DMiT School of Mechanical and Industrial

Engineering

Fluid Mechanics
(MEng 2113)

Chapter 2
Fluid Statics
Prepared by: Addisu D.

1 December 2020
 Introduction

Fluid Mechanics

Gas Liquids Statics Dynamics

∑F = 0 i ∑ F > 0 , Flows
i

Water, Oils, Stability

Air, He, Ar,
Alcohols, etc. Buoyancy
N2, etc. Pressure Compressible/
Incompressible
Laminar/

Surface
Turbulent
Compressibility Density Viscosity Steady/Unsteady
Tension
Viscous/Inviscid
Chapter 1: Introduction Fluid Dynamics:
Chapter 2: Fluid Statics Rest of Course
 Introduction
 This chapter deals with forces applied by fluids at rest.
 In Fluids at rest there is no shearing stresses in the fluid, and
the only forces that develop on the surfaces of the particles
will be due to the pressure.
 The fluid property responsible for those forces is pressure,
which is a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area.
 Thus, our principal concern is to investigate pressure and its
variation throughout a fluid and the effect of pressure on
submerged surfaces.

3
 Pressure
 Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per
unit area.
 We speak of pressure only when we deal with a gas or a liquid.
The counterpart of pressure in solids is normal stress.
 Since pressure is defined as force per unit area, it has the unit
of newtons per square meter (N/m2), which is called a pascal
(Pa). That is, 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
 The pressure unit pascal is too small for pressures encountered
in practice. Therefore, its multiples kilopascal (1 kPa =103 Pa)
and megapascal (1 MPa =106 Pa) are commonly used.
 Other pressure units commonly used in practice, especially in
Europe, are bar and standard atmosphere

4
 Pressure
 The actual pressure at a given
position is called the absolute
pressure, and it is measured
relative to absolute vacuum (i.e.,
absolute zero pressure).
 Most pressure-measuring devices,
however, are calibrated to read
zero in the atmosphere , and so
they indicate the difference
between the absolute pressure and
the local atmospheric pressure.
 This difference is called the gage Fig. Some basic pressure gages.
pressure.

5
 Pressure
 Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum
pressures and are measured by vacuum gages that indicate
the difference between the atmospheric pressure and the
absolute pressure.
 Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures are all positive
quantities and are related to each other by

 In thermodynamic relations and tables, absolute pressure is

almost always used. Throughout this course, the pressure P
will denote absolute pressure unless specified otherwise.

6
 Pressure

7
 Pressure at a point
 Pressure is the compressive force per unit area, and it gives
the impression of being a vector. However, pressure at any
point in a fluid is the same in all directions. That is, it has
magnitude but not a specific direction, and thus it is a scalar
quantity.
 This can be demonstrated by considering a small wedge-
shaped fluid element that was obtained by removing a small
triangular wedge of fluid from some arbitrary location
within a fluid mass.
 Since we are considering the situation in which there are
no shearing stresses, the only external forces acting on the
wedge are due to the pressure and the weight.

8
 Pressure at a point
 For simplicity the forces in the x direction are not shown,
and the z axis is taken as the vertical axis so the weight acts
in the negative z direction.

9
 Pressure at a point
 From Newton’s second law, a force balance in the y- and z
directions gives
∑F y = p yδxδz − psδxδssinθ = 0 (a)
δxδyδz
∑ Fz = pzδxδy − psδxδscosθ − γ 2 = 0 (b)

 where ps, py and pz are the average pressures on the faces, γ

and ρ are the fluid specific weight and density
 From the geometry
δy = δs cosθ δz = δs sinθ
 The last term in Eq. b drops out as δx ,δy and δz→0 and the
wedge becomes infinitesimal, and thus the fluid element
shrinks to a point.
10
 Pressure at a point
 Thus substituting and simplifying results

p y = ps p z = ps or p y = ps = p z

 Thus we conclude that the pressure at a point in a fluid has

the same magnitude in all directions.
 It can be shown in the absence of shear forces that this
result is applicable to fluids in motion (rigid body motion,
no relative motion between layers) as well as fluids at rest.
 This important result is known as Pascal’s law

11
 Variation of pressure with depth
 Pressure in a fluid increases with
depth because more fluid rests on
deeper layers, and the effect of
this “extra weight” on a deeper
layer is balanced by an increase in
pressure.
 To obtain a relation for the
variation of pressure with depth,
consider a rectangular fluid
element of height ∆z, length ∆x,
and unit depth (into the page) in
equilibrium.
 Assuming the density of the fluid
ρ to be constant, a force balance in
12 the vertical z-direction gives
 Variation of pressure with depth

 Where W =mg = ρg∆x∆z is the weight of the fluid element.

 Dividing by ∆x and rearranging gives

 γs = ρg is the specific weight of the fluid.

 Thus, we conclude that the pressure difference between two
points in a constant density fluid is proportional to the
vertical distance ∆z between the points and the density ρ of
the fluid.
 In other words, pressure in a fluid increases linearly with
depth

13
 Variation of pressure with depth
 For small to moderate
distances, the variation of
pressure with height is
negligible for gases because of
their low density.
 The pressure in a tank
containing a gas, for example,
can be considered to be
uniform since the weight of the
gas is too small to make a
significant difference.
 Also, the pressure in a room
filled with air can be assumed
to be constant
14
 Variation of pressure with depth

 If we take point 1 to be at the free

surface of a liquid open to the
atmosphere, where the pressure is the
atmospheric pressure Patm then the
pressure at a depth h from the free
surface becomes

 Liquids are essentially incompressible

substances, and thus the variation of
density with depth is negligible.
 This is also the case for gases when
the elevation change is not very large.
15
 Variation of pressure with depth

 For fluids whose density changes significantly with

elevation, a relation for the variation of pressure with
elevation can be written as

 The negative sign indicates that pressure decreases in an

upward direction.
 When the variation of density with elevation is known the
pressure difference between points 1 and 2 can be
determined by integration to be

16
 Variation of pressure with depth
 Pressure is independent of the shape of the container.
 The pressure is the same at all points on a given horizontal
plane in the same fluid.

17
 Variation of pressure with depth

Application of Pascal’s law

 Two hydraulic cylinders of
different areas could be
connected, and the larger
could be used to exert a
proportionally greater
force than that applied to
the smaller.
 Noting that P1 =P2 since
The area ratio A2 /A1 is called
both pistons are at the
the ideal mechanical advantage
same level.
of the hydraulic lift.

18
 The Manometer
 An elevation change of ∆z in a fluid at rest corresponds to
∆P/ρg, which suggests that a fluid column can be used to
measure pressure differences.
 A device based on this principle is called a manometer,
and it is commonly used to measure small and moderate
pressure differences.
 A manometer mainly consists of a glass or plastic U-tube
containing one or more fluids such as mercury, water,
alcohol, or oil.
 To keep the size of the manometer to a manageable level,
heavy fluids such as mercury are used if large pressure
differences are anticipated.

19
 U-tube Manometer
 Consider the manometer that
is used to measure the
pressure in the tank.
 Since the gravitational effects
of gases are negligible, the
pressure anywhere in the tank
and at position 1 has the same
value. The differential fluid column of
 Furthermore, since pressure in height h is in static equilibrium,
a fluid does not vary in the and it is open to the atmosphere.
horizontal direction within a Then the pressure at point 2 is
fluid, the pressure at point 2 is determined directly by
the same as the pressure at
point 1, P2=P1.

20
 U-tube Manometer
 where ρ is the density of the
fluid in the tube. Note that
the cross-sectional area of the
tube has no effect on the
differential height h, and thus
the pressure exerted by the
fluid.
 However, the diameter of the
tube should be large enough
(more than a few millimeters)
to ensure that the surface
tension effect and thus the
capillary rise is negligible.

21
 EXAMPLE 1. Measuring Pressure with a Manometer

 A manometer is used to measure the pressure in a tank. The

fluid used has a specific gravity of 0.85, and the manometer
column height is 55 cm, as shown in the Fig. If the local
atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa, determine the absolute
pressure within the tank.

22
 Solution

23
 Multifluid Manometer
 Many engineering problems and some manometers involve
multiple immiscible fluids of different densities stacked on
top of each other.
 Such systems can be analyzed easily by remembering that
(1) the pressure change across a fluid column of height h
is ∆P = ρgh,
(2) pressure increases downward in a given fluid and
decreases upward (i.e., Pbottom >Ptop), and
(3) two points at the same elevation in a continuous fluid
at rest are at the same pressure.

24
 Multifluid Manometer
 The last principle, which is a result of
Pascal’s law, allows us to “jump” from
one fluid column to the next in
manometers without worrying about
pressure change as long as we don’t
jump over a different fluid, and the
fluid is at rest.
 Then the pressure at any point can be
determined by starting with a point of
known pressure and adding or
subtracting ρgh terms as we advance
toward the point of interest.

25
 Differential Manometer
 Manometers are particularly well-
suited to measure pressure drops
across a horizontal flow section
between two specified points due
to the presence of a device such as
a valve or heat exchanger or any
resistance to flow.
 This is done by connecting the two
legs of the manometer to these two
points, as shown in the Fig.
 The working fluid can be either a Fig. Measuring the pressure
gas or a liquid whose density is ρ1. drop across a flow section or
The density of the manometer fluid a flow device by a
is ρ2, and the differential fluid differential manometer.
height is h.
26
 Differential Manometer
 A relation for the pressure
difference P1-P2 can be
obtained by starting at point
1 with P1, moving along the
tube by adding or subtracting
the ρgh terms until we reach
point 2, and setting the result
equal to P2:

Note that we jumped from point A horizontally to point B and

ignored the part underneath since the pressure at both points is
the same. Simplifying

27
 EXAMPLE 2. Measuring Pressure with a Multifluid Manometer

 The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the pressure is measured

by a multifluid manometer as shown in Fig. below. The tank is located
on a mountain at an altitude of 1400 m where the atmospheric pressure
is 85.6 kPa. Determine the air pressure in the tank if h1 =0.1 m, h2 =0.2
m, and h3 = 0.35 m. Take the densities of water, oil, and mercury to be
1000 kg/m3, 850 kg/m3, and 13,600 kg/m3, respectively.

28
 Solution

29
 Exercise 1
 The gage pressure of the air in the tank shown in Fig.
below is measured to be 65 kPa. Determine the
differential height h of the mercury column.

Ans. h= 47 cm
30
 Exercise 2
 Freshwater and seawater flowing in parallel horizontal
pipelines are connected to each other by a double U-tube
manometer, as shown in the Fig. Determine the pressure
difference between the two pipelines. Take the density of
seawater at that location to be ρ = 1035 kg/m3. Can the air
column be ignored in the analysis?

Ans. 3.39 kPa

31
 Exercise 3
 Two water tanks are connected to each other through a
mercury manometer with inclined tubes, as shown in the
Fig. below. If the pressure difference between the two tanks
is 20 kPa, calculate a and θ.

32 Ans a= 7.50 cm θ = 34.0o

 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane
surfaces
 A plate exposed to a liquid, such
as a gate valve in a dam, the
wall of a liquid storage tank is
subjected to fluid pressure
distributed over its surface
 On a plane surface, the
hydrostatic forces form a system
of parallel forces, and we often
need to determine the magnitude
of the force and its point of
application, which is called the
center of pressure.

33
 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane
surfaces
 In most cases, the other
side of the plate is open to
the atmosphere (such as
the dry side of a gate), and
thus atmospheric pressure
acts on both sides of the
plate, yielding a zero
resultant.
 In such cases, it is
convenient to subtract
atmospheric pressure and
work with the gage
pressure only
34
 Hydrostatic Forces on
Submerged Plane
surfaces
 Consider the top
surface of a flat plate of
arbitrary shape
completely submerged
in a liquid.
 The plane of this
surface (normal to the
page) intersects the
horizontal free surface
with an angle θ, and we
take the line of
intersection to be the x-
axis.
35
 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane surfaces
 The absolute pressure above the liquid is P0, which is the
local atmospheric pressure Patm if the liquid is open to the
atmosphere (but P0 may be different than Patm if the space
above the liquid is evacuated or pressurized).
 Then the absolute pressure at any point on the plate is

 where h is the vertical distance of the point from the free

surface and y is the distance of the point from the x-axis.
 The resultant hydrostatic force FR acting on the surface is
determined by integrating the force P dA acting on a
differential area dA over the entire surface area,

36
 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane surfaces
 But the first moment of area is related to the y-
coordinate of the centroid (or center) of the surface by

 Substituting

Where is the
pressure at the centroid of the
surface, which is equivalent to
the average pressure on the
surface, and
is the vertical distance of the
centroid from the free surface
of the liquid .
37
 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane surfaces

Thus we conclude that

 The magnitude of the

resultant force acting
on a plane surface of a
completely submerged
plate in a homogeneous
(constant density) fluid
is equal to the product
of the pressure PC at
the centroid of the
surface and the area A
of the surface.

38
 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane surfaces

Center of pressure
 The line of action of the resultant hydrostatic force, in
general, does not pass through the centroid of the surface—
it lies underneath where the pressure is higher.
 The point of intersection of the line of action of the
resultant force and the surface is the center of pressure.
 The vertical location of the line of action is determined by
equating the moment of the resultant force to the moment
of the distributed pressure force about the x-axis. It gives

 or

39
 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane surfaces
Center of pressure
 where yP is the distance of the center of pressure from the
x-axis and is the second moment of area

(also called the area moment of inertia) about the x-axis.

 The second moments of area are widely available for
common shapes in engineering handbooks, but they are
usually given about the axes passing through the centroid of
the area.
 Fortunately, the second moments of area about two parallel
axes are related to each other by the parallel axis theorem,
which in this case is expressed as

40
 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane surfaces

 where I xx, C is the second moment of area about the x-axis

passing through the centroid of the area and yC (the y
coordinate of the centroid) is the distance between the two
parallel axes.
 Substituting the FR relation and the I xx, O relation and
solving for yP gives

 For P0 =0, which is usually the case when the atmospheric

pressure is ignored, it simplifies to

41
 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane surfaces

 Knowing yP, the vertical distance of the center of

pressure from the free surface is determined from

 The I xx, C values for some common areas are given below.
For these and other areas that possess symmetry about the
y-axis, the center of pressure lies on the y-axis directly
below the centroid.
 The location of the center of pressure in such cases is
simply the point on the surface of the vertical plane of
symmetry at a distance hP from the free surface.

42
43
 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane surfaces
Special Case:
Submerged Rectangular Plate
 Consider a completely submerged
rectangular flat plate of height b and
width a tilted at an angle θ from the
horizontal and whose top edge is
horizontal and is at a distance s from
the free surface along the plane of
the plate, as shown in the Fig.
 The resultant hydrostatic force on
the upper surface is equal to the
average pressure, which is the
pressure at the midpoint of the
surface, times the surface area A.
44 That is,
 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane surfaces

 The force acts at a vertical distance of from

the free surface directly beneath the centroid of the plate
where

 When the upper edge of the plate is at the free surface and
thus s =0

45
 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane surfaces

46
 Example 3. Hydrostatic Force Acting on the Door
of a Submerged Car

 A heavy car plunges into

a lake during an accident
and lands at the bottom of
the lake on its wheels.
The door is 1.2 m high
and 1 m wide, and the top
edge of the door is 8 m
below the free surface of
the water.
 Determine the hydrostatic
force on the door and the
location of the pressure
47
center.
 Solution
Assumptions
1. The bottom surface of the lake is horizontal.
2. The passenger cabin is well-sealed so that no water leaks
inside.
3. The door can be approximated as a vertical rectangular
plate.
4. The pressure in the passenger cabin remains at
atmospheric value since there is no water leaking in, and
thus no compression of the air inside. Therefore,
atmospheric pressure cancels out in the calculations since
it acts on both sides of the door.
5. The weight of the car is larger than the buoyant force
acting on it.
48
 Solution

49
 Example 4

 A 4-m-high, 5-m-wide
rectangular plate blocks the
end of a 4-m-deep
freshwater channel, as
shown in the Fig. The plate
is hinged about a horizontal
axis along its upper edge
through a point A and is
restrained from opening by a
fixed ridge at point B.
 Determine the force exerted
on the plate by the ridge.

50
 Solution

 A rectangular plate hinged

about a horizontal axis along
its upper edge blocks a fresh
water channel. The plate is
restrained from opening by a
fixed ridge at a point B. The
force exerted to the plate by
the ridge is to be determined.
 Assumptions. Atmospheric
pressure acts on both sides of
the plate, and thus it can be
ignored in calculations for
convenience.

51
52
 Buoyancy, Floatation and stability

 It is a common experience that an object feels lighter and

weighs less in a liquid than it does in air. This can be
demonstrated easily by weighing a heavy object in water by
a waterproof spring scale. Also, objects made of wood or
other light materials float on water.
 These and other observations suggest that a fluid exerts an
upward force on a body immersed in it. This force that
tends to lift the body is called the buoyant force and is
denoted by FB.
 The buoyant force is caused by the increase of pressure in a
fluid with depth.

53
 Buoyancy, Floatation and stability

 Consider, for example, a flat

plate of thickness h
submerged in a liquid of
density ρf parallel to the free
surface, as shown in the Fig.
 The area of the top (and also
bottom) surface of the plate
is A, and its distance to the
free surface is s.
 The pressures at the top and
bottom surfaces of the plate
are ρf gs and ρf g(s + h),
respectively.

54
 Buoyancy, Floatation and stability

 Then the hydrostatic force Ftop

= ρf gsA acts downward on the
top surface, and the larger
force Fbottom = ρf g(s + h)A
acts upward on the bottom
surface of the plate.
 The difference between these
two forces is a net upward
force, which is the buoyant
force,

55
 Buoyancy, Floatation and stability
 where V = hA is the volume of the plate. But the relation ρf gV
is simply the weight of the liquid whose volume is equal to the
volume of the plate.
 Thus, we conclude that the buoyant force acting on the plate is
equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the plate.
 Note that the buoyant force is independent of the distance of
the body from the free surface. It is also independent of the
density of the solid body.
 This is known as Archimedes’ principle, after the Greek
mathematician Archimedes (287–212 BC), and is expressed as

The buoyant force acting on a body immersed in a fluid is

equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body, and
it acts upward through the centroid of the displaced
volume.
56
 Buoyancy, Floatation and stability

 Floating bodies are a special case; only a portion of the

body is submerged, with the remainder poking up out of the
free surface.

57
 Buoyancy, Floatation and stability

 A body immersed in a
fluid
1) Remains at rest at any
point in the fluid when
its density is equal to
the density of the fluid,
2) Sinks to the bottom
when its density is
greater than the density
of the fluid, and
3) Rises to the surface of
the fluid and floats
when the density of the
body is less than the
density of the fluid
58
 Example 1

 A crane is used to lower

weights into the sea (density
=1025 kg/m3) for an
underwater construction
project.
 Determine the tension in the
rope of the crane due to a
rectangular 0.4-m x 0.4-m x 3-
m concrete block (density =
2300 kg/m3) when it is (a)
suspended in the air and (b)
completely immersed in water.

59
60
 Example 2
 A 170-kg granite rock (ρ = 2700 kg/m3) is dropped into a
lake. A man dives in and tries to lift the rock. Determine
how much force the man needs to apply to lift it from the
bottom of the lake. Do you think he can do it?

61
 Example 2

 This force corresponds

to a mass of

 Therefore, a person who

can lift 107 kg on earth
can lift this rock in water.

62
 Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies
 An important application
of the buoyancy concept is
the assessment of the
stability of immersed and
floating bodies with no
external attachments.
 This topic is of great
importance in the design
of ships and submarines

63
 Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies
 A body is said to be in a stable
equilibrium position if, when displaced,
it returns to its equilibrium position.
 Conversely, it is in an unstable
equilibrium position if, when displaced
(even slightly), it moves to a new
equilibrium position.
 Stability considerations are particularly
important for submerged or floating
bodies since the centers of buoyancy and
gravity do not necessarily coincide.
 A small rotation can result in either a
restoring or overturning couple.
64
 Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies
 For example, for the completely
submerged body shown in the Fig. ,
which has a center of gravity below
the center of buoyancy, a rotation
from its equilibrium position will
create a restoring couple formed by
the weight , and the buoyant force,
which causes the body to rotate back
to its original position.
 Thus, for this configuration the body
is stable. It is to be noted that as long
as the center of gravity falls below
the center of buoyancy, this will
always be true; that is, the body is in
a stable equilibrium position with
respect to small rotations.
65
 Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies
 If the center of gravity of the
completely submerged body
is above the center of
buoyancy, the resulting
couple formed by the weight
and the buoyant force will
cause the body to overturn and
move to a new equilibrium
position.
 Thus, a completely submerged
body with its center of gravity
above its center of buoyancy
is in an unstable equilibrium
position.

66
 Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies
 For floating bodies the stability problem is more complicated,
since as the body rotates the location of the center of
buoyancy (which passes through the centroid of the displaced
volume) may change.
 A floating body can be stable even though the center of
gravity lies above the center of buoyancy. This is true since as
the body rotates the buoyant force, shifts to pass through the
centroid of the newly formed displaced volume and, as
illustrated, combines with the weight, to form a couple which
will cause the body to return to its original equilibrium
position.
 However, for the relatively tall, slender body shown in Fig.
below, a small rotational displacement can cause the buoyant
force and the weight to form an overturning couple as
67 illustrated.
68
 Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies

 A floating body is stable if the body is bottom-heavy and thus

the center of gravity G is below the centroid B of the body, or
if the metacenter M is above point G. However, the body is
69
unstable if point M is below point G.
 End of Chapter 2

Next Lecture
Chapter 3: Integral Relations For A
Control Volume

70