3.1.

1 Transverse & Longitudinal Waves

Transverse & Longitudinal Waves

• Waves can exist as one of two types:

•
o Transverse
o Longitudinal

Transverse Waves

• Transverse waves are defined as:

Waves where the points along its length vibrate at 90 degrees to the direction of energy transfer

Longitudinal Waves

• Longitudinal waves are defined as:

Waves where the points along its length vibrate parallel to the direction of energy transfer

The Wave Equation

3.1.4 The Doppler Effect
The Doppler Effect

• The Doppler Effect is defined as:

The apparent change in wavelength and frequency of a wave emitted by a moving source

Explaining the Doppler Effect

• Usually, when a stationary object emits waves, the waves spread out symmetrically

• If the object emitting waves begins to move, the waves can get squashed together at one
end of the object, and stretched at the other end

• The waves at the front of the moving vehicle appear to be squashed together:
o This means the wavelength decreases (and the frequency of the waves increases)
• The waves behind the moving vehicle appear to be stretched out:
o This means the wavelength increases (and the frequency of the waves decreases)

Because the speed of the waves emitted stays constant, if the wavelength of the wave
appears to decrease, this must mean the frequency appears to increase, and vice versa.

3.1.6 Applications of EM Waves

3.2.2 Reflection & Refraction
Reflection & Refraction

• All waves, whether transverse or longitudinal, can be reflected and refracted

• Reflection occurs when:

A wave hits a boundary between two media and does not pass through, but instead stays in
the original medium

• Refraction occurs when:

A wave passes a boundary between two different transparent media and undergoes a change
in direction

The Law of Reflection

Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of reflection (r)

Ray Diagrams

• The change in direction depends on the difference in density between the two media:
o From less dense to more dense (e.g. air to glass), light bends towards the normal
o From more dense to less dense (e.g. glass to air), light bends away from the
normal
o When passing along the normal (perpendicular) the light does not bend at all

• The change in direction occurs due to the change in speed when travelling in different
substances
o When light passes into a denser substance the rays will slow down, hence they
bend towards the normal

• The only properties that change during refraction are speed and wavelength –
the frequency of waves does not change
o Different frequencies account for different colors of light (red has a low
frequency, whilst blue has a high frequency)
o When light refracts, it does not change color (think of a pencil in a glass of
water), therefore, the frequency does not change.

Specification Point: 3.17

1. Place a glass block on a paper and draw around it.
2. Use a ray box and pass ray of light through the box.
3. Using pencil, mark the points along the path of the ray.
4. Now remove the block and connect the points.
5. Draw normal (at 90 degree) where the ray enters the block
6. Measure the angle i and r
7. Then use the equation n= sin i / sin r
3.2.6 Total Internal Reflection
• Total internal reflection (TIR) occurs when:

The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle and the incident material is denser than
the second material

• Therefore, the two conditions for total internal reflection are:

o The angle of incidence > the critical angle
o The incident material is denser than the second material

Critical Angle

• As the angle of incidence is increased, the angle of refraction also increases until it gets
closer to 90°
• When the angle of refraction is exactly 90° the light is refracted along the boundary
o At this point, the angle of incidence is known as the critical angle c
3.3.1P Investigating the Speed of Sound
Experiment 1: Measuring the Speed of Sound with Oscilloscopes

• The aim of this experiment is to measure the speed of sound in air between two
points using an oscilloscope

Variables

• Independent variable = Distance

• Dependent variable = Time
• Control variables:
o Same location to carry out the experiment
o Same set of microphones for each trial

Method

Measuring the speed of sound using an oscilloscope

1. Connect two microphones to an oscilloscope

2. Place them about 2 m apart using a tape measure to measure the distance between
them
3. Set up the oscilloscope so that it triggers when the first microphone detects a sound,
and adjust the time base so that the sound arriving at both microphones can be seen
on the screen
4. Make a large clap using the two wooden blocks next to the first microphone
5. Use the oscilloscope to determine the time at which the clap reaches each
microphone and the time difference between them
6. Repeat this experiment for several distances, e.g. 2 m, 2.5 m, 3 m, 3.5 m

Experiment 2
1. Make a person stand 50m away from the wall. Measure the distance via a measuring
tape.
2. Make a noise (e.g. clapping) and listen for the echo (20 times).
3. Then another person using a stopwatch, starts it and stops the timing 20 claps later.
4. The total distance travelled by the 20 claps is (2 x 20 x 50) meters.
5. Hence, the speed of sound can be calculated by the eqn., Speed = Distance/Time.
3.3.3P Using an Oscilloscope
Aim of the Experiment

• The aim of this experiment is to investigate the frequency of a sound wave using an
oscilloscope

Variables

• Independent variable = Tuning forks of different frequencies

• Dependent variable = Time period

Equipment List

• Microphone
• Tuning forks x5
• Oscilloscope
• Wires

Method

1. Connect the microphone to the oscilloscope as shown in the image above

2. Test the microphone displays a signal by humming
3. Adjust the time base of the oscilloscope until the signal fits on the screen – ensure that
multiple complete waves can be seen
4. Strike the tuning fork on the edge of a hard surface to generate sound waves of a pure
frequency
5. Hold the tuning fork near to the microphone and observe the sound wave on the
oscilloscope screen
6. Freeze the image on the oscilloscope screen, or take a picture of it
7. Measure and record the time period of the wave signal on the screen by counting the
number of divisions for one complete wave cycle
8. Repeat steps 4-6 for a variety of tuning forks

Analysis of Results

• To convert the time period of the wave from the number of divisions into seconds, use
the scale of the time base. For example:
o The time base is usually measured in units of ms/cm (milliseconds per
centimetre)
o This would mean a wave with a time base of 4 cm has a time period of 4 ms

• To calculate the frequency of the sound waves produced by the tuning forks, use the
equation:
Evaluating the Experiment

Systematic Errors:

• Ensure the scale of the time base is accounted for correctly

o The scale is likely to be small (e.g. milliseconds) so ensure this is taken into
account when calculating the time period

Random Errors:

• A cause of random error in this experiment is noise in the environment, so ensure it is

carried out in a quiet location

3.3.4P Pitch & Loudness

The pitch of a sound is related to the frequency of the vibrating source of sound waves

• If the frequency of vibration is high, the sound wave has a high pitch
• If the frequency of vibration is low, the sound wave has a low pitch

The loudness of a sound is related to the amplitude of the vibrating source of sound waves

• If the sound is loud, the sound wave has a large amplitude