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Traffic Stream Characteristics

Traffic streams consist of individual drivers and vehicles interacting in complex ways. While driver and vehicle behaviors vary, there are consistent patterns in traffic flow characteristics. Engineers analyze key parameters like volume, speed, and density to understand and describe typical traffic stream behavior in quantitative terms, in order to plan roadway improvements. Parameters apply to both uninterrupted flow on freeways and interrupted flow on surface streets, though interruptions add complexity.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
215 views15 pages

Traffic Stream Characteristics

Traffic streams consist of individual drivers and vehicles interacting in complex ways. While driver and vehicle behaviors vary, there are consistent patterns in traffic flow characteristics. Engineers analyze key parameters like volume, speed, and density to understand and describe typical traffic stream behavior in quantitative terms, in order to plan roadway improvements. Parameters apply to both uninterrupted flow on freeways and interrupted flow on surface streets, though interruptions add complexity.

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hakamalramoni
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Traffic Stream

Characteristics

Traffic streams are made up of individual drivers and Fortunately, while exact characteristics vary, there is a
vehicles interacting with each other and with the physi- reasonably consistent range of driver and, therefore,
cal elemenis of the roadway and its general environment. traffic stream behavior. Drivers on a highway designed
Because both driver behavior and vehicle characteristics for a safe speed of 60 mi/h may select speeds in a broad
vary, individual vehicles within the traffic stream do not range (perhaps 45-65 mi/h); few, however, will travel at
behave in exactly the same manner. Further, no two traf- 80 mi/h or at 20 mi/h.
fic streams will behave in exactly the same way, even in In describing traffic streams in quantitative terms,
similar circumstances, because driver behavior varies the purpose is to both understand the inherent variability
with local characteristics and driving habits. in their characteristics and to define normal ranges of
Dealing with traffic, therefore, involves an ele- behavior. To do so, key parameters must be defined and
ment of variability. A flow of water through channels measured. Traffic engineers will analyze, evaluate, and
and pipes of defined characteristics will behave in an ultimately plan improvements in traffic facilities based
entirely predictable fashion, in accord with the laws of on such parameters and their knowledge of normal
hydraulics and fluid flow. A given flow of traffic ranges of behavior.
through streets and highways of defined characteris- This chapter focuses on the definition and de-
tics will vary with both time and location. Thus, the scription of the parameters most often used for this
critical challenge of traffic engineering is to plan and purpose and on the characteristics normally observed
design for a medium that is not predictable in exact in traffic streams. These parameters are, in effect, the
terms-one that involves both physical constraints traffic engineer’s measure of reality, and they consti-
and the complex behavioral characteristics of human tute a language with which traffic streams are de-
beings. scribed and understood.

105
I06 CHAPTER 5 TRAFFIC STREAM CHARACTERISTICS

5.1 Types of Facilities signs, unsignalized at-grade intersections, driveways,


curb parking maneuvers, and other land-access opera-
Traffic facilities are broadly separated into two principal tions. Virtually all urban surface streets and highways
categories: are interrupted flow facilities.
The major difference between uninterrupted and
0 Uninterrupted flow interrupted flow facilities is the impact of time. On unin-
terrupted facilities, the physical facility is available to
0 Interrupted flow drivers and vehicles at all times. On a given interrupted
flow facility, movement is periodically barred by “red”
Uninterrupted flow facilities have no external in- signals. The signal timing, therefore, limits access to
terruptions to the traffic stream. Pure uninterrupted flow particular segments of the facility in time. Further,
exists primarily on freeways, where there are no inter- rather than a continuously moving traffic stream, at traf-
sections at grade, traffic signals, STOP or YIELD signs, fic signals, the traffic stream is periodically stopping
or other interruptions external to the traffic stream itself. and starting again.
Because such facilities have full control of access, there Interrupted flow is, therefore, more complex than
are no intersections at grade, driveways, or any forms of uninterrupted flow. While many of the traffic flow pa-
direct access to abutting lands. Thus, the characteristics rameters described in this chapter apply to both types of
of the traffic stream are based solely on the interactions facilities, this chapter focuses primarily on the charac-
among vehicles and with the roadway and the general teristics of uninterrupted flow. Many of these character-
environment. istics may also apply within a moving platoon of
While pure uninterrupted flow exists only on free- vehicles on an interrupted flow facility. Specific charac-
ways, it can also exist on sections of surface highway, teristics of traffic interruptions and their impact on flow
most often in rural areas, where there are long distances are discussed in detail in Chapter 17.
between fixed interruptions. Thus, uninterrupted flow
may exist on some sections of rural two-lane highways
and rural and suburban multilane highways. As a very
5.2 Traffic Stream Parameters
general guideline, it is believed that uninterrupted flow Traffic stream parameters fall into two broad categories.
can exist in situations where the distance between traffic Macroscopic parameters describe the traffic stream as a
signals and/or other significant fixed interruptions is whole; rnicvoscopic parameters describe the behavior of
more than two miles. individual vehicles or pairs of vehicles within the traffic
It should be remembered that the term “uninter- stream.
rupted flow” refers to a type of facility, not the quality of The three principal macroscopic parameters that
operations on that facility. Thus, a freeway that experi- describe a traffic stream are (1) volume or rate of flow,
ences breakdowns and long delays during peak hours is (2) speed, and (3) density. Microscopic parameters in-
still operating under uninterrupted flow. The causes for clude (1) the speed of individual vehicles, (2) headway,
the breakdowns and delay are not external to the traffic and (3) spacing.
stream but are caused entirely by the internal interac-
tions within the traffic stream. 5.2.1 Volume and Rate of Flow
Interrupted flow facilities are those that incorpo-
rate fixed external interruptions into their design and op- Traffic volume is defined as the number of vehicles pass-
eration. The most frequent and operationally significant ing a point on a highway, or a given lane or direction of a
external interruption is the traffic signal. The traffic sig- highway, during a specified time interval. The unit of
nal alternatively starts and stops a given traffic stream, cre- measurement for volume is simply “vehicles,” although
ating a platoons of vehcles progressing down the facility. it is often expressed as “vehicles per unit time.” Units of
Other fixed interruptions include STOP and YIELD time used most often are “per day” or “per hour.”
5.2 TRAFFIC STREAM PARAMETERS 107

Daily volumes are used to establish trends over differentiated by direction or lane but are totals for an
time, and for general planning purposes. Detailed de- entire facility at the designated location.
sign or control decisions require knowledge of hourly Table 5.1 illustrates the compilation of these daily
volumes for the peak hour(s) of the day. volumes based upon one year of count data at a sample
Rates of flow are generally stated in units of “vehi- location.
cles per hour,” but represent flows that exist for periods The data in Table 5.1 generally comes from a per-
of time less than one hour. A volume of 200 vehicles ob- manent count location (i.e., a location where automated
served over a 15-minute period may be expressed as a detection of volume and transmittal of counts electroni-
rate of 200 X 4 = 800 vehicleskour, even though 800 cally to a central computer is in place). Average week-
vehicles would not be observed if the full hour were day traffic (AWT) for each month is found by dividing
counted. Thie 800 vehicleslhour becomes a rate of flow the total monthly weekday volume by the number of
that exists fix a 15-minute interval. weekdays in the month (Column 5 f Column 2). The
average daily traffic is the total monthly volume divided
Daily Volumes by the number of days in the month (Column 4 +-
Column 3). Average annual daily traffic is the total ob-
As noted, dlaily volumes are used to document annual
served volume for the year divided by 365 dayslyear.
trends in highway usage. Forecasts based upon observed
Average annual weekday traffic is the total observed
trends can be used to help plan improved or new facili-
volume on weekdays divided by 260 weekdayslyear.
ties to accommodate increasing demand.
The sample data of Table 5.1 gives a capsule de-
There are four daily volume parameters that are
scription of the character of the facility on which it was
widely used in traffic engineering:
measured. Note that ADTs are significantly higher than
Average annual daily trafic (AADT). The aver- AWTs in each month. This suggests that the facility is
age 24-hour volume at a given location over a serving a recreational or vacation area, with traffic strong-
full 365-day year; the number of vehicles pass- ly peaking on weekends. Also, both AWTs and ADTs are
ing aL site in a year divided by 365 days (366 days highest during the summer months, suggesting that the
in a leap year). facility serves a warm-weather recreationallvacation area.
Thus, if a detailed study were needed to provide data for
Average annual weekday traflc (AAWT). The
an upgrading of this facility, the period to focus on
average 24-hour volume occurring on weekdays
would be weekends during the summer.
over a full 365-day year; the number of vehicles
passing a site on weekdays in a year divided by Hourly Volumes
the number of weekdays (usually 260).
Daily volumes, while useful for planning purposes, can-
Avefiage daily trafJic (ADT). The average 24- not be used alone for design or operational analysis pur-
hour volume at a given location over a defined poses. Volume varies considerably over the 24 hours of
time period less than one year; a common the day, with periods of maximum flow occurring dur-
application is to measure an ADT for each ing the morning and evening commuter “rush hours.”
mom h of the year. The single hour of the day that has the hghest hourly
Average weekday trafJic ( A m . The average 24- volume is referred to as the peak hour. The traffic vol-
hour weekday volume at a given location over a ume within this hour is of greatest interest to traffic en-
defined time period less than one year; a gineers for design and operational analysis usage. The
common application is to measure an AWT for peak-hour volume is generally stated as a directional vol-
each month of the year. ume (i.e., each direction of flow is counted separately).
Highways and controls must be designed to ade-
All of these volumes are stated in terms of vehi- quately serve the peak-hour traffic volume in the peak
cles per day (vehlday). Daily volumes are generally not direction of flow. Since traffic going one way during the
108 CHAPTER 5 TRAFFIC STREAM CHARACTERISTICS

Table 5.1: Illustration of Daily Volume Parameters


1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Month No. of Total Total Total AWT ADT
Weekdays Days in Monthly Weekday 512 413
In Month Month Volume Volume
(days) (days) (vehs) (vehs) (veh/day) (vehlday)
Jan 22 31 425,000 208,000 9,455 13,710
Feb 20 28 410,000 220,000 11,000 14,643
Mar 22 31 385,000 185,000 8,409 12,419
APr 22 30 400,000 200,000 9,09 1 13,333
May 21 31 450,000 2 15,000 10,238 14,516
Jun 22 30 500,000 230,000 10,455 16,667
Jul 23 31 580,000 260,000 11,304 18,710
Aug 21 31 570,000 260,000 12,381 18,387
SeP 22 30 490,000 205,000 9,318 16,333
Oct 22 31 420,000 190,000 8,636 13,548
Nov 21 30 4 15,000 200,000 9,524 13,833
Dec 22 31 400,000 2 10,000 9,545 12,903
Total 260 365 5,445,000 2,583,000 -

AADT = 5,445,0001365 = 14,918 vehlday


AAWT = 2,583,0001260 = 9,935 vehlday

morning peak is going the opposite way during the where: K = proportion of daily traffic occurring dur-
evening peak, both sides of a facility must generally be ing the peak hour
designed to accommodate the peak directional flow dur- D = proportion of peak hour traffic traveling in
ing the peak hour. Where the directional disparity is sig- the peak direction of flow.
nificant, the concept of reversible lanes is sometimes
useful. Washington DC, for example, makes extensive For design, the K factor often represents the pro-
use of reversible lanes (direction changes by time of portion of AADT occurring during the 30th peak hour
day) on its many wide boulevards and some of its free- of the year. If the 365 peak hour volumes of the year at
ways. a given location are listed in descending order, the 30th
In design, peak-hour volumes are sometimes esti- peak hour is 30th on the list and represents a volume
mated from projections of the AADT. Traffic forecasts that is exceeded in only 29 hours of the year. For rural
are most often cast in terms of AADTs based on docu- facilities, the 30th peak hour may have a significantly
mented trends and/or forecasting models. Because daily lower volume than the worst hour of the year, as critical
volumes, such as the AADT, are more stable than hourly peaks may occur only infrequently. In such cases, it is
volumes, projections can be more confidently made not considered economically feasible to invest large
using them. AADTs are converted to a peak-hour vol- amounts of capital in providing additional capacity that
ume in the peak direction of flow. This is referred to as will be used in only 29 hours of the year. In urban
the “directional design hour volume” (DDHV), and is cases, where traffic is frequently at capacity levels dur-
found using the following relationship: ing the daily commuter peaks, the 30th peak hour is
often not substantially different from the highest peak
DDHV = A A D T * K * D (5-1) hour of the year.
5.2 TRAF;FIC STREAM PARAMETERS 109

Factors K and D are based upon local or regional from 0.65 to 0.80. The range of directional design hour
characteristics at existing locations. Most state highway volumes is, therefore:
departments, for example, continually monitor these
proportions, and publish appropriate values for use in DDHVLow = 30,000 * 0.15 * 0.65 = 2,925 vehh
various areas of the state. The K factor decreases with
increasing development density in the areas served by DDHVHIGH = 30,000 * 0.25 * 0.80 = 6,000 vehh
the facility. In high-density areas, substantial demand
during off-peak periods exists. This effectively lowers The expected range in DDHV is quite large under
the proportion of traffic occurring during the peak hour these criteria. Thus, determining appropriate values of K
of the day. The volume generated by high-density devel- and D for the facility in question is critical in making
opment is generally larger than that generated by lower- such a forecast.
density areas. Thus, it is important to remember that a This simple illustration points out the difficulty in
high propoirtion of traffic occurring in the peak hour projecting future traffic demands accurately. Not only
does not suggest that the peak-hour volume is large. does volume change over time, but the basic characteris-
The DIfactor tends to be more variable and is in- tics of volume variation may change as well. Accurate
fluenced by a number of factors. Again, as development projections require the identification of causative rela-
density increases, the D factor tends to decrease. As tionships that remain stable over time. Such relation-
density increases, it is more likely to have substantial ships are difficult to discern in the complexity of
bi-directional demands. Radial routes (i.e, those serv- observed travel behavior. Stability of these relationships
ing movements into and out of central cities or other over time cannot be guaranteed in any event, making
areas of activity), will have stronger directional distri- volume forecasting an approximate process at best.
butions (hip,herD values) than those that are circumfer-
Subhourly Volumes and Rates of Flow
ential, (i.e.., going around areas of central activity).
Table 5.2 indicates general ranges for K and D factors. While hourly traffic volumes form the basis for many
These are purely illustrative; specific data on these forms of traffic design and analysis, the variation of traf-
characteristics should be available from state or local fic within a given hour is also of considerable interest.
highway agencies, or should be locally calibrated be- The quality of traffic flow is often related to short-term
fore application. fluctuations in traffic demand. A facility may have suffi-
Consider the case of a rural highway that has a 20- cient capacity to serve the peak-hour demand, but short-
year forecast of AADT of 30,000 veh/day. Based upon term peaks of flow within the hour may exceed capacity
the data of 'Table 5.2, what range of directional design and create a breakdown.
hour volumes might be expected for this situation? Volumes observed for periods of less than one hour
Using the values of Table 5.2 for a rural highway, the K are generally expressed as equivalent hourly rates of flow.
factor ranges from 0.15 to 0.25, and the D factor ranges For example, 1,000 vehicles counted over a 15-minute

Table 5.2: General Ranges for K and D Factors


~ ~

Normal Range of Values


Facility Type K-Factor D-Factor
Rural 0.15-0.25 0.65-0.80
Suburban 0.12-0.15 0.5 5-0.65
Urban:
Radial Route 0.07-0.12 0.55-0.60
Circumferential Route 0.07-0.12 0.50-0.55
110 CHAPTER 5 TRAFFIC STREAM CHARACTERISTICS

Table 5.3: Illustration of Volumes and Rates of Flow


Volume for Time Rate of Flow for Time
Time Interval Interval (vehs) Interval (vehsh)
5:00-5:15 PM 1,000 1,000/0.25 = 4,000
5:15-5:30 PM 1,100 1,100/0.25 = 4,400
5:30-5:45 PM 1,200 1,200/0.25 = 4,800
5:45-6:00 PM 900 900/0.25 = 3,600
5:OO-6:00 PM I I: = 4,200

interval could be expressed as 1,000 vehd0.25 h = develop in the half-hour period between 5:15 and 5 4 5
4,000 veh/h. The rate of flow of 4,000 veh/h is valid for PM, during which the demand exceeds the capacity. Fur-
the 15-minute period in which the volume of 1,000 ther, while demand is less than capacity in the first 15-
vehs was observed. Table 5.3 illustrates the difference minute period (5:OO-S: 15 PM), the unused capacity
between volumes and rates of flow. cannot be used in a later period. Table 5.4 compares the
The full hourly volume is the sum of the four 15- demand and capacity for each of the 15-minute intervals.
minute volume observations, or 4,200 veh/h. The rate of The queue at the end of each period can be computed as
flow for each 15-minute interval is the volume observed the queue at the beginning of the period plus the arriving
for that interval divided by the 0.25 hours over which it vehicles minus the departing vehicles.
was observed. In the worst period of time, 5:30-5:45 Even though the capacity of this segment over the
PM, the rate of flow is 4,800 vehh. This is aflow rate, full hour is equal to the peak-hour demand volume
not a volume. The actual volume for the hour is only (4,200 veh/h), at the end of the hour, there remains a
4,200 veldh. queue of 50 vehicles that has not been served. While this
Consider the situation that would exist if the capaci- illustration shows that a queue exists for three out of
ty of the location in question were exactly 4,200 vehsh. four 15-minute periods within the peak hour, the dy-
While this is sufficient to handle the full-hour demand in- namics of queue clearance may continue to negatively
dicated in Table 5.3, the demand rate offlow during two of affect traffic for far longer.
the 15-minute periods noted (5:15-5:30 PM and 5:30- Because of these types of impacts, it is often nec-
5 4 5 PM) exceeds the capacity. The problem is that while essary to design facilities and analyze traffic condi-
demand may vary within a given hour, capacity is con- tions for a period of maximum rate of flow within the
stant. In each 15-minute period, the capacity is 4,200/4 or peak hour. For most practical purposes, 15 minutes is
1,050vehs. Thus, within the peak hour shown, queues will considered to be the minimum period of time over

Table 5.4: Queuing Analysis for the Data of Table 5.3


Arriving Departing Queue Size at
Vehicles Vehicles End of Period
Time Interval (vehs) (vehs) (vehs)
S:00-5:15 PM 1,000 1,050 0
5:15-5:30 PM 1,100 1,050 0 + 1,100 - 1,050 = 50
S:30-5:45 PM 1,200 1,050 50 + 1,200 - 1,050 = 200
5:45-6:00 PM 900 1,050 200 + 900 - 1,050 = 50
5.2 TRAFFIC STREAM PARAMETERS 111

which traffic conditions are statistically stable. While The peak-hour factor is descriptive of trip genera-
rates of flow can be computed for any period of time tion patterns and may apply to an area or portion of a
and researchers often use rates for periods of one to five street and highway system. When the value is known, it
minutes, rates of flow for shorter periods often represent can be used to estimate a maximum flow rate within an
transient conditions that defy consistent mathematical hour based on the full-hour volume:
representations. In recent years, however, use of five-
minute rates of flow has increased, and there is some V
v=- (5-3)
thought that these might be sufficiently stable for use in PHF
design and analysis. Despite this, most standard design
where: v maximum rate of flow within the hour,
=
and analysjs practices continue to use the 15-minute
vehh
interval as it base period.
The relationship between the hourly volume and V = hourly volume, vehh
the maximum rate of flow within the hour is defined by PHF = peak-hour factor.
the peak hour factor, as follows:
This conversion is frequently used in the techniques and
hourly volume methodologies covered throughout this text.
PHF =
max. rate of flow
5.2.2 Speed and Travel Time
For standard 15-minute analysis period, this beco
mes: Speed is the second macroscopic parameter describing
the state of a traffic stream. Speed is defined as a rate of
V motion in distance per unit time. Travel time is the time
PHF = (5-2) taken to traverse a defined section of roadway. Speed
4 * vm15
and travel time are inversely related:
where: 'V hourly volume, vehs
=
Vmls = maximum 15-minute volume within
s = -d (5-4)
the hour, vehs t
PHF = peak-hour factor
where: S = speed, m i k or ft/s
For the illustrative data in Tables 5-3 and 5-4: d = distance traversed, mi or ft
4,200 t = time to traverse distance d , h or s
PHF = = 0.875
4" 1,200
In a moving traffic stream, each vehicle travels at a
The maximum possible value for the PHF is different speed. Thus, the traffic stream does not have a
1.00, which( occurs when the volume in each interval single characteristic value, but rather a distribution of
is constant. For 15-minute periods, each would have a individual speeds. The traffic stream, taken as a whole,
volume of exactly one quarter of the full hour volume. can be characterized using an average or typical speed.
This indicates a condition in which there is virtually There are two ways in which an average speed for
no variation of flow within the hour. The minimum a traffic stream can be computed:
value occurs when the entire hourly volume occurs in
a single 15-minute interval. In this case, the PHF be- Time mean speed (TMS). The average speed of
comes 0.25, and represents the most extreme case of all vehicles passing a point on a highway or lane
volume variation within the hour. In practical terms, over some specified time period.
the PHF generally varies between a low of 0.70 for Space mean speed (SMS). The average speed of
rural and sparsely developed areas to 0.98 in dense all vehicles occupying a given section of high-
urban areas. way or lane over some specified time period.
112 CHAPTER 5 TRAFFIC STREAM CHARACTERISTICS

I
176 f t *

4
88 f t

1 Figure 5.1: Space Mean and Time Mean Speed Illustrated

In essence, time mean speed is a point measure, in which each vehicle is weighted equally. The two speed
while space mean speed describes a length of highway measures may conceivably be equal if all vehicles in the
or lane. Figure 5.1 shows an example illustrating the dif- section are traveling at exactly the same speed.
ferences between the two average speed measures. Both the time mean speed and space mean speed
To measure time mean speed (TMS), an observer may be computed from a series of measured travel times
would stand by the side of the road and record the speed over a specified distance using the following relationships:
of each vehicle as it passes. Given the speeds and the
spacing shown in Figure 5.1, a vehicle will pass the ob-
server in lane A every 176/88 = 2.0 s. Similarly, a vehi-
cle will pass the observer in lane B every 88/44 = 2.0 s. (5-5)
Thus, as long as the traffic stream maintains the condi-
tions shown, for every n vehicles traveling at 88 ft/s, the
observer will also observe n vehicles traveling at 44 fds.
The TMS may then be computed as:

88.01~+ 44.0n where: T M S = time mean speed, ft/s


TMS = = 66.0 ft/s
2n SMS = space mean speed, ft/s
d = distance traversed, ft
To measure space mean speed (SMS), an observer n = number of observed vehicles
would need an elevated location from which the full extent ti = time for vehicle ‘‘2’to traverse the
of the section may be viewed. Again, however, as long as section, s
the traffic stream remains stable and uniform, as shown,
there will be twice as many vehicles in lane B as there are TMS is computed by finding each individual vehicle
in lane A. Therefore, the SMS is computed as: speed and taking a simple average of the results. SMS is
computed by finding the average travel time for a vehicle
( 8 8 . 0 1 ~+
) (44*2n) to traverse the section and using the average travel time to
SMS = = 58.7 mi/h
3n compute a speed. Table 5.5 shows a sample problem in the
computation of time mean and space mean speeds.
In effect, space mean speed accounts for the fact
that it takes a vehicle traveling at 44.0 ft/s twice as long 5.2.3 Density and Occupancy
to traverse the defined section as it does a vehicle travel-
ing at 88.0 ft/s. The space mean speed weights slower Density
vehicles more heavily, based on the amount of time they
occupy a highway section. Thus, the space mean speed is Density, the third primary measure of traffic stream char-
usually lower than the corresponding time mean speed, acteristics, is defined as the number of vehicles occupying
5.2 TRAFIFIC STREAM PARAMETERS 113

Table 5.5: Illustrative Computation of TMS and SMS


Distance Travel Time Speed
Vehicle No. d (ft) t (s) (fffs)

1 1,000 18.0 1,000118 = 55.6


2 1,000 20.0 1,000/20 = 50.0
3 1,000 22.0 1,000122 = 45.5
4 1,000 19.0 1,000119 = 52.6
5 1,000 20.0 1,000/20 = 50.0
6 1,000 20.0 1,000120 = 50.0
Total 6,000 119 303.7
Average 6,00016 = 1,000 11916 = 19.8 303.716 = 50.6
TMS = 50.6 ftls
SMS = 1,000/19.8 = 50.4 ft/s

a given length of highway or lane, generally expressed select speeds that are consistent with how close they are
as vehicles per mile or vehicles per mile per lane. to other vehicles. The speed and density combine to give
Density is difficult to measure directly, as an ele- the observed rate of flow.
vated vantage point from which the highway section Density is also an important measure of the quality
under study may be observed is required. It is often of traffic flow, as it is a measure of the proximity of
computed from speed and flow rate measurements. (See other vehicles, a factor which influences freedom to ma-
Section 5.3 of this chapter). neuver and the psychological comfort of drivers.
Density, however, is perhaps the most important of
the three primary traffic stream parameters, because it is Occupancy
the measure most directly related to traffic demand. De-
mand does not occur as a rate of flow, even though traf- While density is difficult to measure directly, modern
fic engineers use this parameter as the principal measure detectors can measure occupancy, which is a related pa-
of demand. Traffic is generated from various land uses, rameter. Occupancy is defined as the proportion of time
injecting a number of vehicles into a confined roadway that a detector is "occupied," or covered, by a vehicle in
space. This process creates a density of vehicles. Drivers a defined time period. Figure 5.2 illustrates.

Vehicle -
I I

Ld

Figure 5.2:: Occupancy Over a Detector


114 CHAPTER 5 TRAFFIC STREAM CHARACTERISTICS

In Figure 5.2, L, is the average length of a vehicle where: D = density, veh/mi/ln


(ft), while Ld is the length of the detector (which is nor-
mally a magnetic loop detector). If “occupancy” over a dd = average spacing between vehicles in the
given detector is “0,” then density may be computed as: lane. ft

Headway
5,280 * 0
D= (5-7)
Lv -k Ld Headway is defined as the time interval between succes-
sive vehicles as they pass a point along the lane, also
The lengths of the average vehicle and the detector measured between common reference points on the ve-
are added, as the detector is generally activated as the hicles. The average headway in a lane is directly related
front bumper engages the front boundary of the detector to the rate of flow:
and is deactivated when the rear bumper clears the back
boundary of the detector. v=-
3,600
Consider a case in which a detector records an (5-9)
ha
occupancy of 0.200 for a 15-minute analysis period. If
the average length of a vehicle is 28 ft, and the detector where: v = rate of flow, veh/h/ln
is 3 ft long, what is the density? ha = average headway in the lane, s
5,280 * 0.200
D= = 34.1 veh/mi/ln Use of Microscopic Measures
28 3+
Microscopic measures are useful for many traffic analy-
The occupancy is measured for a specific detector
sis-purposes. Because a spacing andor a headway may
in a specific lane. Thus, the density estimated from oc-
be obtained for every pair of vehicles, the amount of data
cupancy is in units of vehicles per mile per lane. If there
that can be collected in a short period of time is relative-
are adjacent detectors in additional lanes, the density in
ly large. A traffic stream with a volume of 1,000 vehs
each lane may be summed to provide a density in
over a 15-minute time period results in a single value of
veh/mi for a given direction of flow over several lanes.
rate of flow, space mean speed, and density when ob-
served. There would be, however, 1,000 headway and
5.2.4 Spacing and Headway: Microscopic spacing measurements, assuming that all vehicle pairs
Parameters were observed.
While flow, speed, and density represent macroscopic Use of microscopic measures also allows various
descriptors for the entire traffic stream, they can be re- vehicle types to be isolated in the traffic stream. Passen-
lated to microscopic parameters that describe individual ger car flows and densities, for example, could be de-
vehicles within the traffic stream, or specific pairs of ve- rived from isolating spacing and headway for pairs of
hicles within the traffic stream. passenger cars following each other. Heavy vehicles
could be similarly isolated and studied for their specific
Spacing
characteristics. Chapter 12 illustrates such a process for
Spacing is defined as the distance between successive calibrating basic capacity analysis variables.
vehicles in a traffic lane, measured from some common Average speed can also be computed from head-
reference point on the vehicles, such as the front bumper way and spacing measurements as:
or front wheels. The average spacing in a traffic lane
can be directly related to the density of the lane:
5.3 RELATIONSHIPS AMONG FLOW RATE, SPEED, AND DENSITY 115

where: S = average speed, mi/h Space mean speed and density are measures that
d, = average spacing, ft refer to a specificsection of a lane or highway, while flow
rate is a point measure. Figure 5.3 illustrates the relation-
ha = average headway, s ship. The space mean speed and density measures must
apply to the same defined section of roadway. Under sta-
A Sample Problem: ble flow conditions (i.e., the flow entering and leaving the
section are the same; no queues are forming within the
Traffic in a congested multilane highway lane is ob-
section), the rate of flow computed by Equation 5-11
served to have an average spacing of 200 ft, and an aver-
applies to any point within the section. Where unstable
age headwaLy of 3.8 s. Estimate the rate of flow, density
operations exist (a queue is forming within the section),
and speed of traffic in this lane.
the computed flow rate represents an average for all
points within the section.
Solution:
If a freeway lane were observed to have a space
mean speed of 55 mi/h and a density of 25 veh/mi/ln, the
3,600 flow rate in the lane could be estimated as:
b'=- = 947veh/h/ln
3.8
v = 55 * 25 = 1,375 veW1n
5,280
D=- = 26.4 veh/mi/ln
200 As noted previously, this relationship is most often
used to estimate density, which is difficult to measure di-
rectly, from measured values of flow rate and space mean
speed. Consider a freeway lane with a measured space
5.3 Relationships among Flow mean speed of 60 mi/h and a flow rate of 1,000 veh/h/ln.
The density could be estimated from Equation 5- 11 as:
Rate, Speed, and Density
v 1,000
The three macroscopic measures of the state of a given D=-=- = 16.7 veh/mi/ln
S 60
traffic stream-flow, speed, and density-are related as
follows: Equation 5-11 suggests that a given rate of flow (v)
could be achieved by an infinite number of speed (S)
v = S*D (5-11) and density ( D ) pairs having the same product. Thank-
where: v == rate of flow, vehh or veh/h/ln fully, this is not what happens, as it would make the
mathematical interpretation of traffic flow unintelligi-
S == space mean speed, mik ble. There are additional relationships between pairs of
D == density, veldmi or veh/mi/ln these variables that restrict the number of combinations

t V

Figure 5.3: Traffic Stream Parameters Illustrated


116 CHAPTER 5 TRAFFIC STREAM CHARACTERISTICS
-

no flow is observed, as no vehicle can pass a point to be


A/ CAPACITY
Fl owl. counted when all vehicles are stopped.
Between these two extreme points on the rela-
tionships, there is a peaking characteristic. The peak of
Vl
the flow-speed and flow-density curves is the maxi-
mum rate of flow, or the capacity of the roadway. Its
value, like everything else about these relationships,
CRITICAL JAM CRITICAL
depends upon the specific prevailing conditions at the
DENSITY DENSITY SPEED time and location of the calibration measurements. Op-
DENSITY eration at capacity, however, is very unstable. At ca-
---- FORCED FLOW pacity, with no usable gaps in the traffic stream, the
-
CRITICAL
DENSITY
1 -‘\kA
STABLE FLOW
NOTE: FLOW RATE VI OCCURS
UNDERTWO DIFFERENT FLOW
CONDITIONS, ILLUSTRATED
AS A AND B.
slightest perturbation caused by an entering or lane-
changing vehicle, or simply a driver hitting the brakes,
causes a chain reaction that cannot be damped. The
SPEED perturbation propagates upstream and continues until
CRITICAL sufficient gaps in the traffic stream allow the event to
SPEED
be effectively dissipated.
Figure 5.4: Relationships Among Flow, Speed, and Den- The dashed portion of the curves represents unstable
sity (Used with permission of Transportation Research or forced flow. This effectively represents flow within a
Board, National Research Council, from Highway Capac- queue that has formed behind a breakdown location. A
ity Manual, 3rd Edition, Special Report 209, pgs. 1-7, breakdown will occur at any point where the arriving flow
Washington DC, 1994.) rate exceeds the downstream capacity of the facility. Com-
mon points for such breakdowns include on-ramps on
freeways, but accidents and incidents are also common,
less predictable causes for the formation of queues. The
that can and do occur in the field. Figure 5.4 illustrates solid line portion of the curves represents stable flow (Le.
the general form of these relationships. moving traffic streams that can be maintained over a
The exact shape and calibration of these relation- period of time).
ships depends upon prevailing conditions, which vary Except for capacity flow, any flow rate may exist
from location to location and even over time at the same under two conditions:
location.
Note that a flow rate of “0 veh/h” occurs under two
1. A condition of relatively high speed and low den-
very different conditions. When there are no vehicles on
sity (on the stable portion of flow relationships)
the highway, density is “0 veh/mi“ and no vehicles can
be observed passing a point. Under this condition, speed 2. A condition of relatively low speed and high den-
is unmeasurable and is referred to as “free-flow speed,” sity (on the unstable portion of flow relationships)
a theoretical value that exists as a mathematical exten-
sion of the relationship between speed and flow (or Obviously, traffic engineers would prefer to keep all
speed and density). In practical terms, free-flow speed facilities operating on the stable side of the curves.
can be thought of as the speed a single vehicle could Because a given volume or flow rate may occur
achieve when there are no other vehicles on the road and under two very different sets of operating conditions,
the motorist is driving as fast as is practicable given the these variables cannot completely describe flow condi-
geometry of the highway and its environmental sur- tions, nor can they be used as measures of the quality of
roundings. traffic flow. Values of speed and/or density, however,
A flow of “0 veh/h” also occurs when there are so would define unique points on any of the relationships
many vehicles on the road that all motion stops. This oc- of Figure 5.4, and both describe aspects of quality that
curs at a very high density, called the “jam density,” and can be perceived by drivers and passengers.
5.3 RELATIONSHIPS AMONG FLOW RATE, SPEED, AND DENSITY 117

Over the years, various researchers have studied Mathematical models for speed-density may also be
speed-flow-density relationships and have attempted to manipulated to determine (1) free-flow speed, (2) jam
develop many mathematical descriptions for these curves. density, and (3) capacity. Free-flow speed occurs when the
In the 1930s, Bruce Greenshields conducted the first for- density is “0 veh/h.” Thus:
mal studies of traffic flow. He hypothesized that the speed-
density relationship was linear [ I ] . Later, Ellis [2] S = 55.0 - 0.45 “ 0 = 55.0 mi/h
suggested piecewise linear relationships. Using two or
three linear relationships for various portions of the speed- Similarly,jam density occurs when speed is ‘‘0 mi/h,” or:
density curve, this approach created discontinuous curves,
with the critical discontinuity in the vicinity of capacity. S = 0 = 55.0 - 0.45 D
Greenberg [3]hypothesized a logarithmic curve for speed-
density, while Underwood [4]used an exponential model D = - -55.0 - 122.2 veh/mi/ln
for this relationship. Edie [5] suggested a discontinuous 0.45
relationship for speed-density using both exponential and
logarithmic relationships, and May [a
suggested a bell- Capacity is found by determining the peak of the
speed-flow or flow-density curves. The peak occurs
shaped curve. Reference 6 reports on a classic study in
which all of these mathematical descriptions were com- when the first derivative of the relationship is 0. Using
pared using a single set of data from the Merritt Parkway the flow-density curve:
in Connecticut,circa 1958. For the study data, the Edie hy-
pothesis produced the best “fit” to field observations. v = 55.0 D - 0.45 D2
All of these historic studies focused on calibration of
the speed-density relationship. This is considered to be the dv
-= 0 = 55.0 - 0.90 D
basic behavioral relationship-drivers selecting speeds dD
based on their proximity to other vehicles (and the geo-
metric and general environment of the roadway). How 55.0
D=- = 61.1 v e h / d n
rate results from this relationship. Mathematically, once 0.90
the speed-density relationship has been established, the
speed-flow ,andflow-density relationships may be derived. Capacity, therefore, occurs when the density is 6 1.1
Consider Greenshield’s linear speed-density model, se- veh/mi/ln (which is exactly one-half the jam density for
lected for its simplicity.Assume that a speed-density study a linear curve). Using the speed-density curve, the speed
has resulted in the following calibrated relationship: at which a density of 6 1.1 veh/mi/ln is achieved may be
determined:
S = 55.0 - 0.450
S = 55.0 - 0.45*61.1 = 27.5 m i k
Knowing the general relationship, v = S * D , speed-
flow and flow-density relationships can be derived by which is exactly one-half the free-flow speed for a linear
substitution: relationship. Now, the basic flow equation is used to
find the flow rate that results from this combination of
S = 55.0 - 0.45(:) speed and density:

v = 122.2 s - 2.22 s2 v = S * D = 27.5*61.1 = 1,680veWln

(k) = 55.0 - 0.45 D This is the capacity of the section, based on the calibrated
linear speed-density relationship for the section.
v = 55.0 D - 0.45 D2 It should be noted that there is no consensus as to
which mathematical description best describes an uninter-
As indicated, a linear speed-density hypothesis leads to rupted-flow traffic stream. Indeed, studies suggest that the
parabolic speed-flow and flow-density relationships. best form may vary by location and even over time at a
118 CHAPTER 5 TRAFFIC STREAM CHARACTERISTICS

given location. The linear model of Bruce Greenshields, 8. Scheon, J., et al., “Speed-Flow Relationships for
originally calibrated in the 1930s, does not represent Basic Freeway Sections,” Final Report, NCHRP
modern traffic behavior particularly well. The Fourth Project 3-45, JHK &Associates, Tucson, AZ, May
Edition of the Highway Capacity Manual [7 ] uses a very 1995.
different model for speed-flow as the basis for its analy-
sis methodologies for uninterrupted flow facilities.
These are based upon a more recent and comprehensive Problems
study of freeway flow characteristics [8].Chapter 12
contains a more detailed discussion of the results of this 5-1. A volume of 900 vehh is observed at an intersec-
study and their application to capacity and level of service tion approach. Find the peak rate of flow within
analysis. the hour for the following peak-hour factors: 1.OO,
0.90, 0.80, 0.70. Plot and comment on the results.

References 5-2. A traffic stream displays average vehicle head-


ways of 2.2 s at 50 mi/h. Compute the density and
1. Greenshields, B., “A Study of Highway Capacity,” rate of flow for this traffic stream.
Proceedings of the Highway Research Board, Vol.
14, Transportation Research Board, National Re- 5-3. A freeway detector records an occupancy of 0.255
search Council, Washington DC, 1934. for a 15-minute period. If the detector is 3.5 ft
long, and the average vehicle has a length of 20 ft,
2. Ellis, R., “Analysis of Linear Relationships in what is the density implied by this measurement?
Speed-Density and Speed-Occupancy Curves,”
Final Report, Northwestern University, Evanston, 5-4. At a given location, the space mean speed is meas-
IL, December 1964. ured as 40 mi/h and the rate of flow as 1,600
pc/h/ln. What is the density at this location for the
3. Greenberg, H., “An Analysis of Traffic Flows,” analysis period?
Operations Research, Vol. 7, ORSA, Washington
DC, 1959. 5-5. The AADT for a given highway section is 25,000
veh/day. If the route is classified as an urban radi-
4. Underwood, R., “Speed, Volume, and Density Re- al roadway, what range of directional design hour
lationships,” Quality and Theory of Trafic Flow, volumes would be expected?
Yale Bureau of Highway Traffic, Yale University,
New Haven, CT, 1961. 5-6. The following travel times were measured for ve-
hicles as they traversed a 2.0-mile segment of
5. Edie, L., “Car-Following and Steady-State Theory highway. Compute the time mean speed (TMS)
for Non-Congested Traffic,” Operations Research, and space mean speed (SMS) for this data. Why is
Vol. 9, ORSA, Washington DC, 1961. SMS always lower than TMS?

6. Duke, J., Schofer, J., and May Jr., A., “A Statisti-


cal Analysis of Speed-Density Hypotheses,” Vehicle Travel Time(s)
Highway Research Record 154, Transportation 1 156
Research Board, National Research Council, 2 144
Washington DC, 1967. 3 144
4 168
7. Highway Capacity Manual, 4th Edition, Trans-
portation Research Board, National Research 5 126
Council, Washington DC, 2000. 6 132
PROBLEMS 119

5-7. The following counts were taken on an intersec- From this data, determine (a) the AADT, (b) the
tion approach during the morning peak hour. De- ADT for each month, (c) the AAWT, and (d) the
termirie (a) the hourly volume, (b) the peak rate of AWT for each month. From this information,
flow within the hour, and (c) the peak hour factor. what can be discerned about the character of the
facility and the demand it serves?
Timeperiod 1 Volume
5-9. A study of freeway flow at a particular site has re-
8:00-8:15 AM sulted in a calibrated speed-density relationship as
8:15-8:30AM follows:
8:30-8:45 AM
-8:45-9:00 AM S = 57.5(1 - 0.008 0 )

5-8. The following traffic count data were taken from For this relationship, determine: (a) the free-flow
a perimanent detector location on a major state speed, (b) jam density, (c) the speed-flow rela-
highway. tionship, (d) the flow-density relationship, and
(e) capacity.
~

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 5-10. Answer all of the questions in Problem 5-9 for the


Month No. of Total Total Total following calibrated speed-density relationship:
Weekdays Days in Monthly Weekday
In Month Month Volume Volume
(days) (days) (vehs) (vehs)

Jan 22 31 200,000 170,000


Feb 20 28 210,000 171,000
Mar 22 31 215,000 185,000
APr 22 30 205,000 180,000
May 21 31 195,000 172,000
Jun 22 30 193,000 168,000
Jul 23 31 180,000 160,000
Aug 21 31 175,000 150,000
SeP 22 30 189,000 175,000
Oct 22 31 198,000 178,000
Nov 21 30 205,000 182,000
Dec 22 31 200,000 176,000

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