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ITS 130 Module Complete

The COVID-19 pandemic has dominated life worldwide, infecting over 16 million people globally as of July 2020. Countries were unprepared for the pandemic and many lives were lost. In the Philippines, the economy was severely impacted after the government imposed community quarantines lasting 2-4 months. As quarantine restrictions are now lowered, the "New Normal" minimum health standards have been established. As an IT student in research and software development, a proposal is needed for a software application that could benefit the business, agriculture, education, government or health sectors under the "New Normal" guidelines.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

55 views

ITS 130 Module Complete

Uploaded by

Dave Sedigo

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is now dominating the lives of everyone in the

entire world. How would it have taught from the first person that has contracted
by COVID-19 from Hubei province in China to 16,670,063 are infected worldwide
as of today (July 29, 2020)? Due to this pandemic, millions of lives were taken. We
are caught unprepared to this pandemic even the 1st world countries could not
provide or invent a vaccine to stop the spread. Months ago, the Philippine econo-
my was severely affected since the government puts the entire nation to Enhance
Community Quarantine (ECQ) that forces all the people to stay to their home for
almost two to four months depending on the number of active cases to that partic-
ular area. As of these days, the government is now lowering the ECQ to Modified
Enhance Community Quarantine (MECQ) or General Community Quarantine
(GCQ) or Modified General Community Quarantine or COVID-FREE to some Ba-
rangays, Municipalities, Cities, and Provinces in order to open and operate estab-
lishments, industries, and companies for work and slightly open the Philippine
economy by adopting the so-called the “New Normal”. The “New Normal” is a
minimum public health standard convene by the Inter-Agency Task Force (IATF)
to lower the risk of infection to any establishment. As an Information Technology
student, taking up the course of Research & Software Development, what will you
impart or propose a software application to the business sector, agriculture sec-
tor, education sector, government sector, or health sector to this “New Normal”.
Research and Software Development

Booting Up!
Here is the guide how can you formulate your proposal.

What makes a GOOD research proposal?

• Relevance, either to the work of the funding bbody or to the student’s course.
• The research is unique, or offers new insight or development.
• The title, aims and objectives are all clear and succinct.
• Comprehensive and thorough background research and literature review has been undertaken.
• There is a good match between the issues to be addressed and the approach being adopted.
• The researcher demonstrates relevant background knowledge and/or experience.
• Timetable, resources and budget have all been worked out thoroughly, with most eventualities covered.
•Useful policy and practice implications.

Reasons Why Research Proposals FAIL

• Relevance, either to the work of the funding body or to the student’s course.
• There is a mismatch between the approach being adopted and the issues to be addressed.
• The overall plan is too ambitious and difficult to achieve in the timescale.
• The researcher does not seem to have conducted enough in-depth background research.
• Problem is of insufficient importance.
• Information about the data collection is insufficiently detailed.
• Information about the data analysis method is insufficiently detailed.
• Timescale is inappropriate or unrealistic.
• Resources and budget have not been carefully thought out.
• This topic has been done too many times before – indicates a lack in background research.

Problem
• any significant, perplexing and challenging situation, real or artificial, the solution of which requires
reflective thinking
• a perplexing situation after it has been translated into a question or series of questions that help the
direction of subsequent inquiry

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Elements of a Research Problem

• Aim or purpose of the problem for investigation. This answers the question “Why?”
Why is there an investigation, inquiry or study?
• The subject matter or topic to be investigated. This answers the question “What?”
What is to be investigated or studied?
• The place or locale where the research is to be conducted. This answers the question “Where?”
Where is the study to be conducted?
• The period or time of the study during which the data are to be gathered. This answers the question
“When?”
When is the study to be carried out?
• Population or universe from whom the data are to be collected. This answers the question “Who?”
“From whom?”
Who are the respondents?
From whom are the data to be gathered?

Characteristics of a Research Problem

• It should be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time-bound)
Specific: The problem should be specifically stated.
Measurable: It is easy to measure by using research instruments, apparatus, or equipment.
Achievable: Solutions to a research problem are achievable or feasible.
Realistic: Real results are attained because they are gathered scientifically and not manipulated or
maneuvered.
Time-bound: Time frame is required in every activity because the shorter completion of the
activity, the better.

Sources of Research Problem

• Specialization of the researcher
• Current and Past Researches
• Recommendations from theses, dissertations, and research journals
• Original and creative ideas of the researcher based on the problems met in the locality and country

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Criteria of a Good Research Problem

• Interesting
• Innovative
• Cost-effective
• Relevant to the needs and problems of the people
• Relevant to government’s thrusts
• Measurable and time-bound

Guidelines in Writing the Research Title

• Research Title must be reflective of its problem.
Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is now domi-
• It must answer the following questions:
nating the lives of everyone in the entire world. What question will answer the following
How would it have taught from the first person
that has contracted by COVID-19 from Hubei
What are you trying to investigate?
province in China to 16,670,063 are infected What are you trying to find out, determine or discover?
worldwide as of today (July 29, 2019)? Due to Who question will answer who are the respondents or subjects of the study?
this pandemic, millions of lives were taken. We
are caught unprepared to this pandemic even Where question will indicate the research locale, setting or the place where the research study is
the 1st world countries could not provide or in- conducted.
vent a vaccine to stop the spread. Months ago,
the Philippine economy was severely affected
since the government puts the entire nation to
Enhance Community Quarantine (ECQ) that
forces all the people to stay to their home for
almost two to four months depending on the
number of active cases to that particular area.
As of these days, the government is now low-
ering the ECQ to Modified Enhance Communi-
Self Assessment Activity (SAA)
ty Quarantine (MECQ) or General Community
Quarantine (GCQ) or Modified General Com-
1. Formulate your Proposed/Research Title
munity Quarantine or COVID-FREE to some
Barangays, Municipalities, Cities, and Provinces
in order to open and operate establishments, in-
dustries, and companies for work and slightly
open the Philippine economy by adopting the “_________________________________________________________________________
so-called the “New Normal”. The “New Nor- __________________________________________________________________________
mal” is a minimum public health standard con-
vene by the Inter-Agency Task Force (IATF) to ___________________________________________________________________________
lower the risk of infection to any establishment. __________________________________________________________________________”
As an Information Technology student, tak-
ing up the course of Research & Software De-
velopment, what will you impart or propose a
software application to the business sector, ag-
riculture sector, education sector, government Write your answer in underline above.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Know the Parts of the Research Proposal

• Components of a Capstone Project Proposal Manuscript

-Chapter I – Introduction
-Chapter II – Review of Related Literature
-Chapter III – Technical Background
-Chapter IV – Methodology
• Chapter I – Introduction
-Project Context
-Purpose and Description of the Project
-Objectives of the Project
-Scope and Limitations of the Project
• Chapter II – Review of Related Literature
-Related Theories
-Related Projects
• Chapter III – Technical Background
-Hardware
-Software
-Peopleware
-Network
• Chapter IV – Methodology
-Functional Decomposition Diagram
-Gantt Chart
-Use Case Diagram
-Sequence Diagram
-State Diagram
-Data Flow Diagram
-Activity Diagram
-Class Diagram
-Component Diagram
-Deployment Diagram
-Entry Relationship Diagram

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Transferring mode...
Here is the guide how can you write a good Chapter 1.

How to write good Project Context

The proponent should introduce the presentation of the problem, that is, what is the prob-
lem is all about. The proponent should describe the existing and prevailing problem situa-
tion based on his or her experience. This scope may be global, national, or regional and local.

The proponent should give strong justification for selecting such research problem in his/her capacity as a
researcher. Being part of the organization or systems and the desire and concern to improve the systems.
The researcher state a sentence or two that would show the link and rela-
tionship of the rationale of the study to the proposed research problem.

See example... Project Context

Automated Class Record System for NORSU-BCC CAS is designed for in-
structors who find difficulty in creating class records and in monitoring students’ per-
formances in classrooms. This system gives a significant way to have systematic and
well organized records. It eliminates the need for manual computation and recording
of each grade and it gives less error. It does not only benefit the instructors but the stu-
dent as well because of the improvement accuracy of computing grades and in profi-
ciency and productivity of the instructors. This system serves as a tool for easier acces-
sibility of grades, both for the convenience of the students, as well as the instructors.
The College of Arts and Sciences, as one of the five colleges in Negros Orien-
Project Context from the study of Agustin et. al. tal State University Bais City Campus, aimed to adapt a new system in recording stu-
dents’ grades and performances in class. This college offers two programs; Bachelor
of Science in Information Technology (BSInT) and Bachelor of Science in Computer
Science (BSCS). The college is composed of the Dean, Assistant Dean, Faculty and
Staff and Students. Each student is evaluated in terms of performance of achievement
in classroom activities by college instructors either permanent/full time or part time.
As observed, CAS had no proper system that managed the grades
of the students. The program documentation and recording had been com-
piled in spread sheet format which were inaccessible either by the students or
the staff. The records became difficult to manage after the program lasted for
more than a year. The students’ records, subject list, students’ grades, and pro-
gram schedule were some of the data that required proper record management.
Therefore, ACRS NORSU-BCC CAS helped the instructors to in-
put students’ grade easily. In terms of accuracy, the new system recorded and
computed students’ grades accurately. Besides, all students’ data were secured.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Self Assessment Activity (SAA)

2. Now it is your turn to craft your Project Context.

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
If you print this module kind- ___________________________________________________________________________
ly use the next page for this
activity, if its not write to any
___________________________________________________________________________
paper available in your home. Write your answer in underline above.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

How to write good Purpose and Description of the Project

• What is the function of your project?
• What is good in your project?
• What makes your project unique, innovative, and relevant?
• Start with the General Objective which is very parallel to the project title.

See example...
Description of the Project
The Automated Class Record System for NORSU-BCC CAS stores all the
information of the instructors, students, and subject. It also has an automatic class re-
Description of the Project from the study of Agustin
cord format that contains list of all students enrolled in the subject. The users set their
et. al.
own percentage based on their criteria. The system records all the students’ perfor-
mances in class and computes the students’ semestral grades with the corresponding
percentage in the given criteria. This system generates the instructor grade sheets.

Self Assessment Activity (SAA)

3. Now it is your turn to craft your Description of the Project.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

How to write good Objectives of the Project

• Explode the general objective into Specific Objectives that will help realize the proposed study.
• Objectives should be SMART

See example...
Objectives of the Study
The main objective of the study is to develop an Automated Class Record
Systems for NORSU-BCC CAS.
Objectives of the Project from the study of Agustin
et. al. Specifically, this study aims to:
•record CAS students’ performance;
•compute the CAS students’ semestral grades; and
•generate grade sheets;

Self Assessment Activity (SAA)

4. Now it is your turn to craft your Objectives of the Project.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

How to write good Scope and Limitations of the Project

• Think the project scope as a box. High-level scope defines the sides of the box and separates
what is relevant to your project from what is irrelevant.
• The scope refers to the work that needs to be accomplished to deliver a product, service, or
result with the specified features and functions.
• The scope explains the nature, coverage, and time frame of the study
• The limitation, on the other hand, explains all that are NOT included in your project.
• In other words, the scope of the project gives an overview all the deliverables (i.e. the things
that your project gives/delivers), and the tools and technologies used that will be
used in the project development while the limitations of the project are the
boundaries of the project (i.e. areas/things that are out of scope).

See example...
Scope and Limitation of the Project

Scope
This system had two users: admin and instructor. However, the Dean, as
system administrator, has the right to add the instructor’s information, instructor’s
loads, adds and update student’s information, and also add the subjects of the col-
lege. Instructors add and search who are officially enrolled or not. Also, they are
Scope and Limitationt from the study of Agustin et. authorized to view students loads. Instructors can only view their class records that
al. show attendance, activity, exams, and projects of each student under their subject,
for security purposes. This system has a configuration to have an accurate computa-
tion of students’ semestral grades; generates the grade sheets of the instructor; and
sets the percentage of every instructor’s criteria.
Limitations
This system is exclusively designed for the College of Arts and Sciences
(CAS) in NORSU-BCC, Bais City, Negros Oriental, Philippines. It cannot be viewed
online. This system cannot determine if the student is already dropped because of
consecutive absences, only the instructor can drop the student.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Self Assessment Activity (SAA)

5. Now it is your turn to craft your Scope and Limitation of the Project.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Transferring mode...
Here is the guide how can you write a good Chapter 2.

How to write good Review of Related Literature

A survey or review of related literature and studies is very important because such reviews literature and
studies serve as a foundation of the proposed study. This is because related literature and studies guide the
researcher in pursuing his research venture.

The following are the different ways on how the review of related literature and studies help as a guide to
the researcher:
• They help or guide the researcher in searching for or selecting a better research problem or topic.
• They help the investigator understand his topic for research better.
• They ensure that there will be no duplication of other studies.
• They help and guide the researcher in locating more sources of related information.
• They help the researcher in making his research design.
• They help and guide the researcher in making comparison between his findings with the
findings of other researchers on similar studies with the end in view of formulating
generalizations or principles which are the contributions of the study to the fund of
knowledge.

Characteristics of Related Literature and Studies

• The surveyed materials must be as recent as possible.
• Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased.
• Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study.
• Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true facts or data
to make them valid and reliable.
• Reviewed materials must not be too few or too many.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Sources of Related Literature and Studies

• Books, encyclopedias, almanacs, and other similar references
• Articles published in journals, magazines, periodicals, newspapers, and other publications.
• Manuscripts, monographs, memoirs, speeches, letters, and diaries
• Unpublished theses and dissertations
• The Constitution, and laws and statues of the land
• Bulletins, circulars, and orders emanating from government offices and departments,
especially from the
Office of the President of the Philippines and the
Department of Education
• Records of schools, public and private, especially reports of their activities
• Official reports of all kinds, educational, social, economic, scientific, technological,
political, etc. from the government and other entities
• Articles from the Internet

Where to locate related literature and studies?

• Libraries, either government, school or private libraries
• Government and private offices
• The National Library
• The Library of Education
• The Internet

Guidelines in Writing the Review of Related Systems

• Related Theories
-Outline first, starting off with an anchor theory
-Supporting theories help elaborate the anchor theory
-Endnoting and footnoting is important which follows correct bibliography entry
-Fluidity and continuity should be observed
• Related Projects
-Overview of the current system/project
-Inventory of every related and existing projects/systems
-Fluidity and continuity should be observed
-Comparative matrix may be more appropriate
-Screen shots help make the presentation believable
-May consider 3 to 6 related studies/projects

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

See example...
Chapter II International
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE/ STUDIES The study of Okampah entitled “Management of Student’s Record at Koforidua
This part discusses the review of related literature and studies on the study of Polytechnic: Implications for Good Governance,” examined the management of
Automated Class Record System for NORSU-BCC CAS. students’ records at the Koforidua Polytechnic and the implication for good gover-
RELATED LITERATURE nance. Governance is the essential purpose of any organisation. Governance is the
Record management system refers to the assembly of several subsystems based process by which individuals organise themselves, function, exercise authority and
on the databases in the organization. In educational institutions, student records are ensure continuity. In this study, records keeping is a core component of good gover-
essential in monitoring students’ information and performances in the classrooms. nance and records enable programmes and services as well as public access to them.
Kings College in London defined Student Records as a based service that allows Archival records support a variety of functions and help institutions and society
students to manage their personal information, academic and administrative staff exploit the value of individual and collective experience. Student records are par-
to view student information and perform student administration tasks. On March ticularly important records series in any educational institution. Student records
1996, the State of Florida General Records Schedule GS5 for University/community are created for the student once they enroll on the programme of the polytechnic.
College Records posts that a student record, also known as an education record, is The completeness and reliability of the records are critical to the polytechnic sys-
personally identifiable. Personal identifiers that relate a record to a student include tem itself and to the student. The study relied on the case study method which was
student name, student ID/social security number, student address, parent/family qualitative and investigative. Data collected was through interview and observation
member names, and a list of personal characteristic. Student records are maintained and analysed qualitatively. A total of 15 people had been primary users of student
in multiple media including handwriting, print, computer’s main memory, mag- records participated in the study. The records life cycle was used as the theoretical
netic tape, cassette, disk or CD. Student records may be presented by the student, framework. Finding revealed the absence of a records management policy and a
submitted on behalf of the student, or created by the University. These records are weak programme structure for managing records.
used to assist offices in their support of basic institutional objectives and to docu- In 2013, Bharamagoudar created a Student Information Management System (SIMS)
ment student progress and achievement in the educational process of the University. that provided a simple interface for maintenance of student information. It was used
by educational institutes or colleges to maintain the records of students easily. The
Meanwhile, Muhenda & Lwanga (2000) noted that student record is not only used creation and management of accurate, up-to-date information regarding a students’
for storing large database or knowledge base. It can be used for knowing the current academic career was critically important in the university as well as colleges. Student
status of any aspect of the business due to its on-line real time processing capabili- information system dealt with all kind of student details, academic related reports,
ty. Thus, as governance issues take center stage in the management of Educational college details, course details, curriculum, batch details, placement details and other
Institutions, the management of students’ records becomes imperative in the im- resource related details too. It tracked all the details of a student from the day one
provement of services offered in Higher Educational Institutions (HEI’s) in Uganda. to the end of the course which was used for all in reporting purpose; tracking of at-
According to Phelps, et al. (2004), innovations have been made possible for the tendance; progress in the course; completed semesters; years; coming semester year
operations of the computer and easy enough in processing record systems such as, curriculum details; exam details; project or any other assignment details; and final
creation of data record systems, creation of data records storing, filling and retrieval exam results. All these should be available through a secure, online interface em-
of data. bedded in the college’s website. It should also have faculty details, batch execution
In addition, Safazarde & Mansoori (2009) cite that subsystems range from data details, students’ details in all aspects, the various academic notifications to the staff
collection, transaction processing and validating, processing, analysing, and storing and students updated by the college administration. It also facilitated and explored
the information in databases. all the activities that were happening in the college. Different reports and queries
Therefore, the researchers believed that the above literatures added their ideas and were generated based on vast options related to students, batch, course, faculty, ex-
concept in the creation of ACRS NORSU-BCC CAS. ams, semesters, certification, and even for the entire college.
RELATED STUDIES
The related studies cited below introduce the different concepts, ideas, gen- Review of the Related Literature of Study of Agustin
eralizations, and development related to the study of ACRS NORSU-BCC CAS. et. al.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

According to Satorre, et al. (2016), in their study on UC CICS Web Based Class Re-
example continuation cording System, the faculty members in UC- CICS used either the pre-defined class
recording template in Microsoft Excel or the traditional and manual way in class
National record book. These methods were already proven and tested for its effectiveness.
However, problems and discomforts have been experienced during the releasing
Doctor (2017), in her study entitled “Integrated Educational Management Tool for of grades. One of these was that a student had to look for his or her subject teacher
Adamson University,” focused on the development of a web–based integrated aca- to know if he or she passed the subject or not. Students also had to secure their
demic information system that aided Adamson University faculty to become more grades slips signed by their teachers to enrol in those subjects with pre-requisites.
effective and efficient in giving costless examinations, in giving student grades, in Moreover, the proponents had also observed that there were needs for improvement
avoiding redundancy of data and efforts, and in providing accessible and reliable of the current class recording system. These needs included efficiency, security, reli-
information about examinations and grades. The developed system automated the ability and accessibility of class record keeping.
processes of examination and student grading. The idea of developing an Online Class Recording System for University of Cebu –
The researcher followed the phases of software development life cycle aiming to pro- College of Computer Studies (UCCCS) aimed to implement the above-mentioned
duce high quality software output that meets or even exceeds Adamson University needs for improvement of the current system. The system provided a computerized,
faculty and administrations’ expectations in achieving the goal of the study. The de- flexible, and manageable class record. It allowed the students, parents or guardians
veloped system was tested in Adamson University and evaluated using the ISO/IEC to access and view the periodic grades. The system helped the dean in monitoring
9126 software product evaluation criteria by respondents who included IT Experts regularly the students and the teachers of UC-CCS, in terms of class record keeping.
and end-users with a descriptive rating of “excellent” with a mean average of 4.76. Nevertheless, the system had its set of limitations. It did not support a centralized
This proved that the system was a useful tool for managing educational institutions‟ student account management. Updating of class file by the teachers must be done
examination and student grading. within the Local Area Network. The developed system was not linked with the EDP
Integrated Educational Management Tool for Adamson University is a system that office for the class master list. The dean manually added the class master list to the
was successfully constructed using open source technology in developing web sites. network to avoid redundancy. The system did not have the support from the Regis-
The system had been successfully tested for functionality, reliability, usability, effi- trar’s office for electronic processing of grade sheets. Non-numeric remarks like NC,
ciency, and portability of the website with results that revealed that the developed W, and/or 3W were not supported by the system.
application supported the educational institution’s examination and student grading
system for efficiency, reliability, and accessibility. Future studies and integration of C. Local
item analysis, table of specification, and enhancement of sub modules of the system
were recommended as well as making available offline class records and exams with In a study conducted by Reyes, et al. (2018) which was entitled “E-Grading
online auto synchronization of data processes. With the utilization of a new system, System for NORSU BCC CAS Instructors,” they created an e-grading system for the
Adamson University came up with a standard institutional class record, test banking NORSU-BCC CAS Instructors. Results revealed that most of the students Strongly
system, quality examination materials, paperless examination, class record, and test Agreed that the Manual Grading System was time-consuming and inaccurate. Re-
materials so that the faculty could minimize time for preparing examination ma- sults also showed that most of the students Strongly Agreed that manual evaluation
terials and in checking and recording exam results. Time spent for the preparation of grades per semester was slow, time-consuming, and inaccurate. Moreover, results
and revision of examination materials for same subjects could be minimized so that showed that CAS instructors Strongly Agreed that the manual release of grades per
a smooth collaboration among fellow teachers and synchronizing of courses being semester was time-consuming and required more space for storage of students’ re-
taught can be achieved which resulted to less deployment and implementation cost- cords.
ing since the new system was a product of an open source technology. On the other hand, the E-Grade Viewing was fast and it saved time. Automated
evaluation of grades was also fast, not time-consuming, and accurate. Instructors
Review of the Related Literature of Study of Agustin also Strongly Agreed that automated releasing of grades per semester was fast, not
et. al.
time-consuming, and did not need more space for storage. Therefore, the research-
ers concluded that the created system was of great help to the NORSU-BCC College
of Arts and Sciences Instructors and was recommended for use among CAS stu-
dents and instructors.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Big Bucket Theory

example continuation Big Bucket simplifies records retention, thus improving employee compliance and reducing
the risk of mismanaged files. And, in practice, it often does just that. But the big buckets do carry some
considerations of their own. There is the danger of creating categories that are too abroad, which affects
accessibility stored. Also, the documents in a single category are retained for as long as the longest re-
tention schedule in that bucket. This means that some records may be kept far beyond the time they
Theoretical Framework normally would have been destroyed.

Archival Theory
This part of the study below presents the theories which serve as the bases in pre- According to Acland (1992), “A change in the traditionally perceived archival mindset is
senting more valid and reliable concepts from famous advocates: NORSU BCC needed here to manage the records and their continuum, not the relics at the end stage in the record
E-Grading system is anchored on contextual design by Holtzblatt and Beyer 1998 life cycle.” With the spotlight clearly on the record rather than the relic, The equilibrium can be adjusted
and structuration theory by Giddens in 1984. These are used by the researchers for to provide efficient, effective and innovative public record management with an intellectual control not
custody axis, safeguarding and making accessible archival resources for good government, public ac-
a better understanding of the study. countability and future research needs.
Therefore, the researchers decided to use these theories to put weight on the development
of the system. These theories were found to be more helpful in developing the newly-created system for
NORSU-BCC.

Conceptual Framework of the Project / Study

Figure 1. Theoretical Framework of the Study

TFigure 1 above shows the Theoretical Framework of Automated Class Record Sys-
tem for NORSU-BCC CAS. The Theoretical Framework describe the theories and
Figure 2 above presents the Input, Output, and Process (IOP) of the Conceptual Framework of the proj-
introduces it why the research problem still exist and the structure that can hold or ect.
support a theory of a research study. The theoretical Framework of the study is based In the Input Stage, the researchers brainstormed about what to create as a project to be submit-
on the Records Management Theory and Big Bucket Theory. ted for ITS 146 (Capstone Project). Several related literatures and studies, including theories of famous
Record Management Theory advocates, were researched to support the ideas and concepts of the researchers in designing ACRS NOR-
SU-CAS.
In the Process Stage, the Waterfall Model was used applying step by step procedures of the
According to Buckland (1990), “Records management is responsible for research. Firstly, the researchers followed the initial step whish was Planning wherein the researchers
the creation and maintenance of records throughout their lifecycle.” The function planned about the desired project- Automated Class Record System for NORSU-BCC CAS. Secondly,
includes many different but related elements, all with the goal of controlling access the researchers followed the Requirement Analysis wherein the researchers gathered all the data needed
in designing the new system. Next was the System Analysis wherein the researchers analyzed the design
to company or organizational records while maintaining ease of use and security. of the system. Then, after the Analysis, Coding came next wherein the programmer encoded all the codes
Records management can be physical or electronic, and is frequently a combination needed by the system. Then, Testing was done to check whether the system worked properly or not.
of both. Lastly, the researchers followed the final step which was the Implementation wherein the system was
In practice, records management usually includes a records manager. This implemented in NORSU-BCC CAS.
Finally, in the Output Stage, the researchers presented their output which was the Automated Class
is the person responsible for records management within the organizational, but Record System for NORSU-BCC CAS.
that person often has a team of people working together to create and maintain sys-
Review of the Related Literature of Study of Agustin
tem. et. al.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Self Assessment Activity (SAA)

6. Now it is your turn to craft your Review of Related Literature of the Study.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Self Assessment Activity (SAA)

6. Now it is your turn to craft your Review of Related Literature of the Study. (Another Answer
Sheet)

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Self Assessment Activity (SAA)

7. Now it is your turn to craft your Review of Related Project.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Self Assessment Activity (SAA)

7. Now it is your turn to craft your Review of Related Project. (Another Answer Sheet)

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Transferring mode...
Here is the guide how can you write a good Chapter 3.

How to write good Technical Background

Guidelines in Writing the Technical Background:

• Overview of the current technologies (hardware/software/network) used in the current system
• Discussions on the current trends and technologies to be used in developing and
implementing the proposed system
-HARDWARE
-SOFTWARE
-PEOPLEWARE
-NETWORK

See example...
TECHNICAL BACKGROUND
This chapter of the project presents the technical features of Automated Class Record System for NOR-
SU-BCC CAS.

The Automated Class Record System plays a key role in the management system of any school. However,
such systems do not often relate expectations, outcomes, and performance. As each student desires to
achieve a good score for each assignment, exam, project and/or report the whole process adds heavy
workload for teachers in order to make their evaluation fair, comprehensive, and accurate. Automated
Class Record System is a highly desirable addition to the educational tool kit, particularly when it can
provide less effort and more effective and timely outcome.
Technical Background of the study of Agustin et. al.
The newly-created Automated Class Record System for NORSU-BCC CAS was designed to provide in-
centives for achievement and assist in identifying problem areas of a student. It was designed intentional
to NORSU-BCC the most commonly used means of analyzing student achievements. Researchers be-
lieved that CAS instructors students’ grade were as vital information needed in advancing to the next year
level and its accuracy must be given importance.
Instructors felt that time they take in recording and computing for the grades of their students was time
that could be better spent elsewhere, like preparing lessons, researching, or meeting with their students.
With the advent of computer technology, more and more schools were taking advantage of a variety of
grading systems that helped save time on administrative tasks and give teachers more time to attend to
other important functions.
The software specification of newly-created system included: 1) Sublime Text used in encoding the codes
for the system; 2) Google Chrome, this application tested the system if it worked properly or not; 3)
HTML, this software was used to develop mark-up languages of the site and provide the interface of the
system; 4)CSS used to enhance the system by adding style to images, background, text, tables, and other
HTML tags; 5) Bootstrap was used to create responsive designs and minimize the system’s damage when
transferred to another Personal Computer (PC); 6) PHP a software that wrote generated pages dynami-
cally connects to MySQL, and controls the pages of the web; 7) MYSQL served as a local database of the
system; and 8) XAMPP was used as the main connection of the system.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Self Assessment Activity (SAA)

8. Now it is your turn to craft your Technical Background of the Study.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Transferring mode...
Here is the guide how can you write a good Chapter 4.

GANTT Chart
A Gantt chart is a graphical depiction of a project schedule. It’s is a type of bar chart that shows the start
and finish dates of several elements of a project that include resources, milestones, tasks, and dependen-
cies. Henry Gantt, an American mechanical engineer, designed the Gantt chart.

A Gantt chart helps in scheduling, managing, and monitoring specific tasks and resources in a project.

The chart is the most widely used chart in project management.

Gantt charts are utilized in several industries and for a range of projects, such as building dams, bridges
and highways, software development, and development of other goods and services.

See example...

GANTT Chart of the study of Agustin et. al.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Self Assessment Activity (SAA)

9. Now it is your turn to draw the GANTT of your Project.

If you print this module kind-

ly use the next page for this
activity, if its not draw to any
paper available in your home. Place your drawing inside the yellow area.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Functional Decomposition Diagram

Functional decomposition corresponds to the various functional relationships as how the original com-
plex business function was developed. It mainly focusses on how the overall functionality is developed
and its interaction between various components.

Large or complex functionalities are more easily understood when broken down into pieces using func-
tional decomposition.

Functional decomposition is mostly used during the project analysis phase in order to produce functional
decomposition diagrams as part of the functional requirements document.

Functional Decomposition is done after meeting with business analysts and subject matter expertise.
Decompose the first level components with their functions and continue to decompose to lower levels
until sufficient level of detail is achieved

Perform an end-to-end walk-through of the business operation and check each function to confirm that
it is correct.

See example...

Functional Decomposition Diagram of the study of

Agustin et. al.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Self Assessment Activity (SAA)

10. Now it is your turn to draw the Functional Decomposition Diagram of your Project.

If you print this module kind-

ly use the next page for this
activity, if its not draw to any
paper available in your home. Place your drawing inside the yellow area.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Functional Decomposition Diagram

What is a use case diagram?

In the Unified Modeling Language (UML), a use case diagram can summarize the details of your
system’s users (also known as actors) and their interactions with the system. To build one, you’ll
use a set of specialized symbols and connectors. An effective use case diagram can help your team
discuss and represent:
-Scenarios in which your system or application interacts with people, organizations, or
external systems
-Goals that your system or application helps those entities (known as actors) achieve
-The scope of your system
When to apply use case diagrams
A use case diagram doesn’t go into a lot of detail—for example, don’t expect it to model the order
in which steps are performed. Instead, a proper use case diagram depicts a high-level overview of
the relationship between use cases, actors, and systems. Experts recommend that use case dia-
grams be used to supplement a more descriptive textual use case.

UML is the modeling toolkit that you can use to build your diagrams. Use cases are represented
with a labeled oval shape. Stick figures represent actors in the process, and the actor’s participation
in the system is modeled with a line between the actor and use case. To depict the system bound-
ary, draw a box around the use case itself.
UML use case diagrams are ideal for:
Representing the goals of system-user interactions

Defining and organizing functional requirements in a system

Specifying the context and requirements of a system

Modeling the basic flow of events in a use case

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Use case diagram components

To answer the question, “What is a use case diagram?” you need to first understand its building
blocks. Common components include:
-Actors: The users that interact with a system. An actor can be a person, an organization,
or an outside system that interacts with your application or system. They must be
external objects that produce or consume data.
-System: A specific sequence of actions and interactions between actors and the system. A
system may also be referred to as a scenario.
-Goals: The end result of most use cases. A successful diagram should describe the activi
ties and variants used to reach the goal.
Use case diagram components
The notation for a use case diagram is pretty straightforward and doesn’t involve as many types of
symbols as other UML diagrams.
-Use cases: Horizontally shaped ovals that represent the different uses that a user
might have.
-Actors: Stick figures that represent the people actually employing the use cases.
-Associations: A line between actors and use cases. In complex diagrams, it is import
ant to know which actors are associated with which use cases.
-System boundary boxes: A box that sets a system scope to use cases. All use cases out
side the box would be considered outside the scope of that system. For example,
Psycho Killer is outside the scope of occupations in the chainsaw example found
below.
-Packages: A UML shape that allows you to put different elements into groups. Just as
with component diagrams, these groupings are represented as file folders.
See example...

This use case diagram is a visual repre-

sentation of the process required to write Railway reservation use
and publish a book. Whether you’re an au- case diagram example
thor, an agent, or a bookseller, inserting
this diagram into your use case scenario
can help your team publish the next big hit.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Self Assessment Activity (SAA)

11. Now it is your turn to draw the Use Case Diagram of your Project.

If you print this module kind-

ly use the next page for this
activity, if its not draw to any
paper available in your home. Place your drawing inside the yellow area.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Sequence Diagram
Sequence diagrams are a popular dynamic modeling solution in UML because they specifically fo-
cus on lifelines, or the processes and objects that live simultaneously, and the messages exchanged
between them to perform a function before the lifeline ends.
What is a sequence diagram in UML?
To understand what a sequence diagram is, it’s important to know the role of the Unified Modeling
Language, better known as UML. UML is a modeling toolkit that guides the creation and nota-
tion of many types of diagrams, including behavior diagrams, interaction diagrams, and structure
diagrams.

A sequence diagram is a type of interaction diagram because it describes how—and in what

order—a group of objects works together. These diagrams are used by software developers and
business professionals to understand requirements for a new system or to document an existing
process. Sequence diagrams are sometimes known as event diagrams or event scenarios.

Note that there are two types of sequence diagrams: UML diagrams and code-based diagrams. The
latter is sourced from programming code and will not be covered in this guide.
Benefits of sequence diagrams
Sequence diagrams can be useful references for businesses and other organizations. Try drawing a
sequence diagram to:
-Represent the details of a UML use case.
-Model the logic of a sophisticated procedure, function, or operation.
-See how objects and components interact with each other to complete a process.
-Plan and understand the detailed functionality of an existing or future scenario
Use cases for sequence diagrams
The following scenarios are ideal for using a sequence diagram:
-Usage scenario: A usage scenario is a diagram of how your system could potentially be
used. It’s a great way to make sure that you have worked through the logic of every
usage scenario for the system.
-Method logic: Just as you might use a UML sequence diagram to explore the logic of a use
case, you can use it to explore the logic of any function, procedure, or complex
process.
-Service logic: If you consider a service to be a high-level method used by different clients,
a sequence diagram is an ideal way to map that out.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Basic symbols and components

-To understand what a sequence diagram is, you should be familiar with its symbols
and components. Sequence diagrams are made up of the following icons and elements:
Represents a class or object in UML. The object symbol demonstrates how an object will behave in the
Object symbol context of the system. Class attributes should not be listed in this shape

Represents the time needed for an object to complete a task. The longer the task will take, the longer the
Activation box activation box becomes.

Actor symbol Shows entities that interact with or are external to the system.

Used in UML 2.0 notation to contain interactive elements of the diagram. Also known as a frame, this
Package symbol rectangular shape has a small inner rectangle for labeling the diagram.
Represents the passage of time as it extends downward. This dashed vertical line shows the sequential
Lifeline symbol events that occur to an object during the charted process. Lifelines may begin with a labeled rectangle
shape or an actor symbol.

Option loop symbol Used to model if/then scenarios, i.e., a circumstance that will only occur under certain conditions.

Symbolizes a choice (that is usually mutually exclusive) between two or more message sequences. To
Alternative symbol represent alternatives, use the labeled rectangle shape with a dashed line inside.

Common message symbols

-Use the following arrows and message symbols to show how information is transmitted
between objects. These symbols may reflect the start and execution of an operation
or the sending and reception of a signal.
Represented by a solid line with a solid arrowhead. This symbol is used when a sender must wait for a
Synchronous message response to a message before it continues. The diagram should show both the call and the reply.

Represented by a solid line with a lined arrowhead. Asynchronous messages don’t require a response
Asynchronous message before the sender continues. Only the call should be included in the diagram.

Asynchronous return message Represented by a dashed line with a lined arrowhead

Asynchronous create message Represented by a dashed line with a lined arrowhead. This message creates a new object.

Reply message symbol Represented by a dashed line with a lined arrowhead, these messages are replies to calls.

Delete message symbol Represented by a solid line with a solid arrowhead, followed by an X. This message destroys an object.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

See example...
Sequence diagram of a hospital management system
Technology has completely transformed the field of medicine, as it has with most industries. A hospi-
tal information system, also known as a hospital information system, helps doctors, administrators,
and hospital staff managing all of the activities and information collected at a hospital, including check-
ups, prescriptions, appointments, and information on the patients and their caretakers. The diagram below
provides a simple view of how the primary processes operate with each other over time. You can use Lu-
cidchart to reshape the diagram any way you choose and to share it with your colleagues or collaborators.

Sequence diagram for ATM systems

An ATM allows patrons to access their bank accounts through a completely automated process. You
can examine the steps of this process in a manageable way by drawing or viewing a sequence di-
agram. The example below outlines the sequential order of the interactions in the ATM system.
Just click to edit the template, and customize the sequence diagram so it suits your own needs.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Self Assessment Activity (SAA)

12. Now it is your turn to draw the Sequence Diagram of your Project.

If you print this module kind-

ly use the next page for this
activity, if its not draw to any
paper available in your home. Place your drawing inside the yellow area.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

State Diagram

A state diagram, sometimes known as a state machine diagram, is a type of behavioral diagram in
the Unified Modeling Language (UML) that shows transitions between various objects.
What is a state diagram in UML?
A state machine is any device that stores the status of an object at a given time and can change sta-
tus or cause other actions based on the input it receives. States refer to the different combinations
of information that an object can hold, not how the object behaves. In order to understand the
different states of an object, you might want to visualize all of the possible states and show how an
object gets to each state, and you can do so with a UML state diagram.

Each state diagram typically begins with a dark circle that indicates the initial state and ends with a
bordered circle that denotes the final state. However, despite having clear start and end points, state
diagrams are not necessarily the best tool for capturing an overall progression of events. Rather,
they illustrate specific kinds of behavior—in particular, shifts from one state to another.

State diagrams mainly depict states and transitions. States are represented with rectangles with
rounded corners that are labeled with the name of the state. Transitions are marked with arrows
that flow from one state to another, showing how the states change. Below, you can see both these
elements at work in a basic diagram for student life.
State diagram applications
Like most UML diagrams, state diagrams have several uses. The main applications are as follows:
-Depicting event-driven objects in a reactive system.
-Illustrating use case scenarios in a business context.
-Describing how an object moves through various states within its lifetime.
-Showing the overall behavior of a state machine or the behavior of a related set of
state machines.
State diagram symbols and components
-You can include many different shapes in a state diagram, particularly if you choose
to combine it with another diagram. This list summarizes the most common shapes you
may encounter.
* Composite state
A state that has substates nested into it. See the university state diagram example below. “Enrollment” is the composite state in
this example because it encompasses various substates in the enrollment process.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Choice pseudostate
A diamond symbol that indicates a dynamic condition with branched potential results.

Event
An instance that triggers a transition, labeled above the applicable transition arrow. In this case, “classes
Wend” is the event that triggers the end of the “Being taught” state and the beginning of the “Final

Exit point
The point at which an object escapes the composite state or state machine, denoted by a circle with an X
through it. The exit point is typically used if the process is not completed but has to be escaped for some
error or other issue.exams” state.

First state
marker for the first state in the process, shown by a dark circle with a transition arrow. or other
issue.exams” state.

Guard
A Boolean condition that allows or stops a transition, written above the transition arrow.

State
A rectangle with rounded corners that indicates the current nature of an object

Substate
A state contained within a composite state’s region. In the university state machine diagram found in the
previous page “Open for enrollment” is a substate in the larger “Enrollment” composite state.

Terminator
A circle with a dot in it that indicates that a process is terminated.

Transition
An arrow running from one state to another that indicates a changing state.

Transitional behavior
A behavior that results when a state transitions, written above the transition arrow.

Trigger
A type of message that actively moves an object from state to state, written above the transition arrow.
In this example, “Issue with reservation” is the trigger that would send the person to the airport travel
agency instead of the next step in the process

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

See example...
Calendar availability state diagram example
This state machine diagram example shows the process by which a person sets an appointment on
their calendar. In the “Check date” composite state, the system checks the calendar for availabili-
ty in a few different substates. If the time is not available on the calendar, the process will be es-
caped. If the calendar shows availability, however, the appointment will be added to the calendar

Airport check-in state diagram example

The following example simplifies the steps required to check in at an airport. For air-
lines, a state diagram can help to streamline processes and eliminate unnecessary steps

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Self Assessment Activity (SAA)

13. Now it is your turn to draw the State Diagram of your Project.

If you print this module kind-

ly use the next page for this
activity, if its not draw to any
paper available in your home. Place your drawing inside the yellow area.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Data Flow Diagram

What is a state diagram in UML?
A data flow diagram (DFD) maps out the flow of information for any process or system. It uses
defined symbols like rectangles, circles and arrows, plus short text labels, to show data inputs,
outputs, storage points and the routes between each destination. Data flowcharts can range from
simple, even hand-drawn process overviews, to in-depth, multi-level DFDs that dig progressively
deeper into how the data is handled. They can be used to analyze an existing system or model a
new one. Like all the best diagrams and charts, a DFD can often visually “say” things that would
be hard to explain in words, and they work for both technical and nontechnical audiences, from
developer to CEO. That’s why DFDs remain so popular after all these years. While they work well
for data flow software and systems, they are less applicable nowadays to visualizing interactive,
real-time or database-oriented software or systems

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

History of the DFD

Data flow diagrams were popularized in the late 1970s, arising from the book Structured Design,
by computing pioneers Ed Yourdon and Larry Constantine. They based it on the “data flow graph”
computation models by David Martin and Gerald Estrin. The structured design concept took off
in the software engineering field, and the DFD method took off with it. It became more popular in
business circles, as it was applied to business analysis, than in academic circles.

Also contributing were two related concepts:

-Object Oriented Analysis and Design (OOAD), put forth by Yourdon and Peter
Coad to analyze and design an application or system.
-Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method (SSADM), a waterfall method to
analyze and design information systems. This rigorous documentation approach
contrasts with modern agile approaches such as Scrum and Dynamic Systems
Development Method (DSDM.)
Three other experts contributing to this rise in DFD methodology were Tom DeMarco, Chris Gane
and Trish Sarson. They teamed up in different combinations to be the main definers of the symbols
and notations used for a data flow diagram.
History of the DFD
Data flow diagrams were popularized in the late 1970s, arising from the book Structured Design,
by computing pioneers Ed Yourdon and Larry Constantine. They based it on the “data flow graph”
computation models by David Martin and Gerald Estrin. The structured design concept took off
in the software engineering field, and the DFD method took off with it. It became more popular in
business circles, as it was applied to business analysis, than in academic circles.
Also contributing were two related concepts:
-Object Oriented Analysis and Design (OOAD), put forth by Yourdon and Peter Coad
to analyze and design an application or system.
-Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method (SSADM), a waterfall method to
analyze and design information systems. This rigorous documentation approach
contrasts with modern agile approaches such as Scrum and Dynamic Systems
Development Method (DSDM.)
Three other experts contributing to this rise in DFD methodology were Tom DeMarco, Chris Gane
and Trish Sarson. They teamed up in different combinations to be the main definers of the symbols
and notations used for a data flow diagram.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Symbols and Notations Used in DFDs

Two common systems of symbols are named after their creators:
-Yourdon and Coad
-Yourdon and DeMarco
-Gane and Sarson
One main difference in their symbols is that Yourdon-Coad and Yourdon-DeMarco use circles for
processes, while Gane and Sarson use rectangles with rounded corners, sometimes called lozeng-
es. There are other symbol variations in use as well, so the important thing to keep in mind is to
be clear and consistent in the shapes and notations you use to communicate and collaborate with
others
Using any convention’s DFD rules or guidelines, the symbols depict the four components of data
flow diagrams.
-External entity: an outside system that sends or receives data, communicating with
Notation Yourdon and Coad Gane and Sarson the system being diagrammed. They are the sources and destinations of information
entering or leaving the system. They might be an outside organization or person,
a computer system or a business system. They are also known as
External Entity
terminators, sources and sinks or actors. They are typically drawn on the edges of
the diagram.
Process -Process: any process that changes the data, producing an output. It might perform
computations, or sort data based on logic, or direct the data flow based on business
rules. A short label is used to describe the process, such as “Submit payment.”
Data Store
-Data store: files or repositories that hold information for later use, such as a database
table or a membership form. Each data store receives a simple label, such as “Orders.”
Data Flow -Data flow: the route that data takes between the external entities, processes and data
stores. It portrays the interface between the other components and is shown with arrows,
typically labeled with a short data name, like “Billing details.”
DFD rules and tips
-Each process should have at least one input and an output.
-Each data store should have at least one data flow in and one data flow out.
-Data stored in a system must go through a process.
-All processes in a DFD go to another process or a data store.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Self Assessment Activity (SAA)

14. Now it is your turn to draw the State Diagram of your Project. (You can use either Yourdon and Coad or
Gane and Sarson Symbols and Notations)

If you print this module kind-

ly use the next page for this
activity, if its not draw to any
paper available in your home. Place your drawing inside the yellow area.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Activity Diagram
Start symbol
What is an activity diagram?
R epresents the beginning of a process or workflow in an activity di-
agram. It can be used by itself or with a note symbol that explains
the starting point.
The Unified Modeling Language includes several subsets of diagrams, including structure dia-
grams, interaction diagrams, and behavior diagrams. Activity diagrams, along with use case and
Activity symbol state machine diagrams, are considered behavior diagrams because they describe what must hap-
I ndicates the activities that make up a modeled process. These sym-
bols, which include short descriptions within the shape, are the main
building blocks of an activity diagram.
pen in the system being modeled

Stakeholders have many issues to manage, so it’s important to communicate with clarity and brev-
Connector symbol
ity. Activity diagrams help people on the business and development sides of an organization come
S hows the directional flow, or control flow, of the activity. An incom-
ing arrow starts a step of an activity; once the step is completed, the
flow continues with the outgoing arrow
together to understand the same process and behavior. You’ll use a set of specialized symbols—in-
cluding those used for starting, ending, merging, or receiving steps in the flow—to make an activi-
Joint symbol/ Synchronization bar
ty diagram, which we’ll cover in more depth within this activity diagram guide.
C ombines two concurrent activities and re-introduces them to a
flow where only one activity occurs at a time. Represented with a
thick vertical or horizontal line.
Benefits of activity diagrams
Activity diagrams present a number of benefits to users. Consider creating an activity diagram to:
-Demonstrate the logic of an algorithm.
Fork symbol
-Describe the steps performed in a UML use case.
S plits a single activity flow into two concurrent activities. Symbol-
ized with multiple arrowed lines from a join.
-Illustrate a business process or workflow between users and the system.
-Simplify and improve any process by clarifying complicated use cases.
Decision symbol
-Model software architecture elements, such as method, function, and operation.
R epresents a decision and always has at least two paths branching
out with condition text to allow users to view options. This symbol
represents the branching or merging of various flows with the symbol
Basic components of an activity diagram
acting as a frame or container. Activity diagrams present a number of benefits to users. Consider creating an activity diagram to:
-Action: A step in the activity wherein the users or software perform a given task.
Note symbol -Decision node: A conditional branch in the flow that is represented by a diamond.
A llows the diagram creators or collaborators to communicate addi-
tional messages that don’t fit within the diagram itself. Leave notes
for added clarity and specification.
It includes a single input and two or more outputs.
-Control flows: Another name for the connectors that show the flow between steps in
the diagram.
Send signal symbol
-Start node: Symbolizes the beginning of the activity. The start node is represented by a
I ndicates that a signal is being sent to a receiving activity.

black circle.
-End node: Represents the final step in the activity. The end node is represented by an
Receive signal symbol outlined black circle.
D emonstrates the acceptance of an event. After the event is re-
ceived, the flow that comes from this action is completed. Activity diagram symbols
These activity diagram shapes and symbols are some of the most common types you’ll find in
UML diagrams.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

What is an activity diagram?

Shallow history pseudo- Activity diagrams map out process flows in a way that’s easy to understand. Consider the two ex-
R epresents a transition that invokes the last active state.
amples below when it comes to creating UML activity diagrams.

Option loop symbol

A llows the creator to model a repetitive sequence within the option
loop symbol.

Flow final symbol

R epresents the end of a specific process flow. This symbol shouldn’t
represent the end of all flows in an activity; in that instance, you
would use the end symbol. The flow final symbol should be placed at
Activity diagram for a login page
the end of a process in a single activity flow.
Many of the activities people want to accomplish online—check-
ing email, managing finances, ordering clothes, etc.—require
them to log into a website. This activity diagram shows the pro-
Condition text cess of logging into a website, from entering a username and
P laced next to a decision marker to let you know under what condi-
tion an activity flow should split off in that direction.
password to successfully logging in to the system. It uses dif-
ferent container shapes for activities, decisions, and notes.

End symbol
M arks the end state of an activity and represents the completion of
all flows of a process.

Activity diagram for a banking system

This diagram shows the process of either withdrawing mon-
ey from or depositing money into a bank account. An ad-
vantage of representing the workflow visually in UML is
the ability to show withdrawals and deposits on one chart.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Self Assessment Activity (SAA)

15. Now it is your turn to draw the Activity Diagram of your Project.

If you print this module kind-

ly use the next page for this
activity, if its not draw to any
paper available in your home. Place your drawing inside the yellow area.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Class Diagram
What is a state diagram in UML?
The Unified Modeling Language (UML) can help you model systems in various ways. One of the
more popular types in UML is the class diagram. Popular among software engineers to document
software architecture, class diagrams are a type of structure diagram because they describe what
must be present in the system being modeled.

UML was set up as a standardized model to describe an object-oriented programming approach.

Since classes are the building block of objects, class diagrams are the building blocks of UML. The
various components in a class diagram can represent the classes that will actually be programmed,
the main objects, or the interactions between classes and objects.

The class shape itself consists of a rectangle with three rows. The top row contains the name of
the class, the middle row contains the attributes of the class, and the bottom section expresses the
methods or operations that the class may use. Classes and subclasses are grouped together to show
the static relationship between each object.
Benefits of class diagrams
Class diagrams offer a number of benefits for any organization. Use UML class diagrams to:
-Illustrate data models for information systems, no matter how simple or complex.
-Better understand the general overview of the schematics of an application.
-Visually express any specific needs of a system and disseminate that information
throughout the business.
-Create detailed charts that highlight any specific code needed to be programmed
and implemented to the described structure.
-Provide an implementation-independent description of types used in a system that
are later passed between its components.
Basic components of a class diagram
The standard class diagram is composed of three sections:
-Upper section: Contains the name of the class. This section is always required,
whether you are talking about the classifier or an object.
-Middle section: Contains the attributes of the class. Use this section to describe the
qualities of the class. This is only required when describing a specific instance of a class.
-Bottom section: Includes class operations (methods). Displayed in list format, each
operation takes up its own line. The operations describe how a class interacts with data.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Member access modifiers

-All classes have different access levels depending on the access modifier (visibility).
Here are the access levels with their corresponding symbols:
*Public (+)
*Private (-)
*Protected (#)
*Package (~)
*Derived (/)
*Static (underlined)

Additional class diagram components

-Depending on the context, classes in a class diagram can represent the main objects,
interactions in the application, or classes to be programmed. To answer the question
“What is a class diagram in UML?” you should first understand its basic makeup.
*Classes: A template for creating objects and implementing behavior in a system. In UML, a class
represents an object or a set of objects that share a common structure and behavior.
They’re represented by a rectangle that includes rows of the class name, its attributes, and its
operations. When you draw a class in a class diagram, you’re only required to fill out the top row—the
others are optional if you’d like to provide more detail.
**Name: The first row in a class shape.
**Attributes: The second row in a class shape. Each attribute of the class is
displayed on a separate line.
**Methods: The third row in a class shape. Also known as operations, methods are
displayed in list format with each operation on its own line.
*Signals: Symbols that represent one-way, asynchronous communications between active objects.
*Data types: Classifiers that define data values. Data types can model both primitive types and
enumerations.
*Packages: Shapes designed to organize related classifiers in a diagram. They are symbolized
with a large tabbed rectangle shape.
*Interfaces: A collection of operation signatures and/or attribute definitions that define a cohesive
set of behaviors. Interfaces are similar to classes, except that a class can have an instance of its
type, and an interface must have at least one class to implement it.
*Enumerations: Representations of user-defined data types. An enumeration includes groups of i
dentifiers that represent values of the enumeration.
*Objects: Instances of a class or classes. Objects can be added to a class diagram to represent
either concrete or prototypical instances.
*Artifacts: Model elements that represent the concrete entities in a software system, such as
documents, databases, executable files, software components, etc.

-Interactions
The term “interactions” refers to the various relationships and links that can exist in class and object
diagrams. Some of the most common interactions include:

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

*Inheritance: The process of a child or sub-class taking on the functionality of a parent or

superclass, also known as generalization. It’s symbolized with a straight connected
In this example, the object
“Car” line with a closed arrowhead pointing towards the superclass.
would inherit all of the attributes
(speed, numbers of passengers,
fuel) and methods (go(), stop(),
changeDirection()) of the parent
to
class (“Vehicle”) in addition
the specific attributes (model
type, number of doors, auto mak-
er) and methods of its own class
(Radio(), windshieldWiper(), ac/
heat()). Inheritance is shown in
a class diagram by using a solid
line with a closed, hollow arrow.

*Biirectional association: The default relationship between two classes. Both classes are aware
of each other and their relationship with the other. This association is represented by
a straight line between two classes.

In the example above, the Car class and RoadTrip class are interrelated. At one end of the line, the Car takes on the association of “assignedCar” with the multiplicity value of 0..1, so when the instance of RoadTrip ex-
ists, it can either have one instance of Car associated with it or no Cars associated with it. In this case, a separate Caravan class with a multiplicity value of 0..* is needed to demonstrate that a RoadTrip could have mul-
tiple instances of Cars associated with it. Since one Car instance could have multiple “getRoadTrip” associations—in other words, one car could go on multiple road trips—the multiplicity value is set to 0..*

*Unidirectional association: A slightly less common relationship between two classes. One
class is aware of the other and interacts with it. Unidirectional association is modeled
with a straight connecting line that points an open arrowhead from the
knowing class to the known class.

IAs an example, on your road trip through Arizona, you might run across a speed trap
where a speed cam records your driving activity, but you won’t know about it un-
til you get a notification in the mail. It isn’t drawn in the image, but in this case, the multi-
plicity value would be 0..* depending on how many times you drive by the speed cam..

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

See example...
Class diagram for a hotel management system
A class diagram can show the relationships between each object in a hotel manage-
ment system, including guest information, staff responsibilities, and room occupan-
cy. The example below provides a useful overview of the hotel management system.

Class diagram for an ATM system

ATMs are deceptively simple: although customers only need to press a few buttons
to receive cash, there are many layers of security that a safe and effective ATM
must pass through to prevent fraud and provide value for banking customers. The
various human and inanimate parts of an ATM system are illustrated by this easy-
to-read diagram—every class has its title, and the attributes are listed beneath

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Self Assessment Activity (SAA)

16. Now it is your turn to draw the Class Diagram of your Project.

If you print this module kind-

ly use the next page for this
activity, if its not draw to any
paper available in your home. Place your drawing inside the yellow area.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Component Diagram
What is a UML component diagram?
The purpose of a component diagram is to show the relationship between different components in
a system. For the purpose of UML 2.0, the term “component” refers to a module of classes that rep-
resent independent systems or subsystems with the ability to interface with the rest of the system.

There exists a whole development approach that revolves around components: component-based
development (CBD). In this approach, component diagrams allow the planner to identify the dif-
ferent components so the whole system does what it’s supposed to do.

More commonly, in an OO programming approach, the component diagram allows a senior de-
veloper to group classes together based on common purpose so that the developer and others can
look at a software development project at a high level.

Benefits of component diagrams

Though component diagrams may seem complex at first glance, they are invaluable when it comes
to building your system. Component diagrams can help your team:
-Imagine the system’s physical structure.
-Pay attention to the system’s components and how they relate.
-Emphasize the service behavior as it relates to the interface.
How to use component diagrams
A component diagram in UML gives a bird’s-eye view of your software system. Understanding the
exact service behavior that each piece of your software provides will make you a better developer.
Component diagrams can describe software systems that are implemented in any programming
language or style.

UML is a set of conventions for object-oriented diagrams that has a wide variety of applications. In
component diagrams, the Unified Modeling Language dictates that components and packages are
wired together with lines representing assembly connectors and delegation connectors

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Component diagram shapes and symbols

-Component diagrams range from simple and high level to detailed and complex.
Either way, you’ll want to familiarize yourself with the appropriate UML symbols.
Component symbol
The following are shape types that you will commonly encounter when reading and
building component diagrams:
A n entity required to execute a stereotype function. A component
provides and consumes behavior through interfaces, as well as
through other components. Think of components as a type of class.
In UML 1.0, a component is modeled as a rectangular block with two How to use component shapes and symbols
smaller rectangles protruding from the side. In UML 2.0, a component
is modeled as a rectangular block with a small image of the old com-
ponent diagram shape.w

Node symbol
There are three popular ways to create a component’s name compartment. You
R epresents hardware or software objects, which are of a higher level
than components.
always need to include the component text inside the double angle brackets
and/or the component logo. The distinction is important because a rectangle
Interface symbol
with just a name inside of it is reserved for classifiers (class elements).
R epresents hardware or software objects, which are of a higher level
than components. As with the class notation, components also have an optional space to list interfaces, similar to the way
you add attributes and methods to class notation. Interfaces represent the places where the groups of
classes in the component communicate with other system components. An alternative way to repre-
Port symbol
sent interfaces is by extending symbols from the component box. Here is a quick rundown of the most
S pecifies a separate interaction point between the component and
the environment. Ports are symbolized with a small square.
commonly used symbols.
Provided interfaces: A straight line from the component box with an attached
Package symbol circle. These symbols represent the interfaces where a component produces
J ust as file folders group together multiple sheets, packages can be
drawn around several components. information used by the required interface of another component.

Required interfaces: A straight line from the component box with an attached
Note symbol half circle (also represented as a dashed arrow with an open arrow). These
A llows developers to affix a meta-analysis to the component
diagram. symbols represent the interfaces where a component requires information in
order to perform its proper function.

Dependency symbol In UML, a component diagram visually represents how the components of a software system relate to
S hows that one part of your system depends on another. Dependen-
cies are represented by dashed lines linking one component (or
one another.
element) to another. -The scope of your system
-The overall structure of your software system
-Goals that the system helps human or non-human entities (known as actors) achieve
UML component diagrams bring simplicity to even the most complex processes. Take a look at the
examples below to see how you can map the behaviors of specific processes with component diagrams
in UML.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

See example...
Component diagram for a library management system
Library systems were some of the first systems in the world to become wide-
ly run by computers. Today, many of these systems are managed in the cloud
by third-party services, rather than internally. Though the term “library sys-
tem” typically calls to mind a way to monitor printed books, library sys-
tems today organize all kinds of data checked in and checked out by users.

These transactions create a network of relationships between the com-

ponents of the library system. To understand how these relation-
ships work and how the system functions overall, examine the UML dia-
gram below. You or your team can also use this diagram as a template.

Component diagram for an ATM system

A component diagram is similar to a class diagram in that it illustrates
how items in a given system relate to each other, but component diagrams
show more complex and varied connections that most class diagrams can.

In the diagram below, each component is enclosed in a small box. The dot-
ted lines with arrows show how some components are dependent on oth-
ers. For example, the card reader, web page, client desktop, and ATM sys-
tem are all dependent on the bank database. The dotted lines with circles
at the end, known as “lollipop” symbols, indicate a realization relationship

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Self Assessment Activity (SAA)

17. Now it is your turn to draw the Component Diagram of your Project.

If you print this module kind-

ly use the next page for this
activity, if its not draw to any
paper available in your home. Place your drawing inside the yellow area.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Deployment Diagram
What is a deployment diagram?
In the context of the Unified Modeling Language (UML), a deployment diagram falls under the
structural diagramming family because it describes an aspect of the system itself. In this case, the
deployment diagram describes the physical deployment of information generated by the software
program on hardware components. The information that the software generates is called an arti-
fact. This shouldn’t be confused with the use of the term in other modeling approaches like BPMN.

Deployment diagrams are made up of several UML shapes. The three-dimensional boxes, known
as nodes, represent the basic software or hardware elements, or nodes, in the system. Lines from
node to node indicate relationships, and the smaller shapes contained within the boxes represent
the software artifacts that are deployed.
Deployment diagram applications
Deployment diagrams have several valuable applications. You can use them to:
-Show which software elements are deployed by which hardware elements.
-Illustrate the runtime processing for hardware.
-Provide a view of the hardware system’s topology.
Deployment diagram guidelines
Before you begin diagramming, ask yourself these questions:
-Have you identified the scope of your system? For example, you should know
whether you are diagramming a single application or the deployment to a whole
network of computers.
-What are the limitations of your physical hardware? What legacy systems will you
need to interact with? Make sure that you know the operating software and protocols
you will be working with and what monitoring you will be putting into place.
-Which distribution architecture are you using? You should know how many tiers
your application will have and what application you will deploy to.
-Do you have all the nodes you need? Do you know how they are all connected?
-Do you know which components are going to be on which nodes?
Deployment diagram elements
A variety of shapes make up deployment diagrams. This list offers an overview of the basic ele-
ments you may encounter, and you can see most of these items illustrated in the image below.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

What is a deployment diagram?

Use these shapes as you build UML deployment diagrams.
-Nodes
There are two types of nodes in a deployment diagram: device nodes and execution envi-
ronment nodes. Device nodes are computing resources with processing capabilities and
the ability to execute programs. Some examples of device nodes include PCs, laptops, and
mobile phones.

An execution environment node, or EEN, is any computer system that resides within a
device node. It could be an operating system, a JVM, or another servlet container.
-Database
Databases represent any data stored by the deployed system. In some instances, you’ll see
a database represented as just another node, but sometimes you will see this shape as a
database.

See example...

Deployment diagram example

There is a web server, a database server, and the machine where the user
views the website. You can add more complexity by showing the different
parts of the web server and the way Javascript works on the UserClient, but
this example gives you an idea of how a deployment looks in UML notation

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Self Assessment Activity (SAA)

18. Now it is your turn to draw the Deployment Diagram of your Project.

If you print this module kind-

ly use the next page for this
activity, if its not draw to any
paper available in your home. Place your drawing inside the yellow area.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD)

What is an ER diagram?
An Entity Relationship (ER) Diagram is a type of flowchart that illustrates how “en-
tities” such as people, objects or concepts relate to each other within a system. ER
Diagrams are most often used to design or debug relational databases in the fields
of software engineering, business information systems, education and research.
Also known as ERDs or ER Models, they use a defined set of symbols such as rect-
angles, diamonds, ovals and connecting lines to depict the interconnectedness of
entities, relationships and their attributes. They mirror grammatical structure, with
entities as nouns and relationships as verbs.

ER diagrams are related to data structure diagrams (DSDs), which focus on the
relationships of elements within entities instead of relationships between entities
themselves. ER diagrams also are often used in conjunction with data flow dia-
grams (DFDs), which map out the flow of information for processes or systems.

History of ER models
Peter Chen (a.k.a. Peter Pin-Shan Chen), currently a faculty member at Carnegie-Mellon University in Pitts-
burgh, is credited with developing ER modeling for database design in the 1970s. While serving as an assistant
professor at MIT’s Sloan School of Management, he published a seminal paper in 1976 titled “The Entity-Rela-
tionship Model: Toward a Unified View of Data.”

In a broader sense, the depiction of the interconnectedness of things dates back to least ancient Greece, with the
works of Aristotle, Socrates and Plato. It’s seen more recently in the 19th and 20th Century works of philoso-
pher-logicians like Charles Sanders Peirce and Gottlob Frege.
John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

By the 1960s and 1970s, Charles Bachman (above) and A.P.G. Brown were working with close predecessors
of Chen’s approach. Bachman developed a type of Data Structure Diagram, named after him as the Bachman
Diagram. Brown published works on real-world systems modeling. James Martin added ERD refinements. The
work of Chen, Bachman, Brown, Martin and others also contributed to the development of Unified Modeling
Language (UML), widely used in software design.
Uses of entity relationship diagrams
Database design: ER diagrams are used to model and design relational databases, in terms of logic and business
rules (in a logical data model) and in terms of the specific technology to be implemented (in a physical data
model.) In software engineering, an ER diagram is often an initial step in determining requirements for an infor-
mation systems project. It’s also later used to model a particular database or databases. A relational database has
an equivalent relational table and can potentially be expressed that way as needed.
Business information systems: The diagrams are used to design or analyze relational databases used in business
processes. Any business process that uses fielded data involving entities, actions and interplay can potentially
benefit from a relational database. It can streamline processes, uncover information more easily and improve
results.
Business process re-engineering (BPR): ER diagrams help in analyzing databases used in business process
re-engineering and in modeling a new database setup.
Education: Databases are today’s method of storing relational information for educational purposes and later
retrieval, so ER Diagrams can be valuable in planning those data structures.
Research: Since so much research focuses on structured data, ER diagrams can play a key role in setting up use-
ful databases to analyze the data.
The components and features of an ER diagram
ER Diagrams are composed of entities, relationships and attributes. They also depict cardinality, which defines
relationships in terms of numbers. Here’s a glossary:.
-Entity
A definable thing—such as a person, object, concept or event—that can have data stored
about it. Think of entities as nouns. Examples: a customer, student, car or product.
Typically shown as a rectangle
Entity type: A group of definable things, such as students or athletes, whereas the entity would be the specific
student or athlete. Other examples: customers, cars or products.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Entity set: Same as an entity type, but defined at a particular point in time, such as students enrolled in a class
on the first day. Other examples: Customers who purchased last month, cars currently registered in Florida. A
related term is instance, in which the specific person or car would be an instance of the entity set.
Entity categories: Entities are categorized as strong, weak or associative. A strong entity can be defined solely by
its own attributes, while a weak entity cannot. An associative entity associates entities (or elements) within an
entity set.
Entity keys: Refers to an attribute that uniquely defines an entity in an entity set. Entity keys can be super,
candidate or primary. Super key: A set of attributes (one or more) that together define an entity in an entity set.
Candidate key: A minimal super key, meaning it has the least possible number of attributes to still be a super
key. An entity set may have more than one candidate key. Primary key: A candidate key chosen by the database
designer to uniquely identify the entity set. Foreign key: Identifies the relationship between entities.

-Relationship
How entities act upon each other or are associated with each other. Think of relationships as
verbs. For example, the named student might register for a course. The two entities would be
the student and the course, and the relationship depicted is the act of enrolling, connecting the
two entities in that way. Relationships are typically shown as diamonds or labels directly on the
connecting lines.
Recursive relationship: The same entity participates more than once in the relationship.
-Attribute
A property or characteristic of an entity. Often shown as an oval or circle.
Descriptive attribute: A property or characteristic of a relationship (versus of an entity.)
Attribute categories: Attributes are categorized as simple, composite, derived, as well as single-value or
multi-value. Simple: Means the attribute value is atomic and can’t be further divided, such as a phone number.
Composite: Sub-attributes spring from an attribute. Derived: Attributed is calculated or otherwise derived from
another attribute, such as age from a birthdate.
Multi-value: More than one attribute value is denoted, such as multiple phone numbers for a person

-Cardinality
Defines the numerical attributes of the relationship between two entities or entity sets. The three main cardinal
relationships are one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-many. A one-to-one example would be one student associ-
ated with one mailing address. A one-to-many example (or many-to-one, depending on the relationship direc-
tion): One student registers for multiple courses, but all those courses have a single line back to that one student.
Many-to-many example: Students as a group are associated with multiple faculty members, and faculty members
in turn are associated with multiple students.
Cardinality views: Cardinality can be shown as look-across or same-side, depending on where the symbols are shown.

Cardinality constraints: The minimum or maximum numbers that apply to a relationship.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Mapping natural language

ER components can be equated to parts of speech, as Peter Chen did. This shows how an ER Diagram compares
to a grammar diagram:
-Common noun: Entity type. Example: student.
-Proper noun: Entity. Example: Sally Smith.
-Verb: Relationship type. Example: Enrolls. (Such as in a course, which would be another
entity type.)
-Adjective: Attribute for entity. Example: sophomore.
-Adverb: Attribute for relationship. Example: digitally.
The database query language ERROL actually mimics natural language constructs. ERROL is based on reshaped
relational algebra (RRA) and works with ER models, capturing their linguistic aspects.
ERD symbols and notations
There are several notation systems, which are similar but vary in a few specifics.

Chen notation style

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Crow’s Foot/Martin/Information Engineering style

Bachman style

IDEF1X style

Barker style

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

See example...
Following are examples of ERD diagrams made in each system.

Conceptual, logical and physical data models

ER models and data models are typically drawn at up to three levels of detail:
-Conceptual data model: The highest-level view containing the least detail. Its value is showing
overall scope of the model and portraying the system architecture. For a system of smaller scope,
it may not be necessary to draw. Instead, start with the logical model.
-Logical data model: Contains more detail than a conceptual model. More detailed operational
and transactional entities are now defined. The logical model is independent of the
technology in which it will be implemented.
-Physical data model: One or more physical model may be developed from each logical model.
The physical models must show enough technology detail to produce and implement the actual
database.
Note that similar detail and scope levels exist in other types of diagrams, such as data flow diagrams, but that
it contrasts with software engineering’s three schema approach, which divides the information a bit differently.
Sometimes, engineers will branch out ER diagrams with additional hierarchies to add necessary information
levels for database design. For example, they may add groupings by extend up with superclasses and down with
subclasses.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Limitations of ER diagrams and models

Only for relational data: Understand that the purpose is to show relationships. ER diagrams show only that
relational structure.

Not for unstructured data: Unless the data is cleanly delineated into different fields, rows or columns, ER dia-
grams are probably of limited use. The same is true of semi-structured data, because only some of the data will
be useful.

Difficulty integrating with an existing database: Using ER Models to integrate with an existing database can be
a challenge because of the different architectures.
How to draw a basic ER diagram
Purpose and scope: Define the purpose and scope of what you’re analyzing or modeling.

Entities: Identify the entities that are involved. When you’re ready, start drawing them in rectangles (or your
system’s choice of shape) and labeling them as nouns.

Relationships: Determine how the entities are all related. Draw lines between them to signify the relationships
and label them. Some entities may not be related, and that’s fine. In different notation systems, the relationship
could be labeled in a diamond, another rectangle or directly on top of the connecting line.

Attributes: Layer in more detail by adding key attributes of entities. Attributes are often shown as ovals.

Cardinality: Show whether the relationship is 1-1, 1-many or many-to-many

More tips for ER diagrams
1. how the level of detail necessary for your purpose. You might want to draw a conceptual, logical or physical
model, depending on the detail needed. (See above for descriptions of those levels.)
2. Watch for redundant entities or relationships.
3. If you’re troubleshooting a database problem, watch for holes in relationships or missing entities or attributes.
4. Make sure all your entities and relationships are labeled.
5. You can translate relational tables and ER diagrams back and forth, if that helps you achieve your goal.
6. Make sure the ER diagram supports all the data you need to store.
7. There may be different valid approaches to an ER diagram. As long as it provides the necessary information for
its scope and purpose, it’s good.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Self Assessment Activity (SAA)

19. Now it is your turn to draw the Entity Relationship Diagram of your Project.

If you print this module kind-

ly use the next page for this
activity, if its not draw to any
paper available in your home. Place your drawing inside the yellow area.

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City
Research and Software Development

Referrences
url.at/MNU59 - Use Case Diagram

shorturl.at/nMOR1- Sequence Diagram

shorturl.at/cswR1 - State Diagram

shorturl.at/fszDU - Data Flow Diagram

shorturl.at/qAB35 - Activity Diagram

shorturl.at/suyJ8 - Class Diagram

shorturl.at/acvC7 - Component Diagram

shorturl.at/elqY0 - Deployment Diagram

shorturl.at/awJY3 - Entity Relationship Diagram

John Venheart T. Alejo College of Arts and Science - Negros Oriental State University Bais City

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