Lab Organization, Management & Safety Methods (698)

Semester: Spring, 2022

Name :Kaleem Ullah

Q.1 Keeping in view rules for storage of Chemicals write the conditions or chemicals where
these substances should not be stored:
Cetic acid
Acetic acid should not be sorted or stored with:
Nitric acid. Hydroxyl compounds. Ethylene glycol. Perchloric acid.
Ammonium nitrate
Where the presence of drains, etc is unavoidable, they should be protected so that molten
ammonium nitrate cannot run into them. Locate storage away from possible sources of heat, fire
or explosion, such as oil storage, gas pipelines, timber yards, flammable liquids, flammable solids
and combustible materials.
Arsenic compound
Arsenic cannot be destroyed within its surroundings. It undergoes modifications of its type or
combines or separates from particles. The most relevant case of As toxicity by food occurred
within the western areas of Japan (Kinki, Chugoku, Shikoku, and Kyushu) in 1955. These
compounds were accidentally mixed into Morinaga's dried milk, made by the Tokushima plant of
the Morinaga Milk Company.
Azides
Store synthesized azides below room temperature and away from sources of heat, light,
pressure, and shock. Store SAZ (solid as well as solutions) away from bromine, carbon disulfide,
dimethyl sulfate, nitric acid, heavy metals and their salts.
Chlorates
Do not store perchloric acid near or in contact with combustible materials such as cotton,
wood, excelsior, paper, burlap, rags, grease, oil, or organic compounds. Perchloric acid must
be stored separately in a deep glass tray with sufficient capacity to hold the entire contents in case
of breakage. Chlorine should not be stored with ammonia, acetylene, benzene, butadiene,
hydrogen, any petroleum gases, sodium carbide or turpentine
Carbon
Carbon is sequestered in soil by plants through photosynthesis and can be stored as soil organic
carbon (SOC). Agroecosystems can degrade and deplete the SOC levels but this carbon deficit
opens up the opportunity to store carbon through new land management practices. Soil can also
store carbon as carbonates.
flammable liquids
Flammable liquids shall not be stored in areas used for exits, stairways, or normally used for
the safe passage of people. "Indoor storage of flammable liquids." No more than 25 gallons of
flammable liquids shall be stored in a room outside of an approved storage cabinet.
Hydrocarbons
There are two common options for above ground hydrocarbon storage, Tank and Bund and
Double Walled/Skinned Tanks. Both have certain benefits and shortcomings which are
summarised below. Hydrocarbons can be stored in below-ground tanks, this is the topic for another
InSight.
Hydrofluoric acids
Do not store HF waste in glass or metal containers. Medical personnel should be warned about
the HF, and a copy of SDS must be provided to them. All exposure or contact with HF shall receive
immediate first aid and medical evaluation even if the injury appears minor, or there is no sense
of pain
Dimethylesulphoxide (DMSO)
If there is no degradation while dissolving DMSO, you can store the solution in a refrigerator.
Freezing might cause crystallizing your compound
Q.2 Visit two laboratories. Find the system of locating items or chemicals from different
locations of stored materials.
before we start rounding up bottles of chemicals and reorganizing our labs, we need to make sure
we have the proper PPE. At a minimum, this should include appropriate chemical-resistant gloves
and eye protection, closed-toe shoes (essential for working in the laboratory), and lab coats and/or
chemical aprons (used when needed or when required by your laboratory safety policy).
Once we have collected our PPE, there are just a couple more things to gather before we begin
moving those chemical containers around. Survey your surroundings, and take notice of any
potential trip hazards and locations of work stations where others are busy. Make sure exits,
passageways, and emergency equipment areas (i.e., eyewash and safety showers) are clear and free
of stored materials. Locate and have close at hand a full spill kit with appropriate absorbent
materials, neutralizing agents, cleanup utensils, and waste containers.
Here are our pointers for moving chemicals safely:
• Never move visibly degrading chemicals and containers. Report these to your lab
supervisor or principle investigator.
• Whenever transporting chemicals, place bottles in appropriate, leak-proof secondary
containers to protect against breakage and spillage. A good example is using a special
plastic tote for carrying four-liter glass bottles of corrosives or solvents.
• When moving multiple, large, or heavy containers, use sturdy carts. Ensure cart wheels are
large enough to roll over uneven surfaces without tipping or stopping suddenly. If carts are
used for secondary containment make sure the trays are liquid-tight and have sufficient lips
on all four sides.
• Do not transport chemicals during busy times such as break times or (for those academic
laboratories) lunch periods or class changes.
• Use freight elevators for moving hazardous chemicals whenever possible to avoid potential
incidents on crowded passenger elevators. Remember to remove gloves when pushing
elevator buttons or opening doors.
• Never leave chemicals unattended.
Safely storing chemicals in a laboratory or stockroom requires diligence and careful consideration.
Correct use of containers and common lab equipment is critical. To store chemicals safely, DO the
following;
 • Label all chemical containers fully. We recommend including the owner’s or user’s name
along with the date received.
• Provide a specific storage space for each chemical, and ensure return after each use.
• Store volatile toxics and odoriferous chemicals in ventilated cabinets. Please check with
your environmental health and safety personnel for specific guidance.
• Store flammable liquids in approved flammable liquid storage cabinets. Small amounts of
flammable liquids may be stored in the open room. Check with your local authority (e.g.,
fire marshal, EH&S personnel) for allowable limits.
• Separate all chemicals, especially liquids, according to compatible groups. Follow all
precautions regarding storage of incompatible materials. Post a chemical compatibility
chart for reference, both in the lab and next to chemical storage rooms.
• Use appropriate resistant secondary containers for corrosive materials. This protects the
cabinets and will catch any leaks or spills due to breakage.
• Seal containers tightly to prevent the escape of vapors.
• Use designated refrigerators for storing chemicals. Label these refrigerators CHEMICAL
STORAGE ONLY—NO FOOD. Never store flammable liquids in a refrigerator unless it
is specifically designed and approved for such storage. Use only explosion-proof (spark-
free) refrigerators for storing flammables.
Q.3 Write the uses of following in science laboratory:
Galvanometer
A galvanometer is an electromechanical measuring instrument for electric current. Early
galvanometers were uncalibrated, but improved versions, called ammeters, were calibrated and
could measure the flow of current more precisely.
A galvanometer works by deflecting a pointer in response to an electric current flowing through
a coil in a constant magnetic field. Galvanometers can be thought of as a kind of actuator.
Galvanometers came from the observation, first noted by Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820, that
a magnetic compass's needle deflects when near a wire having electric current. They were the first
instruments used to detect and measure small amounts of current. André-Marie Ampère, who gave
mathematical expression to Ørsted's discovery, named the instrument after[1] the Italian electricity
researcher Luigi Galvani, who in 1791 discovered the principle of the frog galvanoscope – that
electric current would make the legs of a dead frog jerk.
Galvanometers have been essential for the development of science and technology in many fields.
For example, in the 1800s they enabled long-range communication through submarine cables, such
as the earliest transatlantic telegraph cables, and were essential to discovering the electrical activity
of the heart and brain, by their fine measurements of current.
Galvanometers have also been used as the display components of other kinds of analog meters
(e.g., light meters and VU meters), capturing the outputs of these meters' sensors. Today, the main
type of galvanometer still in use is the D'Arsonval/Weston type.
Modern galvanometers, of the D'Arsonval/Weston type, are constructed with a small pivoting coil
of wire, called a spindle, in the field of a permanent magnet. The coil is attached to a thin pointer
that traverses a calibrated scale. A tiny torsion spring pulls the coil and pointer to the zero position.
When a direct current (DC) flows through the coil, the coil generates a magnetic field. This field
acts against the permanent magnet. The coil twists, pushing against the spring, and moves the
pointer. The hand points at a scale indicating the electric current. Careful design of the pole pieces
ensures that the magnetic field is uniform so that the angular deflection of the pointer is
proportional to the current. A useful meter generally contains a provision for damping the
mechanical resonance of the moving coil and pointer, so that the pointer settles quickly to its
position without oscillation.
The basic sensitivity of a meter might be, for instance, 100 microamperes full scale (with a voltage
drop of, say, 50 millivolts at full current). Such meters are often calibrated to read some other
quantity that can be converted to a current of that magnitude. The use of current dividers, often
called shunts, allows a meter to be calibrated to measure larger currents. A meter can be calibrated
as a DC voltmeter if the resistance of the coil is known by calculating the voltage required to
generate a full-scale current. A meter can be configured to read other voltages by putting it in a
voltage divider circuit. This is generally done by placing a resistor in series with the meter coil. A
meter can be used to read resistance by placing it in series with a known voltage (a battery) and an
adjustable resistor. In a preparatory step, the circuit is completed and the resistor adjusted to
produce full-scale deflection. When an unknown resistor is placed in series in the circuit the current
will be less than full scale and an appropriately calibrated scale can display the value of the
previously unknown resistor.
These capabilities to translate different kinds of electric quantities into pointer movements make
the galvanometer ideal for turning the output of other sensors that output electricity (in some form
or another), into something that can be read by a human.
Because the pointer of the meter is usually a small distance above the scale of the
meter, parallax error can occur when the operator attempts to read the scale line that "lines up"
with the pointer. To counter this, some meters include a mirror along with the markings of the
principal scale. The accuracy of the reading from a mirrored scale is improved by positioning one's
head while reading the scale so that the pointer and the reflection of the pointer are aligned; at this
point, the operator's eye must be directly above the pointer and any parallax error has been
minimized.
Wheatstone bridge
A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical resistance by
balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown component. The
primary benefit of the circuit is its ability to provide extremely accurate measurements (in contrast
with something like a simple voltage divider).[1] Its operation is similar to the
original potentiometer.
The Wheatstone bridge was invented by Samuel Hunter Christie (sometimes spelled "Christy") in
1833 and improved and popularized by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843. One of the Wheatstone
bridge's initial uses was for soil analysis and comparison.
In the figure, Rx is the fixed, yet unknown, resistance to be measured.
R1, R2, and R3 are resistors of known resistance and the resistance of R2 is adjustable. The
resistance R2 is adjusted until the bridge is "balanced" and no current flows through
the galvanometer Vg. At this point, the potential difference between the two midpoints (B and D)
will be zero. Therefore the ratio of the two resistances in the known leg (R2 / R1) is equal to the
ratio of the two resistances in the unknown leg (Rx / R3). If the bridge is unbalanced, the direction
of the current indicates whether R2 is too high or too low.
At the point of balance,
Detecting zero current with a galvanometer can be done to extremely high precision. Therefore,
if R1, R2, and R3 are known to high precision, then Rx can be measured to high precision. Very
small changes in Rx disrupt the balance and are readily detected.
Alternatively, if R1, R2, and R3 are known, but R2 is not adjustable, the voltage difference across
or current flow through the meter can be used to calculate the value of Rx, using Kirchhoff's circuit
laws. This setup is frequently used in strain gauge and resistance thermometer measurements, as
it is usually faster to read a voltage level off a meter than to adjust a resistance to zero the voltage.
Magnets
Magnets have been proving its worth every day with its incredible function by making the most
strenuous tasks easier. With the various uses of magnets in daily life, we can do heavy lifting which
is not humanly possible to do every day. Magnets play an important role in various devices which
can be a small toy or a heavy 100-ton device to pick up heavy metals. We come across magnets in
various forms such as computers, MRI machines or inside some appliances which are used in the
house, business or medical industry. The size can be from very small to the large giant like
structures. Some magnet uses at home, in the laboratory and in daily life is provided in the points
below.
• We might be using computers in our day to day lives but never wondered the presence of
a magnet inside it. Magnetic elements present on a hard disk helps to represent computer
data which is later ‘read’ by the computer to extract information.
• Magnets are used inside TVs, Sound speakers and radios. The small coil of wire and a
magnet inside a speaker transforms the electronic signal to sound vibrations.
• Magnets are used inside a generator to transform mechanical energy to electrical
energy where there are other kinds of motors which use magnets to change electrical
energy to mechanical energy.
• Electrically charged magnets can help cranes to move large metal pieces.
• Magnets are used in filtering machines which separates metallic ores from crushed rocks.
• It is also used in food processing industries for separating small metallic pieces from grains
etc.
• Magnets are used in MRI machines which are used to create an image of the bone structure,
organs, and tissues. Even magnets are used to cure cancer.
• At home, you use magnets when you stick a paper on the refrigerator in order to remember
something. Attaching a magnetic bottle opener to the fridge can come in handy.
• We often use pocket a compass to find out directions when we are on a trek. The pocket
compass uses a magnetic needle to point north.
 • The dark strip on the back of debit and credit cards is of magnetic nature and are used to
store data just like computers’ hard drives.
• Magnets can help collect all the nails which are scattered on the ground after a repair job.
Forceps
Forceps are hinged, handheld instruments commonly used in the medical field. Outside of the
medical field, forceps-like instruments are sometimes known as tweezers, pliers, tongs, etc.
What are forceps used for? Many people associate forceps with childbirth, but they have other
applications as well. Forceps are typically used to grasp, hold or produce traction on an object.
Forceps function as a set of levers working together. Principles of mechanical advantage determine
the forceps science used to design different forceps. A greater distance from the hinge to the handle
will create more mechanical advantage and be easier to open and close and will clamp with greater
force. A smaller distance from the hinge to the clamps will also generate more clamping force.
Forceps can be made out of plastic; these are designed to be used once and then disposed of.
Repeated sterilization is required when forceps are being used for surgical purposes. These forceps
need to be made out of high-grade carbon steel to be durable enough to go through repeated
sterilization processes. There are two primary types of forceps: locking and non-locking forceps.
Non-locking forceps open and close repeatedly controlled by simple hand motion. They can be
hinged at one end and closed at the other end. Outside of medical use, this type of forceps would
be called tweezers. Some non-locking forceps are hinged in the middle and look similar to scissors.
Unlike scissors, the ends of the forceps are flat to grasp or hold instead of to cut.
Locking forceps lock the clamping surfaces together or closed. This allows an object to remain
held or grasped so that it can be easily manipulated or moved.
Q.4 What is condition of Practical Science in low income countries?
Research and development (R&D) offer promising clues to address a wide range of socioeconomic
problems through the development of new products and services or often by improving the existing
ones. High-income countries (HICs) have realized the worth of R&D and invested tremendously
in that sector; however, resource-poor low-income countries (LICs) are still far behind in realizing
the potential benefit that R&D could offer for economic growth and national development. Even
if some LICs have a positive outlook towards the R&D sector, the trend of emulating works from
HICs to solve local or regional issues have most often yielded counterproductive results. LICs are
suggested primarily to focus on applied research by incorporating their socioeconomic and cultural
aspects to solve their everyday problems whose investigation is often ignored in research-intensive
nations. Moreover, applied research in LICs offers the potential to provide low-cost and innovative
solutions to local and regional problems with global implications. Good research drives most of
the advancements across all scientific disciplines. How do we know if climate change is real? We
need to conduct research: plot long-run temperature, rainfall, and carbon emissions and analyze
them to determine any significant trends that might be of concern. How do we know which
medications will help us feel better when we are sick? We need to conduct research, perhaps ask
people to participate in double-blind trials for new medications. How do we know which fertilizer
best helps a plant grow? We need to conduct research, maybe conduct randomized controlled trials
under various environmental settings. The medications that we take, fertilizers that we apply in
fields and even gadgets, which have become integral to our lives, were part of the investigational
program in the past and we only use them because researchers have examined them and determined
that they are effective and helpful for our overall betterment. R&D necessitates resource allocation
in advance; however, the resulting innovations serve to reduce the costs through more efficient
production processes or the product itself (Kenton, 2019).
Scientific research is a pre-requisite for human and societal development. There is a strong
correlation between the level of advancement of scientific research and the standard of living
(Badr, 2018). Results from careful research can be utilized to create wealth, increase the nation's
worth, and boost the socioeconomic and political situation of the country. Innovation through
quality research and subsequent patent rights have an additive effect on a nation's wealth and
positive ripple effects on the economy. For example, China succeeded in lifting its 700 million
people by domestic innovations and new start-up businesses (NDRC, 2016; Trivedi, 2018).
Similarly, South Korea and Israel also boosted its economy through intensive R&D and subsequent
integration into the global market. South Korea presents a vivid example of how a country,
comparable with other poorer countries of Asia and Africa in 1960s, transcended to a trillion-dollar
economy in 2004 by integrating R&D into their national strategy and spending more than 4% of
gross domestic product (GDP) annually on R&D, with the majority being on applied research
sector (Reddy, 2011). Israel is also exemplary in how a country primarily occupied by arid land
succeeded to become one of the largest exporters of agricultural commodities through innovation
following uninterruptible research.
According to the World Bank, countries with gross national income per capita below $955 are
LICs and include 33 countries (World Bank, 2016; Table 1). LICs have limited resources with
most of them having a GDP size of < $500 billion and per capita GDP < $2,000 (CIA, 2019). LICs
are mostly located in the southern hemisphere of the globe. While most countries in the northern
hemisphere, high-income countries (HICs), have outpaced issues such as poverty and
underdevelopment long ago, their counterparts in the south are still stricken with domestic conflict,
poverty, malnutrition and food crisis leaving them far behind in terms of cherishing life amenities
and modern infrastructural development. Keeping aside many factors influencing the success of
HICs, one of them is that HICs were able to draw clues and trace a path to rapid development
through timely and careful research and its subsequent development. HICs including the United
States, Japan, and Great Britain, besides prospering themselves, inspired many other nations on
how to identify the problems and tackle them through demand-driven research, ultimately
benefiting citizens and leaving some spillovers around the globe. Today, if we look carefully at
the way of living, infrastructures, ongoing innovation, national policies regarding both present and
future goals and the like, we can feel that there are many small globes within our globe. Just
standing somewhere in the United States, Germany, or Japan and conversely standing in
Afghanistan, Somalia, or even Nepal can give a “big picture” of the vast disparity resembling
completely different globes across different continents. LICs account for ~85% of the global
disease burden with the majority of the population fighting against poverty-related malnutrition,
infectious diseases (both airborne and waterborne), hunger, and environmental brunt like climate
change, famine, water scarcity, and deforestation on a day-to-day basis (Batterman et al.,
2009; Thomas, 2015). As a result, R&D is not under a government priority in LICs with investment
being <1% of their GDP (Gaillard, 2010). This is unsurprising due to three reasons: First, LICs are
still struggling to meet the necessities of food, clothing, and shelter of their citizens. This leaves
the government with only a few surplus resources to invest in R&D. Furthermore, LICs typically
finance most of their research with public funds, unlike HICs where the business sector funds most
research activities. This fosters stronger budget austerity, making it more important to understand
the effect of R&D budget allocation decisions (Gonzalez-Brambila et al., 2016). Research requires
substantial financial investment over a protracted period. Some pioneer research might take up to
a decade or even more to get meaningful results, while some other cutting-edge research after
laboratory experimentation needs validation in the field condition. All of these processes demand
perseverance and continuous financial commitment over a prolonged period that is difficult to
secure in LICs.
Second, with more important social issues, political parties and bureaucrats in LICs believe that
research is a sack into which money is poured and from which nothing of apparent value is reaped.
They also perceive R&D as a waste of limited resources. This preconceived notion of political
personnel and bureaucrats deters from making a proper budget allocation in the R&D sector.
Instead, they focus on immediate needs having practical values: eradication of hunger, control of
infectious and debilitating diseases, decrease in the unemployment rate, and raising the quality of
life of their citizens, but in a conventional way. In other words, LICs are more focused on those
issues that have immediate results to society and the economy as a whole. For example, the national
campaign for vitamin A and polio vaccination, where simple intervention and low investment
would have a greater and immediate impact saving millions of children from potential danger.
Investment in such areas might seem rational over spending on R&D in the short term for them.
The process of R&D is severely constrained by a small budget allocation from lack of knowledge
and ignorance of that part.
Third, despite some research efforts, poor implementation of research findings is another pressing
issue for LICs as a result of which research findings are not clearly linked with visible output
(Hoekman et al., 2003). Besides that, some research fails to address the local culture, human rights
issues, language policy, and local environment and thus is not translated into applicable outcomes.
In agriculture, there are several instances where local agribusinesses bypass local science and
technology (S&T) systems and rely on foreign technologies as a response to new innovation
elsewhere thereby leading to loss of inherent profit potential (Keskin et al., 2008).
Insufficient research translates into data and knowledge gaps which are major constraints to future
well-being and furthering development. An insufficient amount of quality research is the major
impediment to growth, development, and advancement. So, raising awareness on the importance
of R&D and a positive outlook towards its promising nature are very necessary
Q.5 Write need and importance of practical work and science laboratory.
Learning by doing can be achieved only by doing experimentation. Any course of Science which
does not period opportunities for lab work is incomplete from the point of view of efficient
teaching.
On every practical turn, a student must carry with him the following things to the laboratory so
that he is well equipped to perform various type of experiments-
1. Scale, 2. Eraser, 3. A pencil, 4 Auxiliary notebooks and 5. Laboratory note-books.
Important of Practical work
1. Learning by doing:
Practical work follows the basic principle of Learning by doing. The students gets an opportunity
to activity participate in the learning process.
2. Training for adjustment:
When students know elementary things about electricity, electronics, sanitation etc. they depend
less on others for minor repairs.
3. Scientific knowledge and Scientific Outlook:
Practical work helps in acquiring of scientific knowledge and scientific outlook, the twin main
objectives of teaching science.
4. Handing of Objects:
By doing experiments students learn how to handle and operate apparatus etc.
5. Development of good habits:
Through practical work the students learn many good habits like resourcefulness, initiative, co-
cooperation etc.
6. Satisfaction of curiosity:
Validity of the concepts learned by the students can be tested by experimentation. This satisfies
basic human desire of knowledge of what, how and why of things.
. Development of Scientific attitude:
Lab work develops scientific attitude and scientific temper.
8. Motivation:
By doing experiments, students are motivated to know more and more of science.
Administration of Practical-Work:
1. Procedure of Laboratory work:
The science teacher should check the availability of the apparatus required for particular
experiments. Afterwards he should assure that the apparatus is ready and working condition before
the students enter the laboratory. The broken apparatus is noted down in the breakage register.
2. Grouping:
In some schools, same experiment is done by all the students at the same time. The teacher gives
general instructions to the whole class at one instant and can cyclise form where the number of
students in a class is much more each group is allotted a different experiment. The experiments
are cycled in groups. This method had following limitations-
a. There is every possibility that weaker students may copy the results of the brighter students.
b. It may become difficult to correlate .theory and practicals for all students.
c. Supply different apparatus and chemicals to different groups.
3. Guideline rules:
In order to make practical work effective, the laboratory should be made a place of learning by
doing. Guideline should be laid down by the teacher about the laboratory rules such as the
following-
a. Work area must be cleared.
b. Strict attention should be paid to own work.
c. Reagent stoppers should not be left on counter tops.
d . Wastage of water, gas, electricity should be strictly avoided.
e. Directions should be read and followed very carefully.
f. Teachers should allow the student’s entry in lab in his/her presence.
g. Only those experiments should be done which are recommended by the teacher-incharge.

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