; :fi abre
p"rai""r".-;.";:.-;;iioo".,
strni.or .rilic*r cirn L.:ilch i.lrr: nc.,r i..*vestigatoi: thersdperV!.s6!,or tir€--;
the i-denrities oF rhe susprr.r*utr"'u." .rp"rrt.,.i;-;; sge11g 1JJ"t.r"r"ottgs cooaltions"..qrch
:-upeiviroi-s shourd devise a checri tiiJ ;;; .r"", Tn-e cqmeander and h1o rs
.i.i.ii-i"i"J;ju".".." b..g iovereri:q-o ensure .._
:.l"; :l;;T;'::.iliil'li iX,il";,;i:j;f'"iii""io";;j; ic rs ncr'used ro hide r.nE::
rn addition to using supervisole
using senior invesrlgatoi, ,ilo t"rr" for tririiiing, sone unite hafe,had succesg {n ;
u p.o";;--;;;iiir.ao-e"rf,.orrn requlrect r6aksi ,.A,r.
conpreirensive kno'"rLedge cf unir ooeraclnn*,
,

to l'part knovledge and sklus -;;.:;;i:i;1"

p;i;;;;; aqd_prdced.rp3j,' and. rhe. drlr,rqy
"; ;i;; ro, trre invb$ris&torrrEdc,ii€-r- ..
I,r'hen used, these fleld trainirrg
offieers (FTO), should have. conplete responslblllty
for the trainee durlng ttt"' ei.iJ--iraintng
urulio*aitl
shou1dworicw1thursito""a-t,"Ju]tr'".""iu.Ja;ru;:.rrre-i,rosrrouia_"i"o''thatth.'
poesrble,-the nerr of:ficei ,.
_r*
recru{r is famu.iar wlrh rhe unir adminlstraiir.-p.r"";;;.";"r";;;;:,"ilrrcy
activlties the officet tty unio"".*t, reg*rdirg
;ii;;"iliion"r procedures-ana technlilues,.
once each week' the rro tio"ia-.u.i"i." ""d.t"-rril-.i;i ,,.

gress report. Ar rhe conclusion p*rtorr"n"e rr"rig-a weekry pro-

officer should cornplete of a desig.;;;-;;";rlng periodl rhe frteld tralnlng,
"-".it"ii"" "uo-r" report. ,,. ,-.

' rf at any tine drrring the field^trainlng period the

opinion that rhe new offlier will tralhing officer re of the
ack of inreresr,.ability .. p;;; not,develo; ;";;-; successful offlcer becauee of,a
che FTo should suburlt conducr:-;; il;;r;_-;;-i;;;;;";;;;=;" ,

- ;;;;.; to hls unic coranander. inconperency, :

"r.r"r, r,
The duries asslgned ro a new -l

officer, (2) rr,e needs of ttr. r'rrrit-"t-tlut

"ilr:,"..will depen.I.on (l) rhc capablllFle8 of tt"
serve as a cover or undercover r.nvestigator.--ii tlme;. whether thd.bfflcer ls to.
capacitv, he shour.d be ar-lowed ro i*r"iirt;i, ""J-t:l
ilJrfu";i-iJ'tJ'i**.n*"a rn,a cover
;;ri; i;;;;-;e.r.i"riir.T""r!noents
such as surveiil-ances, inrer.,rr.r",-i;;;;;;;;iril;";;;;;-"ff;;u.lil*l.rng. :

the more varied the-initlar-."p.ri"nce

ductive member of the unlt. of ihe ti"i""", the fastei rre*iir becoderna,pro-, ract,
.,:.., ) ,

unlrs srroutd also concernplar.

thein offlcer's' especially foryal , {n-servtce
where a ,rumber
unj'f- at the same f i*e' The aiaorrnt or .,!r-;iiJieru have beenrralning
:.:::lli"fins
assigned"1""r."
to the
ro":i
.i-t."iii";';J';;:
depend in part
"n-:t-'t pti"t t."iJ*q^.1-_:1"-iit""i-ie;i"..subject areas to ie covered wilr
cerEirin that ;r1l essentlal topics .iu The eonnander should nake
gralrs, or boch. "otu."d by eiiherr Ur-l'erTvrce
ln-servlce or ext
exrernar .pro-
2' External trPining' rn the area of externar
grau,s incGi'6-iiEi]?Eri[-'itoo oti]Jay semlnars tralning-, narcotics tralning pro-
seho'l offererj bv irtt': IrIrrg F::rfor""*"rra to the ten-reeek aarcorlcs officers :

schools ot" ptot'itled at 1Jcar,-"i.r", Admrni-srration.' iir."-'"-iniiJi-i."rrrrng

-;;
the larger clties have their-ttn-.rltnt.c ancr federai i.".r.". il-ffiit'i^eo*r, sone of
More frequently' h.r'ever, rt ;;;;;;i""-in..-o.gvide tt.rning.rn irarcorr.cs.
narcotics schools i"--ai"-state that pio"rJ"" trainr.ng-through
regrdnal .-.. :
Ar rhe federal lever' Lhe DEA rT"::-:n.rr
and a ten-week schoot serninarl,-. regionar school
'

The DEA conducts short"ona.r"f.d-; ;;. u".im"i ;;;il;, lT-reek

rnstitutc rn r.lishrngron, D.c.
sen'n"i"
'sua11y upon the request.of ""a-.""-"".i"I"r.,ooii"t'ri'uu-;;"-;'$*i;J";;
local ug"n"r""., r,o*"i-.g"icles are 6lJo ablertothe cou.try,
''strucrors a nunber of ln.ri.vidrr::rs fro* ir,u;;;;^;;;ave serect as,,,,
rhe capabtrlty to tnsrruct

237
 cla6ses on loca1 subjects' such as staie i+w or,regloFal. nercotlcg condLtlons. The
DEA, iii tuilrlshirtg iusLr::cto;s fur portlons of the-selrool , also aEte.tnpls to nSA l
offl-cers asslgned eo the general area slnce they are fanilla6 "se,
wtth loiat proUfensl conl
diclons, Lnd lat.r enforcenent offtclals.
l'lany -states conlucL narcoLics t.ralnlng schools that trave ld.o"lop"d dcroag, struc-
tured programs. Although schools wlll vary ln qualityn a .good, baste narcottis gphool,
wi:h r:apab-Le l*siyucrors, whlch covers: the essenr&f e$Ujeitq:ot-ibicr;i;;-i;;;;i;_-'
tion, w111 adequarely prepare a ner,, offlcer for a produ"i1.,r","ao.e:r'-tn the;;ia:.-"-''
There are a varlety of schoolE that offer narcotlcs or narqotlcs-related
rn the area of intelllgence, data coltecror schools uJ .""ri"r;"iorr;r;;;-;";ii;i;'- tralnlug.
through privare fr.rms and sooe srate deparrmenr"."i
cll tlurv:ti1-Larr,:e i:orrdrichcrl by lrivaCe uianr:[.acfr.rr.r-:."E o]:""ti"..1Trcil;;; ;;", ;;;;i;-
elEcit,rOnLc equtpgent. .Othef--
schoors sponsored by publlc and prlvaie agencles specialize Ln areae such
1aw, se;rrch and seizure, anC rehabiLitation. Whatever traLni-ng progqan i"-;"i;;;;-;y
as crlnlnal
a cournander for his officers, he should examine the amount and-type-of.traln1ng f"i- -
nlshed by that prograrn in light of the forrnal In-service tr.r"r"i-or-ori-**'"ftiUfe
che uait. Tire conmander should expecr rhar his officers riir rt",i"-1.-.it.ii-uairar"*r u
t-raining about nercot.ics work ln general and becooe faniliar with local
ditions. ";.;r;i;;-;;;--
Norma11y, a conrnancer should expect hts offl.cers to be t'qained r.n a nrlnber of nar-
cotics subJ ects, i.nc.luding the f ollowing:
o Drug ld':ntificat.ion
o S;r'mpEcns of Drug Abuse
o Drug Laws, Includiug Search and Seizure
o Undercover Techniques
o Use and Handllng of. Infornants
o Surveillance Techniques
o Drug Concealment
,o Gathering and Utillzing Infornation and Intelllgence
o Use and Care of Equipment

o Court Procedure and Demeanor

One of the conceros of unit commanders is that most
ot5Jcers Is usually of a rudlmentary type. There are fewtralning avallable to thelr
schools to whlch they can
seoc unlt personnel for advancea trarning, Ofcen, orrt"u" wllh several years ex-
perience will be sent to a school ooly to ftnd oui "n that he is being taught basic sub-
.jects le:irnecl durlng his flrst few nontha wlth the unlt. ?he general feellng ls that
these schools should ernphasize such thLngs as practlcal exerclses ln survelLlance,
handling iniorrTants, new developeents l-n equipnrent technology and tte utifrzation of
such equiproent, and supervislon of narcotiis and invesclgations. Shoul4 a.
iersonnel
unit sponsor a training school for regionatr oifi.cers, the planners shquld-dlfferentlate
a,lrzanced training frorn blsic trainlng.

one ''ay of meeling these two distinct tralning needs sinultaneously

design of a t'ro-leveI program. one part of the p.igrm would. be deslgnedie through the
perie[ced anc ine-xperienced offlcers r,rhlle oEher poieton" of the for both ex-
vi'ded accc'rrding co the specifie needs of the tro ;;.;;;;-""u1d be dt-
i.onp". For exanpler.the lnexpertenced
offlcers could be given cl-asse3 on drug identificatlon, the experl"r,"ua ottr""t"
strucced on investigatlve supervlslonr-and both groups given a clase on in--'---
hallucinogens. rn conductlng practical exerclseJ, s,rct, bs ln nsw types of
agents could act as team readers. Thus, vhl1" -surveLllance, the senlor
of tout".r 1";;;;;;'"".ia-i"-pi.-
sented to both Srougs' eaeh group could stlLl be "ub1""t"
given.classes that were uore or lese
tailored for lt. Althougtr thts type of progren wJur.d
";;;ii-; "ri"ri"i"u;;-;fi";-;;

238
work and planning, 1t is a sound appr
quenrly nugrnrcrei'gror:p--!)xperlenced :il1"::":"slgn{ng an effectlve fr+
ryogran:for a

239
 CIIAPTER TiiIi}ITY -THREE

UNIT STAFFINC*

rf a unit cosi'rander i's to Qf..ieccivelv- aJmi.ister

success in narcoti'"s enru.c";;;llo- m*sr be;;i;-;;^selecr a-unii and achierre any degree of
quallfied and capabr" ot perso:Lner rirat he feers ere
"."rvj# una
unLt personneL shoula- ue ttroriugii ""r"li"ir".;;i;";:,,rr. ?he procedure for selecrlng
should be posted ln the atp;.Ifrilalon .qurt.uie.'"i"ir..u or descriprive neqroranda
tion should lnclude tha qu;lifr.airoo" the opun po"iaion.
a.srr.J,'ir]J-iur"tion-specifically, this lnforrna-.
nethod rhat will be gsed'rn, ;;i;;;;"". of assignnent, and the. .

Although 1s dlfflcurt to prescribe a eelection process '

when those unlrs't are bouad uv."riurr;;;;;p;;;";;, for narcoli"* un'a"' ,

inportant that the need to provlde policles and procedures, 1!ts

sonnel for aesignnrent as n"t"oti.t an or3e.ii;;-;;;';;"urate merhotr of selecriog er-
process based upon appoinrmene fostetr-s invesifgato."t"troJia be recognized. A
ii;!Xi"ri"iii.r."r, selee.tlon
friction and low rorii". Mo;.r;;;; rr,."ppoi.r,fr"i.'"y".", ""d-;;;;;;s lnrer-divieisnaL
lnvssttg3tor quallty' A fomnar iniesrtgiior ;.;";.;;i;-ii
vhercbv the invescii.rtors ."*r*".ili p.o""..s shourd be. establishd:.
roo, revel of
Itrltten tes! "iu-".i."..a J,,-ir,.";ffi;il Lasls of ;;;";; perroruariw, ,

'cores,
these resrs erirnulaies
anrl an oral i.,te..rtu*. w.ir_a""ier,"a-p.Jiu5;;;";;, adntnisrering
ces6' Although the besE "oorrJun"u-ii.r1,9
t""i 11o"g"iiy-Ji-,r," selecrion and reering pro_
the actual perf,ormance ltself , "i'""'lndividuai;"-iuiir.y ro perforn invesr'gatr.ons is
ttal caq!idates avallabLe "o,r"rae.u.r;;;-"; ;;;i"; rm"-.iJ-},"."iru.. of poten_ l
for'r;;;;;igarive
ten test' past perfornance, and the tntervrewpo"r-rlo.l-rake the combrnarion of rhe writ_
termlne which officers wili be trr.-r."t practical ana rair raethod to de-
""te"t"j-i"-"..""*r""ii" u.,rt
I,fRITTEN
.

':
TESTS

ilany officers feel Lhat the tesEing process

tho-lr abilities in-"rriting, and rlrat excludes candidates who canno! display
sons who poseess the prerJq"i;ia.r-"r the written a"ri-aou"-not accuracely identify per-
is not valld' 'rhe lnitlar'i"Ji".ii,ln an efficleni-"ririn.r investigator. This oplnlon
as a crimlnar r.nvesrisaror ls his tiat ,ro. quariFted for assignrnenr.,
which requlres
" "or,JiaorJ-t"
inab1llty..;;;;;; in an ob3ea;i;;1;;.ins procesq
.ppii"^n. ..-.-rj'."1 .?i".:";-;;;i;".,
writlng under a^n condltion of stress. Lealistrcarrl,,-ti""* and express hls rhouehts in
reqrri-red of a crimj'al i,,'.','rrti;;;;;: The resti*;-;;.;;"" -inporiart qualirr.es
ability to reason r:nd is"."designed to measure
to t"'*o"J iiru'r".rur of knowledge an applic.rnt rhe
,

may irave related

*MaterlaL in this chapter
is based on:
llanuel R. Garza, Manual for ltuili-oJ"'""- Nara^*i- yy-r!- /rQg76),
D.c. ^r7\ LEM, Washlngton,
rnternacional AssogiaEion of chiefs of police,
standards for rhe (ro.
dffi
o""."injF'ffi:i:ffi1.i";:if:til.lfrll1"t" of police, nuuerous manasemenL surveys con-
24L
to a particular field on a basis of cornparison wj.th accel>ted standards. The wrltien
test .i.r;ljog.:l; Lhe,.ireeC f..r:: oiF'i,:i':',, Lo sLudy jrrvi:c;.iljil:lve Ll:l l,nit1ilr.-:in 1l:'r, c::inrin;-1.-
isti:s, anci olirer relaterd fields, ln tliis manner, the overail knowledge of the of-
fieers ls increased, along vith the subsequent quality of invesEigative persoanel. To
be ef fect ive. a cri.rntrnal lnvestigatcr inust he able to ldenrif .r 'f actors tl-'at qriJ.l con-
trii..:i;e to ltre,r'.r.:cessfrrl co:r':ltr.;lun of a cri..ninal iurrestlgati-u'r, ancl iro '1lpu; be able
r:o t'iltlect hll thoughEs in written reporEs that are accurate, complete, and conclse'
?he wrltcen exenin"o.i.-ion provLdes a means for assesslng these ab:ilitir'.s'

PAST PERFOLYANCE

Pasc performance of a candidate is usually assessed orr the basis of evaluatlons

rnade by srrpervisors and comrnErnders. Consideratlon of such evalrrations al-so entails
irrr:::rvi.er.ring lhc,rre cvalurtor$ f o obtatn f r-rrther i.nforinat:i,..;t a;d./:::- r.l-ar:i.r:yiag some oi
Lhe observatlons nade by these .individuals. Characteristlcs that the unit coirunanCer
will be considering include the foJ-lowing.
1) 4:g!.tl4g._l9,rg4__$g-_Jg!.. The candidate's cosrnitment to his particular job and
to law eneoice.nent fn gEneratFnould be assessed. By talking to a candldatets supe-
riors, a cor.unander c,tn deternine vhcther the candidate is willing to make sacriflces
in terms of time and effort to get a job dooe. This factor may seem insignifiganc'
but it wilL become very inpoftant when such sacrifices become an everyday parf of the
narcotics offieerrs 1ife. While comnitment is lmportant, a candidate should'noj be
overzealous. He must be controllable. For example, an officer may ttant to Pursue a
case further than the team Leader or cormander feels ls appropriate' The officer must
be obJective enough to see Lhat, regardless of hj.s personal feelings, the commander has
sound reasons for dlscontinulng a case. In effect, there nust be a billance between
commltment and dedLcatlon and the ab11Lty to percetve the Job objectively.

2) -$yg-:!igg_1yg_4!_!f!g-1. A unit corntnander should examlne the cases lhat the

candidate has investigated and the case reports he has written. Specifleally' he
evaluates the candidatets capabillties in such lnvestigative requisltes as intervlew-
ingr, i.nterrogating, and report writing.
If the canditlaie has previousLy worked as an invesEigator, i,t is imPortant to con-
sider his ability in clearing cases, his perseveraoce in prrrsuing investigations, and
his villingness io participate as a team member. In evaluating his commitment to the
police effcrt in general and the investigative funcCion in particrrlar, attentlon should
be place-d on the trai-nlng prograns the candidate has atcended ancl any extension or cor-
respondence courses ha has taken.

A narcotlcs officer spends much time talking to people, not only on official po-
lice business, but also in "rappingt'with infornanls. therefore, the cornmander slrould
p1y attention to the candidaters abiliLy to expr:ess himself verbally.

The ability to nake sound decisions should be expected of the successful candj.-
date. A nareotics investlgator nrust rnake sp1-it-second decisions based cn linited in-
fornation. An undercover officer inside a house crying to make a buy, for exarnple, is
making decisions that not only percain to the success of a case but also to his own
safety. At the same time, his cover officer must also make fast and dj.fficrrlt deci-
sions as unforseen circurnstances arise. I]ecause so nany of their operations cannot be
minutely planned, these officers have a considerable arnount of discreEion. The proba-
t.ionary periort of the offlcer will furthe- enable the commander to assess the officerts
ability in decision making.
3) J$-gest_. A unit commander r.rants to select those candidales who have shown an
lnterest ln drug enforcement, although he should realize that there are candidates who
have had llEtle opportuniEy to demonstrate this interest. In assessing past work and

242
 durlng che interviev of Lhe candldace' the comrnander
tions ic nind' IJhen the candj.dste had the oppo.aur,iaf,should keep lhe followlng ques-
he arake sone efforc to dig a little furtiiar.;;-;;il;'ti," to inv"sti.gaLe drug cases, did
,r".,r.".y of rhe inforcrarlon?.
i;:"::J:l:":T;: ;l;::";;"ffi.i;*i}; t,vesrigatio,. 'ii"i.'ou1d simpliry the rorlovtup'
passed Jn co .*,,
relarion.shrp r,,irh"",.I.;;".;;i;"T1"*ijr,iiiill:::.fi :;.T:::1..;:: H;":::;;::i:j.:"
any or the narcoti.; ;i;;;;;;^;.-;";;;.ir";;..^;
ol obtain lafcrrnatlqn? what books oi other materlal
with tlie field? '{ candldate is not-e:rpectecl has he read to ".0.r'ii'oll]""i".,,
familiarize hlrnself.
he cones to the unit, but tl" tu"ponJ*"-ro to know everything abc,.rt narcotics before
such questions give arr lndication of his
interesr or lack of ioreresr i" ;;;;-enforcemenL,

INI'5RVIEI"T OF THE CANDIDA?E

lluch ilf the above

ltrform'rcfon ca'also he ver:ir.ieci by an
da.e' rn additio" .o-tt.-J;;;;ir""dy. rnenrir.rnua,-ri,u
lntervler+ of clre candl-
the following personal factors a"ii.r,g tf," fr,t.r.riur.- ".il*ia". ;;;; be exaninr.ag:
....,1 ;..:
Personality' versaciliEy
shift from one role.to another: in a narcotics officer_ is inportant. He nust be able
;;i;ki;-;J'il"i to
""ryadopt tir"
syncrasies of a police officer and" ue aure to dlscarJ certa.in idio*,,:i
unit investigator should p""reraliy be the typ. "tt.r..ieristlcs of an addict or pusher. A
youth' who did a varlety or thing", who of inei.ri.a,ror who ,,got around,, hihle
tor' he wlll have to get al.ong mixed'ritr, Jirrerent crovd"]-'el an investiga_
grounds. rf an investlgaror f,ur"id'.oo*o.,icate well rrith people from varlous back_"
n"rr". vorked, ;i;;J,
students, ror exanpr", ii ".'ii;;; ,.."rJ'rr*ks, chi_
ir* .o rnteract
iili";nlfi.collese 'iri-u!-"i.r'uiiiil"ilH: ;

.tppearalge' The pt'yolcaii'gppearance of ','

should resemble ae-much a" p*iii,*fii" the rype the candidate is important insofar
varv with the 1oce1 att.,g or he wiil porrray. Thls""'0"
rr{Ll
"tir""ter
*"ioi".r.ii-olir", of a parir.uiar ,roit. For ,.
"";ni={lit.r,.
example' where the enforcemeqi eftjorts of the unit are oriented toward dearers who
to wholesare buyers, investigators must i".il-ri'r..^'oir"r" comlng from other parts serl
counrry'to buy multi-kilo" *irnuana or multi-ounces of heroin. conversel,y, of the
"I
uniE mav require that officers look iii."-"aJi"i" ev'v< .*nother
"."1"*fi-b;;;;;:"
'Y:'y.departurentoraEencylras311ilerswhodonotfitthepub1ictsideaofapo-
lice officer' lhis, aloae]wrri the abiliry .o .oi"-'piuy, un"irl"-l-i."aia.re
to,be a
;ffI;f:"*l;: ;::':i:i'nr3tiil;r'i.'" "o''oiiv i;;;;nu"unce of the offieer which
-u"i.J"'""a'"i.^rlil"lll';,ol?lT_r:l::ilil;"":;":
years on the job,
nay

nnay not be suitable for undercover work. ;.i:::":lrl::i;irf"

",""*#*}_.ffi*fi,:ii:i:^:.i:ii"lff"HI.:";::*l,.i:":i:':.'
narcotics work places extreme sirain on an officerrs
family life. rf a candidate,s
farnily life is unstable, it will-frol"ury l,.i".i"r.iu^i,rrth",
o1'fi'cer' sorne municipal polic* if he bec.omes a narcorics
g1e' other agencies vier,r the stailility
"ierr"ie"'..,q,rii"-ii.ui ai ..Lr nlrcotics officere be sin-.
oi ;;;^;#ilare,s family life as rhe first:
factor to be considered in setecti"r.-'x"iri;"#;#'an.""
,

number of reasons why rnarried officers examples, there are s:

are inportant io a unit.
beastabi.Iizingfactor.1ntheunit.Hemayiendcob"'o.ucautious,safetycon. A married officer can
scious' and career conscious than the singll -rn
of strength to an offrcer. officer. srrn, a farnily can be a sourc€
i
it is sound policy for a unit conrnander ro intervielr
nurnber of unlts were forrnd to follow the wi.ves of candldates. A
this proced"iu.-'iir. mosE important
askthewtfeof"..'aiJai"-i'-;;;;;herfee1ing".o'"'aherhusband,sbecon1ng.g questlon to

243
ni;cotics officer. Ic olust be recognized thaf, if a vife 1s s[rongly against the idea
oi ir:: i:i:Sl:.,;,iJ l;i;':'lting ilr r:,: i:ol-:.,::;, his l"r ab:i.:':rl.t lr,. ircirt,l na;' affeCL h js wolk.,
The candidacefs rrife must be advised of some of the problens Ehat she and her hus-
:".1.i enc;runiurr al:-Ler' hl ..rssrlrnes his r,r1e .1s ari ti'.f ii:,,r,4. !,lh:-.r an off icer wcrks
i:';;,,:l
tritria,ir:;r.t:r, iLe na J F.avl tJ asriu:iie a ::n.,iLrb;i .:p;)i:ai'rlr- ', ILr a,iditir.rn, h... n'Jsr pick uP
the language aud develop the ttrap" and jargon of the street. He rnust j-nteract pri-
rnarily vrltir Deople'rrho are j.rrvolved in the use or sale of drugs, and he must become
adel:t a: b:1ng devl.orrs. A1l, these factors can have a detrj.rnental effec! on the offi-
cer, his persooality, and his fanily life.
The soeial life of the undercover officer lray be restricted, since he may not. be
eble to partlctpate in nornal social events, parlicularly those associated with the
police depar:nent. Tl:et:e may be sorne adv.rqe r.eae,tj.cn fron an officerts nei6lhbors,
iri..nd:,;- aud Ie1i.o'.1 put,ice ofl icers becau';,r ol his rre,'.i iif estyle. The fact fhat he is
sti11 a pcl-ice offlcer working on special assignnenc <ioes not prevent the transfer of
sone peoplets h,rst,llity for antisocial stereotypes tc the undercover officer.

!4qKr!gu,u__B!!L{Rgq
The unit eounander should also search for inforrnation by dolng sone backiround re-
search on the candidate. InformaEion sought would relate to the followlng areas.
1) -b{Sbt.d""s" l"t"gtry. Whenever possible, the financial status of can-
didates shou.ld be examined"td to reveal those individuals who are clearly living beyond
the means of a pol,l-ce officer or to determine the extent of a candidaters j.ndebtedness.
I.Itrtle it j.:J not necessary or desirabLe to eliminate a candidaEe who has financlal obLl-
gations, it is necessary to know the extent of his obl.igations. Because the potential
for corrupci.on exlsts in narcotics nork, it is foolish to place in this situation an
officer who ma;r be so financially burdened that even a smal1 amount of money nray be
tenptLng. Narcotics investlgation being what lt is, a unit officer has to be con-
stanEly trusted with money. He wiLL always have opporEunities to cheat on expense re-
ports, undercover buys, or the purchase of infornation. The point is not ihat corruP-
tion or dishonesty is prevalent, but that it uny be unwise to place a heavily indebted
individual ln a tempting situatlon. Siml1arly, a candi.date whose background check j-n-
dicates that he is of questlonable integrity shouLd obviously be elininated. There is
no room for such persons in a narcotics unit. They are a greaEer risk than the debt-
ridden individual.
2) 4ggCg_gi_Time__yrj:_ervlgg. One of the initial decisions of a commander in the
selection process involves the choice between experienced officers or new recruits.
Ifirenever possible, experienced police officcrs shonld be ass.igned to the unif. The
prinary, and sometimes only, advantage in selecting a candidate r,rho has had little or
no experl-ence in police work is that he is not known as a police officer by the local
comnuuity and Lhose inrrolved in drug activity. It shor-rld be rem:mtterd, hotrever, that a
ruew recruit does noi yet knov police work and must be taught Lire basics that an ex-
pc..rienced officer a1rr.r:rdy knows. The recruit nust be given on-the-job trainlng in
general poJ.ice procedures as well as in narcotics enfor:cement. Because he is inex-
perienced, he ruill require closer supervision. Placing a new pol.ice officer in nat-
iotics work may adversely affect his long-term career. In many cases, yollng officers
reassigned from a narcotics unit L.o patrol duties are unable.to make the adjustnent.
The ::elati.re fl-exibilify i.n schedules and nrethods of operation are antithetic to the
reg'ir:rented r,'ork schedules, procedures, and public exposure of patrol operations. An
experienced officer knows what is to be encountered when he leaves the unit and recog-
nizes the type of adjustrnent chat he will have [o rnalie when he gets reassigned to pa-
tro1. A young recruit may not be aware of these factors. IL is recornmended that, iF
a recrult officer is assigned to the unit, the duration of such assignnents should be

244
 :rs Short :rs possibIa. Moreover, f hc .i!i:::i"'
wrlttrtn ex..lnri:.l.rL j.(,n slrotrlri lle witivcd
r"'ilr r:rck l-n'--wi*,rIe ,,i pari;;"..;;;;;;-;;;;,, sin-_ trh G_
;::il"::;:cer ;r,'<r his .rs
;rssi9111.13.,.4

Serer:tring :l police oFfictr t'ith too

For e:;rn;,ie, slrrh:rn,officer rr,ry be too m*ch tinci (1. Lr,.) icb cnrr. also create
probleer_
.l-:\:.1i :li:ea to br: rrsed as an un,rcrcover weLl. kn,,rur. Oi a,,,, i,,rr,p1e irr-tt,"*",r",rrrnity or
officer.
oir ccriain o\:c'lslons,-hu-ru, be able ttia'pi.ir"ay use night be as a cover
;:;:;lt'or iJ-n."" hl.self .fi;r.; a,,l:usinessrnan,,

3) Polygraph Exantnatlons. P.lygraph

son.el-' By using the-poJ-rgruph tu"t, machines are useful in the selecti.on
che-command;.-";; simplify portions of per_
:ion process ' ll-ich of ttle''g''t*ssr.,'t '."c.raar.ng of the serec-
inated' A porvgraph exanirrJ.-.:o* the inrel:r.ity of rtre cancr.i<rate is elim-
"ir,tr..r"i".i,;;"-;;r,;";ir.ru ,or,.or;irrg subjecr areas;
o Biographical and meJical drta
o Financial backgrountl
r Personol knowl.edge of narcotl<
fti" f"rify
o Use of lntoxicants
o Gannbling habits
c Acceptancr, receipr., or solicitation of
a bribe
e Reports ancl as a police offl.cer; false repor!s, perjury,
-restimony
harsh trearmenr p.iuJn"rl--
"f
r Other acts of misconrluct

SPECIA],IZET' PERSONNEL

The neeC ior speci:rlized personnel in

units' an of ficer "specialize"i' rh*rr- tre is narcotics unirs varies. In the smaller
tion ro his generar duties. rn the .s*ig""J-"..auin speci.al frr.r"tiorrs in
addl-
tin:e specialized functions' some of larg". ";i;:;*ln'orer"u. can be assigned ro ful1-
ttese speci"rir"j rasks are: evaqer
i:rtelligence officer' intelligenc" a'olys., eviaei.e officer,
""J-""i;;. ;;;;;.;,''
Typical'1y' the reasons that
sonnel are related to a number nt irnpel'a
i""tor".
uni"t commander to specialize some of
his per-
o";-;;;;;i is tr,u need for special skilrs.
a specialist will becorn" .*irr".ainarily
:'i:ri::t::luln"nl."ones proricient in a par_
qualitv or alr ;;.I,ll;"i"1;':;:l:ll;r:; ;:;:..#;:::";rtX.;:fii"iiifli:"ffr;:
?lte qLrsntity oi r"'.rk in a iunctio.r.i
sirrc.-' rhe anounr of work,j.il ur"o i.s another deterr:in.rii, or *f.Ji.,i.zation,
aitd i"tlto can devote substanciat";;;;Jia"ru ir..ri"g-u.,-oiir"", who is rrained in thar
of ti*" io-fnJ'iu"t. rask
ihe task is imporLant to the un,".ourrt"
t, but i; This is especiarly true if
;"-;;,,:".i"i.,iu.r".e wlEh regular assignments.
Al l rhese rcasott For specialization
realize that sol.e problerrrs not\rithstancling, the unic coriunrnder
a.".re as a shourd
ching' the general usefulrle"" consequence of specialization. For
"irr or tt"-specialized
he becomes so involved in iris officer often bec'mes limited, one
"p*"i"r-ry that
fer'- Just as thc decentralized'Ji"..il,a other *or. g"u*.al responsibiliti.es since suf_
:;pecialized officer or officers. I.urrhermor", a."a"-aJ't"Ioi" uuaononous, so may the
tt,"i.-*ry r. , general decrease in
interesr in rhe sper:i;,rlized task b;-;;". ;;;:;;";;;i;"1'i'orri.u."
"ir,..-rily ,,o ronger
245
lrar'.: co perf orur i.hilt f uoctlou. Ftrr tlrcse reiliolrsl , l-lrc g,e(rr; r;ri- rule f.or rtpeciallzatlon
is,'tili.:'.-'i:.'.1,i:e, i'i 1'riu can. Spec.lrl..Li.:, .ii lr-,rr r..rr-'jt-.rl
t^iitliin the context of specializeC personnel, con$ideration should be given to i.he
use of female narcoEics officers. Although there has been some controversy regarding
Ehcj.r ci'.grioi:;nent in gerrer-'al patrirl, fenai,,l: oificr:r:,i c:ii be of grlat value i'-r 3 nar"
coEics unit. For exanple, diiring surueillances a female alone in a car or r,riLh a nale
offj-cer is less consplcuous than one or lwo male officers in a car; Fernale offlcere
can be utilized in searching fenale suspects or feirrale iaforrnants used in controLied
buys. Even in making invesLigator buys, female investigators draw less suspi.cion fron
a pusher than does a maLe officer. l{hen a fernale officer posing as a trgirL friend[
accompanies a nale officer during a buy, there ls usually less susplclon af the oale
off icer.
Size-.i.i a rn:rjor iravback 'i.n ulilizi.lrg i.,.,ri';r1.,-,s, accor',li.ng to some narcotics Per$orl..
nel. :MosL o.ifir:.er:s, Etrey arllue, would rather h:rve a male officer backing them up in
clse of plrysical- danger. If a male offic.:r needs a female as a conpanlon in a buy'
detracLors argue, a female infornrant can be used. Problerns with thls argument are that
(1) female Infornr:nts are not always available, and (2) the reLiabiliLy of an infornant
in a chreatening 6ltuation is questionabLe.
Perhapsthe most serious proUlem in enrploylng fenale narcotlcs officers i9 that
maLe officers tend to be overpioLective of them. The mal-e officers do not 1it6 to
babyslt female officers, and the females in turn resent paternalism. Overproteptive-
ness, hovever, arlses frern the social norms end attltudes learned by both men and
women since chlldhood. Ong ean safely predict that, given current trends, this attl-
tudo wlI1 change through,outt,,i$OCiety. In a narcoti.cs unit, the attitudinal change ls
generally vcry fasE. After a periocl of tlrne, a capable female investlgaLor 1s usual'ly
accepted as a regular nember of the team. Conversely, women offlcers tend to over-
compensare ln thelr attempts to prove Ehey can do the work. Therefore, conmanders and
supervlsors rnust nalce certain that fcmale officers do noL unnece$sarily place then-
selves i-n hazardorrs si.tuations.
Unlt cosmanders must also recognize that they may have to comPete with other de-
parlment units for the services of the femaLe officers. For this reason it is impor-
tant that narcotics unlts constantly strive to demonstrate the importance of narcotLcs
enforcenent to other unlts. Siurilarly, since the narcotics unit rnay have to borrow
fenaLe officers from other units, narcotics personnel should maintain a sound working
relationship with these other entlties.

246
 C ti:\-1L',rl i. TiiENTy -F{)UR

UNIT I:QUrPlrENfrr

The types and amounts of equipmeat and

naterials that the
chase or rease wir"l depend upo"'"uln
the unit' things,;-;;;-;;re and rheunit
For instance, the number of biioculn;;;
w111 need to pur_
rype of operaeions of
will depend on how nany narcotlcs-lnvesrigators ;;"u.rte recorders, aod vehr-cles
assigned to operational, supervisory, or aie in the unr-t and the number vho are
support positlons.
when considering the equipm",,a:-:-l-",purchased,
chasing unnecessary equlpment. For example, care must be taken to avold pur-
,,"r"oii""
buy vldeo tape equipment or totri"-l"*"ras "o." ""ri" ,JiT" tenpted Jto
borrowing speciaiizeo, inrrelu""ir" used whrch wiLl never be used. ?he possibility of
or other 1aw enforcement agenctes should ,equipr"na-i.o* orher organizational d'vis'ons,
pUfChase SUCh itemS --.- b;
'- vv'rorsErEu u"tore
oelore aa de.l'i.n
decision is rnade ro
";;;iJ"i.i
rn th{e chapter' unlt equtpnent has been
sued, speclal, rald and surveili;;;. dlvicrcd into four: main cacegorres: rs-
equlpmenr, and vehicles. a ii"t-"t-uasic
ment1sg1venlnF1gureL_-1_.l-.[.-..9'4r.gvErrrcJ.es.Al1stof equlp-

EQUIPMSNT ISSUED TO AGENTS

Drug test kits rnay be issued as

though thev can also be reral'ed uf standard equlpment to incividual officers, ar-
cedure rnay be for the unlt to mal.rtain the u'it rr.,iii'i""i"a. The;;;-";;i"abte
pro_
field tests of tlrclr evidence thu". t""i-ki;;'and have the officers conduct
ar-.u office rir"r, i.t is turned
Lhe kjts can be taken out in the "t ri.ra to assisr in. rn brry sltuat:ions,
ir,
har,':: the option of purchasi"g.;t*;;cia1 ""r"ru"hing probable cause. unlts
chasing their orwt chemicals,"or oJtuiningkits rr-,.iu iiu "t.,*i""ls are pre-rnixea, pur_
the
"h";i";i; from criine 1abs.
Binocur^.rs are one plece of equiprnent
how rnany binocula.s t .rnit should that units cannot do without. rn decidi.ng
pu."hu"u,
officers frequently encounter ,rnu*p".t"d . should consider that his
"ri;-;;;ander bin'c*lars
sitrrations-;i;..
example' to re$d the License prot"'or are needed, for
a car or-r.1.h""-""rcotics suspect
:::;'::'::.:n:n;:i;'i; ,lilll;: :ll::""rs are i;;; who has been
Jhr"h *", uu ,,.uJ"J at any tlne,

Voice recorders have becorne integral part of the reporting systen for
cocii:s units' L'ight, reJ'atively an
i.,.*pu.,srrr. iecorders can be utilized many nar-
operations to keep a runnlng account or in most field
urr.nt"r-J""".ipir.ns or impressi.ons for tran-
scribing at a later cime by the officer. o.
, These devices should be is-
"."."c"ry, nor
:;;ir.;"::I:":",*;l:":;
stitl possess_a number of ih"-
i:::,11;r-;1:lo,,eh,-ii'i;;;,i"
.o u. possible, :r un* should
";;;[;'";; ;;";"il";";rtff;.tt;:;;'"ili:
*Materia1inthischapter1sbasedon:Manue1*.91.:":.@
istr#*f$#r.!ltll];.lEA^', I{a;hl"eion, D.c., and .'i'".o,," racF-,,;nagfi;;r srudies ot
247
 l J.iiti:,:: !:

EQirIPit;i.lT -1"; :ii'r:r T^ lCrrl;'iS

c Drug Tesling KiLs

o Birtor."-r.'..':rs
.l C;:t:;e'-L,: Pe-:,.1;.ders
o Driverts License--under fictitious nane
o Gasoline Credit Cards--under fictltious name

SPECIAL Tn'lIT EQUIPMENT

o Boily Recorder and Transmitter Set

o Phone'T:rpe Recorder
o Night Telescope
o Regular Telescope
o Field EquipnenL Case or Bag Containing:
Lvidence bags and container
Several coples of all unit forms
Blank copies of eearch warrants and warrant affldavits
r Porcable Radios wlth Charger
r PortabLe Scales--for weighing narcotics evidence
c Vehlcle-following Transmitters ltith Receivers
o Cameras-moving and sti11

RArD lJlD SURVEILLANCE EQUTPMENT

o Flexlble l{andcuffs
o Sledge }lanmer
, tg Raid Jackets and Hats with "PoLice" Lettering
e Flashlights
o Construction Hard Hats (for surveillance)
o Portable Light (to be plugged into any outlet)
o Cameras--rnoving <lr st411 picture
. Exrra Light Bulbs
o Light.-weight tsody Ar:mor

VE}IICLE TJQUIPMENT

o Shotguns
o Flrst Aid Klts
r Area/City Maps
r License Plates--undeq flctltlous name or unregistered

248
 qP_r_C-!4!
_t )trr ' --::.
-- ----F:rlijrpuutiT
Alchough bod-v recorcing anc iransnittlng
operatioos' they are also very,:'gnpun"1rr.. rf," devices are very useful to un,lercover
atlded c'feiy firctor 1t give:; ii'iif: fscLLrr mu-st be weighed against the
"osi
r,,ri:,r,,.r"o.-,,ir:l]Ji
inander aiid the co,,,er inv.:s,-Lgato', u, i,he prirctrasc ",",a r.he anxiety ir :_;irres rhe r:cm_
,_.1 i.1.,,.,, ii.t:ri .is higirly rccoirunended.
l;:"?:itdff;:::;.should b.. Jne or the riist items ror ..,,rsiaeracion',hen purcrrasing
some units naintain recorders
an operatlonal nature' Thls allo'rs tlral can be used to tape incoming tel-ephone calls o.f
lnformirnts or suspects. Recording ofofflcers to-go-orr.. phone calrs-*ade to the unit by
phone caff3-oi a partyrs own phone
legat b-v federal courts an'l by roit.uc"tn is coi.rsidered.
courcsr torgrr3r,
thc procerlrrr:e.sho.1d
checksdoutbyeachunj.ttoensurethatit-i;-;;;oIor'ru,.oaorrest-rictedbystate be
staEuie.

Telescopes' Like binoculars, are tr.seful

lances and bu;; sitrratlcns' rroto.i'e., ihery in cercain operatlons such as surveil-
are
slnce telescopes mrrst be mounted on a tripod nrt used as frequently as binoculars.
for effectlve use, their appllcabillty
is generally restrieted to srati"n.ry surveillances. ,.
Because they may not be used ae,
regu1ar1yassome.otheritens,tel.escopes-";-;;;-;;teveryh1gh1npriorityona
unltts shopplng List' uigtrc scop"", on the
quentlv than telescoPes. The decision other t."na, generally used more fie-
whether "r*
pende't on the ainount of nLghttine surveillun"u .; ;;; ro purchase a nlghr scope t's 4e-
op"rotions 1n whlch the unlt
genera11ybeinvo1ve<l.AnJrcoticsunitmightconeiJerpurchasingsurp1usni.ght '1.11 "
:r. vururrdsrll$ suEpruo uJ'E,rrL
scopes f rom mllitary un1ts.
A vehlcle*follcrwtn$ t'ansnittel
si've itern' the prlce rairging u.ti'*en
3:d,.::."rver, or,,'burnper-beeperr', !s i vary erpen-,
vices can be quite usef"I tJ a urrlt,$6,000 ;;;-id,iit,o. Airhough'u"t,t"i*-eorloring,de-
ficer is traveLlng with a ausPecr to especlally in'a situation ihere a.r-undercover
an unknown locar.ity, it ls n<.rt recommended thatcif-
all unirs purchase rhese devrces. Th;;";;;';;";";;i:,
than a vehicle monitor' rt will have-to be items rhat a unir may need uore
purchade one withour, depriving the unit determined if there are enough funds to, ,

.f .;;;;-;;.i1"..,
sideratlon is thar rhe use of these devices equipmenr. Another con_
r."s t,ien-i""ri;;-;;-;ii;rriwirhour
:

sesrch warrant. According to a recenc a ,

"o".rolo-Or.*"r.fV:S-:
1975)' the use of these dlvlces r"s-to,rno be a iioi"a*
vs MartyniuB, May 20,
of a-l{EonTs righr to
prlvacy' Finallv, retrleval of the 0""i""-."y-.;
Those units that do have the devices-h";;.;;;ri"u'ii"i;i;; presenr a difficult problem.
thelr use' However, the rrnits that lack tr,.. they are well sarisfied ntrh
wlthouc them. !o-u" atrte to operare effectively
"""*
A set of protabLe scales for weightng sma11 quantit
indispen;able to a unit because under federal ies of clrugs and narcotics is
pects depend on the amounts of drugs.or una'rort-state codes, the charges on sus-
narcotlcs they sold or had in their possesslon.
rhe veight capabilities need not b; large.
lr""t-ar"gi and narcotics can tre broken up
in.o packages.f pounds or ki-lograms' l.a cases wherJ large arnorrnts of drugs are con-
fiscared, such as in marihu;rna Ioi"u.u", ai""..r.r'"ir'n""J"
ln large p]-astic bags or different types of scales used. ;";";r;k"i'up ond placed
unit should al'rrw for regular calibrarion to guarantee The scales purchaseti by the
accur:acy.
units may also consider maintaining field
bags, that i-s, briefcases contaj.ning the
equiprnent and 'supplies that it will nu"J-fo.',ro.i5,r.
strch a case courd contaln Ehe necessary typ"" or operarions. For example,
forms ror ir,teirigence r.rro.*ufton reports,
case rePorts' personal hi'story forms for suspecrs
statemenis, search L/arrant and af f irlavirs; in ani-inrormants, search wai.rers,
flexlble handcuffs, and any olher equipnrent whlctr
"aaiiion, ii-"."ia'i;;; lest kits,
r*";r--i. used in rhe fleld. rt Is not

249
always posslble for oificers to carry their oivTl casrs vith this equipment. If all
rlCrr)e;S3Iy i.i.. (:;ili .t re, ,:-",. ,er ..i :i-n a r-ld , I rii,': s'r!'r,;.. u..i:';r r'.,:r:t s :i];.'-l-y takr: i:he cilrjc- '-'iLh LLim
on an oPerati'on and be assured that the Lean hes what it needs'

I .1);D Sr.tr:1.r 1,1Lt.:\liCX ja:igi!!

tlnits n:ed ?l r.'itrj.et)J of itens fcr ra:L{ i'4r.rl sr.tr,'ei.ll"a.:ice sit'.ratio:;t;' lir.': n':ed for
Eost of tlrts,-'i;-..:,:i, suL:h as flr:xj.blc lrrnrlt..tri-lri;, i. lrsitligtrt-:;r anrl';lu'lie il':riulers, itr
self-evidenl. Rald Jaclcets anl hafs \rith "l'rlLce" lettering are discussed in the sec-
ilon on rrrirls. As for the other items, a few br:ief comnents are in order.
Some unlts possess construction irar:d hats and urj.liry tool belts worn by util-ity
colpany emp1o7-ees for use r3'.rr.ing surveillance opeiations whe,re oFJl:ccrer must be p1e.cr:d
out- jrn the ,:;g..:-.: .-,:' ulie::,1 ttiey musc enter a b'.r i.Jding wilirout .::.rtrur'.i,:i3 sr'';p.i'.:-lon' Tire
purchase of se.reral pieces of llghtweigirt body-arnor cloEhiag a,pparel for the protec-
tion of officers during raids shouLd also be consldered-
Lightlng equlpment, such as poriable lights which can be plugged into most el-ec-
trical or:tlets and high-intensity J-ight bu1bs, are a1s'r recomnended. They are useful
when a unit cooducts searclies i.n dirqly lit apartnents or houses. The use of the por-
cable Light and the substLtution of 'colored or dirn light bulbs with a l-arger-watt bulb
facilitates the searches.
The use 6f cameras is conmon to most units. The camera ls used oceasionally for
taking long-range shots of suspects, vehicles, arrd bui.!.Cings. l'Iore frequently, though'
they are used fnr photographing inforr.'ritnts or confisca:erd evidence. Polaroid cirmerag
are very useful and relattvely irre:<pensive for this pt-li:r'ios;e' Thirty-five nillimeter
cameras are more suL;able for J-ong-range, covert photcfjraphs. liovie caneras are owned
by relaCively few unlts and, used by even fewer. Covert picture-taking for identifica-
tlon purposes can best be done wich a still- plcture canera. Although a movie camera
could be used effectlvel.y wtrere a running visual account of an illicit oPeration is de-
sired, most |ocal units do not geE involved in these types of cases. Even lf they did'
a suitable carnera could perhaps be borrowed or rented'
While it is helpful for a un-it to borrow sone of its equipnent from other agen-
cies, the unit should bear in mind that it can abuse this professional courEesy by
consEantly borrowlng from others. 0n the other hand, unils c-ln increase the support
and coopelation of ocher departments by 1-ending them unil equipnent. Through such
loans, these oti..ar deparE{Bents cotne to depelrd on the uni! not only for equipnent, but
also for asslstance. Caining favor from these departments, of course, assists the
uuits in cheir narcotics enforcement efforts. Through such loans, mutual assisLance
nay be rendered, information exchanged, and ultiroaE.ely a high degree of cooperation
achieved.

The narcotics unit, as as every other organizational comPonent of the depart-

wel:L
meitt, should rnaintain an accureite inventory of the equlprnent assigned to it. In addi-
ti.on, a master record should be rnalntained by the fiscal and property rnanagemenC divl-
sion. Unit inventory records should be checked annualLy against the master inventory
record and upclated when new equlpmen; is acqul-red or old equiPnent phased out' ALl
non-expeldable articles shoul-d be identified by serial number, urrless one is supplied
by the nanufacturer. To provide a means of reference, decals or ;iChesive labeLs should
be affixed to tabl-es, ehairs, desks, filing cabinets, and other equiprnent l-ssued to the
unit. In a poliee depargment the commander of each organizational comPonent shouLd be
made responsibLe for the equipment under his command. I,Ihenever comnanders are re-
assigned, the equipment inventory should be auditecl arrd reasslgned to the new
conmander.

254
 IEgIg!!r_.!ip_IE{!gL-E _gggt{n}i3
-t"iiei::ver tros;:'j'ie, narcJtj-'Jr r,nic v;hici*s
dlvidual i'nvesrlgators to enable rhe unit conn:inder "ir,.rui..i be pe;n,,iL.,1.-iJ a:s.-:..-:-! a9 !e
hicle ca:e rnrl sarvice. Each invesr-islror .*;-;;-;.;; co naint.:in accoln--.:;i-l-ity for ve
ltlbr:ic':r'-"i:;n, :-i-1 - -r''geri, Lrjn:u.r:, :.i1.1i Eit.- .:,-,:-i:io;r ;;;;::;;b;;';;;-;"sq1irs rbar
;.ir_! chi.inli-:s 1.jir: .::,:c.shen c=li:d,

iir,:r: vei,irri.-:_:.;-._]:.:.n,r.Lp,;..ei ro.i.;t.l .i

dtrres sltourd b: i'ornulared *-irictr,r*i1l ass1sL inv:,lu.ri.in"rr:.,;:irl:rr-g:,t,.r.,)i...;;..,,:=i:e__
examp-le an crf f icer I s
co'crolling the use of ',.=al.t"*."il.
activ.fty sher:: shoul-d in{icate thi.: t tire oiili
car that' day, along with , ltrii1
the veti:te mireage, ir-.r" piactice Jns,rj:es cl;rLcer: used the
used for offrei.a-t business only and assists vehicles are
dallr" work of ih-e offi-ceru.r ..porte. orr d;rily supertL*rury peisonnel i"n verif;,ing th:
ar,-tiviiy reports.
For an agcncy that is restricled.in its abr'-lity
other units or agencLes, the begt policy t" io e:<change trncercover cars with
is lo use coamonpl-ace vehicles. us" of cars v-irh p;;";;-i' tt,e seleetio' of unit vehicles
spicuous' such as-'mag" wheelsr_bright colors, modiflcations that make t.heu con-
A11 these thlngs tend to *ake lrre cirs easirl, ,t.""i"-o, stickers, shcuj_d be avoided..
usual car' such as a metallic green corv"aa""riit,-fiog-rt..r", recognizabre by street people. An un_
case may become useless in al1 other buys..in that is burned in one
siderati'ons' the style of vehicle .r,o.r:.a "match" tr',,it g;i..a1 region. Despite these coo-
whorn the undercover-offlcer purports tf,. or character of the per.on
to be. For "t.",r" d
instance,
vould not, drlve a big, ^ust a svarcge
college',buyer,,
Duy tlrplcalLy
"xperr=i1ro "aa..
The exclusive useof either nelr or o1d cars or the same models as those
utillzed by loca'l police dapartnpnLs, should be avoicled, curreatly
local polLce dePartnenE uu." o parLicular n;rke of For exanpic, :i.f a rnajor
particular make because 10ca1 violators r,'111 unit should not use that
""r,-arr" of
be s,rspicio,,s the..
obviously' police radios and alrtennae shotrld not be
vehicle' rn most L-ases' radlos can be hidden conspicuously placed on the
i.r'ci"-giorre
radio aptennae can be connected to the police radio. coapartment, aod the regular
tennae bu1lt Lnto the windshield, regular car rn cars that have the radio an_
then connected to the police r:adio. "A technique"nru.rr,"e-.an be placed on the cars and
equipment was that of placing the rarlio in used by one uni-t to conceal radlo
side the overhead i'nterior covering above thethe gto.r"-"o*partment, the microphone in*.
..riu;;, and the transnitter button
underneath the carpetlng just belo.l the dirnner";;
"rit"t.
on unclercover vehicles r,rhich have been j.denrifie.d
3l,l"l-"^,1::-rlir-]:b as unir
userul."s"i;.--i;r""i,"''.inr"i-":;";;.,;;i;.;,l.T,"li:""
:;;:.:::":"^:::,9:^.:-iio:.1.m
bl-i,sqcacr.. A init JJ=;:;;';";;:.H:1.';:.;
::::;:?";:^:?':-:':^:::: r."," whorn ir can borrow"h;;i;;"-;i;
i:
::::::."t::::,::,._:.:l:I:
*:i':,:^:",1::11:: g:"lT..l?rge
::d:::"Y:: "p"ulio":" i;;';"i' "li'o,"",'f:;.,?::.""i!| ;::.:.
t.il'i"i.i'.irl"l"':;.:"'i:': hours
the units. r; ;-";;;";;.;;^";;;""Jirliil'"i!';",jIn
ff:].,.";.:::..::,r:I: u.. il. l"il"i"ll',13it:i: ff :
Sufanetr rnrl tl'.. -l
i^^--^ -r ^! - -
this i.v'e oi rer-ationship wttrr friendry car dealers is J rlUilf 3 a-LE
not abusecr.
rn nost narcotics case:; vhere an undercover
:rno:her sLate' conspicrrous rental cars must be officer purpo:ts ro be a buyer from
used to rei-nforce the offi-cerrs cover.
i'lrerefore' units should atLelrpt to h:ve a good working
cc't.?anies' An alternative to re'ting cars nay be relationship with car rental
c'n tlr': trndercover car. some state aoto, vehicle to fl-ace out-of-state ri]lnsJ"ni.r""
respLctive states to a requesting unlt in another bur.rarrs send .icense prr3lsa frorn the'r
approxi.marerv rwenry srares. To obtain plates, ritare. one unit receiverl places fron
typed on official- letterhead, that staces the type ".r.,r..-"t,o;i;;;;;;=;;;""" a rerrer,
siin for the request, and the perti-nent information of unit rnaking the reqrrest, the rea-.
or e:lch car ilcrui-:-ng the officerrs
i
I

25r
r-{l;.1:!. C!: C{1rrer n,rtrii ri) whi':'h er^h .t,-'t- ol n.t.:s1, ': -i n in b' i-l':- t-,tl. :{:qtl?sts i' i- refay-
' -r t r1 a1-)")'-,', iil11,.:ir-:',,,,; aD,JiL j,':i:1 r.EisF.iat-icri r-'i sucll piltes shocici a15o be
i.r.1!!:'::':ria,

cor,'erei in lhe letter of reques!'

itg .-9;t,. 'i I a j..l.-: 11r,.:.,rii1ti-'j li: j.l: :-: .:.t:r 'r,r., , i.,)-li.;\ei.l ' il;1tl i:loi:ol-{}CJ e": i;i ilir':" r; Opef-
, jt, -f

r:itirl::... iir::ir, t'.ft.j.; of r''rilicl.ct:, at:1 tr*i:(iueIr:,ij" ust.c.i b-i iiarr:oti"cs suspects and have
great.,,a1ue t'n conij,.rctin:; su:r;ei.l.'lances. !'ans an.i canpers are pal:ticularly useful in
frolo.r;;r-i sr.rrv:.:i]-J.ijncrlr3. Unii s r"-:porf .rd t-h:li oi i i-rer:i wh-o trseC mot-cri/c1es .ir:lr'/ very
'l--ittle ;r!spic ion when nsking uodercover buys.

The iicen.se plates on unit vehi{:les can be issrred to a fictltious name or to che
pclic,r agengy. in r:.rses !*,here the plateS are issr.ied to the ulriE' an agreenent shO'rl'd
be caCs with the s':irte nroior vehicle bureaurrrt.:i: to have all inquirlerr regarding an under-
co\/:.r vehi:i,:rii-l Lcer-:e n,,nlht--'r.'ebr.;r,ijd.r:j ',.rt. -i.n file,tt anC ir nctj-firac'lcn ntde
tc the uni-c c:o:::ir,inder rcgardrng who nade the iuquiry' Consequently, if a citizen
requesCs a iicerse nunber check, as is legal in rnany states, the commander can then
fin<1 out vrho is inq,.riring abolrt the r'.nit vehicle" If a."rother po!.ice agency runs lhe
li.cense rrumber check, t-rre unit conunander cln coni:act tlre agenc.y directly to deterrnine
the reasons for: I t '
A uirit ccn:raarler musL decide vhether or not unit officers etill be allowed ,.to Eake
assigned cars hoaie with them. If they are alloued, the coilurander nust decide #hecher
the cars wi1l be used for personal purprrses or whether use of the vehicles wi11..be re-
stricted to d;:i'ring t-o and frorn work. R1'aliowing,rnit officers to take cars hoxce with
r-hem, the ofticers wiLl have radio comnunication $rith other unit members even when off-
duLy, and they will have insiant accessibility to a police-eqrripped vehicle' This ls
espgri..xlly iinportilnr sinc-tr unit peisonnel of,tcn 1'irrtl thenselvcs in situations wltere
ehey tnadvertenfly encounter narcoCLcs srlgpects' drrd they nray bc ablc io cohduce an
imprompEu srrrveillance and gather inteLllgence-

Unforttrr-rately, when vehi,cles are assigRetl for off--Juty use' charges ol: favoritism,
t'rewardtt the officer apart fro:n
patronage, or other political- naneuvering designed to
actuatly pronoting hirn, are likely to occur. The :Lndividuel who has a police vehicle
asslgne; to hirn on a Permanent basis stuy save $1,000 or more each year in transporta-
tion cosEs.
A secolrl najor issu.: surrounds the off-cluty use of permanently assigned veilicles'
llany persons feei chat i he privilege of ltaving a permanenbLy .issigned vehlcle is abused
r.rhen the vehicle is used for such pu:'poseii as attending classes wtrile off duty'
going
to and fron paiC det;.rils qhile of.E cluty, running personal- errands, or simplY driving
to and from vcrk-. Unless clearcut p':11cy is established regarding pernanenEly assigned
vehicle:i, abuse wil.l oCcur. lloreover, the morale of orcficers \thg are not similarl-y
"rewarded" wil.L suf fcr.
The unit corunander or the team supervisors should be responsible for Periodic in-
spectlons of the unlt vehicles, irith the inspections focusing on the fol1':wing areas:
o C:eneral cleanliness lnside and ouiside
Unrepaired dema3,e

lleeded repairs

T.ubrication and naiirlenance recorrl

Excra equtpnent such as flares, skid ctrajn::, first aid equipnnent, flre
extinguishtr, and other eqtripneil; provicled for: e;rch vehicle

252
 CI.IAPT E F. TI,IE|iTY-FI VE

iiELAT T0tisr-t rp:*

cooRprNArroN
!IU_0ru!! AcE:fc rxs
rn those jurisdlctions
operati'rrg' a local narcoLicswhere state and feaeral narcotics agencies are
activery
"nii "r,o,.,r.r.;.;il;;ii,..ru."trrriti""-,riiu.,r"n agencies.
:*::.iliii'"llr:,::t::;;jl!.ij:"j;::;:f:,1:l$:1"., .n. u,,i, .r,o,,rj cirech
this is the case, a"turrii;;il; investlgaring him. "i.r,----.
should rheo be o,"outtuttty
-" it wiii'il"-l""ooperative
investigation or ir rf
.,r"n.,rr.l as co h'ho "irr"pro.!uJ1u?.n-it,"
units is .o,if rcaLi,' of stare
notirled or si,nirar::i::T;"ii::"rt"
::::,ff;:;ii{i p".Ji"e ."ii"i"oi..iiil".;n::":" ffr.:
and federa.
"*Jo=
rai<r's of one asencv will
nJr.a.r"r:o"ty
suspectr; to go undcrground'
r,ru":l*{:::":tF:
gerher i-n delaylng raids ii'"""rt "rt*"i-.tJ-;;;"" of oiher-;;;;";_" by foreing
n""*irriiiir-1.r",", the ag,.,,icrres
or in touiug".;;";;;;;;.j*J;,., "an work ro_
novcr up rirelr anlicipated
;:;::'."f,:":;:;Jli::-*'J:ii::";.,,*:fli"ff.j.:jl"::"bab1y be ample ii*" roi
ar_

TIIIIT PUBLICITY

rf it is in ke3eile with departrnent

nared as a press retati-Jns policy, soileone in the unit
direcrives. A11 members og.rri"II'"n.""
t'."
;;;i;;'.iI"i."*"ribed in
shourd be d^esig-
explicir,
urrit. should t..r-ria".bide by these direr rrirren
nating one lncrividual and ;"-;;.;;;.J"1,1"'l.xl'inilr"llil"-ll^:l::e-directives.
that lhe i"ro*'.ii.., gi.,u,,-i"-;;;;;::: o."ig-
:ff":;;,:l:i"l::'" .ui"""u"-'ii'i.,'.,o* ",,a
gi'ven to the press srrould
11.. i:t"::i"il":t"" be as concise as possible.
The more
and misint;;o;;.;.l:i"lr'iii'ii;rjli sreater is rhe likerihooJ-";";;.';";;
j
Fr:r :Tm :; ":*ffj*,;T:;*:r:trilj[ff
ili ::':::. cert;rin ru;}::,,
a case,.,r,"iiJ'n-ot }iT,"ii-i#i,
arrests' specific a"t"il"-ououL
"
media' How the case r!-as made,
the number of uuy."JJ'ro"h be revealed to the news
the oflicers have t'uen totki;;;;-.;.-case,
in ttre rrresrs, or rhe ""1r"',"o!-'ti" "rr.p.ct, the urou.rt
rhe nunber of porice,lrrr""." of tine
participating
cluded from the anor*r;;;.;;;-.re
rorial efforts' news release' tt'i"-ayp. of informaaio., a1l irens thar should be ex_
l-defense ti"t*t'y can-claim ".n adversely affectprejudi-
ar*a-"""r, informaEion prosecu-
;;:;"i';;'iiii"iltl::;'j":lj::Ji"lil.'ourun,rant."-i"".iar.ion, rhe i,,ro,,aiion
"ro.i." may be

,ri.Iaterial in thls
chapter
Narcocic Units (Ig76), LEM, i.s based on: Manuel R. Gar:za, llanual for MuLti._Agency
WashingLon, D.C.

253
 On occasioq, units have allowed ness metlia personnel to acconpany officers on a
riri..i. ,1;1 .:r,rri .;-,::;l io Ticdlrr lprirrn.:rllr nosL of Lhe:ie e-':i1::t it,ncc; ha''a l;li':i", il:-nef j"ci;11 to
lhe unii irr fr:cusing pub.Lrc aLterrtion on uniL enforcenrenE effott.j aSainst rhe narcotics
prcblem, thus gaining pubLic,support. There are some nla-jor disadr/antages, however, l-n
allowjng news :nedia porsonixrl. to cbs,: v, \.''rq\)jng rai,ls. F,.'5::., il cl:c opei:-rt.i o:: is noi
carrjed out srro,fthl.y or ii iepol:1ili] j-:j;:): c,irje:tive, edr,'ers:,: publicily ma-y' ba:,nough
to ot'iset rnonths or years of good work by the uniL. Second, the initial moments in
executing a r;,-iC i:an be cornp-lex. Having rt:porLers or ca:llir.?nen along at the time that
the.rffj,cers a':e conductlng c raiC nay irrc:ease confusion. Third, the coordination of
personnel assigned to raid dutles becomes more complex and the risk of injury is in-
creased when persons not essentlal to the operation are permitted to accorDpany a raid-
ing party.
Aaother factor to consider is that al-though a camera may not 1.i.e, it can distort.
For inscance, li: mai pJ-:tray arr officer vh.r is trying to cover tno.,)r three susPects
at gunpoint while protecting hirnself and oCher officers as a h_ysterical, gun-waving
officer. Again, the whoLe endeavor may also cause the defense atEorney to claim that
there has been unnecessary preJudicial publlcity against his clieot. A11 in all, al-
lowing news sredla personnel to purticipate ln unit operatlons such as raids may be un-
wise. Such perticipation should be all.owed only when all of the factors previously
dlscussed cau be controlled. As ae alternatirre source of pu'bLicity, perhaps rierts
coverage of unit operations could be focused on some of the nore Peaceful and less
hazardous aspects of unit ctperaLions such as court supervised destruction of drggs
seized by the trnir-.

TRAINING OF IiON-N.{B,COTTCS OFFICNRS

A unit shorrld eonsider condueting basic narcoLics trainlng programs for local non-
narcoLics officers. Where such trainlng 1s lacking among patrol officers, a unit com-
mander can establish a program where unit officers conducE short, rol-l-call- training
sessions, or even forural, area-wide courses for the patrol shifts. The Program can
focus on narcotics subjects which will asslst patrol offlcers in their oi^n duties and
in lhe enhancernent of narcotics enforcernent. For example, the program may include the
f ollouing sub j ect.s :

e Drug icleniiflcation: Patrol officers should be given some training

in the idencification of heroin, cocaine, marihuana, and the comntJn
barbiturares, arnphetamlnes, and hal-lucinogens found in the local.
reg io.l

e ldentification of the abuser: Police officers shoulC be aware of

the physiologic:rl and psychological symptoms of drug abuse.
r Drug concealment: Methods in which drugs and narcotj.cs are con-
cealed in vehicJ.es, homes, or oir the person and holt lo search for
thern should be covered.

r Evidence handling: How particular drugs should be handled, col-

lected, stored, and marked should be discussed.
r Conditions and indications of narcotics accivity: This topic can
cover environrnenLal conditions which indicate narcotics activity,
such as narcoEics paraphernalia, clandestine 1ab eguipment or
vehicular aad pedestrian traffic patterns around a Place where
narcotics are so1d.
Hhenever possible, short training elasses can be video*taped to a1low patrol
supervisors to present the prgt4ram to a number of shifts and divisions without tying up

254
 aarcotlcs'officers for: consLderable J"engchs of time. Teuporary
narcoi'i{:i officers to the unil shoul,l .-riso ire assignnents of noo-
cor:sitiered.
derived frorn conducting these programs.-aiarrrl'ri".r=""rr.r"e There banef,its
iunctlon' Pa;ro1 offj'cer:s ot ottJ. lnvestigato.. rhe ".u.-rr..*"rous
support of the un1rrs
u.it does and vhat it is tryin€i lcr acconpl-iih. rt l,"t-o ais;c
good undersianding of nhat ttre
tlome of tha pr:r:blcins'thet the iratcorics i'rit makes the other ur.riEs a,,rare of
f.rc.:s in trying to gaiher infon:rali.on and
irr lraking case:; againsl nar:coti.cs susper:ts. s""orrar'tr-re
li5;ation i':'ip'rrte:d to other pollce officers errables-ar,aor kr.rowleclge of narcotics inves-
Lo do a bcEter job in investigating narcotics a., discover nrore violations and
or
essencer rcokes the job of the unlt nuch easier. 'arcotics*rerateri offenses. ?his, in
opened trp and a raPport ls eslablished Thi;;, lines of corununlcatlon are
between Lhe iui"oti"" unit and the patrol
cers' Thls in turn increases the wi1llngnes" offi-
foruation to the unit on oarcolics activities. .i'irt"-patrol officrirs to pass along ln-
narcotics investlgators may be able .o r-ourtir, during rhe trai'.i.g sessions
good narcotl.cs invesLigators. "p"i*rtt"";";;;;"urs who they feel vourd rnake
I

such training should involve as nxrly of the

capable of conducting short training ses.sions. investlgators as possible who are
offlcer is hei'pful to hin because (il it The invoivearent i.r'tr.irrir*'ili ]tinra
ter' (2) it forces hin to become aware of,""o"io=^;;"-;; knowledge of the subjecr mar-
ships of the unit,-and (3) it gives him the*r,d r""po.r"irr" ao, the external relatlon-
other offlcers in his departmeit. ";p;;;;;i;i to,.t. personal conracc with

Another phase of narcotics training where

cotlcs training offered to recruit orriler=-ai thE unics can participate is an. o.'r-
such training offers the same advantages o.it""-"cademies in rhe ,""ir"il"l-]""-
as those eonducted by the unit during ro11*
calL training sessions for in-service officers.
tralnlng at the acariemy means that the unit ls .bi;r., "JJrtror, io these ,arr".rtage",
are being glven their lnitial" tra.lrri*g ;;J; ;;-..*.i,, p"ri""-"tii""r. when thly
wich the need for total poJ.ice cooperation in ;;";;ii."l .n,., crn b* r*ailr1y topressed,
comrnander can set time aside for a two
narcotics enforcement. Furlhermore,
hour to four io rr troct of instruction on thea
subject' Ac:rdeny tr"aining is regular; that 1s, the
offj'cers will give a certaln uroct of instruction commande, knows that one of hls
plan can be developed to be usecl by anyone for every recruit.class. one lesson
from ttre unit who is deslgnated to rnstruct
the class' rn addition, qualified academy instructor"-".r,
the unic with visual aids and dlsptays to be used u" called upon to asslst
in its presentation.

PAR?.ICIPATION IN iIj\N UNITS

tl:":,:::j:::::li: for autonor,ry of locar police deparr_
::1:l::1.::u,"1g..,":lre ;;^.;;;;;;''il.;;';;fi'".:::il:":;Hl'."0
l::i""f':;.:::::l::i"L:":?:.:::.1: !:01i";;;;;
*:l-":"i::l":lilll;^-Il" :::rll::.i.':r!:'."""pi'""i.;';r":il;;ll:t::";fi"ill3;"1
deparrrmenrs' juri.srlicrio'ar lrmitarion.l-",*0"1r..;l;;;;';;"J:;.;::"*;
il:lf-::l:ce
equipment.

A11 these factors have trad an'effect

wav ';L *ntrancing an efforr in narcorics on narcotics enforcenent. consequenrry, on"
ItluIti-'\gency Narcotics (l-1'Al'l) units. Theenforcen,",,,. i";il;;;;;;"'".iiii".ron of
tr:€o :'s ilrld strerif f s of f ices
I
use of :rAN units allows local police depart-
to apply their conbi.r"d rerources more errec t i.rery
nar-cotics problern' utilizing ttris approach, they can coorclinate their investigarive to the
efforts' establi'sll uniform ..tfor..*"nt prioriti"", p"rti"ipate in undercover opera-
tiorts' supplernent the narcotics efforts of snaLler gsver
jurisdlctional irrvestigalions. i.pu.a".nts,
Lr:i(--'ILu' dlr(t conduct trans-
and conquc

Typlcirlly' a unttts strut:trtro, tun'Lion, arril irs

method of operati.n
adcipted becausc of strltabillty ror rlre.lor:al conilltirrns.f rhc Jrir:r. 1.trisare usualry
alrows
to a;'ldress narcotics problens ln terms of che u.ique .trr.. lr.l .i'ii"t."rn-"p""ti.r. urri.ts

255
coiilrrnities. It is the prlmary reason thal thfi concepc of a tfA.tl Unit r+orlis so ef-
f ec. i'.r.,:.ly r..it iriii a c.r:iiii,rx {,,r :.,r('11 i;rir//j r' 'ri:.iil' .

Slat e al,1 .iecierai rrJrcof lcs agenci:s cannot always assisL local pol.ice cl..:partnents
for a .rar,i-; ry ,:rf !eas,f:rs, A lt\ll Ur:j.r. . .,n r.he othgl- hand, wi l-1 ,:c:;1ror,tl li\ r'')'.ir-,:'sLs con-
cer.:lng €]r''e'.r f.:i'r loryesL l-cveL of pr.r.',liru;s.. Ii: is thls f yp.r lrf rl:;p;,:siv,i:t.,:,rriil :-lr:ti eo-
hanr:es the s;upport of local- departnenls for the unit,

Tiie;.ect ttriL ll\-li Units are dasigrred Lo fit loc.rL needs i.s inCicirted by tire io1-
lowing features of I"IA.I\ Units that were researched in a 1974-75 sLudy of MAN Units
throughouE the cotrntry:

c The I"lAr\ Units ranged in slze froin one of.ficer to.6J officers.
e Some llfu\ lirrirs hi;:ccr. ,rf f i l,-r.; '^,hi. te r,trhers ir.;lsi.gncrd of f i-cers f rom
1oca1 <!eparE.ments.

o Unitts olrerated in rura1, metropolitan, industria.i.jzed or suburban

areas, or any combtnaEion of these.
a Solre jlrisdlctioncl areas encompassed one county, others encompassed
as ntany as six counlles; stiLl other units operated in two states,
. o The units operaLed in jurisdictions vith populations ranging from
55,000 to 6,000,000.
o Most unl-Cs handleti arrly narcotjcs c.lries, whil,e oth€rrs were r-rtldl-
!iUriall.y enLrusted vlfh f hr .lnvesLig.rl [vt: rcsponsibi..lit-y for rnaJur
crlor':s.

Soioe uuits had very {ilttltr contact r,/tth federal narcotics agents,
wlrile others hud fedArhl agents inregratecl into the unit.
,o Many squads detached lhemselves pirystcally from the local police
deparEnents; a few were integrated with vlce, inteJ-1-igence, and/or
organized crime sections of the departrnenE..
o Tha najority of uBits oFerated alrtononously'.vhile in a few insE.ances
units vere coordinated by statewide coordinating agencics.
Specificalty, MAN Units have been developed to overcone narc:olics enforcenenE
Probl.ens vhich are region;rl. in naiure, Sone of rLe problems includ*: the fol-lowing:
c Increased reglonal drug acti'rity and the appearance of ncw source-s
of srrpply
o Increaseti publlcity ltrorrt tlre narcotics pr:oblem in t,he local area
Inability of policc crfIiccrs fo activcJ-y pur6ue in.rescj.gatj.on$ out*
side t!:trir respective departr:cntrs juris.Ji(:tl'.on
Lack of cooperation anong l-ocal lavr eniorcenent ageniies
Inabllity of local departnents to obtain e.1,-ripment anrt matt:ria1
needed in narcotics ent"orcenent
fnabtllty of focal police of f icers c.o rrr:Certalie undercover assign-
nents because they are too well-knoun within their orrn -iurisdicEi.ons

256
 e Lack of rrniformity in setting narcotics
enforcement priori,ties
o rnability of sna11 police departments to
to work on narcotlcs i-nvestigations e'rv assi.;n a narc,ti.cs specialist
of sper.: i: I ization
and take
!e^s idvantage of rhe benefits
dr
.

o Insufficient manpower assigned Lo the rrarcotics

depiir:i.:I€,iii-s with n.'rcot lcs sections functir)a even .tn large

o - rnability to set up an area-wide inteLligence

Datlon on narcotlcs suspects +-+6e"ve sysrem
' Eo gather infor_

o lnabilicy of slngle police deparrnents

fun,ts uo assisr the tocal to obtain state ancr feaeral
""r;;;i;;""rr"r"""iii "rtort
o Lack of unlform training of 101a1^larcotics
undertake effective enforcement efforts officers so that they can
The resolutl-on of these regional.
that a MAN Unlt w111 pursu" i"-;;;;; enforcercent probrems, thus, becomes
to
of narcotLcs and narcotlcs-related activity arrain rr"^pii",.ry goar of reducingthe objective
rtle
i" at. I..". anount
strives to attaln the followi"e-"i:I"af".", Specificar.ly, the I,faN uni,t
oA11or.r1oca1narcoticsofficers'assignedtoalIANUnittoP1lrsuethe1i
invest'gations throughout the design"t.a -:"ri"llction
individual (municlpai and counryl regardLess of
irii"aii;iil:
.o coordinate the lnvestigi'rrive
lirolts ofagainsr
state and federar narcotlcs agencies, all deparrmenrs, i*crudins
nar:corJ_cs strspeccs rn
the area. .

e Enhance cooperacion among the 10ea1 1aw enforceinent

estab11shinc(1)aunitinwhich.t'"y_"iii.iniJ",*",'oowerandagencies by
, resources and (2) a governing
board ;.
meet on a regular basis. ";;.;;JI .i_,u un'r and
r solicit and obtain the funds necessary for purcrrasing
naterial. and shar-e such equiprnent eguiprnent and
"rrri
use withln trre unit lnd (2) i."
;ii i;;'agencies
-io.r,-iJ-ro""r through
i:1.:;: agencies when

o Enable 10ca1 nareotics officers to participate

ments by having an off{cer r.rho may in undercover assign_
be too
jurlsdiction vork in adjacent ""rr-tno,rr", in his own
5urisdictions.
r Eetablish nareotics enf-orcement priorities
ticipating departnents by directing.unit in the unit and tlie par_
volume se1lers,,while-ariowing iie effor's againsr trre -rr.rrge-
forts against street_leve1 puih"." departnrenf,s
and users,
ro Jiru"r iheir ef_
o Provide manpower and equipment to those
assign any fu1l-time personnel to narcoticsdepartmen..s which cannot
enforcemenc.
e supplement the narcotics efforLs of those
quate nanpower Eo handle the number departments that lack ade_
their jurisd iction. and cypes or n"r.oi:.;;
";;;"-;;-
o Establlsh an area-vide intelligence systen
mation and lntelligence on narJotlcs activicy.to activery gailrer infor_

257
 o FaciLiuate the use of federal and state monies to assisE with nar-
' cce 'cs eniorceneni irr the local ,rr-t:.r.

o Facilitate the exchange of inforrnacion among loeal police departmenEs

by al1ot"'ing then lo channel a1I inforrnation relalive to narcoEics
i'1.rcugh the ri:1l: .

o Enha::ce the local nar:colics enforcemenl by providlnq syste!:ratic, forunl

.rld infornal rralning for local narcotics officers.
There nay be other objecElves that are vlewed as part of the goals of the unit.
For exampLe, sone MiL\ Unit cornroanders nay see the provlsion of drug educetion to the
public as.an objecrive.
Fruding, of i'l\i'{ Unii:s is deri.red f ro:r the f r.rlt6ri*t sllrrces: iocai .--unds, funding
by state planlling agencles (SPAs) using federal bLock grants, and direct funding frour
the Lau EnforcenenE AssisEance Administration through discretlonary grants. Although
the J-atter cafegory of funding ls rlade directly by I.EAA, the granfs are rnonltored
-iointly by the LEAA regional office and the sitate planning ag€ncles. Funding by sone
state PLanning agencies ls based on a step-down p1.an where, for exaurple, a uilit wiLL
get 90 perceot of its necessary operating monies from the SPA the flrst year. Thls
percentage then decreases every year uniil the end of the predetermined fundlng cycl-e,
when local agencies are expected to furnish all funding.

It appears Ehot the larger cities are abl.e to maintain unit. operaclon after tieir
sEate or fetleralLy-funded cycle ends, because they can rnake a substantial conEribution
toward the sup.oorr of che unit. Units which service areas containing almost all smal1
dep.trtments usrra1ll' cease operatLons altogether after the end of the srep-down funding,
because the financlal burden to the departments becomes too great. UnforEunately, 1t
is these depa;tments that may have a nore urgent need for consolidated services. If
the funding is made through the state planning agency, the period of fundlng may vary
from state, to state. Many uuils are funded for a f,ive-year perj.od, while another
large nl'nber are furrded for a three-year span. The percentage of stat.e funds versus
1ocal natching frtnds rney also vary, since a state planning agency may establish any
part/cular formula it wlshes. One of the factors r"ihich may facilitate the funding of
l4A'i''l Units at the present time Ls the enphasis that LEAA places on the consolidation and
coordination of local 1aw enforcement efforts.
Total local funding of unlts must be facilitated by the refinement of the unit to
Lhe point that 1c operates wi.th rninimal man;:ower'rnd finencial resources. One unit,
for example, oli;rates with twelve officers and a budgeL of approximately $27,000 ex-
cluding wages. Since &anpower costs are usually the largest expense thar units have,
;r locally-func{ed unit rausl operate with a nininum number of off.icers. Where confiden-
tiir'l funds in whole or in pa!:t are contributed by the lndividual police departments,
the contributLons are '-rsual-ly based on the population of the various Jurisdictions,
sir:ce this offers tlre rnrrst equitabte method of sharing costs. As an exanple, if it is
.Jeternined tl:at a u'.,rit r.ri11 receive $20,000 in undercover funds and the largest city
itithin the juriscliciion has 40 percent of the population, then it will provide 40 per-
c{ant or $8,00, of lhe ccrnfidential fuirds. The sheriffrs offj,ce will pay for.- its popu-
lat:j.on in the unincorporated areas of that county and in those towns to which it fur-
nishes police services. Other towns and villages will likewise be asked to pay their
portion. Extrernely snrall commrlnl-ties may pay a small , flat rate.
l4ultl-agency nar;otics units can be classified by organizational configuration ln-
to three groups: the "pure" I'IAN Unit., the city/county unit, and the hired-agent unit.
The mosE. prevalent type of squad, the "pure" unit, is couposed of assigned offl-
cer$ repres:riEing a relatively large number of local departnencs. The .l-ocal-

258
 depaftner'ts inii-., also rjonirib[rte nonev anil
unlt lies in rhe number of particip"aiog equip'nent" The nain .irren<rh of thls qn:l[
local departlnents.
rn th'e city/colrncy squads' there are usual1-y two.
sirerif f 's of i anc the niajor poii,::: ceparl*urir'i.*'-airuc
actlve partici"pa^ts, the co*!r,
lice deparrmeni, "':;t rhe si;:. -;; couoly,. .\"1,. i,,,,,,g,ir anoiher !ro-
officcr or trlto, ttre bu.1k oflttorn"y'" .:i-i.", ;;.-";;r;";ii;.
*nit n?irp(r\r3r cont:s fr,:m ti:e;heriif," fin"''lo*.rrbute ,p
police de?artmeat' The uti'i'izatir:n oifi*u
o:. ciLy/co.rnrf squa<ls ie; neccssary i., som- and the -jor
slnce tbers m:y be no other departments with sufficleot resources to contribute mn- -rreas,
poeter' money' or equipnent' rn some
Lo oany soall towns and.vlllages thatregions, the sheriff's office provi.des services
Thus, rhe burden for nainrai;i;; ; l4AN"inrror'oi Jo-rro, mai,riain pol.ice dep3rtmenls.
unir ,."."-oi che Lwo ,o:or-,rg"."i"".
The third tyrJs 0f r'r:L\ unit enpl0ys
have previous police t*p"tleac.. rn civilian-rrir.i
or hired agents v-ho nay or ma.y not
during the 1974-7: LE+'pt":."i, o.: ir,ro or tte "g.r,a-.rr,it. it.t-rere 6urve],ed
perience' vhile "q:"9 t,irea age.,rs erho did nor have police ex-
othei ,ri.a .g"nts wich p.urr:.o,r3-iaw enforcement
third unit had -the civilian who werl nireJ sirictly to make
experlence. A
{oyJ
suppleroent the fuLl-tit" .g",,ti. "g"ii"The ,rnd"..o,o", buys rnd
departnents are not repres-nted on.thefact at"a-"g""is are hired, and, therefore, J"ocal
major distinction between these units ur,ia-ui.ri-iy'.""ig.r"d officers, is the only
of units, departnentar partieip"iion.isand thos; ;iti a""igned officers. rn both types
charact".i""a
deparrnents nray conrribute *orr"y:.rra_uqr,ipr"";;-itt;heby the following: (r) local/
from one of the -Loca1 departnen'tr, unit airu"to.-,rsr.ra1ly conesn
board, and (4) a cooperatlve relaiionship c:t'.rr"l".ii'litJr"_participai. ir,'l unir goveralog
in the ---- or
between the unit and the pori..-J"iartments. "i." .f narcotics enforcement
enfor exists
Partlclpatton in I'lAli u.its does not automstical-1y
ment in a particular departmeer ne'n that all- uarcotlgs enf,orce-
happens' tt l"tg:--*:trop"rltan willi"-.;;;;;;i'ii'ii," rvrAN unir, ar.though chr.s
J"p".tr".,ts, the narcotics unit often
lurnpower to the l'lAN unit r'rhile it may assign part of lts
iotai.r"
cases that are lesser in scope than those a-portion-oi ic" staff to handle nareotrcs
narcoEi,.s arrests and evidence resulti"g unierraken-iy fh? lrAN unit,-"ia ao process
rto"-p.iroi ."ti.rity.
The 1egal basis of I"IAN units ean generally
cooperarive agreemenr signed by rhe paiticlpati";- be established through (1) a forural,
officers frorn various defartmu"t*-"" deputies ;;;".rmenrs, (2) the swearing
jurisdlction' and. (3) state r"gi*r.tron oi"ti,.*Io,rnEies where the unlt wir.rin of
have
that r"it"ri"J" s the
the agentsr operations ttrroughl[l-J ..gio' foq'arr.on of
Ene tormatr'on of the unr.rs and
or sLate,
1) &rral ag+e:?!+-rs.: Fornal cooperari.ve agreenents
rrniL a t"""ii' TSr-EasFr". i."-op"r.iion". among deparr'renrs glve a
ll.A_N Unlr ofrlcers have jurisaicrionlf-authority.s";;-;;eenenrs
--iiJ..g.u"nenrfcriraliy recognrze rhar
unit officers with- llfe, health, ;;; liabilicy also forurally provldes
vhile they are working outside r.rr"ui.r,"" and other personnel benefits
itr"ir
nents requires the particlpating agencies FurEher, the use of wrltten docu_
"oo*unlties.
to
Lv vv*r'usr
consldei-anadgq ptan
adninistration and Oper.tion. various aS
Plan varLOUS aspects of unlt

T:yilr
coirmissi'oned deputies' rn cases where unit op;iatr.ons cover
fi-cers can be cieprrtized in each
y;l;n:::':;:"";il.;'::
",nseveral countles, the of-
unit officers are slorn-fn as county
"ouiay. rn the lrulti-county unit, for exarnpre, the
deputles
the Las cruces squad, officers *"y i" sworn ir.. "i;1;untles. rn other units, such as
in as county deputles in addliron to belng
covered bv a eooperari.ve ogr."r.r,i. r";;;;.;;";;'unit
county' and federal offieers, the cicy anc federal which rras corDposed of c'cy,
ofiicers were sworn i.n the county.
3) legislaFion' A state
itles to !!aqe
riG-Z5iffirrGlr'rts. ryi bill
such
.Legislarlon rhat aurhorlzes nuniclpal-
:T:r may-aisJ-aurtrorlze
ualt officers to
259
perform unit lnvestigations in any rnunicipality, with the same povers, duties, privi-
J"egos, rnd i,n:r'.r:.{.ties as the poli c-,2 oiii c.r'!r:r f ri;;:l Lho:.le :l:rn j.c.iira!-it:i..r'rs ' On occaiion,
ttre;e may be olher legislat,ioo Li"rrough rshici, a unit nay fuoction. Iior exanple' a
state may have a statute giving local officers authority to operale anyvhere in the
state, so l.ong as they are asslsting a st-l :e police c,!.f i.:er. Assigrrnent of oae st.:te
trc)ili)er t-o lt ii:\li Uiri.t, itrere.Lote, r:uth<-lr:i;:.: ., rii,:: J,ocr i- lgl'nts !o o-1rr''.ii e within ariry
jrrrisJ:ct-ion -ln the state. Such legisl"at.ion is usuall,v the resulr trf lobbying by 1aw
enforcenent agenci.es through the .9taie attoiney gener:alts offjce, legilsative rePre-
sintativ:s, 1.,w en1. orcer:e::t ;jr.;socl-aLJ-oos, n'rd/or stearJ ,Do I jce i
s ar;:;ociat j-ons.
.<:hi-ef
4) Units ope{atlng ln two statss. One of the units visiEed in the MAN UniE
Project, the Quad Ctty Unit, operated ln two dlfferent states--Illlnois and lowa. The
unitrs jurisdicEion included four eotinl:ies, one in Iowa and tLree in lllinols' Io
enabl-e the unit to operate ln both states, the attorney generalrs offices of the two
str.:res r''alved the resj.de.ncy requi.re!i'.er.ts for ttnit oi'l j,cei:s in each st;ace anC ensurad
that Ehe officers were cover:ed wiih liability insura'rce by their respective dePartmeflts
regardless of where they worl:ed. In addition to these actions, every unit officer ltas
thea sworn in as a deputy 1n the four counties within the tr,ro states" The procedure
followed by these tvo states in neutraLlzing obstacles to rrnit operations <iemonstrates
how other units can operate ln sirnilar clrcumstances. The waiving of state require-
Eents is essenti-a1 because it facilitaies the swearing in of offlcers in two or more
states and ensures the 1ega1it,y of unit operacions in the iwo states. ;
A1I" in aL1, the I"IAN Unit concept offers 1aw enforeenent apiencies of all sizes and
at alL governnental levels a vehlcle which facilitares narcotics enforcernent on an
lnter-jurisdlctional basis without the loss of agency autonomy and independence.

DRUG ABUSE Eglg4ggN _t3ggg$!.

The decis:'-on to participate in drug education programs for lhe public depends on
the availabil-ity of unit nanpower, the discerned need for such a program in controlllng
the drug probl-em, and the interest in these programs as demonstrated by loca1 groups
and schools. Through partici.pation j-n these programs, the unit is able to take its
to the public, make the public aware of local narcotics problems, explain its
"""J
purpose and frnctton, and make a direct appeal for citizen cooperation and suPPort.

On the other hand, there are some problerns that nay be encountered in conducEing
publlc education prograus. The deptetion of unit manpower is certainly a factor. A
conmander must take one of his offi.cers off the stre€t and give him sufficient time tg
prepare and present the Lecture. For rnost uniEs, such a loss of manpower even for
short periods of time is a strain on their resources, Another current problem is that
speakers ln Ehe loca1 high schools sometimes experience difflculty in communicating
with the students. The problem is that the students often feel rhat they know just as
much or more about drugs as the speaker. Finding qualified speakers to give effective
presentatLons nay be a problem. Because of the need to keep rhe rr,ajority of unic of-
ficers frorn being exposed to the public, the commander lirnits hims.elf to a few indi-
viduals who can be allowed to give such talks, and to even fewer who can give such
talks ve1l.
In view of the problems encountered when undertaking speaking activities' it would
be adv{sable for narcotics units to a11ow the coumrunity relati-ons unit or pr-rblic infor-
mation unit to handie such speaking engagernents. If the narcotics unit commander does
deci.de to participaCe in a public edueation program, he should deslgnate one or two
individuals as speakers to'rninimize exposing his olher investigators and to maintaio
some uniformity and qualtty control in the program.

Sintlar decisions have to be made wi.th reference to unit participation in rehablL-

ltation programs. There are opposing vievs regarding the participation of narcotics

260
 Lrnits in drug rehabilitation. one vi-ew is that drug
erfor:ccmenl: and 6rrrg rehabilit+
tion are two tiifiei:c;rt lhing-;. sir;ce.uni.ts have: *r,ougj,
area they shrruld oot become involveci in rehabilitaiiof. pr.obj.ei:r:; in llie enforceiaent
hebilitation is part of the solrtcion to tlie narcorics problem, The conrrary view is.that re-
that enforceil!nc;!'lon'r is rroc ii.r e,.L'i'"n.;.;;',,,1i",,i,,r, that t).istory teaches uli
whatever conEribuLio(r tl-,ey can .in tr,-e rrJa of 1)arcor: ics rrili.rls sh,..r,-r1<l na!:e
rehabi.r.iLa,.:ron.
Unit pev::JnneL.:an bet:onu invo.Lvr'ri in
unit cormilanders mav servr: as aembers of drugrcirabi.iiil:i-i.r,n i.n sr:,zt:r:iL r.;rr1,r;. First,
abuse boards in their loca1 areas:rnd as-
sist through the contrlbution of thelr knowieag. ,r,d-uipuriu.r"".
plea bargaining or sentencLng of a defendant, second, during the
ti'ons ot objections about protration because they Jrfi""., often asked for reconmenda-
possess "..
I knowledge
tivities and involvenent in drugs. ^trvwrEuge ot of a.
ir s.spectrs
srr - ac-

A narcotics unib conmander sh.u1-d seek to learn

what efforts are beLng made in
in his i,,r-[J^",i;;;^',;"i;.;ii;;H.
:::9,::l::111_t.n.l:''.
t,i::i",; ",.,. "o- clecision about unit
li
3?',:i:
t,':" _ "l:-l"f
]l^]l:, "o''" "on..ir,ii." i' ',i.;;";"il#;:;l;
-
;;-;;;";;;;H" the effectiven€ss
::"
::-,t.::'.
:based
:l:"ll ::':ll'.
::tl:-l:-
:?i.,!h1.9
9't .
involved
about reirau il i. iat ion i; ;;r;;J"J;';,;.5" ;:'#;; : At a rninimum, he
::. -

to form policles
on this knowiedge.

26I
 CHA?TTR IiIENTY-SI:i

UNIT EVALU.].TIo,Yx

The evaluatir.rn of unit per.formance_ over: a fiven siod of time is innporfant for
p;_1
several reasons' Through evaluation' the commancer is able to deternine what has been
accoRpllshed by che rrnit in terms of-meeting the goals of its
atioa also gives dir:eetion to the unit focustng overall mission. Evalu-
;;; Bap
pli;hed and what stj-1l needs to be acconplisirei."; rn rooking between s/hat has been accom-
evaiuation of unlts, there are six areas in uhich the evaluation at the &ethodology for
Lrvr' processu.
PruLssst of?;; units
tend to be weak-

o Evatuatrons tend to rery on basic staEi.sticar- indices which

rnay be
easily misinterpreted.
I Specific goals, toward which the unir could strlve, are not set.
o There is no meastrre of the unit's impacl on the unitrs jurisdiction.
o There is no justificatlon of unlt activities on a cost-effective basls.
o There i's no classlfication of offenders so that enforcesrent efforts
each classification can be measured in

. 1h."" are no standards for cornparing unlt efforts.

rdeally, a true evaLuatioa of a unitts narcotics
the degree to which it has diminished narcotlcs activityenforcement efforts should reflect
in a particuLar region. How-
ever' because of the nature of the narcotlcs probLeur, iE i.s almost impossible to obtain
a conprehensive picture of narcotics activity, often, evaluation
the narcotics problern must lnclude subjectivl inforrnaiion. while of a unit,s impact on
rnuch crf its eftorc objectlvely through the collection the unLt can measure
of data on such
arrests' seizures' and the 1ike, the fact that tlre rr:rrbotics problem activities as
objective terms does not necessarily mean that has i.ncreased in
of success. the unit is not achieving some measure

ST.TJISTICS

A weakness in the evaluation of narcotics units i:ray be

on stalistics. that they rely too heavily
The variance in fi-gures from year to can be very rnisleading and
easily misinterpreted- General -year
figures can be'*isleading because a unit may,
"riu"tan enforcement
for: example, shift tenPorarily from priori.ty against wholesale dealers
to street 1eve1 pushers or users. The final statisiics would-rnerely
in arrests for sale or distribution and would not indicate a shift in show an increase
po1 ic ies . unit enforcenent
*The material in this chapter ls based on:
Manuel R. Garza,,!!4li_4g3!g.Z_Ig.=_
cotics .UnLt Manrre l (L976), LEAA, l^tashi.ngron, D.C.

263
 C()nviction l:atus can aLso l)e nlisleading. For example, a unit rnay allow an :1r-
re:;tet! susperji lc p]ea ba].riain cl:ar.qoj r:n sale of n:rlcolics io lesser charges of pos-
:;essicn. 'I':.:: i;t:ili.:lirs r"'oir1cl ir;'.-ly;,;]1r;rr,..r a nirail-)Ftr i1p;'g1r;rVi-t'.tititts, aJ-tirorrgh lhe r'ltltt-
victions wouici be ior lessei: clia:;ges
(l-'l-carance t.-t+5q :ii:e :,,..1.so trt tr.,;+. Ilirs;i.., 1.ilci;t ( l.':arauce rJt'es aI'i: L)a-seLl
,.1iiiic-trt1i:
on fl-,e rrurnber ci arrests lnaj* i.ii pi:oport.iorl ic tirc rtunber of reporteil cases o'{ Parl I
cr j.mes, The pr',rbi-en is i lrai , in narcotiCs elfOrcenerlt, nlosL cases that result in arrest
are nLlt repsrled as a.!:a) ot-irer c1ases. For: ezample, there are very feu citizens coiJillg to
ttre unit to i'11e ii co;np1-;riat ci: to report some particular inci<jent involving narcotics'
In only rare cases :,rili the ".rictln" in a narcotics transactj.on make a comPlaint and
cocperate with the police. Therefore, there is an excePtj-onally srna11 number of re-
porled case,; r,,iricli coulcl be used as a basls for determ!nirrg the clear;rnce rate' Even
i./hen a uniL irer-s information on a susPect, it may not inlEiate a caset. that i's,
gi're
1t a cps": n,rnl,er untij. lhe first bur* ha,i been marie, in rvhjCh case Lhe!:e is a likelihOod
of succe.;s,
Foeusing ernforceinent efforts on a specific drug will increase the number of re-
ported incidetrl-g rel-aied to th;rt SubsLance. For example, if a- unlt concentrates on CO-
caine buys, the number of cases and arrests and the amount of seizures pertaining to the
coceine will prcb.rbly ir:crease. The statistical j-ncrease may te1l us nothing about It is
amount o[ cocaine traffic or Che overall effectiveness of the narcotics uirit'
rnerely a byprodrrct oi the enf o::cement strategy
areat
By conr:ertrating oo 'narcof,ics suspects operating in one partlcular geograPhic
the unit can also increase the number of cases' arrestsr and seizures in that area'
Statistics al.one rnight falsely suggest an "increaset' in drug activity in that area'
uhlch would be a rnlsrepr:eseiltrrt i:on of facts.
The nuorber of drug-relatc:J crimes is occasionally used as an evaluator, but with
very lirnitecl rrr.l iability. Itor insLance, wlren there is a slzable reduction in the nurn-
ber of r:obberi(:s, burgliri.es, purse snaic.hings, and shoPlif tings, a uniL, mighc clain
that its narcof ics "r,i.."ur*u,lt ef forts have been proven ef f ective' On theby other hand'
an increase in these frequently narcotics-related crimes can be disrnissed the unit
as mdrely lndicabive thai the patrol <livision is not effective in its mission'

The purp(lse of pointing out the weaknesses of evaluative areas is to emphasize the
f ircl tha!: stat j.sLicai ti g,-,tuo a1<l dala shguld not be ovr''r1y relied upon' A conrnander
slrould not judge the success or fajlure of tris unit by the figures for any one of these
reliable indi-
categories. lle should rely lrpon ol./eral1 rl;rta orr a1-1. unit activity as amaximum
It is importanE that lhe unit rnaintain accuracy
caLor of unit accomplishments,
ln its record l:eeping so that jt dcres not nislead itself and others.

p'/4LU4II!E_AREAS

To con6uc.t a thorough atrd cornprehensivt: e'va1-,-ration of a uniL' the follorving areas

s;hould be inclrrded in any eval.rrative rePort :

o tlnit e-ases

Use of cu':i'iCenEial- funds

Number cf informairts
Indictmenls or tarrants
Total arrests

264
 c Conflscated druge and narcotlcs
e DisposiLion of cases--general
I Dispcsition of cases referred for adiudii:aiion
e Non-u.arcotics seizures
o Taxes levied
r Searches

e Training of unlt per'sonnel

r Nunber: of conplaints received

r Informetion disseninaEed
r Age of offenders
o Cooperation \dith drug-relatecl agencie
o Tralning of non-narcotLcs police officers
o Number of hours expended per case
. Cost factor analysis of confidential fund.s

I
o l.Iighlights of unlt operations
I
i
Theseeva]'trat1onsarediscusse<lindivtdua11.ybe1ow.
{ :

1) Unit cases' The unit has to classlfy its

L
cally reaate to drug ancl narcotics activlty .od ."".scases between those whi.ch speclfl-
which are non-narcgtic ln nature.
ril
The narcotics unit rnay be cal-l"ed upon to handle
to a vice unLt or some other dLvlsion, when there at.t rntght ottrerJse be asslgned
"""."
is a f6r additional manpower or
$
expertise that is avai'lable withln the narcotlcs unit. needThls is not a desirable eitua-
* tion' but there are tlmes when it cannot be avoided. Both narcotics
narcotics cases have to be further subdivided between active cages and cases and con-
The nurnber of active cases carried over from the previous inactive cases.
T
haye to be noted.
evaluation period wil.l also

2) Use of confldential funds. ThLs seetion of an evaluative report

cludc the amount trf confi<lential funds involved should l'-
ir-ir,u-followlng actlviiies:
o' Buys; including totals, average buys per case, and average
buye per case for each category of pr'r"t",

c Informant paymeots

r Non-drrrg expenditure:;
o Recovery of cttnfidential funds
3) Number of informants. The nurnber of lnformants currently working for
should be llsted. Ttre main problem that nornally the unit
"tr""" in thls
rining who should and should noc be listed as an informan!. area is that of deter-
citizen who calls on one occasion with information or a policeFor example, should the
offlcei
forn'arion to the unit be considered as lnforrnants? rrrformants, for who passes in-
evaluation purposes,

265
I

are coosiderej. rc b+ oni.y thcse non-law enlorr:en;ent. individuals who are acEively en-
gaged in assisting the unit in making buys or inrercepting shiprnents of narcotics, or
:'iro suplly" in!r'rn.ic lon ab'-ut i11.i-cit op:rrt-lo:.is on a conti-nr.ring basls.
4) InCictnenls or The nurnber of indictnents and warrants for specific
"tarrants. .should
types of n3rcn[ics al<l vi.olatlons be reJrorlerJ, The exact r,riolalions to be
inrro-rp(D:aL.:d'itr tiie fepr,ii.C rri11 dc:lr,t,r(j o:l f.ir jL,.tli,le€ of :acl-. Jtal-er;rltholrgir lh::re
3re a ltlmber ';ti.j.ch are coficnolr to ncsL siates, Cen::r;r11y, Ehe f o1loa-lng caE.egorles of
violations are iocluded:
Possession

Possession for sale

Sale

Trar,spoiting, nanrifacturing, producing

fnstruments
o Srruggling
. . Keepingahouse
c Olhers--Ehese shouLd be expl"ained in the narrative portion of an
evaluation report.
5) Total arrests. Tl-re number of arrests for drug and narcotics cases and for
oEher non-ll3r(:t)rics ctrr:es slrotrLd be repor:Le<l , Nor:rna1l.y, the s;rrne offense categori.es as
in the'rlnCictinent and l,larranttt srectlon can be usecl . in atldj.cion, a category of "Non_
drug Atrests" wiLl have to be i.ncluded,
6) Quantity of confiscated drugs. The anounts of drugs which have been confis-
cated by the unit should be broken down according to types of drugs.
'7) DisposLtion of iases, This section shouLd incorporate a1l the possible nethods
of disposition, judiciary and non-judiciary, of unit cases. Categories used for re-
porting include the following:
o Cases still active
r Cases referred to other agencies
o Cases referred for adjudication
c Cases rendered i.naclive
S) Disposition of cases referred for adjudication. The possible categories for
these cases are:
Cases referred no bill
Cases pending in court
Cases adjudicated not guilty
Cases adjudicated guilty as originally charged
Cases plea bargained to l_esser charge

266
 r Cases reeeiving
reeelvlng probation
r cases resurting ln iocareeration and length
of sentence
o Cases recei.vi::S suspended sr:nEence
o Casesadjudlcated gul1ty but reversed througti :rppeaL
9) Non-nlrcotlcs seizures. The total nonetary
should also be lncluded' cenerauy, the varue of non-narcotlcs selzures
cars, qreapons, catego.i""'r"i these types of selzures are:
cash, and scolen property.
10) Taxes levied' some unlts
on susPects vho are arreated by the report
unit
the total amount of taxes levied by the rRs
while
L'ic.ey fr'rr wirich the suspect cannoc account. i"-p""--""ion of substantial:irnounts of
rneasuri.ng relative progress ln this Trrese figures can be useful to a unir i.n
area from y.". ao-f""r.
11) Searches. The number of search warranr.s obtalned and searches actually
ducted may also be useful ln lndlcating how thls activity tr""-arffered con_
previous years. in vorume frour

12) Tra{ning of unic personnel. The unlt should be

the typee of training that it was able to furnish able Eo show the amount andr
to iEs
training as vell as external trainLng sto,.rfa-Ue-i'Iiuaea personnel. on_the_Job

13) Number of conrplaints receLved. The unit shourd show

has rece{ved and the source of such complaints. how nany eomplal.nts it
number of narcotlcs compl.alnts ln For exarnple, it can lndlcate the totar
glven year and ;.;;k .;; ;;-;";"categortes
cltlzen or other agencles. 'rrrus, a-
itre,rnrt'i" of
aui; ;;'shou whcre,o,r"i,-or its Lnfornation
comes from and to what degree cltlzens,
work with the unlt' Producing thls type other departr'ental personnet ani other ageneles
tenance of thorough informatiJn logs. of lnfoimation,
-------v"t of
v! course,
LuuLset requlres
req(l' the nain-
74> rnformaElon dlssenrlnated. The unlt shoul,d also
of lnformatlon and 1ntelllgence lt gives rnaintain records on the types
to
agencles' This is important if the unit must other io"rr a"purtments and narcotlcs
can be reflected in its. arrest figures. rn dernonstrate that not all unit actlvlty
unlt should ernphasize that it wouid llke to l.its rnt"r*"d
coinmunlcation wlth oairu,. agencles, the
serainates Leads to a successful_ arrest when any inforrnation it dis-
unlt should also advise ochers when or solution of a ease. By the sarne token, the
clusion of an investi.gatlon. their inrormation rEdss
teaas to
Lu tne
the s*cees
suceessful con-

15) Age of offenders' Reportlng the age of offenders

areas of illlcit narcotics actiiity involved j.n the varioug
use and sale of "ialre"-it"-;J;';; idencify
various drugg and narcotics and to eounter emerging rrends io rhe
sirnply seeks toinvestlgate-adolescents or that most of theany arguments that the untt
youngsters arrested. are ln-,
volr'ed with t'sof
t drugs. r,
16) cooperation trith drug-re1ated.
unit undertakes with drug-re]-aied healthagencies. Any cooperative endeavors whlch the
or rereirat- projects shou1d be
areJ.
solution ot-tte drug problern in thelisted.
This shows unit conunitrnent to the overall ".r.
Local

Training-o:
. . 17) programs police officers. The nurnber of unit-sponsored
training and ::l-nar:orics
the number of iaw enforcenent officers who have
should be indicared to show (1) rhe unit's participated
i",rri;;;u;i
capability of the entlre 1aw enforcement conxnunity with the narcorics_enforcement
unitfs staff tine and effort aae uarng directed. in the rrE resdr
local area'
area, and
and (2) where the

267
 l-8) Numbar of irours expended per case. Deierrnining rhe number of hours per case
get.tet::r1-i1' i.t."0.1 .jt:.+ e:ttcttsivt: ter'.rr.'1-kreir!.ng. Ilrrw:v.,,:r. bi' lrairl,,ti.nir',,.., t,hoiough <iai1-y
accirri-tl f3pr;i:1.:5, a'lre"rkdo'un of Lite amou1tt of tir,l3 expegdtd i,i. casirs crilir bc accom-
plisheC. Inves:igatj.ons should be given a c;rse nunber as soon as r.hey are begun, not
when the first brry is naCe, ;r:i is; often done. T.huSr l Un.!.t will hr.ble trr accurately
ttii]nJ t'JL' l.he ii-::la !:Derl.L '-ri'l a ::,-s.:'i :t'i,)lil t h; r:riint t-ll.,.t a ::1!sper.'i.. .;lln , l 1)
t..iti: at-i:ealion
thc urit-. Tt.te resuiting irrformacion is useiul in several ways, Tbe unit will be ableof
to defe':mine hov much tine its agents anrl staff devote to rh; aver3ge unir case, to
ihos': cacts uhich regiilt ia buys, anci to ihose fcr: uhich no arr.st fs ma,le. Iile con-
atander can also detenrine hoiv nuch of his agents t tine is being expended by ad:ninis-
ttative duties, such as rePort 'vrriting, courl time, and so forth. Finally, the co1g-
mander w111 be able to conPare tine spent on .rverage cases in the past lrith those
present' He milsL be careful',how:ver, not to draw wrong coucl.lrsioas. A series of in the
ficult cases could increase ttre tine utilized in the everage case. For exanple, a dif- com-
ir'l-t r, tiii.:*(:i)r'!'j'i.r''irg i-:i.iy chat. -l.ei;,.is lo the i:r]:es:: o.f r)'o
tt.l | .,t iius;per Ls :.:; .;.p:,*+J. io
a relativel;, easy bLry that leacis to a raitl anrl 6hg arrest of eighE or ten suspects
might be difficult to evaluate.on a tlne_value basis. .
L9) Cost analysls of confidential funds expended. rn maintai.ning a record of alL
confidential furrd expendltures' it is relatively easy fc,r the unit to cornpile figures
on the total amcrunt of confidenti.al fund,s thaE r"r. on each case. With thls
infonsation the unic can deternine what. the average cost ""ponded
is per case where an arregt
has been made. Ttrus a. comman<Ier can te1l, for exlmple, that too much ro""y-i"-i"{g
expended in walk-away buys, or in.cases ag.sinst pushers. Agaln, a con-
mander rnusc be careful thJt he and others are not "tr"ut-l.e.re1
rnisl"ed by figu;:es. For example, cases
against najor pushers may, in the J-ong run, be more beneficial to the overall narcotics
enForcenent goals of the unit thaa a greater number of cases against small pushers.
20) Highliqtrts- trf najor unil operations. rf possl.lrJc, evaLuatLr)n reports s6guld
also ln'clrrde lrigll'Lghts or brief descriptions of Eajor cases underraken by the unit
dtrring the repo:ting periui!. The highlights shor.r Eire: cases ln whlcl.r a cons.Lderable
a:notrnE of tirae or: noney i,:.s u.rpendeC. Ihis is tri:l.pftrl in clernoastrating
ations are often cornplr:x, tirne-consunring, an<l expenslve. In addlrion, narratton a;;;-;;f;-op.r-
can
te1l ,the reader cerrein things that statiscies aione ca.nor relate.

F---------------!{LUAIgE-_Bgrc

The purpose of nai"ntainlng and supplfing these figures and daEa is to demonstrate
to senior offici,als Ehe act.ivities and work loarJ of thi unit. I^lithor_rt
it is very difficult for the br-rreau or division co$nander to assess thethis information
problems en-
countered in rr'arcotics enforcement by the unit its activities iu attacking these
probierns' Furttrernore, the infqrtnation allows and tire unit conren,ler and the supervisors
to corxpare unit results from one particular periocl to another, altl.rough unit super-
visors shourd bear iu mind that, in terms of arrests,
s:itlter "feasL or f:rnine-" For.exampLe, a{:ter n serLesunit of
activity rnay seem to be
arrests witirin an area by ttre
uni!' -there inrry be il period of tine when tlie nar'i{rtics dealcrs eiL.hnr reduce ttreir
act'iviLy or ht"crrine consid*rirbJ.1. nore catrL:ious
In order to facilitale the pe:j.oJic preparirtion of comprehensive ev:rl-uations, the
rlarcotic'3 urrit conniancler shotrld prepirre a veekly rrp(rrc for: tr.is o\rn use
the nu:lber of cases receir.ed, inltiited, arLc iniresr:igatecl , Lhe nunrber.fwhich reflects.
shift personnelt the nuntber of cases clearetl, and'.hI anount anc value of ";;;r;;-;;-"-'
drugs
:i:'d propertl'recovered. These reports should be prepared frcn ihe daily rtrportsseized. sub-
r:it ted. by individu;rl investiga!ors.
On a semj--anrlual basis, the off iccr-in*charge of eacl'r. invesLigaeive unj.t
prepare for the bureau commander a jrrstificaEion for each irrvestigator assigned. should
justification should include a revjew oi tire p+:riornlnce of the ]-nver;:igator. Such a
This will

268
 provide an ef fective ro de.errtrine personnel noeds arrcl wlll provide an obJectlve
r^rily
nectrod for: reeJ-iuslnrenr
of pers.nner
";.;;;;ir-;f";i,;".;Jr. Whrrn interpr:r:tin5; inforrna-
iion regardiag tre acti.vities of 1n<.tlvidual officeror-rh"
kept in rnind: folloving factors should be

o Certain cases are cie:rred nore easily tliar: others.

* Re1-i;rb1e inr'esriSators tend to receiue the rnore diff.i.crrlt
at f .-rsr gra,rce rhe restrrts of their acr:ivirie.s -*ay appearcases; and
co officers of lesser abilicy. inferior

o Tine spent in court nust be considere,J, as shor:Ld desk

and sick reave. duty,' vacation,
uuL/ voLeL

Tbis infornation ca;t a-i.so be born-pared with s.i;nilar

pericds in order io note progress or regressiorr compiLati'ns for: previous
The coinpilation should gtve ihe bureau conmaatler,
on tire parr of investigative personoel.
the division comnanders, and the
:ff'l;: ::::;li::':":i.i""rht into tr.'e proJ".iiiirr-..'the individ,,.r i.,,,"Iiie;;;,"

IIDICATORS OF DRUG I'RENDS IN TltE COlIMi:-ltITy*

There are several iudicators' or sorrr"::9f data,
to be associaled wlth trencis ln tlrug use. Althougtr which are generally considered
associarion betveen drug use and these indicarors is the absolute nature of this
generally thorrghc to r:eflect. changing values in the not k;;;;-";;;;; i,i jiJi ...
indicators sho,.l-d be congicleled to bI relative, rather indicators. Therefore, the """
than absolute, measures
' ltarrge' Thrt:c jo'tlie rr-{\rs tLL:rt wi.l'l be consiclered here are <lrug-relaterl deaths,of
relat.ed emergency r.oon episocles, and,lr"g drug-
fr:i"..,--.,,j' ur.iay.
One of ttrc i'dicat'r:+ is clrug-related <rearhs.
the nunber of active heroi' rsers in the country wirlrt is thought that an increase -'- io
numbers of fata-.1- re;ictirns ro trre drug. spec1fica1ly,
result ii an i.r"..u"u-i;;;
deaths r./il1 increase as a function of the nurnber of persons it is o"uu.r"J-ti"'""ri".'^.t
admlnister heroin of varying quantity who intravenousry serf-
and qualiCy.
i\nother -indiczrt-or is drug-related emergency room episodes.
ri:'llirs, the nurnber of nol-f-rtal reactir,ns to heioin As in drug-related
nr'tnber of heroin users -i'ncre'"ses- Therefore, is believecl to increase as lhe
the number of individrr.t" ,6o experience
he:oin overdose ailil are treate'l in hospit:r1 emergency
ni'.rber crf actirre -Yv'rJ shoukJ vary
-r'v/ roorns ver) with
wr the total
asrrrs.

A third, antl very- irnporE;inE, indicator is the rLaported price

or a natlonal leve1, changes in the retail-puriry ancl purity of heroin.
p;ice are generally consitlered a me:isure of heroin or iocency of heroin an<l changes Ln
irer:oin inci:e;'r*'e': antl the price cieclines, avallability"rr"il.bi1ity. As the purity of
ir av;rilabilitl are tr:fieved to be associatecl with increases of heroin increases. rocreases
:l'.r:ujit t-lsersl' tc alsc seems spparenl th:rrt when heroin in the total number of
!]r':r ': ;ii:irorll*r'?.iace'd de:itlrs .t'd ernergencies increasrls becomes more available, the nun-
rcact ions are as$Lrned r,: be lrr.imarily dclse relatecl . since these fatal and
'on*fatal
Ihese indicator trenils do not represenL a one_to*one relationship
trends or measurr-, th.t overall preval-ence of heroj.n use with heroin
in the country. Ihe nature of

*'Ihg 3,:r'i11. irr this sr.ction is

nr..l
based on: Natiotral Institute on Drr,rg Abuse,
fn,.urs'ir*n
Ieroirr,_J_:-,=-i (19/b) U.S. l)eparfnlenC of Iie;rJ.r-lr, I.lducafion, and tiel-
tare, i.Lashi.ngton, D. (j.

269
lreroin use and the problens in reportlng s:r'stens prevent stafisEical precison ae pres-
ent. Thlse l.ndic:.tors, bowever,:rre rrsefrrl when considered as a whole in provJ-di.ng a
general rcr:Lecii.ol1 ,-ri: i'reuo.i-r. use auC ::.c i: i'" .lt-y.
The quesiion for tire unit comrnander, thereiore, is whether or not these indicators
irre trseful tc h jrn I-l assessin4 tir; inp.:rc-t of :l:e unit within his; jurisdj-cf ion. The
.t.rsver i,: ! t1,,il- tl,i,t'/' ,:iif 1-.er ;rlthorrgh :t-,e ccitiii]r:ldJT rru,jt make a r:ornpar Lsc.] of locai
trends w.r-Lh national tr:ends. If local availebility is decreasing, buc narlonal avail-
;rbi.l.ity is ir'.creasi;rq, ic oay be an indic;rtion thaE the unj"t i.; having rrotice4ble
l.n,pact 1oca11r', Tf .iocal, availability increases while national availability decreases,
this rna;v.inclic..rte inef--:li::t-iveness on the part of the unit. When availability increases
or decreases sinultaneously w,tth natlon:.rl trends, the local lncrease or decrease rnay be
an inCepen'1ent chan6e or it ory be il c()ns<r(i,rr)rrce of sLrch other Juri.*diccionaL r:fforts
as intercij"ction progratlrs, crop erac{icacion programs, or other enforcemene prograns.
l{hile these inJicaturs are helpful in discci:ning liu;oln trencls, Breal qare should
be taken i-:1 atteriiptr.ng to use the s3rne types of lndicators for such tlrings as PCP or
cocaine use.

270
 u-8?3hq-e3g-x

ililffi|]ilffi[il[fiil ililfltltfltl