The long-term goals for nature-based forestry

The Forest development type

J. Bo Larsen, M. Jakobsen, M. Jensen, A.B. Nielsen, H. Granat

The current forests

The long-term goals for nature-based forestry

The Forest Development Type

Nature-based forestry is based upon the principle of supporting natural processes of the forest
ecosystem by facilitating natural regeneration and making use of natural self differentiation. Hence,
the complex character of near-natural forest structures and dynamics and their management
arrangements requires integrative and flexible management frameworks and tools.

The concept “Forest Development Type” (FDT) provides one such adequate framework for
advancing and describing ideas about long-term goals for stand structures and dynamics in stands
subjected to nature-based forest management (Perpeet, 2000). A major objective of FDT scenarios
is to describe the practical impact of the general policies for nature-based silviculture at the stand
level. The concept comprises a broader understanding of natural disturbance regimes and
successional processes. As such it has great similarities with the forest cycle models that have
successfully been used to describe the temporal and spatial dynamics and cyclic preoccupation of a
specific forest type in natural forest reserves (see e.g. Leibundgut, 1959; Zukrigl et al., 1963; Meyer
and Neumann, 1981; Mueller-Dombois, 1987; Jenssen and Hofmann, 1996; Emborg et al., 2000;
Grassi et al., 2003).

An FDT describes the long-term goal for forest development on a given locality (climate and soil
conditions) in order to accomplish specific long-term aims of functionality: ecological-protective
functions; economical-productive, and social-/cultural functions). It is based upon an analysis of
the silvicultural possibilities on a given site in combination with the aspirations of future forest
functions. The FDT will serve as a guide for future silvicultural activities in order to “channel” the
actual forest stand in the desired direction.

In essence, the selection of FDT should be independent of the concrete species composition. Due to
the degree of differences between the actual and the anticipated stand structures the conversion will
occur over the long term – often up to several tree generations.

The concept of the FDT is to describe and agree upon the long-term goals for the specific stand as
well as the forested landscape it is a part of, thereby creating a common reference from the stand
level scaling up to the forested landscape for future planning and silvicultural interventions. Such a
common understanding and agreement upon the desired development is crucial, since the
conversion from age-class to nature-based stand structures is a continuing process.

There are of course pronounced uncertainties connected with the description of future stand
structures and species compositions, which in essence first is expected to develop in the long run.
The FDT must, therefore, be regarded as an expected and desired direction rather than a specific
goal – the FDT is not the goal but the way forward. The FDTs are consequently defined broadly and
should be flexibly interpreted and used. In the Danish case (Larsen 2005, Larsen and Nielsen 2007)
rather few FDTs have been created. These Danish FDTs are dynamic, and they should accordingly
be used and modified in relation to local knowledge and requirements.

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1. Eco-geographical regions
The selection of site adapted species is a key element in nature-based forestry. Thus, the FDT
should be selected on the basis of the specific site conditions, e. g. soil parameters such as water and
nutrient availability, potential rooting depth, as well as climatic conditions such as temperature
(frost risk), wind (storm hazard) and deposition (pollution and salt).

According to the varying site conditions in Denmark affecting the growth of the tree species, it is
appropriate to delineate the country in different growth or eco-geographical regions. By means of
climate data, geological surveys and soil maps the country is divided into 4 different growth
regions:

I. The coastal region along the North Sea and including the islands of Læsø and Anholt.
II. The heath region enclosing the glacial wash-out plain of south-west Jutland.
III. The northern part of Jutland encompassing sediments from the north-east glacier
(sandy moraine).
IV. The eastern region covered with the deposits from the south-east glacier (loamy
moraine).

Forest regions
in Denmark

III

I
II

IV

The 4 Danish forest regions

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2. Forest development types and management objective
Species choice and accordingly the selection of FDT are not only based upon the ecological
settings, i.e. climate and soil, but to a great extent driven by the long term management goal. It is
therefore important to select FDTs which are based on the possibilities/limitations of the site and at
the same time encompassing the long-term management objectives.

In order to consider and incorporate different management goals the selection of forest development
types has to be made on the landscape level in a long-ranging planning process, since many values
(management objectives) can only be addressed at the landscape level, i.e. aesthetic values and
biodiversity. Hence, the planning procedure will define not only the FDT on the specific site but
also delineate the forest landscape as an arrangement of different FDTs including open areas,
unmanaged forests, ancient forest types, as well as which part of the forest should be broadleaf,
respectively conifer dominated, etc.

In parts of the forest where wood production goals are emphasised conifer-based FDTs could
dominate. In areas of specific recreational interest broadleaf-dominated FDTs should be considered.
In other areas of high nature conservation value FDTs, which resemble the potential natural
vegetation, might be selected.

3. Forest development types and NATURA 2000 habitat types

Across Denmark, areas have been designated in accordance with the EU Birds and Habitats
directive in order to maintain or restore natural habitats and safeguard a favourable conservation
status of specific wild fauna and flora species. According to the NATURA 2000 network, there are
10 habitat types in Denmark, which are connected to forests and consequently should be reflected in
the list of forest development types. All the proposed FDTs are in general suited to create space for
natural (authentic) biodiversity. There are, however, certain FDTs which are especially appropriate
to safeguarding favourable conservation status according to the habitat types. These FDTs are listed
in the table below.

Natura 2000 Habitat Type Forest Development type

2180 Wooded dunes of the Atlantic, Continental and Boreal region 23 Oak with Scots pine and larch
9110 Luzula fagetum beech forests 11 Beech
9120 Atlantic acidophilous beech forests 11 Beech
9130 Asperulo-Fagetum beech forests 12 Beech with ash and maple
9150 Medio-European limestone beech forests 12 Beech with ash and maple
9160 Sub-atlantic and medio-European oak or oak-hornbeam forests 21 Oak with ash and hornbeam
9170 Galio-Carpinetum oak-hornbeam forests 21 Oak with ash and hornbeam
9190 Old acidophilous oak woods with Quercus robur 22 Oak with linden and beech
91D0 Bog woodlands 41 Birch with Scots pine and spruce
91E0 Alluvial forests with Alnus glutinosa and Fraxinus excelsior 31 Ash and alder

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In general, more space should be created for the minor species such as birch, Norway ash, aspen,
willow, linden, hornbeam and others as is indicated in the FDT-description. To enhance biodiversity
the amount of CWD (coarse woody debris/dead wood) should be larger in the designated habitat
types than in the FDTs in general.

4. The 19 forest development types

19 FDTs have been developed in order to cover a variety of different management objectives
according to site conditions in the 4 forest regions. The FDTs and their illustration by means of
profile diagrams were elaborated in an adaptive, participatory process involving people both inside
and outside the Danish Forest and Nature Agency (Larsen and Nielsen 2007). Each FDT is
described as follows:

Name
The name refers to the dominating specie or species. The first digit indicates the main species where
1 = beech, 2 = oak, 3 = ash, 4 = birch, 5 = spruce, 6 = Douglas fir, 7 = true fir, 8 = pine, and 9
indicates a historic forest type (coppice forest, grazing forest, forest meadow, unmanaged forest).

Species distribution
The long-term distribution of the main species and their relative occurrence is stated as well as the
“minor” species which might/should crop up in the FDT. Each species is reported within a rather
large range, which indicates the “spaciousness” in terms of species variation within each FDT.

Structure and dynamics

A quantitative and visual presentation of the anticipated forest structure at maturity is out-lined.
The forest is spatially described in terms of age, size and species. The visual description is made by
means of a profile diagram typifying a cross-section of a model stand at maturity. Further, the
expected dynamics presenting expected successional processes and regeneration dynamics are
specified.

Forest development objectives and management goals

Since sustainable forestry is balancing the three “pillars” of sustainability – the economic, the
ecologic, and the social, the long-term objectives for the FDT are described in terms of: 1.
production values, 2) biological values and, 3) recreational values.
Wood production
The prospects of creating specific economic values - if applicable - are outlined together with
information of the economically determined target diameter, which incorporats the risk of price
reduction due to quality decline (stem rot, red hart etc.). These diameter indications can of course be
exceeded due to specific ecological and/or recreational considerations.
Biological values
The FDT´s specific contributions to nature protection and biodiversity preservation are outlined and
not the general ones such as the safeguarding of dead and decaying wood.
Recreational values
These indicate the options for delivering experiences related to out-door activities. It must be
emphasised, however, that most recreational values arise through interaction of different forest

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types in combination with open spaces at landscape level. These indications should, therefore,
merely be regarded as the FDT´s specific contribution to these values.

Although the 19 FDTs aim at balancing the three elements

of sustainability, they do it in different ways. Some are
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more focussed upon wood production, while others merely

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fulfil biological or recreational objectives. In order to

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illustrate the specific FDT options to contribute to these

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Wood production
“sustainability-triangle” is indicated.

The sustainability triangle for FDT no. 11 - Beech

Occurrence

The potential occurrence of a FDT is mainly related to climate and soil. The climatic conditions are
well accounted for by means of the 4 eco-geographical regions, consequently geographic
occurrence is indicated on the eco-geographical map. If a FDT is not represented in one region it
does not mean, that it will not occur there, but rather indicates that it will be rare.

Soil traits such as water and nutrient supply are of outmost importance selecting FDT´s. According
to the soil classification system used by Forest & Landscape the water supply is specified on a 1 to
9 scale and nutrient supply on a 1 to 6 scale as shown below.

12 Beech with ash and sycamore Soils with

Soils with free drainage limited
4 moderat fresh

drainage
3 moderate dry

7 80 - 160 cm

8 40 - 80 cm
6 very fresh
1 very dry

9 < 40 cm
5 fresh
2 dry

1 very poor
Nutrition level.

2 poor
3 moderate poor
4 moderate rich
5 rich
6 very rich

Site requirements for Forest development type 12 – Beech with ash and sycamore

Water supply codes 1 to 6 represent soils with free drainage, where 1 indicates the lowest water
supply and 6 the best. Water supply codes 7 to 9 represent water logged soils or soils with limited
drainage, where 7 indicates water stowage up to 80 cm, 8 from 40 to 80 cm, and 9 from 0 to 40 cm
under soil surface. Nutrient supply is correspondingly indicated on a scale from 1 to 6, where 1
represents the most infertile soils (sandy washed-out plains) and 6 the most nutrient rich soils
(young calcium-rich moraine soils).

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Forest development types

No. Name

11 Beech

12 Beech with ash and sycamore

13 Beech with Douglas fir and larch

14 Beech and spruce

21 Oak with ash and hornbeam

22 Oak with lime and beech

23 Oak with Scots pine and larch

31 Ash and alder

41 Birch with Scots pine and spruce

51 Spruce with beech and sycamore

52 Sitka spruce with pine and broadleaves

61 Douglas fir with Norway spruce and beech

71 Fir and beech

81 Scots pine, birch and Norway spruce

81 Mountain pine

91 Coppice forest

92 Forest pasture

93 Forest meadow

94 Unmanaged forest

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Beech

Forest development type 11

Species distribution

Beech: 70 - 80 %
Oak, ash, sycamore, bird cherry: 20 - 30 %
Conifers: up to 10 %

Structure and dynamics

Beech forest in single cohort stands with a mixture of oak, ash, sycamore and cherry. The mixed
species occur mainly in groups. Conifers are basically absent or occur as single trees or in small
groups. The under story may consist of European holly, field maple, blackthorn and yew, but they
are often absent.
Under unmanaged conditions beech has a tendency to create uniform stands with only small
amounts of other species. Correspondingly, beech is traditionally managed in shelter wood systems
creating pronounced horizontal structuring. Beech regenerates over larger areas or in groups. The
in-mixed species regenerate as single trees or in groups. The FDT resembles in its most uniform
parts the classical uniform shelter wood system with its uniform opening of the canopy for
regeneration purposes. In order to fulfil the requirements of the Natura-2000 habitat types 9110 and
9120 conifers should not exceed 10 %.

Forest development objectives and management goals

1. Wood production
The forest development type has a high potential for production of high quality wood of beech and
other in-mixed hardwoods.
Beech: up to 65 cm with 100 to 140 years rotation.
Ash and sycamore: up to 55 cm with 70 and 110 years rotation respectively

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2. Biological values
In general, beech dominated forest constitutes the potential natural vegetation in Denmark, and
many plants and animals are connected to this forest type. The ground flora is often dominated by
early flowering plants – e.g. anemone species. The species composition will depend upon the soil
conditions. In region 4 a mull flora will dominate, whereas in region 2 and 3 a more moder-type
flora will prevail. Many insects connected to beech and the beech dominated forests will be found
here. Further, beech is a good nesting tree and beech mast is an important food source for many
birds and animals.

3. Recreational values
Beech forests managed in shelter wood systems are in the older age-classes and are very attractive
(the “pillar hall”). The forest vegetation is “uplifted” and you can see far under the canopy and get
an impression of the depths of the landscape, the topography, and observe flora and wild life. The
“anemone-carpet” in particular is highly appreciated by Danes.
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Wood production

Occurrence

This FDT belongs on medium rich, well drained soils with medium to good water supply. It may
also occur on less fertile soils on sites with sufficient water supply. It is not well suited on soils with
limited drainage.

12 Beech
Beech with ash and sycamore Soils with
Soils with free drainage limited
4 moderat fresh

drainage
3 moderate dry

7 80 - 160 cm

8 40 - 80 cm
6 very fresh
1 very dry

9 < 40 cm
5 fresh
2 dry
Nutrition level.

1 very poor
2 poor
3 moderate poor
4 moderate rich
5 rich
6 very rich

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Beech with ash and sycamore

Forest development type 12

Species distribution

Beech: 40-60 %
Ash and maple: 30-50 %
Cherry, hornbeam, oak, lime and others: up to 20 %

Structure and dynamics

Species rich well structured forest with beech as the dominating element mixed with ash and cherry,
and in south-eastern Denmark additionally with hornbeam and lime. The mixed species occur
mainly in groups. The horizontal structures arise between groups of varying size and age. Where the
light demanding species such as ash, sycamore and cherry dominate, vertical structures occur with
shade trees (beech, hornbeam, elm, and others) periodically in sub-canopy strata.
Beech regenerates mainly in groups and smaller stands. Ash and sycamore, as gap specialists,
regenerate in openings later followed by beech. Hornbeam belongs to the sub-canopy stratum and
regenerates under shade, whereas the pioneer species (cherry and oak) only regenerate after larger
openings and/or in relation to forest edges.

Forest development objectives and management goals

1. Wood production
The forest development type has a high potential for production of hardwood in larger dimensions
and of good quality.
Beech: up to 65 cm with 100 to 140 years rotation.
Ash and sycamore: up to 55 cm with 70 and 110 years rotation respectively.

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2. Biological values
In most parts of the country the beech dominated forest is the potential natural vegetation:
Consequently, many indigenous species are connected to this forest development type. It has a great
potential for conserving biodiversity connected to the NATURA 2000 habitat type 9139 and 9150.
On fertile sites a typical mull-flora will develop with Mercurialis, Corydalis and Anemone.
Many insects connected to beech and to the beech dominated forests will be found here. Further,
beech is a good nesting tree and beech and cherry mast is important food source for many birds and
animals.

3. Recreational values
Through its mixture of indigenous species in combination with pronounced variation in size the
forest development type gives a multitude of recreational experiences and a pronounced closeness
and intimacy.
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Wood production

Occurrence

The forest development type belongs on protected sites in the eastern and northern parts of
Denmark on rich, well drained soils with good supply of water. It tolerates to a certain extend soils
with limited drainage.

12 Beech with ash and sycamore Soils with

Soils with free drainage limited
4 moderat fresh

drainage
3 moderate dry

7 80 - 160 cm

8 40 - 80 cm
6 very fresh
1 very dry

9 < 40 cm
5 fresh
2 dry
Nutrition level

1 very poor
2 poor
3 moderate poor
4 moderate rich
5 rich
6 very rich

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Beech with Douglas fir and larch
Forest development type 13

Species distribution

Beech: 40-60 %
Sycamore: up to 20 %
Douglas fir, larch, Norway spruce: up to 20 %
Birch, Scots pine, oak and others: up to 10 %

Structure and dynamics

Beech forest in single to multi cohort stands in mixture with Douglas fir, larch, maple, and spruce.
The mixed species occur in mainly in groups or as single trees. Beech regenerates in groups as well
as over larger areas. Sycamore, as a typical gap specialist regenerates in groups (gaps) together with
Douglas fir and Norway spruce, whereas Larch, Scots pine, oak and birch require larger
openings/clearings to regenerate and develop into the canopy.

Forest development objectives and management goals

1. Wood production
This forest development type has a great potential to produce quality timber of both conifer and
hardwood species.
Beech: up to 65 cm with 100 - 140 years rotation.
Douglas fir: up to 70 cm with 60 - 100 years rotation.
Larch: up to 60 cm with 80 - 140 years rotation.
Norway spruce: up to 45 cm with 70 - 90 years rotation.

2. Biological values
This forest development type resembles a natural beech forest and many of the species connected to
beech will be found here. Since this FDT will primarily occur on intermediate sites the ground flora

12
will generally be composed of the moder type. In the conifer dominated parts there is a potential for
specific conifer adapted flora and fauna.

3. Recreational values
The mixture of conifers and hardwoods provides variation in perception throughout the year. In
spring and summer it resembles a beech forest, whereas during the winter the impression of a
conifer forest will prevail. The forest development type provides a variation of plants, birds and
other animals throughout the year.
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Wood production

Occurrence

This forest development type belongs primarily in more sandy areas with glacial deposits (moraine)
in the northern and eastern parts of Jutland and on the Islands. Its best development will occur on
medium rich, well drained soils with medium to good water supply. Compared with the FDT 14
(Beech with spruce), this FDT will prevail on the better (more fertile) sites where beech grows well
and has a potential for quality production.

13 Beech with ash

Douglas
and sycamore
fir and larch Soils with
Soils with free drainage limited
4 moderat fresh

drainage
3 moderate dry

7 80 - 160 cm

8 40 - 80 cm
6 very fresh
1 very dry

9 < 40 cm
5 fresh
2 dry

1 very poor
Nutrition level

2 poor
3 moderate poor
4 moderate rich
5 rich
6 very rich

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Beech and spruce
Forest development type 14

Species distribution

Beech: 20-60 %
Douglas fir, silver fir/grand fir, Norway spruce/Sitka spruce: up to 60 %
Larch, maple, birch, Scots pine, oak, lime: 10-30 %

Structure and dynamics

This forest development type presents a mixed beech forest in a single to multi cohort stand in
mixture with Douglas fir, silver fir/grand fir, and spruce. Beech occurs as the main species in both
the canopy layer as well as in the under story. The mixed species occur mainly in groups or as
single trees.
Beech and the true firs regenerate under the canopy in groups, whereas Douglas fir regenerates in
larger gaps together with birch and larch. In case of larger natural disturbances (storms) oak, Scots
pine, larch and birch will regenerate and thereby reinstate the forest climate.

Forest development objectives and management goals

1. Wood production
The forest development type has a potential for production of quality conifer timber and to lesser
extend beech wood. In part beech will merely serve ecological functions.
Beech: up to 50 cm with 140 - 160 years rotation.
Douglas: up to 60 cm with 80 - 120 years rotation.
Spruce and fir: up to 45 cm with 80 - 120 years rotation.

2. Biological values
This forest development type encompasses the highest amount of conifers among the beech
dominated FDTs. Consequently, species connected to both beech and conifers are present and an

14
abundance of mushrooms, birds and wild life. Due to the high proportion of conifers moder and mor
types of flora will exist.

3. Recreational values
Mixed forests of conifers and hardwoods promote variation in expression both in space and during
the year. In spring, summer and fall the hardwood (beech) expression will be present, and in winter
the conifers will predominate. With its variation in trees, mushrooms, birds and other animals the
FDT will be attractive all through the year.
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Wood production

Occurrence

This FDT belongs on poor to medium rich, well drained soils with medium to good water supply.
FDT 14 is found on sandy soils in northern and eastern Jutland as well as northeast Zealand and on
the better sites/soils of the heath region including the glacial wash-out plain of south-west Jutland.
Compared with the FDT 13 (Beech with Douglas fir and larch), this FDT will prevail on the less
fertile sites where the potential for beech wood production is reduced.

14 Beech with
and spruce
ash and sycamore Soils with
Soils with free drainage limited
4 moderat fresh

drainage
3 moderate dry

7 80 - 160 cm

8 40 - 80 cm
6 very fresh
1 very dry

9 < 40 cm
5 fresh
2 dry

1 very poor
Nutrition level.

2 poor
3 moderate poor
4 moderate rich
5 rich
6 very rich

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Oak with ash and hornbeam
Forest development type 21

Species distribution

Oak: 50-70 %
Ash, hornbeam, lime and cherry: 20-40 %
Hazel, Norway maple: 10-20 %

Structure and dynamics

Oak forest (Q. robur and Q. petraea) in single cohort stands with a mixture of ash, lime, cherry,
field maple and hornbeam. Ash and cherry occur mainly in groups, lime as single trees, whereas
hornbeam, may tree and hazel make up the under story. If left unmanaged, such light demanding
species will tend to develop into a climax forest dominated by shade tolerant species such as beech
and lime. In order to promote the regeneration of the light demanding oak and cherry active
thinning is important. Creation of larger gaps, respectively smaller clear-cuts in combination with a
rapid canopy removal are necessary in the regeneration phase. Ash, Norway maple and sycamore
maple will regenerate in smaller gaps, whereas hornbeam and hazel regenerate easily under canopy.

Forest development objectives and management goals

1. Wood production
This forest development type has a high potential for production of high quality wood from oak and
other hardwood species:
Oak: Up to 65 cm with 120 to 140 years rotation.
Ash and sycamore maple: Up to 55 cm with 70, respectively 110 years rotation.
Bird cherry: Up to 50 cm with 60 to 80 years rotation.

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2. Biological values
This forest type rich in light intolerant tree species on mainly rich sites enables a very rich flora and
fauna. A high number of insects and invertebrate are connected especially to oak – up to 800
species. Oak mast is also coveted by deer, mice and many bird species

3. Recreational values
This mixed forest of mainly oak and other intolerant species with a pronounced under story and a
rich ground flora provides a multitude of recreational experiences through-out the year. From the
out-side the forest seems as closed and uninviting, from within, however, it can be experienced in
its variety of structures
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Wood production

Occurrence

This forest development type belongs on rich soils with good water supply in the eastern and south-
eastern parts of Denmark. In these areas it will dominate on heavy clay soils with limited drainage.

21 Beech
Oak with
with
ash
ash
and
and
hornbeam
sycamore Soils with
Soils with free drainage limited
4 moderat fresh

drainage
3 moderate dry

7 80 - 160 cm

8 40 - 80 cm
6 very fresh
1 very dry

9 < 40 cm
5 fresh
2 dry

1 very poor
Nutrition level.

2 poor
3 moderate poor
4 moderate rich
5 rich
6 very rich

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Oak with lime and beech

Forest development type 22

Species distribution

Oak: 60-80 %
Lime and beech: Up to 30 %
Birch, hornbeam, aspen, mountain ash: Up to 10 %

Structure and dynamics

Oak forest (Q. robur and Q. petraea) in single cohort stand with a mixture of lime and beech and
with hornbeam, birch, Scots pine and mountain ash in small groups. The well developed under story
consists of may tree, black elder, aspen and cherry. The regeneration of the light demanding oak
occurs in larger gaps or in combination with a rapid canopy removal.
The forest development type resembles the dynamic when oak coppice forest develops into high
forest. In the long time it tends to become beech dominated. To prevent this succession into a
climax forest the beech has to be managed by high thinning and the persistence of oak should be
supported by regeneration in larger groups, respectively in smaller clear-cuts. Invasion of conifers,
especially spruce, should be prevented by active interventions.

Forest development objectives and management goals

1. Wood production
This forest development type has a limited potential for quality wood production.
Oak and beech: Up to 50 cm with 100 - 150 years rotation.
The other species have potential for fuel wood.

2. Biological values
The forest development type forms light forests on intermediate to poor sites. It safeguards the
genetic variation of a number of indigenous tree and shrub species and their related flora and fauna.

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Typically the flora will be of the moder type. The oak forest is inhabited by many insects and bird
species and its acorns are important for both mammals and birds. As an insect pollinated species
lime is important for a number of insects.

3. Recreational values
This mixed oak forest is attractive through-out the year. This type will not be experienced as dense
as the ”Oak with ash and hornbeam” (FDT 21) mainly due to its less dark developed under story. It
is partly impenetrable; however, the closeness is making it possible to obtain a sense of being alone
in the forest.
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Occurrence

The forest development type develops well on poor to medium rich well drained soils with poor to
intermediate water supply. It tolerates also soils with limited drainage. It can improve the soil
conditions on degraded sites with thick mor-layers.

22 Beech
Oak with
with
lime
ashand
andbeech
sycamore Soils with
Soils with free drainage limited
4 moderat fresh

drainage
3 moderate dry

7 80 - 160 cm

8 40 - 80 cm
6 very fresh
1 very dry

9 < 40 cm
5 fresh
2 dry

1 very poor
Nutrition level.

2 poor
3 moderate poor
4 moderate rich
5 rich
6 very rich

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Oak with Scots pine and larch

Forest development type 23

Species distribution

Oak: 50-60 %
Scots pine: 20-50 %
Larch from 0 to 20 %
Birch, aspen and mountain ash up to 10 %

Structure and dynamics

Oak forest (Q. robur and Q. petraea) in single cohort stand with a mixture of Scots pine and larch
with birch and mountain ash in small groups, respectively as under story. Oak and Scots pine
dominate the canopy giving light for a number of indigenous scrubs, such as alder buckthorn and
European fly honeysuckle. Natural regeneration occurs in gaps. In order to promote the
regeneration of the light demanding oak and Scots pine larger gaps in combination with soil
preparation and a rapid canopy removal is recommended. Regeneration of conifer species needs to
be controlled.

Forest development objectives and management goals

1. Wood production
This forest development type, which is used on nutrient poor sands with limited water supply, has a
limited potential for wood production.
Oak: Up to 40 cm with 150 years rotation.
Scots pine: 30 - 40 cm with 100 - 120 years rotation.
Larch: 30 - 40 cm with 60 - 80 years rotation.

2. Biological values
This forest development type is dominated by indigenous species and gives under intermediate to
poor site conditions possibilities for developing a rich flora including an under story of shrubs. Both
oak and Scots pines are connected with a high number of insects and invertebrates.

20
3. Recreational values
Oak and Scots pine are typical light demanding pioneer species which in turn provide light
conditions to a diverse community of plants and animals. Through out the year there will be good
recreational qualities.
es
Bi
alu

olo
lv

g ic
na

23
al
tio

va
a
re

lu
c

es
Re

Wood production

Occurrence

This forest development type belongs on nutrient poor sites with poor to intermediate water supply.
It also tolerates soils with limited drainage. It can improve the soil conditions on degraded sites with
thick mor-layers.

23 Oak with Scots pine and larch Soils with

Soils with free drainage limited
4 moderat fresh

drainage
3 moderate dry

7 80 - 160 cm

8 40 - 80 cm
6 very fresh
1 very dry

9 < 40 cm
5 fresh
2 dry

1 very poor
Nutrition level.

2 poor
3 moderate poor
4 moderate rich
5 rich
6 very rich

21
Ash and alder

Forest development type 31

Species distribution

Ash: 50-70 %
Alder: 20-40 %
Oak, lime, Norway maple, hornbeam, birch: Up to 20 %

Structure and dynamics

Ash and black alder in single to multi cohort stand with a mixture of oak, birch and hornbeam,
frequently with a pronounced under-story consisting of hazel, elderberry, and wild cherry. The alder
will be dominant on wet sites, and ash will dominate in dryer areas. The regeneration of light
demanding alder and ash occurs in larger gaps. In order to promote regeneration of these light
demanding canopy species, it is important to control the, often very vigorous, under story.

Forest development objectives and management goals

1. Wood production
This forest development type has a potential for production of quality wood of ash and partly of
alder on rich, soils with limited drainage.
Ash: Up to 55 cm with 70 - 110 years rotation.

2. Biological values
This forest development type is potentially the most species rich forest type in Denmark. It often
provides an important transition between water bodies and forests on well drained sites. The ground
flora is typically dominated by Corydalis, Anemone, Arum. Several rare species may also occur,
such as Lathraea. There is often a rich bush layer as well, and dead and decaying alder is habitat for
many mosses and insects.

22
3. Recreational values
Ash and alder forests are mostly found in limited areas where they create a stimulating variation
with other forest types. This forest development type creates with its closed structures an
impression of a ”virgin” forest, which is difficult and exciting to penetrate.
es
Bi
alu

olo
lv

g ic
na

31
al
tio

va
a
re

lu
c

es
Re

Wood production

Occurrence

This forest development type belongs on medium to rich soils with a high ground water table as
well as on periodic water logged sites.

31 Beech
Ash and
with
alder
ash and sycamore Soils with
Soils with free drainage limited
4 moderat fresh

drainage
3 moderate dry

7 80 - 160 cm

8 40 - 80 cm
6 very fresh
1 very dry

9 < 40 cm
5 fresh
2 dry

1 very poor
Nutrition level.

2 poor
3 moderate poor
4 moderate rich
5 rich
6 very rich

23
Birch with Scots pine and spruce

Forest development type 41

Species distribution

Birch: 60-90 %
Scots pine, alder, Norway spruce/Sitka spruce: Up to 40 %
Mountain ash, oak, willow and others: Up to 10 %

Structure and dynamics

This forest development type consists of birch mostly in single to multi cohort stands with a mixture
of Scots pine and Norway spruce, oak, mountain ash and alder. At coastal sites with salt spray Sitka
spruce will replace Norway spruce. Scots pine and spruce will occur in groups and as single tree
mixtures. The regeneration of the light demanding birch occurs in larger gaps (up to 0, 5 ha)
together with Scots pine, oak and alder followed by the spruce species. On drained bogs this
succession will continue and the birch and Scots pine will not regenerate until larger clearings or
bigger natural disturbances occur. On un-drained or restored bogs the primary succession with birch
will continue with periodic natural break-downs on a small or large scale.

Forest development objectives and management goals

1. Wood production
This forest development type has a very limited potential for wood production. Big trees can
occasionally be extracted for fuel wood.

2. Biological values
Birch on peat soils often regenerates after the ending of peat extraction or grazing in an area.
Typically there has on such sites been one generation of spruce, and there is a great potential for
this forest development type after clear cutting this spruce, planted on drained bogs. The flora is
dominated by acidophilus species which vary according to the water conditions. Birch as well as

24
aspen and willow have a rather short life span, indicating a high proportion of dead wood and,
therefore, important habitats for fungi, insects and bird species.

3. Recreational values
This forest development type is mostly located on smaller sites contributing together with other
types to the variation of the landscape level with pockets of “wild” nature. In these areas there will
be good opportunities for spotting hollows with nesting birds such as wood peckers.
es
Bi
alu

olo
lv

g ic
na

al
tio

41
va
a
re

lu
c

es
Re

Wood production

Occurrence

This forest development type belongs on oligotrophic bogs and on poor soils with a high ground
water table and on periodic water logged sites. It can also develop adequately on nutrient rich peat
bogs.

41 Beech
Birch with
withScots
ash and
pinesycamore
and spruce Soils with
Soils with free drainage limited
4 moderat fresh

drainage
3 moderate dry

7 80 - 160 cm

8 40 - 80 cm
6 very fresh
1 very dry

9 < 40 cm
5 fresh
2 dry

1 very poor
Nutrition level.

2 poor
3 moderate poor
4 moderate rich
5 rich
6 very rich

25
Spruce with beech and maple

Forest development type 51

Species distribution

Norway spruce/Sitka, Douglas fir, silver fir, larch: Up to 60 %

Beech and maple: 20-30 %
Birch, mountain ash, aspen, Scots pine, oak, Norway maple: 10-20 %

Structure and dynamics

This forest development type is a mixed beech forest in single to multi cohort stands with a mixture
of Douglas fir, silver fir/grand fir, and spruce. The in-mixed species occur mainly in groups or as
single trees. Beech occurs mainly in the sub-canopy strata. Douglas fir regenerates in the larger
gaps together with birch and larch. Beech, maple, spruce and the true firs regenerate in smaller gaps
as well as under canopy. The pioneer species (birch, pine, mountain ash and aspen) regenerate in
larger openings mostly after storm damage where they create the starting point for succession
towards the climax and sub-climax species (beech, maple and spruce).

Forest development objectives and management goals

1. Wood production
This forest development type has a good potential for production of quality conifer wood:
Norway and Sitka spruce: 35 - 45 cm with 60 - 100 years rotation.
Douglas fir and larch: 45 - 55 cm with 60 – 120 years rotation.

2. Biological values
The forest development type with non native shade tolerant conifers has a limited potential for
ground flora development. Under slightly better light conditions mosses, ferns and Oxalis will
prevail. The in-mixed native broadleavf species should increase the floral diversity. Animals such
as red deer, squirrel and several bird species will be advanced.

26
3. Recreational values
Compared to stands of pure conifers this forest development type with its in-mixed broadleaf
species will have an increased visual variation especially during spring, summer and autumn. The
mixed forest generates spatial variation in size, colour and appearance, and the shade tree
dominated forest will create larger areas without undergrowth providing good opportunities for
observing wildlife.
es
Bi
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olo
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g ic
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al
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va
a
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51
Wood production

Occurrence

This forest development type belongs on poor to medium rich, well drained soils with a medium to
good supply of water.

51 Beech
Sprucewith
withash
beech
andand
sycamore
sycamore Soils with
Soils with free drainage limited
4 moderat fresh

drainage
3 moderate dry

7 80 - 160 cm

8 40 - 80 cm
6 very fresh
1 very dry

9 < 40 cm
5 fresh
2 dry

1 very poor
Nutrition level.

2 poor
3 moderate poor
4 moderate rich
5 rich
6 very rich

27
Sitka spruce with pine and broadleaves

Forest development type 52

Species distribution

Sitka spruce, silver fir, Scots pine, larch, contorta pine: 60-80 %
- (with no single species more than 40 %)
Birch, oak, mountain ash, beech and maple: 20-40 %

Structure and dynamics

Mixed Sitka spruce, silver fir, Scots pine, larch, contorta pine mostly in single cohort stands with
birch, oak, beech and maple in groups as well as single trees. Where the rather invasive contorta
pine is not already present it should not be introduced and where it is present it should be
controlled. This forest development type can appear in many different forms depending upon site
and species present. In the long run the proportion of broadleaf species should increase and contorta
pine should disappear.
The regeneration of these mainly pioneer and intolerant species takes place in a rather coarse
grained pattern after smaller to medium sized clear-cuts and/or after natural disasters (storm, fire,
and insects). Depending upon the size of the clearing and the seed trees present one or two conifer
species will regenerate together with a mix of broadleaf species.

Forest development objectives and management goals

1. Wood production
This forest development type has a potential for low quality timber production of mainly Sitka
spruce (due to the close proximity to the coast and therefore to wind and salt). In addition, larger
quantities of low quality wood may also be acquired.

2. Biological values
The coarse grained mosaic structure provides opportunities for different plants and animals
connected to these different tree species. The ground flora consists mainly of mosses and in the

28
openings the floral remnants of the original coastal heath land remain present. This FDT close to the
coast eill provide good habitats for wild life in general and especially for the red deer.

3. Recreational values
This forest development type provides medium-scale variation of different conifer species mixed
with indigenous broadleaf tree and bush species. It provides good opportunities for experiencing
variation in the different forest types – from closed and dark coniferous areas to light open areas
with mainly broadleaf species. It will be possible to observe wild life in the forest and in the forest
openings.
es
Bi
al u

olo
lv

gic
na

al
tio

va
ea

lue
cr
Re

52
s

Wood production

Occurrence

This forest development type belongs on poor to medium rich, well-drained soils with medium to
good water supply. It is closely connected to coastal areas with harsh climate conditions including
wind and salt deposition. Due to its large variation in species with different nutrient and water
requirements the forest type can adjust to different site conditions depending on the management
goals and species present.

52 Beech
Sitka spruce
with ash
with
and
pine
sycamore
and broadleaves Soils with
Soils with free drainage limited
4 moderat fresh

drainage
3 moderate dry

7 80 - 160 cm

8 40 - 80 cm
6 very fresh
1 very dry

9 < 40 cm
5 fresh
2 dry

1 very poor
Nutrition level.

2 poor
3 moderate poor
4 moderate rich
5 rich
6 very rich

29
Douglas fir, Norway spruce and beech

Forest development type 61

Species distribution

Douglas fir: 40-60 %

Beech: 20-40 %
Norway spruce and/or grand fir/silver fir: Up to 20 %
Maple, birch, mountain oak, Scots pine: Up to 10 %

Structure and dynamics

Douglas fir forest in single to multi cohort stand with a mixture of beech, silver fir/grand fir, and/or
spruce. The in-mixed species occur mainly in groups or as single trees. Douglas fir regenerates in
larger gaps together with birch and larch, whereas beech, spruce and the true firs regenerate in
smaller gaps as well as under canopy. Although coming from two different continents Douglas fir
and beech interact well together even in intimate mixture. Douglas will develop mainly in groups
and beech will appear as groups, single trees or over larger areas as under-story.
Beech and the true firs regenerate willingly under Douglas fir, whereas the regeneration of Douglas
fir and the pioneer species requires lighter canopies and/or larger openings.

Forest development objectives and management goals

1. Wood production
This forest development type aims at producing high quality Douglas timber of large dimensions (in
combination with pruning of selected trees). Spruce and fir have also production aims, whereas the
beech merely serves as a stabilising element safeguarding the forest climate and serving other
ecosystem functions.
Douglas fir: Up to 70 cm with 60 – 100 years rotation.
Beech: Up to 55 cm with 100 - 140 years rotation.

30
2. Biological values
This forest development type is dominated by conifers and will correspondingly develop a rather
limited variation of species. The stability and long life span of the Douglas fir and the presence of
beech will support long term continuity which in turn will promote forest floor diversity. Species –
especially birds - connected to conifer and broadleaf forests will be present.

3. Recreational values
This forest development type promotes spatial variation, and the mixture of conifer and broadleaf
trees gives variation in structure and colour throughout the year. In particular, the large Douglas firs
in combination with the beech create beautiful scenic views with good opportunities for observing
wild life – especially birds.
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olo
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a
re

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61
Wood production

Occurrence

This forest development type belongs on medium rich, well drained soils with medium to good
water supply.

61 Beech
Douglas
with
fir,ash
Norway
and sycamore
spruce and beech Soils with
Soils with free drainage limited
4 moderat fresh

drainage
3 moderate dry

7 80 - 160 cm

8 40 - 80 cm
6 very fresh
1 very dry

9 < 40 cm
5 fresh
2 dry

1 very poor
Nutrition level.

2 poor
3 moderate poor
4 moderate rich
5 rich
6 very rich

31
Silver fir and beech

Forest development type 71

Species distribution

Silver fir/grand fir: 40-50 %

Beech: 20-40 %
Norway/Sitka spruce, Douglas fir, and larch: Up to 20 %
Maple, birch, Scots pine, oak: Up to 10 %

Structure and dynamics

Silver fir and beech in multi cohort single tree to group-wise mixtures. Silver fir can be replaced by
grand fir, especially on dryer sites. Norway spruce will not be present in sites near to coast due to
salt deposition. Norway spruce, Sitka, Douglas and larch occur in groups or as single trees,
respectively. The regeneration of beech and the true firs develops under canopy, whereas the
regeneration of Douglas and larch takes place in gaps. This forest development type represents the
closest you can come to the classical selection forest (Plenterwald).

Forest development objectives and management goals

1. Wood production
This forest development type aims at production of conifer timber, whereas the broadleaf trees
merely serve stabilizing functions with limited production potential.
Norway/Sitka spruce, silver and grand fir: Up to 45 cm within 70 - 90 years.
Douglas fir: Up to 70 cm with 60 - 100 years rotation.
Beech: Up to 55 cm with 100 - 140 years rotation.

2. Biological values
This forest development type is dominated by exotic conifer species while ensuring the beech a
significant space providing opportunities for development of the indigenous flora and fauna. The

32
silver fir contributes to the creation of stable conifer forest systems encompassing Nordic floral
elements including several rare fern species.

3. Recreational values
This forest development type is dark and dense. It provides intimacy and the feeling of being alone.
Its fine grained mosaic structure with different species and sizes intimate mixed it offers a
pronounced uniformity over greater distances.
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Bi
alu

olo
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na

al
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va
a
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lu
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Re

71
Wood production

Occurrence

This forest development type belongs on medium rich, well drained soils with medium to good
water supply. It tolerates the wind and salt of the costal regions (except Norway spruce), where it
thrives even on shifting sand deposits up to 1½ m.

71 Beech
Silver fir
with
and
ash
beech
and sycamore Soils with
Soils with free drainage limited
4 moderat fresh

drainage
3 moderate dry

7 80 - 160 cm

8 40 - 80 cm
6 very fresh
1 very dry

9 < 40 cm
5 fresh
2 dry

1 very poor
Nutrition level.

2 poor
3 moderate poor
4 moderate rich
5 rich
6 very rich

33
Scots pine, birch and Norway spruce

Forest development type 81

Species distribution

Scots pine: 30-50 %

Birch: 20-40 %
Norway spruce/Sitka spruce: 10-30 %
Aspen, mountain ash, and others: Up to 10 %

Structure and dynamics

Scots pine mostly in single cohort stand with a mixture of birch and Norway spruce, respectively
and with Sitka spruce at coastal sites with salt spray. The groups can be of different sizes up to
smaller areas with one species and one age. This forest development type corresponds to the typical
Scandinavian mixed forest of Norway spruce, Scots pine and birch. The natural dynamic is based
on Scots pine and birch as pioneer species with spruce as part of the following succession. Spruce
will regenerate in groups, whereas the regeneration of the light demanding birch and Scots pine
occurs in larger gaps or smaller clearings. In order to secure regeneration of the pioneer species
small clear-cuts are essential.

Forest development objectives and management goals

1. Wood production
This forest development type is primarily located on dry and nutrient poor sites and has a limited
potential for wood production.
Norway and Sitka spruce: Up to 40 cm with 50 - 100 years rotation.
Scots pine: Up to 40 cm with 80 – 140 years rotation.

2. Biological values
This forest development type has the potential to preserve biodiversity connected to the Fenno-
Scandic spruce-pine-birch forest on poor mineral soil, as well as on peat. The rather short living
birch creates habitats for fungi, insects and birds connected to the presence of dead wood.

34
3. Recreational values
With its mixture of broadleaf and conifer species this forest development type provides visual
variation throughout the year. It offers the possibility of experiencing the Nordic flora and fauna
and secures Scots pine as a characteristic element in the landscape.
es
Bi
alu

olo
lv

g ic
na

81
al
tio

va
a
re

lu
c

es
Re

Wood production

Occurrence

This forest development type belongs on very poor soils with a poor to high water supply, and on
sites with insufficient drainage. It is a good choice on drained bogs and on peat soils, but should be
substituted with “Birch with Scots pine and spruce” (FDT no. 41) on decidedly wet sites.

81 Beech
Scots pine,
with ash
birch
and
andsycamore
Norway spruce Soils with
Soils with free drainage limited
4 moderat fresh

drainage
3 moderate dry

7 80 - 160 cm

8 40 - 80 cm
6 very fresh
1 very dry

9 < 40 cm
5 fresh
2 dry

1 very poor
Nutrition level.

2 poor
3 moderate poor
4 moderate rich
5 rich
6 very rich

35
Mountain pine

Forest development type 82

Species distribution

Mountain pine: 60-80 %

Oak, birch, mountain ash, aspen and others: 20-40 %
Willow and juniper: Up to 10 %

Structure and dynamics

Mountain pine mostly in single cohort stands in single tree, respectively group-wise mixture with
oak, birch, mountain ash, and aspen. This forest development type is extremely adapted to coastal
sites with wind and salt spray. The regeneration of pine and oak will occur in groups and as single
trees, whereas the regeneration of the light demanding birch occurs in larger gaps. The sizes of the
regeneration areas can vary to a great extent depending on the actual disturbance agent
(thinning/clear-cutting, forest fire, insect attack etc.). This forest development type is intended to be
developed from the mountain pine plantations along the west coast of Jutland, originally planted to
prevent sand drifting. At around 100 years of age these plantations tend to break down in groups or
over larger areas due to wild-fires giving space for natural regeneration of pine as well as other
species. To support this “natural” development smaller clear-cuts should be performed. This type is
only stable under extreme pressure from wind and salt. On more protected sites other species will
overgrow the mountain pine.

Forest development objectives and management goals

1. Wood production
This forest development type has a very limited potential for wood production mainly as wood
chips in connection with regeneration promoting clear-cuts.

2. Biological values
This type is dominated by a non-native species and its ecological potential should be seen in
relation to the in-mixed native species, as well as, its role in the over-all landscape dominated by
coastal heath. Here it provides protection for important wild-life including red deer and the rare
nightjar (Caprimulgus sp.).

36
3. Recreational values
This forest development type contributes to the creation of forest pockets in the coastal heath land
and, therefore, to the landscape variation and the wild-life in the coastal dune region. It provides
shelter and is with its crooked stems and low crowns difficult and fascinating to penetrate. Further,
it ensures the phenomenon “mountain pine carpet” for future generations.
es
Bi
alu

olo

82
lv

g ic
na

al
tio

va
a
re

lu
c

es
Re

Wood production

Occurrence

This forest development type belongs on the poorest soils with poor to high water supply and on
sites with insufficient drainage. It will only persist on very windy and salt exposed sites along the
west coast of Jutland, which today are covered with mountain pine plantations planted for dune
protection.

82 Mountain
Beech with
pine
ash and sycamore Soils with
Soils with free drainage limited
4 moderat fresh

drainage
3 moderate dry

7 80 - 160 cm

8 40 - 80 cm
6 very fresh
1 very dry

9 < 40 cm
5 fresh
2 dry

1 very poor
Nutrition level.

2 poor
3 moderate poor
4 moderate rich
5 rich
6 very rich

37
Coppice forest

Forest development type 91

Species distribution

Oak coppice: Oak, lime, hazel, aspen, birch and others

Hazel coppice: Hazel, ash, oak, alder, maple, elder berry and others
Alder coppice: Alder, ash, birch, willow, bird-cherry and others
Energy forest: Different willow and poplar clones

Structure and dynamics

Single cohort “age class” woodland regenerated from shoots formed at the stumps of the previous
crop trees, root suckers, or both, i.e., by vegetative means. It is an ancient silvicultural system based
on a short rotation for the production of small size material for fencing, fuel, house-building, etc. It
includes simple coppice forest (all trees are cut on a regular basis) and coppice-with-standards,
where single trees are left as an open canopy to produce some wood with larger dimensions.

The coppice forest consists of mainly intolerant pioneer species, which are able, when cut, to
regenerate from the stump or the root. The species composition depends on site and forest history.
The management system is based on clear-cuts and the establishment of equivalent areas of each
age-class, not less than 0.25 ha in order to secure enough light for the regeneration. The rotation age
can vary according to species and production purpose - alder coppice between 20 and 40 years, oak
coppice from 40 to 60 years, whereas the rotation age of willow energy plantations is less than 5
years.

Forest development objectives and management goals

1. Wood production
In earlier times the coppice forest had an important economic rationale delivering material for
fences, fuel, tools, barrels, houses etc. Today these products have no importance. However, the
coppice forest possibly will experience a rebirth in order to contribute to CO2-neutral energy.

38
2. Biological values
The coppice forest contributes significantly to the preservation of biodiversity, since many red-
listed species are related to this ancient land-use system. Several tree and shrub species connected to
“virgin” forest are found here.

3. Recreational values
The coppice forest presents quite a different forest with a cultural legacy. As such, coppice forests
represent a cultural identity for the landscape. The hazel coppice provides an orderly impression,
whereas the oak and alder coppice appear wild.
es
Bi
alu

olo
lv

g ic
na

al
tio

91
va
a
re

lu
c

es
Re

Wood production

Occurrence

The coppice forest or merely their remnants are present in many parts of the country. Today about
6000 ha of former coppice forests exists; of which 4000 ha are abandoned oak coppice.
Oak coppice: On intermediate sites
Hazel coppice: On nutrient rich sites with good water supply
Alder coppice: On intermediate to rich sites, that are periodically water logged

91 Coppice
Coppice forest
forest Soils with
Soils with free drainage limited
4 moderat fresh

drainage
3 moderate dry

7 80 - 160 cm

8 40 - 80 cm
6 very fresh
1 very dry

9 < 40 cm
5 fresh
2 dry
Nutrition level

1 very poor
2 poor
3 moderate poor
4 moderate rich
5 rich
6 very rich

39
Grazing forest
Forest development type 92

Species distribution

Tree species: Oak, beech, lime, birch and others

Scrubs species: Hawthorn, blackthorn, juniper, and others
The number of trees and the tree covered part of the grazing forest can vary from fully open to
completely close. In general, a grazing forest with intolerant (pioneer) tree species can include more
trees than one characterized by tolerant (shade) trees. If grazing is a priority, then pioneer species
should be the preferred choice. Correspondingly, the number of species and the distribution of trees
can vary. The grazing forest is further characterised by many species which can tolerate a high
browsing pressure such as hawthorn, blackthorn, and juniper.

Structure and dynamics

The grazing forest can ideally be characterized as an open landscape with trees and shrubs
distributed unevenly from single trees over groups of trees and to closed forest stands. As an ancient
land-use system it combines the pastoralists need for grass/hay and tree related fodder (acorn,
foliage fodder) with multi-purpose wood production.
Vegetation characterized by continuous grassland with scattered trees or large shrubs; often builds a
transitional type between true grassland and forestland. Without permanent grazing the vegetation
type will evolve into dense forest. Regeneration will typically include planting and fencing,
although some trees may develop through the protection of scrubs. Thinning will mainly be
conducted in order to develop stability of the single tree and to control species distribution and
composition.

Forest development objectives and management goals

1. Wood production
The grazing forest has a certain potential for both wood and meat production. The grazing is mainly
done with domestic animals (cows, horses, and sheep). It can also be combined with game farming

40
(red deer, fallow deer). The economic aspects of this forest development type are limited, its
biological and recreational features are more important.

2. Biological values
The grazing forest contributes with its continuity, variation, and its multitude of ecological
transitions (eco-clines) outstanding options for biodiversity protection. It creates habitats for
numerous fungi and insects, many of which are red-listed.

3. Recreational values
The forest development type creates beautiful scenic views and important landscape values (the
savannah landscape) and it contributes to the protection of essential historical values. The grazing
forest makes important features in the landscape by marking the transition from the open landscape
into the forest thereby “creating” space where domestic stock can be observed together with wild-
life often in connection with scenic geomorphologic and pre-historic features.
es

92
Bi
alu

olo
lv

g ic
na

al
tio

va
a
re

lu
c

es
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Wood production

Occurrence

Grazing forest occurs on all types of sites, but can only be maintained with high grazing pressure.
This forest type goes back to Neolithic times, more than 6000 years ago, and was forbidden by the
Forest Act of 1805. Consequently, the grazing forest has only “survived” in connection with fenced
deer-parks. Today the current law enables forest grazing, and as a result of this forest development
type is on its way back into the forest.

92 Coppice
Grazing forest
forest Soils with
Soils with free drainage limited
4 moderat fresh

drainage
3 moderate dry

7 80 - 160 cm

8 40 - 80 cm
6 very fresh
1 very dry

9 < 40 cm
5 fresh
2 dry
Nutrition level.

1 very poor
2 poor
3 moderate poor
4 moderate rich
5 rich
6 very rich

41
Forest meadow
Forest development type 93

Species distribution

The forest meadow is characterized by the absence of trees. However, the transition between
meadow and the surrounding forest is especially important – both for biodiversity in general but in
particular for the conservation of light demanding tree and scrub species which are endangered in
the production forest in particular. As such transition zones (edges) serve as gene banks for Prunus,
Malus and Pyrus species.

Structure and dynamics

This forest development type has its historic “roots” in the hay-meadows of earlier times. However,
the type here evolved has the broader aim to fulfil the need for permanent openings in the forest in
order to develop specific ecologic and recreational values. This call for permanent openings is
accentuated by the move from classical age-class forestry to nature-based silviculture. Further,
creating habitats for light demanding organisms, including threatened tree and scrub species by
establishing and maintaining forest edges inside the forest, is imperative.
Grassland, where productivity of indigenous forage is modified due to grazing or mowing will stay
rather unchanged. The dynamic is, therefore, concentrated on the forest-edges, which will develop
specific structures and dynamics according to the species present, the size, the site, and the position.
A compact and species rich turf is developed by mowing after July 1. Single trees can be
maintained in the meadow, otherwise interventions are concentrated on the forest edges. Valuable
trees and shrubs should be liberated and/or protected if necessary. By supplementary planting local
seed sources of indigenous species should be preferred. Regeneration will often take place by
coppicing, and the use of pollarding of larger trees should be supported to prevent the meadow from
closing in without removing the forest edge.

Forest development objectives and management goals

1. Wood production
Forest meadows produce hay as well as wood mainly for fuel. Further, it provides berries, fruit, nuts
and mushrooms. The costs of management (cultivation) can often be reduced by giving the grazing
rights to local farmers.

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2. Biological values
The forest meadow is potentially a very species rich nature type. It has a special function in the
nature-based forest by replacing the non-permanent openings (clear-cuts) of the age-class forest
with permanent ones. As such they will significantly stabilize and improve the light-open habitats
and protect their inhabitants.

3. Recreational values
The forest meadow creates openings in the forest where wild flowers, butterflies, and wild life can
be observed. It is a place for picnics, and it provides berries, fruits and mushrooms at different times
of the year thereby providing a more utilitarian role for the forest. Further, it offers the possibility to
observe the forest from the distance.

93
es
Bi
alu

olo
lv

g ic
na

al
tio

va
a
re

lu
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Wood production

Occurrence

Originally forest meadows were located on moist sites. With its new purpose it can be placed on all
sites often in relation to relics of the past. They can only be maintained through grazing or mowing
(hay meadow, native meadow, wet meadow, or other designations).

93 Coppice
Forest meadow
forest Soils with
Soils with free drainage limited
4 moderat fresh

drainage
3 moderate dry

7 80 - 160 cm

8 40 - 80 cm
6 very fresh
1 very dry

9 < 40 cm
5 fresh
2 dry
Nutrition level.

1 very poor
2 poor
3 moderate poor
4 moderate rich
5 rich
6 very rich

43
Unmanaged forest

Forest development type 94

Species distribution

Non-intervention forests are characterized by the absence of human intervention. Depending upon
the starting point these forests can have all kind of species composition (from native species to
exotics). When left unmanaged they will tend to develop a composition according to those species
which can survive and reproduce under the actual site conditions (soil and climate).

Structure and dynamics

Depending upon the magnitude of past intervention these forests can be in a more or less natural
state (from semi-natural forests to artificial plantation forests). Left untouched they will develop
structures and dynamics according to the natural disturbance regime and the species present and
those likely to invade. The dynamic will depend on the starting point but controlled by natural
disturbances, hence, the development is unpredictable. If the starting point is very homogeneous
(such as conifer plantation) large scale disturbances are expected more likely than a more nature-
near mixed broadleaf forest that is left unmanaged. As time passes the forest will develop virgin-
like features such as natural hydrology, species diversity, structural complexity, dead wood, etc.

Forest development objectives and management goals

1. Wood production
The unmanaged forest has no production rationale.

2. Biological values
This forest development type liberates the ecological processes which to a smaller and often larger
extent are controlled in all other forest types. Due to the consequent shielding of ecosystem

44
processes the forest will over time develop habitats threatened by management and thereby creating
spaces for organisms which are endangered in the managed forest. Thus, the unmanaged forest
gains great importance for biodiversity protection. The high level of dead wood (standing and lying)
creates habitats for many red-listed fungi, plants, insects, birds and mammals.

3. Recreational values
This forest development type develops over time an untidy, chaotic expression, composed of
“virgin forest like“ features. As such it contributes to the understanding of nature and natural
processes in a highly organized cultural landscape, where nature is strongly controlled.
es
Bi
alu

olo

94
lv

g ic
na

al
tio

va
a
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lu
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es
Re

Wood production

Occurrence

All Danish forests are or have been heavily influenced by man, there are no virgin forests in
Denmark. Correspondingly, there are only a few examples of forest with a long “untouched”
history. Suserup and Draved are such forests without human intervention for about 100 years, and
they are now protected. There are, however, many smaller woodlands and forest patches, which by
chance have been “forgotten” over a longer period. Such areas are eminent starting points for
natural (untouched) development according this forest development type.
Non-intervention forest can in principle be initiated in all forests and on all types of sites just by
stopping human intervention.

91 Unmanaged
Coppice forest
forest Soils with
Soils with free drainage limited
4 moderat fresh

drainage
3 moderate dry

7 80 - 160 cm

8 40 - 80 cm
6 very fresh
1 very dry

9 < 40 cm
5 fresh
2 dry
Nutrition level.

1 very poor
2 poor
3 moderate poor
4 moderate rich
5 rich
6 very rich

45
References
Emborg, J., Christensen, M., and Heilmann-Clausen, J., 2000. The structural dynamics of Suserup
Skov, a near-natural temperate deciduous forest in Denmark. Forest Ecology and Management
126: 173-189.

Grassi, G., Minotta, G., Giannini, R. and Bagnaresi, U. 2003: The structural dynamics of managed
uneven-aged conifer stands in the Italian eastern Alps. Forest Ecology and Management 185:
225-237.

Jenssen, M. and Hofmann, G., 1996. Der natürliche Entwicklungszyklus des baltischen Perlgras-
Buchenwaldes (Melico-Fagetum). Forstwirtschaft und Landschaftsökologie 30(3): 114-124.

Larsen, J.B., Jakobsen, M., Jensen, M., Nielsen A.B., Granat, H., 2005. Forest Development Types.
In Larsen (Ed.) Nature-based Forest Management, Dansk Skovbrugs Tidsskrift, 90, 1-400 (in
Danish).

Larsen, J.B. and Nielsen, A.B., 2007. Nature-based forest management – where are we going? –
Elaboration forest development types in and with practice. Forest Ecology and management,
238, 107-117, 2007.

Meyer, H. and Neumann, M., 1981. Struktureller und entwicklungsdynamischer Vergleich der
Fichten-Tannen-Büchen-Urwalder Rothwald/Nideröstereich und Corkova Uvala/Kroation.
Forstwiss. Centralblatt 100: 111-132.

Mueller-Dombois, D., 1987. Natural Dieback in Forests. Group of neighbouring trees may die in
response to natural phenomena, as well as to stress induced by human activity. BioScience
37(8): 575-583.

Perpeet, M., 2000. Zur Anwendung von Waldentwicklungstypen (WET). Forstarchiv 71: 143-152.

Zukrigl, K., Eckhardt, G., Nather, J., 1963. Standortskundliche und waldbauliche Untersuchungen
in Urwaldresten der niederösterreichischen Kalkalpen. Mitteilungen Forst
Bundesversuchanstalt Wien 62.

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