CK-12 FOUNDATION

Signicant Digits and Scientic Notation

Parsons

CK-12 Foundation is a non-prot organization with a mission to reduce the cost of textbook materials for the K-12 market both in the U.S. and worldwide. Using an open-content, web-based collaborative model termed the FlexBook, CK-12 intends to pioneer the generation and distribution of high-quality educational content that will serve both as core text as well as provide an adaptive environment for learning, powered through the FlexBook Platform. Copyright 2011 CK-12 Foundation, www.ck12.org Except as otherwise noted, all CK-12 Content (including CK-12 Curriculum Material) is made available to Users in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution/Non-Commercial/Share Alike 3.0 Unported (CC-by-NC-SA) License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/), as amended and updated by Creative Commons from time to time (the CC License), which is incorporated herein by this reference. Specic details can be found at http://www.ck12.org/terms. Printed: June 27, 2011

Author
Richard Parsons

Contributors
Jonathan Edge, Ryan Graziani

Editor
Shonna Robinson

www.ck12.org

Contents
1 Signicant Figures and Scientic Notation 1.1 1.2 1.3 Signicant Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scientic Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evaluating Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 1 7 11

www.ck12.org

ii

Chapter 1 Signicant Figures and Scientic Notation

1.1 Signicant Figures
Lesson Objectives
The student will: explain the necessity for signicant gures. determine signicant gures of the equipment pieces chosen. identify the number of signicant gures in a measurement. use signicant gures properly in measurements and calculations. determine the number of signicant gures in the result of a calculation. round calculated values to the correct number of signicant gures.

Vocabulary
signicant gures

Introduction
The numbers you use in math class are considered to be exact numbers. When you are given the number 2 in a math problem, it does not mean 1.999 rounded up to 2, nor does it mean 2.00001 rounded down to 2. In math class, the number 2 means exactly 2.000000. . . with an innite number of zeros a perfect 2! Such numbers are produced only by denition, not by measurement. We can dene 1 foot to contain exactly 12 inches with both numbers being perfect numbers, but we cannot measure an object to be exactly 12 inches long. In the case of measurements, we can only read our measuring instruments to a limited number of subdivisions. We are limited by our ability to see smaller and smaller subdivisions, and we are limited by our ability to construct smaller and smaller subdivisions on our measuring devices. Even with the use of powerful microscopes to construct and read our measuring devices, we eventually reach a limit. Therefore, although the actual measurement of an object may be a perfect 12 inches, we cannot prove it to be so. Measurements do not produce perfect numbers; the only perfect numbers in science are dened

www.ck12.org

numbers, such as conversion factors. Since measurements are fundamental to science, science does not produce perfect measurements. It is very important to recognize and report the limitations of a measurement along with the magnitude and unit of the measurement. Many times, the measurements made in an experiment are analyzed for regularities. If the numbers reported show the limits of the measurements, the regularity, or lack thereof, becomes visible. Table 1.1: Comparison of Observations with the Proper Number of Signicant Figures Observation List A 22.41359 22.37899 22.42333 22.39414 m m m m Observation List B 22.4 22.4 22.4 22.4 m m m m

In the lists of observations shown in Table 1.1, List A shows measurements without including the limits of the measuring device. In comparison, List B has the measurements rounded to reect the limits of the measuring device. It is diicult to perceive regularity in List A, but the regularity stands out in List B.

Rules for Determining Signicant Figures

Signicant gures, also known as signicant digits, are all of the digits that can be known with certainty in a measurement plus an estimated last digit. Signicant gures provide a system to keep track of the limits of the original measurement. To record a measurement, you must write down all the digits actually measured, including measurements of zero, and you must not write down any digit not measured. The only real diiculty with this system is that zeros are sometimes used as measured digits, while other times they are used to locate the decimal point.

In the sketch shown above, the correct measurement is greater than 1.2 inches but less than 1.3 inches. It is proper to estimate one place beyond the calibrations of the measuring instrument. This ruler is calibrated to 0.1 inches, so we can estimate the hundredths place. This reading should be reported as 1.25 or 1.26 inches.

In this second case (sketch above), it is apparent that the object is, as nearly as we can read, 1 inch. Since we know the tenths place is zero and can estimate the hundredths place to be zero, the measurement should be reported as 1.00 inch. It is vital that you include the zeros in your reported measurement because these www.ck12.org

are measured places and are signicant gures.

This measurement is read as 1.15 inches, 1.16 inches, or perhaps even 1.17 inches.

This measurement is read as 1.50 inches. In all of these examples, the measurements indicate that the measuring instrument had subdivisions of a tenth of an inch and that the hundredths place is estimated. There is some uncertainty about the last, and only the last, digit. In our system of writing measurements to show signicant gures, we must distinguish between measured zeros and place-holding zeros. Here are the rules for determining the number of signicant gures in a measurement. Rules for Determining the Number of Signicant Figures: 1. 2. 3. 4. All non-zero digits are signicant. All zeros between non-zero digits are signicant. All beginning zeros are not signicant. Ending zeros are signicant if the decimal point is actually written in but not signicant if the decimal point is an understood decimal (the decimal point is not written in).

Examples of the Signicant Figure Rules: 1. All non-zero digits are signicant. 543 22.437 1.321754 has 3 signicant gures. has 5 signicant gures. has 7 signicant gures.

2. All zeros between non-zero digits are signicant. 7, 004 10.3002 103 has 4 signicant gures. has 6 signicant gures. has 3 signicant gures.

3. All beginning zeros are not signicant.

www.ck12.org

0.00000075 0.02 0.003003

has 2 signicant gures. has 1 signicant gure. has 4 signicant gures.

4. Ending zeros are signicant if the decimal point is actually written in but not signicant if the decimal point is an understood decimal. 37.300 33.00000 100. 100 302, 000 1, 050 has has has has has has 5 7 3 1 3 3 signicant signicant signicant signicant signicant signicant gures. gures. gures. gure. gures. gures.

Equipment Determines Signicant Figures

Quality measuring instruments are made with as much consistency as possible and are individually calibrated after construction. In a graduated cylinder, for example, it is desirable for the sides to be perfectly vertical and for the inside diameter to be the same all the way up the tube. After the graduated cylinder is completed, exact volumes of liquids are placed in the cylinder and the calibration marks are then scribed onto the side of the tube. The choice of measuring instrument determines the unit of measure and the number of signicant gures in the measurement. Consider the two graduated cylinders shown below.

Both cylinders are marked to measure milliliters, but the cylinder on the left only shows graduations for whole milliliters. In comparison, the cylinder on the right has calibrations for tenths of milliliters. The measurer reads the volume from the calibrations and estimates one place beyond the calibrations. For the cylinder on the left, a reasonable reading is 4.5 mL. For the cylinder on the right, the measurer estimates one place beyond the graduations and obtains a reasonable reading of 4.65 mL. The choice of the measuring instrument determines both the units and the number of signicant gures. If you were mixing up some hot chocolate at home, the cylinder on the left would be adequate. If you were measuring out a chemical solution for a very delicate reaction in the lab, however, you would need the cylinder on the right. Similarly, the equipment chosen for measuring mass will also aect the number of signicant gures. For example, if you use a pan balance (illustrated on the left in the image below) that can only measure to 0.1 g, you could only measure out 3.3 g of NaCl rather than 3.25 g. In comparison, the digital balance (illustrated on the right in the image below) might be able to measure to 0.01 g. With this instrument, www.ck12.org

you could measure what you need more exactly. The dierence between these two balances has to do with the number of signicant gures that the balances are able to measure. Whenever you need to make a measurement, make sure to check the number of signicant gures a measuring instrument can measure before choosing an appropriate instrument.

Signicant Figures in Calculations

In addition to using signicant gures to report measurements, we also use them to report the results of computations made with measurements. The results of mathematical operations on measurements must indicate the number of signicant gures in the original measurements. There are two rules for determining the number of signicant gures after performing a mathematical operation. Most of the errors that occur in this area result from using the wrong rule, so always double check that you are using the correct rule for the mathematical operation involved.

Addition and Subtraction

The answer to an addition or subtraction operation must not have any digits further to the right than the shortest addend. In other words, the answer should have as many decimal places as the addend with the smallest number of decimal places. Example:

Notice that the top addend has a 3 in the last column on the right, but neither of the other two addends have a number in that column. In elementary math classes, you were taught that these blank spaces can be lled in with zeros and the answer would be 17.6163 cm. In the sciences, however, these blank spaces are unknown numbers, not zeros. Since they are unknown numbers, you cannot substitute any numbers into the blank spaces. As a result, you cannot know the sum of adding (or subtracting) any column of numbers that contain an unknown number. When you add the columns of numbers in the example above, you can only be certain of the sums for the columns with known numbers in each space in the column. In science, the process is to add the numbers in the normal mathematical process and then round o all columns that contain an unknown number (a blank space). Therefore, the correct answer for the example above is 17.62 cm and has only four signicant gures. Example:

www.ck12.org

In this case, the addend 12 has no digits beyond the decimal. Therefore, all columns past the decimal point must be rounded o in the nal answer. We get the seemingly odd result that the answer is still 12, even after adding a number to 12. This is a common occurrence in science and is absolutely correct. Example:

Multiplication and Division

The answer for a multiplication or division operation must have the same number of signicant gures as the factor with the least number of signicant gures. Example: (3.556 cm) (2.4 cm) = 8.5344 cm2 = 8.5 cm2 The factor 3.556 cm has four signicant gures, and the factor 2.4 cm has two signicant gures. Therefore the answer must have two signicant gures. The mathematical answer of 8.5344 cm2 must be rounded back to 8.5 cm2 in order for the answer to have two signicant gures. Example: (20.0 cm) (5.0000 cm) = 100.00000 cm2 = 100. cm2 The factor 20.0 cm has three signicant gures, and the factor 5.0000 cm has ve signicant gures. The answer must be rounded to three signicant gures. Therefore, the decimal must be written in to show that the two ending zeros are signicant. If the decimal is omitted (left as an understood decimal), the two zeros will not be signicant and the answer will be wrong. Example: (5.444 cm) (22 cm) = 119.768 cm2 = 120 cm2 In this case, the answer must be rounded back to two signicant gures. We cannot have a decimal after the zero in 120 cm2 because that would indicate the zero is signicant, whereas this answer must have exactly two signicant gures.

Lesson Summary
Signicant gures are all of the digits that can be known with certainty in a measurement plus an estimated last digit. www.ck12.org

 Signicant gures provide a system to keep track of the limits of a measurement. Rules for determining the number of signicant gures: 1. 2. 3. 4. All non-zero digits are signicant. All zeros between non-zero digits are signicant. All beginning zeros are not signicant. Ending zeros are signicant if the decimal point is actually written in but not signicant if the decimal point is an understood decimal.

The choice of measuring instrument is what determines the unit of measure and the number of signicant gures in the measurement. The results of mathematical operations must include an indication of the number of signicant gures in the original measurements. The answer for an addition or subtraction operation must not have any digits further to the right than the shortest addend. The answer for a multiplication or division operation must have the same number of signicant gures as the factor with the least number of signicant gures.

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

A problem set on unit conversions and signicant gures. http://science.widener.edu/svb/pset/convert1.html This website has lessons, worksheets, and quizzes on various high school chemistry topics. Lesson 2-3 is on signicant gures. http://www.fordhamprep.org/gcurran/sho/sho/lessons/lesson23.htm

1.2 Scientic Notation

Lesson Objectives
The student will: use scientic notation to express large and small numbers. add, subtract, multiply, and divide using scientic notation.

Vocabulary
scientic notation

Introduction
Work in science frequently involves very large and very small numbers. The speed of light, for example, is 300,000,000 m/s; the mass of the earth is 6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kg; and the mass of an

www.ck12.org

electron is 0.0000000000000000000000000000009 kg. It is very inconvenient to write out such numbers and even more inconvenient to attempt to carry out mathematical operations with them. Scientists and mathematicians have designed an easier method to deal with such long numbers. This more convenient system is called exponential notation by mathematicians and scientic notation by scientists.

What is Scientic Notation?

In scientic notation, very large and very small numbers are expressed as the product of a number between 1 and 10 multiplied by some power of 10. For example, the number 9, 000, 000 can be written as the product of 9 times 1, 000, 000. In turn, 1, 000, 000 can be written as 106 . Therefore, 9, 000, 000 can be 1 written as 9 106 . In a similar manner, 0.00000004 can be written as 4 times 108 , or 4 108 .

Table 1.2: Examples of Scientic Notation Decimal Notation 95, 672 8, 340 100 7.21 0.014 0.0000000080 0.00000000000975 Scientic Notation 9.5672 104 8.34 103 1 102 7.21 100 1.4 102 8.0 109 9.75 1012

As you can see from the examples in Table 1.2, to convert a number from decimal form into scientic notation, you count the number of spaces needed to move the decimal, and that number becomes the exponent of 10. If you are moving the decimal to the left, the exponent is positive, and if you are moving the decimal to the right, the exponent is negative. You should note that all signicant gures are maintained in scientic notation. You will probably realize that the greatest advantage of using scientic notation occurs when there are many non-signicant gures.

Scientic Notation in Calculations

Addition and Subtraction
When numbers in exponential form are added or subtracted, the exponents must be the same. If the exponents are the same, the coeicients are added and the exponent remains the same. Example: (4.3 104 ) + (1.5 104 ) = (4.3 + 1.5) 104 = 5.8 104 Note that the example above is the same as: 43, 000 + 15, 000 = 58, 000 = 5.8 104 . www.ck12.org

Example: (8.6 107 ) (5.3 107 ) = (8.6 5.3) 107 = 3.3 107 Example: (8.6 105 ) + (3.0 104 ) = ? These two exponential numbers do not have the same exponent. If the exponents of the numbers to be added or subtracted are not the same, then one of the numbers must be changed so that the two numbers have the same exponent. In order to add them, we can change the number 3.0 104 to 0.30 105 . This change is made by moving the decimal one place to the left and increasing the exponent by one. Now the two numbers can be added. (8.6 105 ) + (0.30 105 ) = (8.6 + 0.30) 105 = 8.9 105 We could also have chosen to alter the other number. Instead of changing the second number to a higher exponent, we could have changed the rst number to a lower exponent. (86 104 ) + (3.0 104 ) = (86 + 3.0) 104 = 89 104 8.6 105 becomes 86 104 Even though it is not always necessary, the preferred practice is to express exponential numbers in proper form, which has only one digit to the left of the decimal. When 89 104 is converted to proper form, it becomes 8.9 105 , which is precisely the same result as before.

Multiplication and Division

When multiplying or dividing numbers in exponential form, the numbers do not have to have the same exponents. To multiply exponential numbers, multiply the coeicients and add the exponents. To divide exponential numbers, divide the coeicients and subtract the exponents. Multiplication Examples: (4.2 104 ) (2.2 102 ) = (4.2 2.2) 104+2 = 9.2 106 The product of 4.2 and 2.2 is 9.24, but since we are limited to two signicant gures, the coeicient is rounded to 9.2. (8.2 109 ) (8.2 104 ) = (8.2 8.2) 10(9)+(4) = 67.24 1013 (2 105 ) (4 104 ) = (2 4) 10(5)+(4) = 8 109 (2 109 ) (4 104 ) = (2 4) 109+4 = 8 105 (2 109 ) (4 1014 ) = (2 4) 109+14 = 8 1023 In this last example, the product has too many signicant gures and is not in proper exponential form. We must round to two signicant gures and adjust the decimal and exponent. The correct answer would be 6.7 1012 . Division Examples:

www.ck12.org

4.6103 = 2.0 10(3)(4) = 2.0 107 2.3104 7 810 = 4 10(7)(4) = 4 103 2104 7 810 = 4 1074 = 4 103 2104

In the example above, since the original coeicients have two signicant gures, the answer must also have two signicant gures. Therefore, the zero in the tenths place is written to indicate the answer has two signicant gures.

Lesson Summary
Very large and very small numbers in science are expressed in scientic notation. All signicant gures are maintained in scientic notation. When numbers in exponential form are added or subtracted, the exponents must be the same. If the exponents are the same, the coeicients are added and the exponent remains the same. To multiply exponential numbers, multiply the coeicients and add the exponents. To divide exponential numbers, divide the coeicients and subtract the exponents.

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

This website has lessons, worksheets, and quizzes on various high school chemistry topics. Lesson 2-5 is on scientic notation. http://www.fordhamprep.org/gcurran/sho/sho/lessons/lesson25.htm

Review Questions
1. Write the following numbers in scientic notation. (a) (b) (c) (d) 0.0000479 251, 000, 000 4, 260 0.00206

Do the following calculations without a calculator. 2. (2.0 103 ) (3.0 104 ) 3. (5.0 105 ) (5.0 108 ) 4. (6.0 101 ) (7.0 104 ) (3.0104 )(2.0104 ) 5. 2.0106 Do the following calculations. 6. (6.0 107 ) (2.5 104 ) 4 7. 4.2102 3.010 www.ck12.org

10

1.3 Evaluating Measurements

Lesson Objectives
The student will: dene accuracy and precision. explain the dierence between accuracy and precision. indicate whether a given data set is precise, accurate, both, or neither. calculate percent error in an experiment.

Vocabulary
accuracy percent error precision

Introduction
Accuracy and precision are two words that we hear a lot in science, math, and other everyday events. They are also, surprisingly, two words that are often misused. For example, you may hear car advertisements talking about the cars ability to handle precision driving. But what do these two words mean?

Accuracy and Precision

Every measurement compares the physical quantity being measured with a xed standard of measurement, such as the centimeter or the gram. In describing the reliability of a measurement, scientists often use the terms accuracy and precision. Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true value of the quantity being measured. Precision refers to how close the values in a set of measurements are to one another. If you are using a awed measuring instrument, you could get very precise measurements (meaning they are very reproducible), but the measurements would be inaccurate. In many cases, the true value of the measurement is not known, and we must take our measurement as the true value. In such cases, instruments are checked carefully to verify that they are unawed before a series of precise measurements are made. It is assumed that good instruments and precise measurements imply accuracy. Suppose a student made the same volume measurement four times and obtained the following measurements: 34.25 mL, 34.45 mL, 34.33 mL, and 34.20 mL. The average of these four readings is 34.31 mL. If the actual volume was known to be 34.30 mL, what could we say about the accuracy and precision of these measurements, and how much condence would we have in the answer? Since the nal average is very close to the actual value, we would say that the answer is accurate. However, the individual readings are not close to each other, so we would conclude that the measurements were not precise. If we did not know the correct answer, we would have very little condence that these measurements produced an accurate value. Consider the values obtained by another student making the same measurements: 35.27 mL, 35.26 mL, 35.27 mL, and 35.28 mL. In this case, the average measurement is 35.27 mL, and the set of measurements is quite precise since all readings are within 0.1 mL of the average measurement. We would normally have condence in this measurement since the precision is so good, but if the actual volume is 34.30 mL, the measurements are not accurate. Generally, situations where the measurements are precise but not accurate

11

www.ck12.org

are caused by a awed measuring instrument. The ideal situation is to have quality measuring instruments so that precision will imply accuracy.

Percent Error
Percent error is a common way of evaluating the accuracy of a measured value. Anytime an experiment is conducted, a certain degree of uncertainty and error is expected. Scientists often express this uncertainty and error in measurement by reporting a percent error. percent error =
(accepted value - experimental value) (accepted value)

100%

The experimental value is what you recorded or calculated based on your own experiment in the lab. The value that can be found in reference tables is called the accepted value. Percent error is a measure of how far the experimental value is from the accepted value. Example: A student determined the density of a sample of silver to be 10.3 g/cm3 . The density of silver is actually 10.5 g/cm3 . What is the percent error in the experimentally determined density of silver?
10.5 g/cm3 10.3 g/cm3 10.5 g/cm3

percent error =

100% = 1.90%

Lesson Summary
Accuracy reects how close the measured value is to the actual value. Precision reects how close the values in a set of measurements are to each other. Accuracy is aected by the quality of the instrument or measurement. Percent error is a common way of evaluating the accuracy of a measured value. (accepted value - experimental value) percent error = 100% (accepted value)

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

This website has lessons, worksheets, and quizzes on various high school chemistry topics. Lesson 2-2 is on accuracy and precision. http://www.fordhamprep.org/gcurran/sho/sho/lessons/lesson22.htm The learner.org website allows users to view streaming videos of the Annenberg series of chemistry videos. You are required to register before you can watch the videos, but there is no charge to register. The website has a video that apply to this lesson called Measurement: The Foundation of Chemistry that details the value of accuracy and precision. http://learner.org/resources/series61.html www.ck12.org

12

Review Questions
1. Suppose you want to hit the center of this circle with a paint ball gun. Which of the following are considered accurate? Precise? Both? Neither?

2. Four students take measurements to determine the volume of a cube. Their results are 15.32 cm3 , 15.33 cm3 , 15.33 cm3 , and 15.31 cm3 . The actual volume of the cube is 16.12 cm3 . What statement(s) can you make about the accuracy and precision in their measurements? 3. Distinguish between accuracy and precision. 4. Nisi was asked the following question on her lab exam: When doing an experiment, what term best describes the reproducibility in your results? What should she answer? (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) accuracy care precision signicance uncertainty

5. Karen was working in the lab doing reactions involving mass. She needed to weigh out 1.50 g of each reactant and put them together in her ask. She recorded her data in her data table (Table 1.3). What can you conclude by looking at Karens data? (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) The The The The You data is accurate but not precise. data is precise but not accurate. data is neither precise nor accurate. data is precise and accurate. really need to see the balance Karen used. Table 1.3: Data Table for Problem 5 Mass of Reactant A Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 1.47 0.02 g 1.46 0.02 g 1.48 0.02 g Mass of Reactant B 1.48 0.02 g 1.46 0.02 g 1.50 0.02 g

6. John uses his thermometer and nds the boiling point of ethanol to be 75 C. He looks in a reference book and nds that the actual boiling point of ethanol is 78 C. What is his percent error? 7. The density of water at 4 C is known to be 1.00 g/mL. Kim experimentally found the density of water to be 1.085 g/mL. What is her percent error? 8. An object has a mass of 35.0 g. On a digital balance, Huey nds the mass of the object to be 34.92 g. What is the percent error of his balance?

13

www.ck12.org