THERMOELECTRIC ENERGY CONVERSION The conversion from heat to electricity

1. Introduction The thermoelectric effect is the direct conversion of temperature differences to electric voltage and vice-versa. A thermoelectric device creates a voltage when there is a different temperature on each side. Conversely, when a voltage is applied to it, it creates a temperature difference. At the atomic scale, an applied temperature gradient causes charged carriers in the material to diffuse from the hot side to the cold side, similar to a classical gas that expands when heated; hence inducing a thermal current. This encompasses three separately identified effects: the Seebeck effect, Peltier effect and Thomson effect. 2. History In 1821 Thomas Johann Seebeck found that a circuit made from two dissimilar metals, with junctions at different temperatures would deflect a compass magnet. Seebeck initially believed this was due to magnetism induced by the temperature difference. However, it was quickly realized that it was an electrical current that is induced, which by Ampere's law deflects the magnet. More specifically, the temperature difference produces an electric potential (voltage) which can drive an electric current in a closed circuit. Today, this is known as the Seebeck effect. In 1834, a French watchmaker and part time physicist, Jean Charles Athanase Peltier found that an electrical current would produce heating or cooling at the junction of two dissimilar metals. In 1838 Lenz showed that depending on the direction of current flow, heat could be either removed from a junction to freeze water into ice, or by reversing the current, heat can be generated to melt ice. The heat absorbed or created at the junction is proportional to the electrical current. The proportionality constant is known as the Peltier coefficient. Twenty years later, William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) issued a comprehensive explanation of the Seebeck and Peltier Effects and described their interrelationship. In the Thomson effect, heat is absorbed or produced when current flows in a material with a temperature gradient. The heat is proportional to both the electric current and the temperature gradient. The proportionality constant, known as the Thomson coefficient is related by thermodynamics to the Seebeck coefficient.

FIGURE 1. The Thermoelectric Module

3. Process Seebeck Effect It is the conversion of temperature difference directly into electricity. In order to generate electricity through thermoelectric effects, a current must be generated by the combination of two semiconductor materials set at different temps. This effect describes thermoelectric phenomena

by which temperature differences between two dissimilar metals in a circuit converts into an electric current. Combining 2 conductive materials, one heated & one cooled, created a charge that pass through metals. Units that produce charges this way are known as thermocouples. A thermocouple consists of a positive-channeling semiconductor and a negative-channeling semiconductor suspended between a heat source and a heat sink, or cold surface. Hence, if a closed loop is formed by joining the ends of two strips of dissimilar metals and the two junctions of the metals are at different temperatures, an electromotive force, or voltage, arises in the circuit, that is proportional to the temperature difference between the junctions, which causes a current to flow around it.

Peltier Effect While the Seebeck effect occurs in a single piece of conducting material, the Peltier effect is observed when two different conductors are brought together at a junction. It is the presence of heat at an electrified junction of two different metals. When a current is made to flow through a junction made of materials A and B, heat is generated at the upper junction at T2, and absorbed at the lower junction at T1. The Peltier heat absorbed by the lower junction per unit time is equal to

where AB is the Peltier coefficient for the thermocouple composed of materials A and B and A (B) is the Peltier coefficient of material A (B). varies with the material's temperature and its specific composition: p-type silicon typically has a positive Peltier coefficient below ~550 K, but ntype silicon is typically negative.

Thomson Effect A phenomenon discovered in 1854 by William Thomson, later Lord Kelvin showed that heat power (Q) is absorbed or evolved along the length of a material rod whose ends are at different temperatures. The direction of the current determines whether the Thomson heat is evolved or absorbed. In other words, it accounts for the heat absorbed (or emitted) in a single piece of conducting material when an electric current flows through it and when it has a temperature gradient across it. The Thomson heat is proportional to the current I, time t, and temperature drop T2 T1; that is, Q = (T2 T1)It. The proportionality factor is known as the Thomson coefficient. 4. Advantages and Disadvantages

Thermoelectric Cooler/Heater Advantges No moving parts Small size and weight Electrically quiet operation Operation at any orientation Environmental friendly

Take up less floor space They are more lightweight. Durable

Disadvantages Very low efficiency (about 4% only) Very expensive materials ;about $100 per 14W module. Uses a lot of electricity and creates much more heat than it transports. 5. Applications

Industries Using Thermoelectrics Electronics Medical Aerospace Telecommunications Thermoelectric Heater/Cooler Heat pump - which transfers heat from one side of the device to the other side against the temperature gradient , with consumption of electrical energy. Radio electronics - miniature coolers for electronic instruments. Medicine - portable thermostats, medical instruments and equipment Air-conditioning systems - thermoelectric conditioners, devices for temperature stabilization of electronic units, etc. Thermoelectric generators - are devices that either convert heat directly into electricity or transform electrical energy into thermal power for heating or cooling.

MAJOR TYPES: Fossil Fuel - These are used in remote areas in applications such as navigational aids, data collection and communications systems, and cathodic protection, which prevents electrolysis from corroding metallic pipelines and marine structures. Solar Source - have been designed to supply electric power in orbiting spacecraft, though they have not been able to compete with silicon solar cells, which have better efficiency and lower unit weight. Nuclear fuel - The decay products of radioactive isotopes can be used to provide a hightemperature heat source for thermoelectric generators. Because thermoelectric device materials are relatively immune to nuclear radiation and because the source can be made to last for a long period of time, such generators provide a useful source of power for many unattended and remote applications. Ex. Radioisotope thermoelectric generators (used in spacecraft) Temperature measurement Thermocouple Junction between two different metals that produces a voltage related to a temperature difference. Widely used type of temperature sensor for measurement and control and can also be used to convert heat gradient into electricity. Inexpensive and interchangeable and can measure a wide range of temperatures. The main limitation is accuracy: system errors of less than one degree Celsius (C) can be difficult to achieve. Thermopile

 An electronic device that converts thermal energy into electrical energy. Composed of several thermocouples connected usually in series or, less commonly, in parallel. Thermopiles do not respond to absolute temperature, but generate an output voltage proportional to a local temperature difference or temperature gradient. They are also used widely in heat flux sensors (such as the Moll thermopile and Eppley pyrheliometer) and gas burner safety controls. References [1] T. C. Harman, M. P. Walsh, B. E. Laforge, and G. W. Turner, J. Electron. Mater. 34, L19 2005 [2] R. Venkatasubramanian, E. Siivola, T. Colpitts, and B. OQuinn, Nature 413, 597 2001. [3] Thomson, William (1851). "On a mechanical theory of thermoelectric currents". Proc.Roy.Soc.Edinburgh: 9198 [4] Ioffe, A.F. (1957). Semiconductor Thermoelements and Thermoelectric Cooling. Infosearch Limited. ISBN 0-85086039-3. [5] Besanon, Robert M. (1985). The Encyclopedia of Physics, Third Edition. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. ISBN 0442-25778-3. [6] Rowe, D. M., ed (2006). Thermoelectrics Handbook:Macro to Nano. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-8493-2264-2 [7] Solar refrigeration options a state-of-the-art review. D.S. Kim, C.A. Infante Ferreira. 2008, International Journal of Refrigeration, pp. 315. DOI web link