Chapter 4

Towards Effective Learning:

Theories, Principles, Concepts
and their Application
After thoroughly reading Chapter 4, you should be able to:

1. Discuss the meaning of learning;

2. Describe how communication and learning are related;

3. List four groups of learning theories;

4. Differentiate stimulus-response theories from cognitive/perception

theories;

5. Explain the basic contentions of 13 learning theories or concepts or

principles;

6. Explain and cite examples of how the learning theories or concepts or

principles may be translated into practice; and

7. Given a specific learning situation, suggest how learning may be induced

or enhanced through the application of learning theories, concepts and
principles.

Chapter Summary
Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior, whether in its
cognitive, affective, psychomotor (Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia, 1964) or
interactive (Romiszowski, 1981) domains, or in any combination of these. Such
change in behavior is said to be relatively permanent because it must be held

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stable for some time. However, the learned behavior may change later as the
person’s learning continues in his/her lifetime.

Learning is a possible purpose or outcome of communication. However, not all

communication may result in learning, as when the effected behavior change is
only transitory.

From various authors’ discussions of learning theories, four groups of these

theories emerge: the SR or connectionist or behaviorist theories, the SOR or the
cognitive/perception or field theories; the motivation and personality theories,
and the functional theories.

The SR or stimulus-response theories essentially assume that a person’s

environment (stimuli) shapes his/her behavior (responses). These theories are
primarily applicable to learning of “low level” involuntary responses, to
psychomotor learning, and only to simple cognitive and affective learning.
Meanwhile, the SOR or stimulus-organism-response theories, also called
cognitive/perception theories, assume that one’s environment (stimuli) interacts
with factors within himself/herself (organism) in shaping his/her behavior
(responses). These factors within, which affect his/her behavior, include his/her
motivations, needs, goals, and previous learning. The application of
cognitive/perception theories may enhance more complex types of learning
involving interrelated changes in covert behavior along with the overt behavior.
On the other hand, the personality and motivation theories attribute one’s
behavior (response) primarily to factors within him/her (organism). These
theories are not discussed in this chapter, having applications in psychoanalysis.
Finally, functionalism is an eclectic approach that describes whatever is desirable
in various theories based on the demands of specific situations.

A total of 13 learning theories, concepts, or principles are discussed in this

chapter, as follows:

Stimulus-Response Theories

1. Thorndike’s trial-and-error learning is the stamping out of incorrect

behavior and stamping in of correct behavior. In practice, this type of
learning is not recommended.

2. Pavlov’s classical conditioning states that we learn by associating new

stimuli with old stimuli presented simultaneously in repeated trials. This
may be applicable in the learning of positive or negative attitudes or
predispositions, as when happy, healthy-looking family members are
shown to portray family planning. On the other hand, sad, weary-
looking family members may be shown to depict an unplanned family
size.

3. Stimulus-generalization, based on Pavlov’s theory, is the tendency of an

organism to respond in the same way to similar stimuli. On the other

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 hand, stimulus-discrimination is the tendency of an organism to respond
differently to stimuli that may be similar but are not exactly alike.
Applications of these concepts include the use of color codes for
publication pages or exhibit panels to indicate similarity or change in
topic.

4. Skinner’s operant conditioning states that we learn behavior that

repeatedly satisfies us. Such is the principle applied in programmed
instruction, which features individualized instruction with feedback to
the learner regarding his/her performance. Feedback on correct
behavior is considered to be satisfying.

5. Habit formation essentially involves learning SR chains or series of

stimulus-response relationships that become repeated regularly in a
somewhat automatic fashion. The best way to learn chains of behavior is
to practice their complete sequences. This means that a habit must
become incorporated in a regular routine, as in the adoption of
innovations. Five factors enhance habit formation: reward, repetition,
amount of reward, time between response and reward, isolation of the
SR relationship, and cost of the reward.

6. Hull’s concept of drive-reduction states that we learn more easily if the

behavior helps reduce or satisfy our drives. Although this theory may not
apply widely in all learning situations, it points out how drives, such as
hunger and fatigue, can interfere with learning.

7. Guthrie’s contiguity theory states that one trial is sufficient for learning
to take place, as long as the response takes place immediately after or
almost simultaneously as the stimulus is presented. In short, the theory
espouses learning by doing with close supervision and guidance.

Cognitive/Perception Theories

8. Gestalt psychology assumes that perception is the basis of learning, and

that such perception is the process by which we organize or see
relationships among stimuli so that they make up a coherent whole.
Gestalt psychology offers communicators seven perception principles
that essentially guide how a message ought to be organized. These are
the principles of similarity, proximity, common movement, closure, good
continuity, figure-ground, and contrast.

9. Lewin’s theory states that learning takes place when changes in a

person’s life space or psychological world take place. This theory points
out the importance of fitting a message according to an audience’s needs
and situation, which are part of the life space.

10. Tolman’s theory on cognitive maps contends that we learn and

remember ideas and behavior that help us attain our goals. The theory

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 stresses the importance of relating material to be learned to a learner’s
goals. Likewise, providing keys (cognitive maps) for remembering is
helpful.

Functional Theories

11. Mental set is a principle of perception that pertains to an individual’s

readiness to learn. The principle stresses the importance of preparing
learners to respond in the appropriate way in a given learning situation.
A conducive mental set may be created through preliminary activities
such as role plays and games; through instructions or introductions; by
relating a learning task with ideas familiar to the learner; by creating a
pleasant or favorable atmosphere; by catching attention; by relating the
message to learning needs and goals; and by showing how a learning
task conforms to norms.

12. Learning by problem solving is a creative process in which an individual

actively seeks ways of dealing with a difficulty and in the process arrives
at insights. Effective learning by problem solving basically follows the
scientific method, which an educational communicator must guide
properly. S/he may apply the method in facilitating participatory
development among his/her clients.

13. Cybernetic learning is a process by which an individual or group adapts

to his/her environment based on feedback from it. Such feedback, which
becomes the basis for behavior change, may present a difficulty or
problem to the learners. In enhancing such adaptive learning through a
cybernetic or feedback-generating system, the educational
communicator may provide mechanisms by which intended
development participants can perceive feedback on development
problems.

References
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Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 160 p.
BERLO, David K. 1960. The Process of Communication. San Francisco: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 318
p.
BIGGE, Morris L. 1964. Learning Theories for Teachers. New York, USA: Harper and Row, Publishers 366
p.
CLAYTON, Thomas, E. 1965. Teaching and Learning, a Psychological Perspective. Englewood Cliffs, NJ,
USA: Prentice-Hall Inc. p.46-77.
CROW, Lester D. and Alice Crow. 1965. Human Development and Learning (revised ed.) New York, USA:
American Book Co. 578 p.
GAGNE, Robert M. 1965. The Conditions of Learning. New York, USA: Holt, Reinhart and Winston, Inc.
308 p.
HILGARD, Ernest R. and Gordon H. Bower. 1966. Theories of Learning (3rd edition). New York, USA:
Appleton-Century Crafts, Inc. and Meredith Corporation. 661 p.
HILL, Winfred F. 1963. Learning: A Survey of Psychological interpretations. San Francisco, California,
USA: Chandler Publishing Company, 227 p.
JONES, J. Charles. 1967. Learning. New York, USA: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc. 179 p.

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KINGSLEY, Howard L. and Ralph Garry. 1957. The Nature and Conditions of Learning. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ, USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc. p. 82-128, 419-436.
KRATHWOHL, David R., Benjamin S. Bloom, and Bertran B Masia. 1964. Taxonomy of Educational
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